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Water pollution in the Philippines

Three million people in the Philippines put their lives at risk every day by using unsafe water sources . Moreover, another 7 million do not have access to improved sanitation and sanitation services.

According to Water.Org – a global non-profit organization that aims to deliver water and sanitation to the world – although the Philippines’ economy is registering rapid growth, it still faces massive obstacles in terms of access to water and sanitation.

In addition, the World Bank 2023 report on safe water and sanitation shows that just under half of people in the Philippines currently benefit from piped water services. At the same time, over 60% benefit from safely managed sanitation services, as well as the treatment and disposal of human waste. However, these figures are below the average results registered in the East Asia Pacific region (74% for safe water access and nearly 70% for access to sanitation).

Untreated household sewage, together with industrial and agricultural waste, are the primary contributors to the pollution of almost half or 180 of the nation’s 421 rivers.

This dire situation is made worse because people who do not have access to safe drinking water, purchase bottled water instead, and then the empty bottles end up in rivers and lakes, and ultimately – in the global oceans.

One of the main reasons for water pollution in the country is the excessive use of plastic packaging which inevitably ends up in bodies of water.

Defining water pollution

When dangerous chemicals and microorganisms reach waterways, they contaminate bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans. The quality of water thus deteriorates and becomes toxic for both humans and the environment. This is known as water pollution.

Indeed, the Philippines has serious issues with plastic pollution. Because of their pervasive poverty, Filipinos purchase goods in less quantity and in single-use packaging which leads to plastic waste building up on the land and in the nation’s rivers.

Although local government continues to take action to lessen the decline in the quality of water reserves, the country is still among the leading nations in terms of plastic water pollution.

According to global research on plastic pollution in the oceans, the Philippines contributes the most to this issue, with an average of 3.30 kilos of plastic per person ending up in the ocean annually.

The Philippines has not achieved many of the goals indicated in the landmark waste management law that was passed in 2001 which made businesses responsible for the plastic packaging created during the course of a product’s lifecycle.

The Philippines is home to more than two-thirds of all animal and plant species on our planet and due to water pollution, the country is one of the world’s most threatened biodiversity hotspots.

Water pollution and biodiversity

Data shows that both biodiversity and the quality of water in the streams that feed into Laguna de Bay – the Philippines’ largest lake – are deteriorating. A significant factor in the country’s declining species diversity is plastic waste which makes its way to the ocean where it is consumed by birds and other sea life.

According to research in the Science Advances journal of the AAAS released in April 2021, the Philippines is home to 28% of the world’s rivers that are polluted by plastic. During the process of degradation, plastic particles acquire new chemical and physical characteristics that may increase the risk of becoming hazardous to living things.

The Philippines is one of the biggest plastic pollutants on the planet, with 0.28 to 0.75 million tons of plastic escaping into the waters each year from coastal locations in Manila Bay together with hundreds of thousands of tons of plastic waste that are dumped in the country’s rivers.

Fishermen have complained that plastics are suffocating the coral reefs which has an impact on the ecosystem as a whole as well as causing a decrease in fish yields.

The 2021 research from Oxford University, Our World in Data , showed that Asian rivers contain 81% of all the plastic that reaches the oceans, with the Philippines accounting for about 30% of that total. In addition, the Pasig River’s share of plastic is over 6%, with the remainder coming from other rivers including Agusan, Jalaur, Pampanga, Rio Grande de Mindanao, Tambo in Pasay, Tullahan, and Zapote.

The 27 km Pasig river that runs through the nation’s capital was once a vital commerce route but the river has now been polluted due to inadequate sewage systems and urbanization. Locals collect rubbish from the banks of the river every morning, filling bags in their never-ending quest to clean up a stream that is also a key source of plastic waste.

In the Philippines’ poorest communities, waste is rarely collected, and sometimes not at all, resulting in unlawful dumping. This waste ultimately seeps into the maritime ecosystem and has detrimental effects on both the fishing industry and environmental tourism.

Environment protection in the Philippines

In the Philippines, it is the duty of local government units to provide communities with clean water and proper sanitation. However, the authorities frequently face issues such as capacity and funding constraints. Greater national government assistance will be required to address these deficiencies and guarantee that all communities receive the required services.

The country’s government hopes to achieve universal access to safe water and sanitation services by the end of the decade thereby meeting its obligation towards the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. To achieve this, the National Economic Development Authority created a strategic plan in 2021 that called for investments from the public and private sectors.

In addition, the government is seeking to stimulate 60% plastic reuse by 2030 and is offering the private sector opportunities for technology transfer and integration in the management of plastic waste.

In 2021, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, in partnership with other federal agencies and commercial organizations, commenced its five-year initiative to bring the Pasig River back to life by making it cleaner with a sustainable river garbage collecting system.

In June 2022, the country’s main environmental authority noted great achievements regarding the water quality in Manila Bay, suggesting that the current bay restoration project that aims to clean up and replenish the local waters so that they are suitable for swimming and other physical enjoyment is showing some success.

The Philippines currently registers the fastest economic development among its ASEAN peers but this rapid development, along with an increasing level of urbanization, is leading to the pollution of waters with toxins coming from plants and farms, as well as tons and tons of plastic, which can all contaminate the soil and seep into water ending up in the world’s oceans. The government is aware of this issue and for several years has been taking action to deal with it by restoring Manila Bay, among other areas, and has ambitious plans to restore rivers across the country.

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This Team is Cleaning one of the World's Most Polluted Rivers. Here's How

Urbanisation and poor sewage planning have left Manila's Pasig River highly polluted. Image:  REUTERS/Eloisa Lopez

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• Manila's notorious Pasig River is one of the world's most polluted rivers.
• Filipinos come together everyday raking out rubbish, trying to clear the waterway.
• These "river warriors" are a decade-old group of about 100 people, who began as volunteers but now receive a basic income from a local government.
• The 27km river cuts through the Philippine capital and was once a vital trade route.
• Urbanisation and poor sewage planning have left the river highly polluted.

Each morning, a group of Filipinos rakes up piles of trash on the banks of one of the world's most polluted rivers, filling sacks in an endless pursuit to clean a waterway that is also a major source of ocean plastics.

These "river warriors" are a decade-old group of about 100 people who work to clear the glut of garbage floating or washed up along Manila's notorious Pasig River.

The 27 km (16.8 mile) river cutting through the Philippine capital was once a vital trade route. But urbanisation and poor sewage planning have left the river all but dead.

"There's never a time without garbage here. It's unlimited," said Angelita Imperio, a river warrior for six years.

The warriors wear rubber boots and elbow-length gloves, using rakes and handmade tools to scoop rubbish from stagnant waters in different locations.

The warriors started off as volunteers but now receive a basic income from a local government and operate in small groups at different parts of the river.

Dexter Opiana, another river warrior with six years of service, says she and about 19 others work shifts of about seven hours and collect an average of 80 to 100 sacks a day, more during monsoon season.

Most of it is plastic wrappers, single-use sachets, and packaging materials. Since the pandemic began, surgical face masks are sometimes mixed in among the other floating garbage.

Have you read?

Here's what happened when two women set out to clean johannesburg's dirtiest river, this hungarian man quit his job to clean up his favourite river, this unique map shows which rivers are most polluted with plastic.

Pasig's trash isn't just a Philippine problem.

A 2021 report by Oxford University's Our World in Data estimated 81% of global ocean plastic comes from Asian rivers and the Philippines alone contributes a third of that total.

The Pasig River alone provides up to 6.43% of ocean plastic originating from rivers, the report said.

Despite the warriors' Sisyphean task, they are optimistic of better days ahead.

"This has been our advocacy, to have the river cleaned for the sake of our children, our parents, our nation and mother nature," Imperio said.

More than 90% of plastic is never recycled, and a whopping 8 million metric tons of plastic waste are dumped into the oceans annually. At this rate, there will be more plastic than fish in the world’s oceans by 2050.

The Global Plastic Action Partnership (GPAP) is a collaboration between businesses, international donors, national and local governments, community groups and world-class experts seeking meaningful actions to beat plastic pollution.

In Ghana, for example, GPAP is working with technology giant SAP to create a group of more than 2,000 waste pickers and measuring the quantities and types of plastic that they collect. This data is then analysed alongside the prices that are paid throughout the value chain by buyers in Ghana and internationally.

It aims to show how businesses, communities and governments can redesign the global “take-make-dispose” economy as a circular one in which products and materials are redesigned, recovered and reused to reduce environmental impacts.

Read more about our impact .

Joan Lagunda, assistant secretary at the environment department, said authorities were coordinating with local governments to establish proper waste segregation practices and want informal settlers on the riverbanks to be moved.

Marian Ledesma, a campaigner with Greenpeace Philippines, said the government should reduce single-use plastics and strengthen law enforcement on waste disposal and sewage.

"I've seen it done in other cities, in other countries, so I don't think it's impossible to revive and clean up Pasig River," she said.

"It will need a collective action."

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Water Pollution in the Philippines: Causes and Solutions

MANILA, Philippines — The Philippines, or the Republic of the Philippines, is a country comprised of 7,107 islands in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific. The country is surrounded by water: the Luzon Strait, the South China Sea, the Sulu Sea, the Celebes Sea and the Philippine Sea. According to the United Nations, uncontrolled, rapid population growth has contributed to extreme poverty, environmental degradation and pollution in the Philippines .

Water pollution is a major problem in the Philippines. According to Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA), 32 percent of the Philippines’ land mass — approximately 96,000 square kilometers — is used for agriculture. The primary crops are palay (rice), corn, sugar cane, fruit, root crops, vegetables and trees (for rubber). Increased population, urbanization, agriculture and industrialization have all reduced the quality of water in the Philippines.

According to WEPA, water pollution’s effects cost the Philippines approximately $1.3 billion annually. The government continues to try to clean up the problem, implementing fines to polluters as well as environmental taxes, but many problems have not been addressed. According to government monitoring data, up to 58 percent of the groundwater tested was contaminated with coliform, and approximately one third of illnesses monitored during a five-year period were caused by water-borne sources. In addition to this, during the dry season, many areas experience water shortages.

On its website, Greenpeace reports the water pollution in the Philippines is mostly wastewater from the following sources: 1.  Industrial: The metal varies according to industry — lead, mercury, chromium, cadmium and cyanide. 2.  Agricultural: Organic — decayed plants, dead animals, livestock manure, soil runoff; and non-organic — pesticides and fertilizers. 3.  Domestic sewage: Contains pathogens that threaten human health and life. 4.  Other sources: Oil, mine or chemical spills and illegal dumping in or near water.

One of the most alarming things Greenpeace reports is that out of the Philippines’ 421 rivers, as many as 50 are considered dead and unable to support any but the most robust life.

Greenpeace has been working to develop a solution to water pollution in the Philippines. The organization supports the Clean Production context in which the public has a right to know which toxins they are exposed to in their daily lives.

The Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) also deals with water quality and is “a national or regional environmental database or inventory of potentially hazardous chemical substances and/or pollutants released to air, water and soil. It also contains information on materials that are transferred off-site for treatment or disposal.”

According to Greenpeace Philippines, the concept of Clean Production is “a new way of looking at production and consumption patterns.” The concept of producing consumer goods in this way entails: 1.  The elimination of all hazardous chemicals at all stages of production and the seeking of safe, sustainable alternatives. 2.  The reduction of waste generated. 3.  The decreasing of the need for raw materials and energy. 4.  The utilization of clean, renewable energy sources in the production process and design.

Hopefully with the implementation of PRTR, the public’s right to know and Clean Production, a lot of the problems with water pollution in the Philippines will start to be solved.

The World Bank has helped address the problem of sewage wastewater in the Manila Bay. Its Manila Third Sewerage Project (MTSP) tackled the sewage problem a growing urban population poses. Some of the results of the project were: 1.  Over 77,000 connections to water and sewage were provided between 2005 and 2012. 2.  Approximately 50,000 more septic tanks were de-sludged per year from 2008 to 2012 for a total of over 262,000. 3.  Over 3.5 million people were educated by the project’s “public information campaign” from 2005 to 2012. 4.  Connection to water gave women and children better health and hygiene and more time since they did not have to spend time collecting and sanitizing water. 5.  Soil conditions and crop yields were improved from using treated sewage as fertilizer. 6.  In communities where the waste water treatment plants were built, urban renewal projects also sparked — teams got out and cleaned up river banks; parks were built; and social interaction took place.

The rivers in the capital city of Manila have received some attention lately. For instance, the Marilao River which runs through the Bulacan Province and into Manila Bay was on the 10 Most Polluted Rivers in the World list. The river is contaminated with several kinds of heavy metals and chemicals from tanneries, gold refineries, dumps and textile factories. It is one of 50 dead rivers in the Philippines.

In another instance, a group of nine Filipino artists painted watercolor portraits with sterilized pigments from six polluted rivers in Manila. The images painted are of everyday events, children playing in the rivers, people in boats and families fishing. “The people who enjoy the water are not aware of the dangers,” said Cid Reyes, the curator of the exhibit. Money made from selling the pictures goes to clean the rivers, thus reducing water pollution in the Philippines.

– Rhonda Marrone

Photo:  Flickr

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Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area Case Study

Introduction, metro manila water pollution, economic analysis and recommendations, works cited.

The issue of water pollution in the Republic of the Philippines is high on the agenda since the country is made up of more than seven thousand islands located in the Western Pacific and Southeast Asian regions. These islands are surrounded by the South China Sea, the Sulu Sea, the Luzon Strait, the Philippine Sea, and the Celebes Sea (Marrone). Due to the uncontrolled and rapid population growth as well as urbanization and industrialization, Philippine waters suffer from extreme pollution.

While water pollution can be discussed on the state level, it is proposed to analyze the specific region of Metropolitan Manila, which is a heavily industrialized region with the expanding the population. The Metropolitan area is comprised of four cities-centers of districts, such as the City of Manila, Quezon City, Caloocan City, and Pasay City. In the west, the region is surrounded by the Manila Bay, in the southeast by the Laguna de Bay, in the east by the Sierra Madre Moutain Range, and in the north by the plains of Central Luzon (Raflores and Regmi 4).

Despite the fact that the majority of water in Metro Manila are intended for recreational activities such as swimming or fishing, the report presented by Raflores and Regmi for the United Nations University mentioned that the waters have high concentrations of heavy metals and other pollutants that significantly reduce the quality of water in the region (4). Moreover, in 2008, the Supreme Court issued a continued mandate that forced the government to invest in cleaning up the Manila Bay and other waters in the region such as Laguna Lake and Pasig River (Raflores and Regmi 4).

The current uses of water in Metro Manila cause the most controversy with regard to environmental issues. Because the region is heavily urbanized, it is estimated to generate approximately 6,700 tons of solid waste each day, 5,600 (84%) of which are collected and transported to nine dumpsites located in the area. This leads to the remaining 16% of waste going to the river systems and thus clogging the most significant waterways (Raflores and Regmi 6).

Apart from heavily industrialized areas of Metro Manila, informal settlers that live along river shores also heavily contribute to the issue of water pollution. With regards to the specific use of water in the region, Vicente Tuddao Jr., the executive director of the DENR’s River Basin Control Office, stated that only 28% of all water in the Philippines is used for domestic purposes since the rest is of low quality and can only be used for industrial and agricultural aims, which subsequently exacerbates the problem (Alave).

In the discussion about the issue of water pollution in the Metro Manila area, it is essential to mention current initiatives that the government is undertaking to manage the problem. These initiatives include the Pasig River Rehabilitation and Development Program introduced by the Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission, the Manila Bay Coastal Strategy as a response to the Supreme Court mandamus, the Adopt-an-Estero Program implemented by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, the Flood Management Master Plan for Metro Manila and Surrounding Areas implemented by the Department of Public Works and Highways, and Environmental Management and Pollution Control implemented by DENR (Raflores and Regmi 6).

In this brief economic analysis of water pollution in Metro Manila, it is proposed to look at the industrial use of waters and the household use to understand the impact that the population growth and urbanization have on water pollution. The main reason for the highly alarming quality of water in Metro Manila is the unmanaged residential waste that can flow into the waterways, thus polluting them (Ranada).

Furthermore, only twenty to thirty percent of the area’s large population is connected to sewerage lines, which points to the fact that over seventy percent of the population uses septic tanks that increase the possibility of human waste leaking into the water system (Ranada). It is also important to mention that some citizens may not even have septic tanks and therefore dispose of their waste through unregulated means (Ranada). Thus, an intermediary conclusion can be made that the lack of attention to waste disposal methods within the population directly affects the water quality.

Because Metro Manila is the country’s most developed industrial region, the manufacturing sector has a significant impact on low water quality. The strategic location of the Pasig River facilitates the industrial use of water, causing waste. While domestic waste accounts for approximately 60% of water pollution, industrial waste from textile mills, distilleries, and chemical plants makes up 33%, while solid waste accounts for 7% (Gorme et al. 174).

The severity of water pollution in the region can be predominantly attributed to policy and institutional failures. While the efforts of the government to address water pollution in Metro Manila and the rest of the Philippines began in 1973, there has been an only minor progression. According to Gorme et al., policy and institutional failures occurred due to the lack of sufficient funding that led to the weak implementation of policy, irrelevant planning, and the lack of efforts to update the infrastructure of the region (176).

Because the Philippines is a developing country, and the majority of its funding efforts are targeted on economic and political enhancements, the funding for the improvement of water quality remains lacking. Furthermore, the government has faced some opposition from the public that was unwilling to pay for the necessary sanitation services, contributing to the struggle of expanding investments into the aquatic ecosystem (Gorme et al. 176).

It can be concluded that chronic problems with the quality of water and its supply in Metro Manila and the adjusting areas have shown that man’s activities can cause damage to the environment, especially the watersheds. Recommendations for the government as to the management of polluted waters are two-fold: seeking financial support from international sponsors and implementing a public awareness campaign.

Furthermore, prior to contacting sponsors, the government of the Philippines should develop an action plan for addressing water pollution, with an emphasis placed on public education and awareness. The analysis has shown that the lack of support from communities was among the most limiting factors that undermined the effectiveness of policy changes. In such campaigns, the government should work cooperatively with local and regional media to conduct news coverages, publish articles in newspapers, and air educational commercials on radio and television (Texas Water Development Board 5).

It is expected that when the public understands the damage it has caused to the environment, it will support the government in its efforts to improve the quality of the waterways in Metro Manila and prevent both domestic and industrial waste from being dumped into the water.

Alave, Kristine. “ Water, Water Everywhere, and Much of It Polluted .” Inquirer . 2012. Web.

Gorme, Joan, et al. “The Water Quality of the Pasig River in the City of Manila, Philippines: Current Status, Management and Future Recovery.” Environmental Engineering Research , vol. 15, no. 3, 2010, pp. 173-179.

Marrone, Rhonda. “ Water Pollution in the Philippines: Causes and Solutions. ” Borgen Magazine . 2016. Web.

Raflores, Lilia, and Ram Krisha Regmi. Understanding the Water and Urban Environment of a Megacity: The Case of Metro Manila , Philippines. 2015. Web.

Ranada, Pia. “ Metro Creeks: Less Trash, But Water Quality Not Improving. ” Rappler . 2014. Web.

Texas Water Development Board. Developing a Water Conservation Public Awareness Program: A Guide for Utilities . 2010. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2022, December 9). Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-philippines-metropolitan-manila-area/

"Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area." IvyPanda , 9 Dec. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-philippines-metropolitan-manila-area/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area'. 9 December.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area." December 9, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-philippines-metropolitan-manila-area/.

1. IvyPanda . "Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area." December 9, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-philippines-metropolitan-manila-area/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area." December 9, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-philippines-metropolitan-manila-area/.

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Home > PUB_POL > PPR > Vol. 10 (2018)

Resolving the Water Pollution Crisis in the Philippines: the Implications of Water Pollution on Public Health and the Economy

Gabriella Andrews , Pepperdine University, School of Public Policy Follow

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Andrews, Gabriella (2018) "Resolving the Water Pollution Crisis in the Philippines: the Implications of Water Pollution on Public Health and the Economy," Pepperdine Policy Review : Vol. 10, Article 2. Available at: https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/ppr/vol10/iss1/2

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Water Pollution in the Philippines

Water is often equated with life itself. But for an archipelagic region in Southeast Asia sandwiched between the Philippine Sea and the South China Sea, water pollution in the Philippines has caused this precious resource to be anything but life’s sustenance. According to a report released by the Asian Development Bank, “heavy inorganic pollutants have made water increasingly a threat to life .”

A Threat to Life

The Philippines is a developing country that is also undergoing rapid urbanization and industrialization. Out of more than one hundred million Filipinos, nine million rely on unsafe water supplies. In fact, water pollution in the Philippines and a lack of proper sewage  kills 55 people   every day .

Katrina Arianne Ebora, part of UNICEF’s Water, Sanitation and Hygiene program in the Philippines, notes that access to adequate sanitation facilities is a problem for more than 30 million Filipinos .

This portion of the population is forced to spend considerable time, effort and energy in procuring water. Families without a sanitary toilet often face the embarrassment of venturing outside to relieve themselves. Some resort to asking their neighbors to utilize their sanitary toilet facilities.

Environmental group Greenpeace has previously warned that Filipinos in key agricultural areas are drinking water contaminated with nitrates. After conducting a study on important farming areas, Greenpeace warned that nitrate levels were alarmingly above the safety limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO). The group also noted that “drinking water from 30 percent of all groundwater wells sampled in [the Philippines and Thailand] showed nitrates levels above the WHO safety limit of 50 mg l-1 of nitrate.”

Water Shortage

Due to water pollution in the Philippines, the country is likely to face a shortage of water for sanitation, drinking, agriculture and industrial purposes in the next ten years.

In an Asia Development Bank report, the Philippines’ regional group – which includes Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia , Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam – has made gains in improving water security. However, the region is home to a sixth of the global population and the poorest people in the world . With agriculture consuming a staggering 80 percent of the region’s water, the region is a global hotspot for water insecurity.

Water conservation efforts in the Philippines by many local and international companies have protected the water supplies for future use. Coca-Cola has pledged nearly $1.4 million for a five-year project with the World Wildlife Fund to protect the capital’s drinking water source, the Ipo Watershed. The Cement Manufacturers’ Association of the Philippines, an industry that heavily uses water, has started initiatives to capture and utilize rainwater for many production needs.

Investing in Clean Water

In 2014, Water.org began providing philanthropic and technical support to offset water pollution in the Philippines by expanding its WaterCredit program. Water.org’s statistics show that 75 percent of Filipinos are willing to invest in water and sanitation loans. Between 2015 to 2017, the organization and its partners worked with eight different microfinance institutions to conduct research and training in fulfilling the high demand for clean water and sanitation access.

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Water Quality: Mindanao Island of the Philippines

Angelo mark p. walag.

2 Department of Science Education, University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, College of Science and Technology Education, Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental Philippines

Oliva P. Canencia

3 Research Division, University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, College of Science and Mathematics, Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental Philippines

Beth Ann Fiedler

4 Independent Research Analyst, Jacksonville, FL USA

The Philippines is an archipelagic country dominated by water and inland water sources. Water quality has been the subject of attention for the country and specifically, Mindanao Island, because of the role this natural resource plays in agriculture. Water supply and usage for the island and the nation are identified and discussed in relation to the scarcity of potable water. Potential threats and pollution hotspots bring forth the various health and environmental impact attributed to the water system accessibility, distribution, and quality. Strategies addressing water resources problems are taken into consideration side-by-side the numerous national laws, policies, standards, and guidelines in addressing water quality control and management. Therefore, the legal framework for various agencies to carry out these policies on quality control, usage, and water management are pivotal to recommendations on revision of certain provisions that rely on embedding local community involvement to lessen the environmental impact that is causal to poor population health. The World Bank has been instrumental in prompting local activity with initiatives first established in relation to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals that are being carried forward today in the Sustainable Development Initiatives. This chapter extends the recent UN and World Bank initiatives to demonstrate how further community involvement can continue to improve quality of life for Philippine citizens through education and participation.

Introduction and Background

Living on an island nation with multiple natural water resources did not guarantee access to clean water for the 75% of the Philippine population that has low socioeconomic status and live in rural villages called barangays (United Nations 2017 , para 2). However, global concern generated by the introduction of the United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs ) (United Nations 2015 ) and a steady flow of financial support from the World Bank at $638.1 million (United Nations 2017 , para 7; World Bank 2014 ) provides guidance and funding that led to the development of important national legislation and the enactment of institutions to respond to these and other community needs. Stronger institutions represent greater opportunities for citizen engagement through community-driven development ( CDD) initiatives prompted by the UN. CDD is a platform for citizens to “make their own decisions in identifying, developing, implementing, and monitoring development initiatives based on their priorities” (United Nations 2017 , para 2).

The progression of moving policy decision-making process from global initiatives to national initiatives began first with the UN establishing internal partnerships with existing Philippine government institutions, such as the Department of Social Welfare and Development and the National Statistical Coordination Board, providing community access and local monitoring. The UN also had external development partnerships, such as the Japan Social Development Social Fund and several governments, which were instrumental in developing important internal mechanisms and metrics based on monitoring the MDGS (United Nations 2017 ). These metrics establish empirical evidence for decision-making with the long-term goals of a healthy environment and population. “The monitoring of the MDGs taught us that data are an indispensable element of the development agenda,” and that “what gets measured gets done” (United Nations 2015 , p.10).

Monitoring at the turn of the millennium quickly brought forth data indicating the leading water consumers, the problem of scarcity of water resources, and other threats to the availability of potable water that remains problematic in the nation. The baseline established the disproportionate use of agricultural consumption for irrigation and fisheries (Greenpeace 2007 ) accounting for 85.27% of the total water supply followed by the industrial sector (7.46%) and the remaining 7.27% for domestic consumption (World Bank 2004 , p.29). Further, differentiating groundwater and piped-water supply systems sources was instrumental in revealing harmful practices in which groundwater extraction is done without permit. This indiscriminate and unregulated method of withdrawal led to the enactment of Executive Order No. 123 Series of 2012. The order mandates the transfer of National Water Resources Board (NWRB ) from the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH ) to the Office of the President then to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources’ (DENR ) jurisdiction. Furthermore, the NWRB was tasked to immediately review the implementing rules and regulations of the Water Code of the Philippines (Barba 2004 ). These modifications to multiple water agencies and the introduction of new legislation were brought into action to regulate, monitor, and redistribute usage of water resources but distribution remains the same today. Further, the water agencies struggle with interagency integration, manpower shortages, and lack of financial resource allocation at the local levels often rendering their mandated efforts ineffective (Rola et al. 2015 ).

The success of the UN MDG targets in the Philippines were evident meeting goals to improve access to drinking water up from 85% of the population in 1990 to 92% in 2010 (Fehr et al. 2013 , p.638) but several challenges remain. Improved water sources (e.g., bottled, regulated water refilling stations) (Israel 2009 ; Madrazo 2002 ; Magtibay 2004 ; UNICEF and WHO 2012 ), an adequate freshwater supply and high rate of precipitation contributed to improvements (see Table 12.1 ). However, several factors such as biased geographic distribution, seasonal variations , and water shortages based on population distribution remain problematic (Barba 2004 ; Dumlao 2016 ; Ranada 2015 ). Damage to infrastructure due to civil unrest (Malapit et al. 2003 ) and the long history of the southern part of the Philippines being disenfranchised and underrepresented in the government is apparent in the lack of infrastructure projects there (Clausen 2010 ; Silva 2005 ) providing a historical basis leading to the present conditions. Furthermore, investments and policies crafted to better provide water access have been greatly affected by these conflicts (Clausen 2010 ). Earlier analysis of these political factors (e.g., institutional deficiencies, weak regulatory policies, lack of government leadership and political will, and lack of an integrated water resources management system) (Madrazo 2002 ) continue to pose additional barriers to the water crisis. Therefore, the legal framework on water quality, use and management are important factors for any proposed solutions.

Total population served by different water service providers by region as of 2007 (Israel 2009 )

a Local Government Units

b Rural Water Supply Associations

c Barangay Water Supply Associations

d Zamboanga Peninsula

e Northern Mindanao

f Davao Region

g Soccsksargen

h Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao

The National Water Resources Board (NWRB ) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA ) identified nine urbanized areas in the country, three of which are in Mindanao Island (Davao, Cagayan de Oro City, and Zamboanga City), facing water demand challenges in the next several years (JICA 1998 ). Health hazards associated with the shortage include an increasing number of gastrointestinal diseases caused by unpotable water and new housing developments that alter the balance of supply of and demand (Cortes-Maramba et al. 2006 ; Tacio 2014 ). Consequently, these areas establish the basis for a growing concern for a national water crisis by 2025 (JICA 1998 ). Striking a national balance between the water supply and demand, especially in the areas limited by infrastructures and facilities, is vital to optimizing, producing, and distributing potable water.

This chapter unfolds the problem scope and legal framework for surface and ground water management, the important aspects of assessing water quality, and the health and environmental impact of contaminated water. Then, several water quality initiatives will be discussed followed by a series of recommendations promoting civic engagement to support local community involvement in government organized projects. The chapter concludes with a high-level summary.

Water Scarcity Problem Scope

The scope of water scarcity in the Philippines still rests on systemic problems brought forth at the onset of baselining the nation’s status in relation to UN MDGs by the World Bank in 2003. Several major and tangential issues remain the foremost, of which access to clean water is important to population health. Ranked number 5 in the overall causes of death for the nation in 2010 analysis was preventable diarrhea attributed to unsanitary water at a rate of 354.5 per 100,000 population (DOH 2012 , p.14). Therefore, the location of natural resources in the form of surface and groundwater provide geographic references demonstrating regional water availability and the problem location poses to access in areas of need.

Major issues concerning the use and scarcity of water include: (1) inconsistency of water supply and demand (Barba 2004 ; Madrazo 2002 ), (2) lack of water allocation system and distribution formula (Barba 2004 ), (3) NWRB weak regulation , permit monitoring, and enforcement of water use due to insufficient manpower and low operating budget (Barba 2004 ), (4) outdated principles mandated in the Water Code of the Philippines “first in time priority in right” and discretion is vaguely granted to a deputized government agency to investigate violations (Barba 2004 , p.2), and (5) unsustainable water pricing that does not properly reward efficient water users with economic incentives (Barba 2004 ). Other threats to water availability are linked to (1) outdated research and framework plans, and (2) hampered policy decision-making due to insufficient data collection in certain areas, lack of data sharing protocols governing inter-agency access, and lack of a common integrated knowledge management database (Barba 2004 ).

Natural water-related disasters and environmental degradation are persistent threats to most of the watersheds in Mindanao impacting water access and quality. A super typhoon Bopha (Pablo) struck significant part of Mindanao in 2012 and super typhoon Sendong (Washi) in Cagayan de Oro caused watershed damage leading to high rates of erosion (Franta et al. 2016 ; Rodolfo et al. 2016 ). In 2015, the Butuan City Council approved the Resolution declaring a city-wide water crisis due to low water supply to 200,000 residents attributed to the damaged facilities and infrastructures of Butuan City Water District after onslaught of tropical storm Seniang. However, investigation later revealed that the water crisis was a result of the neglect, callousness, and inefficiency of the officials of the local water district (Serrano 2015 ).

Man-made activities, such as deforestation or denudification, also spur on water-related disasters that degrade watersheds. DENR representatives cited three such watersheds due to the urgent need for rehabilitation from excessive deforestation (BusinessWorld 2011 ). Reducing nonrevenue water, the water that is lost from leaks, pilferage through illegal connections, and wastage, is another aspect in the problem scope of water scarcity.

While the problem of water scarcity spans several areas (e.g., policy, poor oversight, natural disasters, environmental degradation), there some are cases of emerging solutions. For example, Cagayan de Oro City and USAID partner to implement water-saving measures by reducing the percentage of nonrevenue water. The local water district of Cagayan de Oro estimates that they lose 53% (80,000 m 3 ) of their water supply as nonrevenue water and aim to reduce to acceptable levels ranging from 20 to 30% (Jerusalem 2016 ). Upon completion of the project, water recovered in the process was slated to serve areas still lacking a water service connection.

Mindanao Water Source Potential

The water resources of the Philippines are composed of inland freshwater, coastal, bay, and oceanic water (Raymundo 2015 ). The portion of potential supply of water both surface and groundwater of Mindanao Island per region is shown in Table 12.2 demonstrating the uneven distribution of these resources that favor the Northern and Southern regions. Water resources differ also from province to province based on several factors like population density, rainfall patterns, watershed quality, and the rate of groundwater recharge (Senate Economic Planning Office 2011 ).

Water resource potential by region in Mindanao Island in million cubic meters (MCM) (World Bank 2003 )

Mindanao Surface Water Resources

The Philippines have five principal river basins and two are found in Mindanao—the Agusan and Pulangi River Basins (Tan et al. 2012 ). The surface water resource of the nation is primarily the inland freshwater resources occupying 1830 km 2 of the Philippine area (World Bank 2003 ) with an estimated 262 watersheds (Tan et al. 2012 ). Eight of the 18 significant rivers covering an area greater than 1000 km 2 are in Mindanao (World Bank 2003 ) which makes up watersheds or river basins that further drains into the bays in the north, east, and south.

Groundwater Resources

Mindanao houses two of the four major groundwater reservoirs in the Philippines, the Agusan Groundwater Reservoir (8500 ha) and Pulangi Groundwater Reservoir (estimated at 6000 ha). These groundwater resources lie beneath Mindanao’s vast watersheds or recharging zones—the Agusan and Ligawasan Marshes (Tan et al. 2012 ) establishing Southeastern and Northern Mindanao as the highest potential groundwater resources (World Bank 2003 ).

A 5.3% annual increase in total demand for groundwater resources (e.g., domestic, industrial, and commercial) throughout the Philippines also saw a decline in precipitation reducing recharge by an average 3.7% annually and a steady decline in the volume of groundwater at an average annual rate of 1.4% from 1988 to 1994 (Philippine Statistics Authority 2016 , para 4). This reveals that there is a continuing trend towards depletion of the country’s groundwater resource stock making Mindanao Island, heavily reliant on the agricultural and industrial sectors for economic development, highly susceptible.

Legal Framework and Policies on Quality Control, Regulation on Water Usage, and Water Management

Understanding the existing national legal policy and framework on water use establishes important systemic factors in the existing protocols and presents an opportunity to apply analysis techniques to generate novel responses to the water scarcity problem. This section introduces government agencies, national laws, quality and emission standards, and presents problems associated with enforcement of existing guidelines.

Government Agencies

The water resources management of the Philippines is divided into several components performed by multiple government agencies and offices (Table 12.3 ) mandated by law and their charter, to perform roles in water supply, hydropower, irrigation, pollution, flood control, and watershed management (Dayrit 2001 ). The foremost agency in water management is the National Water Resources Board (NWRB ), responsible for policy formulation, administration, and enforcement of the Water Code of the Philippines (Madrazo 2002 ). The overlapping duties of the agencies and their regulatory framework can create a complex and competitive environment hindering effective water resource management.

Philippine regulatory agencies and their primary enacted water resource function a (Madrazo 2002 ; Dayrit 2001 )

a Various local government units (LGUs) participate in each of the designated categories and are mandated to perform regulatory functions as stipulated in the Local Government Code of 1991 (Republic Act No. 7160)

b Also participates in Policy Formulation and Planning

National Water Use, Management Laws and Policies

The adoption of National Water Code of 1976 (Presidential Decree of 1067) is the first attempt by the national government to systematically manage the water resources of the Philippines. The main purposes of this policy are to (1) provide basic principles and structural framework for the appropriation, control, conservation, and protection of water resources to achieve optimum development and efficient use to meet present and future needs; (2) determine the scope of the rights and obligations of water users and provide for the protection and regulation of such rights; and (3) the necessary and essential administrative machinery and systems. Several related laws and policies are enumerated below.

• Republic Act No. 8041 or . Water supply, distribution, finance, privatization of state-run water facilities, conservation and protection of watersheds, and wastage and pilferage of water including the matters of graft and corruption in all water agencies.
• Presidential Decree No. 198 or . Mandates to create, operate, maintain, and expand local water districts (LWDs); direct and administer economically viable and sound provincial water supply and wastewater disposal systems.
• Presidential Decree No. 1586 or . Mandates the administration of environmental impact assessment for all investments undertaken by the government of private sectors.
• Presidential Decree No. 424 or . Mandates the creation of a National Water Resources Council; primary duty of coordinating and regulating national water resource development; planning and policy for social and economic development.
• Republic Act No. 7160 or . Mandates the LGUs to enforce water-related laws and policies for sanitation, water supply, and flood control (Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015 ).

Water Quality Control Laws, Classification, and Assessment

The main document establishing and defining the basic regulatory programs (e.g., discharge standards, issuance of permits, monitoring of compliance) is the Philippine Environment Code (Presidential Decree No. 1151). Several national laws have also been passed and established defining policy on abatement, control, and water quality management. These laws are summarized below.

• Republic Act No. 9275 or . Mandates the protection, preservation, and revival of the quality of the country’s freshwater, brackish, and marine waters; pollution abatement; market-based instruments that charges fees based on effluent discharge volume impacting applications for permitting; and strengthens enforcement by imposing stiffer penalties for violations of standards.
• Commonwealth Act 383 or . Early legislation addressing environmental pollution (e.g., solid waste dumping) in rivers causing water levels to rise and/or streamflow blockage.
• Presidential Decree No. 984 or . Guideline for water pollution control water from industrial sources; establishes penalties for noncompliance and violation; requires industries to acquire necessary permits before operation.
• Presidential Decree No. 856 or . Establishes the standards for collection and disposal of sewage, refuse, excreta covering both solid and liquid wastes; mandates cities and municipalities the responsibility to furnish efficient and proper waste disposal systems and to manage nuisance and offensive trades and occupations.
• Republic Act No. 9003 or . Mandates the systematic implementation of a national program that will govern the transfer, transport, processing, sorting, and disposal of the country’s solid waste; establishes the criteria and standard for identifying landfill sites ensuring that their operation does not affect the groundwater sources in nearby aquifers.
• Republic Act No. 6969 or . Establishes the standards in the control and management of the importation, manufacturing, processing, distribution, utilization, treatment, transportation, storage, and disposal of toxic, hazardous, and nuclear wastes and substances (Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015 ).
• DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990 or . Establishes the categories and classification of water bodies in terms of their best usage; defines the minimum required for different water quality parameters per type of water classification.
• DENR Administrative Order No. 35 Series of 1990 or . Stipulates the national standards for the discharge of effluents for the different classifications of water bodies.
• DENR Administrative Order No. 26A Series of 1994 or Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water . Establishes the national standard values for the different water quality parameters; guidelines and methodologies accepted for assessing the drinking water quality.
• DENR Administrative Order No. 38 Series of 1997 or . Establishes the policies on regulation and control of the importation, manufacturing, distribution, and use of mercury and mercury compounds; defines the accepted procedures on storage, transportation, and disposal of mercury and mercury compound wastes.
• DENR Administrative Order No. 39 Series of 1997 or . Establishes the requirements and procedures for importing, manufacturing, distributing, and using cyanide and cyanide compounds; determines protocol for the storage, transport, and waste disposal for these compounds.
• DENR Administrative Order No. 58 Series of 1998 or Priority Chemical List/DENR Administrative Order No. 27 Series of 2005 or . Determines the potentially harmful substances which pose unreasonable health risks to the public and even to the environment. The order requires companies, industries, distributors, importers, and manufacturers of chemicals listed to submit reports twice a year (DENR 2017 ; Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015 ).

Many of the water resource problems relate to quality rather than the quantity (Senate Economic Planning Office 2011 ) as water pollution affects island marine waters, fresh and groundwater sources. Surface water quality in the Philippines is classified in terms of its beneficial use (Table 12.4 ) and different portions of a water body can have several uses with multiple classifications. One example is the Lipadas River in Region 11 which has four classifications; Class AA upstream, Classes A and B midstream, and Class C downstream (EMB 2014 ). Notable is that two of the five Class AA inland waters can be found in Mindanao Region 11—the Lipadas River (upstream) and Baganga-Mahan-Ub (upstream).

Number of classified inland surface waters and the classification criteria (Environment Management Bureau 2014 )

Mindanao has 236 classified inland waters as of 2013 which were based on data monitored and collected by the EMB from 2006 to 2013 as shown in Table 12.5 (EMB 2013 ). Based on the data available, further efforts must be employed to classify the remaining inland waters to provide additional information and for further management and rehabilitation if needed, especially in the case of Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM ).

Number of classified inland water of Mindanao per region (EMB 2013 )

a Zamboanga Peninsula

b Northern Mindanao

c Davao Region

d Soccsksargen

e Caraga Administrative Region

f Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao

The assessment of water quality is based on the number of samples taken from the body of water meeting the DAO 1990–34 water quality criteria per parameter (EMB 2014 , p.9). Only bodies of water with at least four sampling events, representing both the dry and wet seasons, were included (EMB 2014 ). Please refer to the EMB ( 2014 ) for details on assessment methodologies used to rate water bodies for optimum levels of various particulate matter based on DENR formulations of ambient standards. DENR standards emphasize parameters such as dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD ), total suspended solids (TSS ), total dissolved solids (TDS ), and heavy metals to assess inland water quality. The standard value in each parameter serves as the benchmark data for monitoring and assessing water quality in their respective classification.

Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a parameter used to indicate level of water pollution and the capacity to support aquatic plants and animal life (Greenpeace 2007 ). Water movement, temperature, and pollution can also affect the concentration of DO in a body of water. High levels of DO are observed in water bodies with these activities.

Only 138/164 (84%) of the inland waters monitored by the EMB met the required sampling events from 2006 to 2013 while 81/138 (59%) were deemed to have “good” water quality (EMB 2014 , p.9). Most of these are Class A or C designated bodies of water located in Regions 10, 12, and 13 of Mindanao (EMB 2014 ).

Biological Oxygen Demand

Biological oxygen demand (BOD ) is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms in decomposing organic matter from a pollution source (EMB 2014 ). Higher levels of BOD manifest downstream where decomposition occurs and not where the effluent is directly discharged (EMB 2014 ).

Only 75/131 (57%) if the inland waters that met the sampling requirements are considered “good” (EMB 2014 , p.11). They were from Class A or Class C water bodies in Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) and in Regions 10, 12, and 13 of Mindanao.

Total Suspended Solids

Total suspended solid (TSS ) is a measure of undissolved solid in water (e.g., silt, decaying plant and animal matter, domestic and industrial wastes) (EMB 2014 ). A body of water with high TSS value has lower capability of supporting aquatic life due to reduction of the light penetrating the body of water.

Only 40/138 (29%) Class AA and Class A water bodies met the sampling requirements while only 13/40 (33%) bodies of water manifested “good” quality (EMB 2014 , p.12). Two out these water bodies were just shy of reaching 100% compliance rating—(1) Mindanao, upper portion of Taguibo River (99%), and (2) Lake Mainit (98%) (EMB 2014 , p.12). Several water bodies from Mindanao received a “poor” rating including the Davao River (upper reach) in Region 11, Lun Masla River in Region 12, and Iponan River in Region 10.

Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS ) refers to a broad array of chemical contaminants coming from agricultural runoff, leaching soil contamination, and point source pollution from industrial or domestic sewage (EMB 2014 ).

Only 17 (55%) bodies of water manifested “good” quality out of 30 Class AA/A bodies of water monitored which are mostly concentrated in Region 3 and only Marilao River in Bulacan had a “poor” quality level (Greenpeace 2007 , p.16).

Heavy Metals

Heavy metal ions are soluble in water that forms toxic sediments at the bottom of bodies of water. These are considered harmful to aquatic life and to humans who consume seafood contaminated with high concentrations of heavy metals. Monitoring heavy metals is important to maintaining healthy waterways especially in water bodies that are near mining industries, electroplating, tanning, and other similar activities (Appleton et al. 1999 ; Baharom and Ishak 2015 ; Canencia et al. 2016 ).

Additional findings in the EMB report include results from 63 inland surface water bodies that were monitored in terms of total mercury, cadmium, and lead from 2006 to 2013. These monitored rivers exhibited 100% total mercury compliance except for Agno, Malaguit, Panique, and Tubay Rivers (Mindanao) (EMB 2014 , p.16). Tubay River (Class A) did not meet the criterion in two sampling events out of 56 conducted. However, the presence of mercury there could remove the Tubay River as potential source of potable water.

Similarly, the maximum limit of cadmium was present in 10/18 bodies of monitored waters from 2006 to 2013. Of these ten, the lower part of the Davao River (Class B) is found in Mindanao. Although this river did not completely meet the compliance standard, notable is that of the ten rivers, the Davao River exhibited the highest compliance rating with 93% (EMB 2014 , p.17).

Lead monitoring indicates that only 7/18 bodies of water monitored met the maximum limit demonstrating a 100% compliance rating. The Davao River in Mindanao, both upper and lower sections did not meet the maximum limit and both sections failed some aspect of sampling collection event (EMB 2014 , p.18). These findings are particularly alarming for the upper section of Davao River, because of the Class A designation as a source of potable water.

Standards Overview: Ambient Water Quality, Wastewater Emission, and Enforcement

Various Philippine legislations cover different water quality parameters. This section provides an overview of major evaluation protocol for surface water, groundwater used to produce drinking water, bottled water, and wastewater. Then we present some high-level issues of enforcement relating to these standards.

Ambient Water Quality

Ambient water (e.g., lakes, rivers, oceans) quality is defined as the average water purity distinguished from discharge measurements taken at the source of the pollution as defined by the Clean Water Act of the Philippines (Greenpeace 2007 ). DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990 sets forth 33 water quality assessment for minimum and desired levels for drinking water, water purification, polyvinyl chloride, and bacteria. Five key parameters determine classification and reclassification of surface water bodies: (1) pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD ), and total coliforms.

Drinking Water

For drinking water, the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (DOH 2007 ) holds criteria for bacteriological, physical, chemical, radiological, and biological qualities across 56 parameters used to assess groundwater source quality. Only three measures—fecal coliform, salinity or chloride content, and nitrates (EMB 2014 ) are highly relevant. Chloride and nitrates constitutes the total dissolved solids (TDS ) with a maximum limit of 500 mg/L while no total coliform must be detectable in 100 mL sample for the fecal coliform parameter (World Bank 2003 ).

Bottled Water

Standards for bottled water are stipulated in Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD) Administrative Order No. 18-A Series of 1996. The BFAD stipulates assessment of several parameters including the levels of bacteria, viruses, parasites, fertilizers, pesticides, hydrocarbons, detergents, phenolic compounds, heavy metals, radioactive substances, and other soluble organic and inorganic substances. Source quality, production processes and facilities, and handling and proper labeling are also part of the BFAD order.

The protocol for wastewater effluent emission standards are gathered in DENR Administrative Order No. 34 and 35 Series of 1990 as they apply to the different classifications of water bodies. Several standards dictate maximum corresponding numerical values coming from any point source for any effluent discharge but target toxic and deleterious substances which can affect the quality of the receiving body of water. Discharge of effluents in bodies of water categorized as Class AA is strongly prohibited to ensure protection of public health while for other categories, industrial discharges and effluents should not contain toxic substances greater than the indicated value in the said order (Greenpeace 2007 ). Standard values on conventional and other pollutants which affect the aesthetic and oxygen demand are also established in these administrative orders. Some researchers have suggested that despite the number of governing policies, standards, and guidance, these assessment parameters appear to be relatively insensitive to the actual ambient standards due the utilization of concentration-based standards (Luken 1999 ).

Current wastewater standards do not reflect the proliferation of toxic chemicals used for and as a byproduct of modern industrial and commercial processes especially in electronics and semiconductor industry, such as beryllium, nickel, copper, tin, zinc, vanadium, and many other volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Enforcement

Enforcement of existing laws and regulations are another prominent issue. Several researchers have identified the problematic nature of government institutions due to inefficient and/or ineffective activities. For example, overlapping, or in some cases competing, water resource management function and enacted responsibilities across various levels of government challenging leaders to agency realignment (Rola et al. 2015 ). Because of this problem of variance in policy and implementation mechanisms, consistent enforcement remains a challenge for the national and local governments (USAID and AECEN 2004 ). The problem becomes transparent when a new law is enacted but then adopts a new or different strategy, giving varied powers and responsibilities to existing government agencies like the EMB, LGUs, and other especially constituted multisectoral management and regulatory bodies.

Several challenges in the enforcement of existing regulations, such as an unclear reporting structure, accountability, enforcement responsibilities, and nonstandardized inspection procedures, have been identified by the EMB ( 2014 ). The EMB faces their own challenges in reporting structure as staff in the provincial and community offices are categorized as reassigned personnel reporting to the DENR regional offices and not directly to the EMB hierarchy as prescribed by the EMB mandate. Additionally, these EMB personnel are in the DENR Regional offices and depend on their resources. This crease results in the delay of submissions of reports, determination of accountable personnel, and mandate enforcement.

Another prevailing enforcement issue is that most local government officials are unaware of their responsibilities with regards to the enforcement of the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act and other pertinent policies. Most of the responsibilities and obligations LGU require significant technical capability aside from financial investments. However, training conducted by the DENR and internal training conducted by the LGU do not reflect this. While a good strategy to address this challenge is for the DENR to facilitate compliance of LGUs through capacity building activities, workshops, and penalties exacted on LGU officials that violate or fail to meet their mandated responsibilities, DENR budgets do not currently allocate for training or monitoring of LGUs. EMB annual budgets for training, monitoring and inspection are annually exceeded and do not receive a steady revenue source. This creates a challenge of allocating enough budget for the DENR to be able to provide a comprehensive program for capacity building to prepare LGUs for the enforcement of certain provisions of the law.

Another enforcement problem is the lack of cohesive, standardized procedures in various EMB field offices. Instead, field agents often establish and practice their own procedural strategy when conducting inspection and monitoring tasks. Although several attempts have been made to produce unofficial field guides, manuals, and checklists for the standard conduct of inspection, these items were unsuccessful. First, they were considered impractical to actual field situations, and second, they failed to garner support because they were not backed by official administrative orders reinforcing their implementation.

Demand to address certain limitations of current and existing laws, standards for water quality and effluents, and enforcement is apparent. While policies are presumably adequate, agencies face limitations on enforcement that may only be ameliorated by institutional influence.

Groundwater Quality Assessment

The country’s groundwater resources provide most of the water needs for households, agricultural activities, commercial, industrial processes, and others. Therefore, preventing groundwater contamination and remediating contaminated groundwater are important considerations that warrant testing and other associated expenses.

In assessing the country’s groundwater quality, the Philippine National Standard for Drinking Water (PNSDW) is referenced. This standard includes relevant parameters indicating the level and degree of pollutants such as fecal coliform and nitrates. Other common parameters (e.g., salinity, chloride content) are used to indicate the level of seawater intrusion.

Fecal Coliform

The PNSWD prescribes that drinking water should contain less than 1.1 Most Probable Number per 100 mL (MPN/100 mL) using the method of Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique (EMB 2014 ). The EMB conducted a program in 2008 to consolidate the results of analyses on tap water samples for Total and Fecal Coliforms submitted by different regional laboratories across the country. Under this program, 59 shallow wells were monitored in selected areas of the country and 6 were found to be potable, 23 failed to meet the fecal coliform standard, and the remaining 30 sites require further testing (EMB 2014 ). Sites found not potable in Mindanao are in Zamboanga City and Davao City (Greenpeace 2007 ).

Environmental nitrates are found in the salts of ammonium, sodium, potassium, and calcium from soil fertilizers during agricultural runoff, wastewater treatment, confined animal facilities, and from sewage discharge of septic systems (EMB 2014 ). No major study has been conducted to determine the nitrate levels of various groundwater sources in Mindanao except in the agricultural regions of Northern and Central Luzon (Tirado 2007 ).

Salinity or Chloride Content

Excessive withdrawal of groundwater causes the natural groundwater gradient to reverse and allow seawater to contaminate and intrude the aquifers in coastal areas (Pinder 1981 ). Seawater intrusion can affect the potability of drinking water and the quality of water in irrigation wells leaving some areas unfit for continued agricultural activities (EMB 2014 ).

No current study assessing the degree of seawater intrusion in the groundwater resources of Mindanao Island to date. However, some studies were conducted in the areas of Luzon (Insigne and Kim 2010 ) and Visayas (Scholze et al. 2002 ).

Pollution Hotspots

The Philippine Government maintains the quality of water bodies according to intended and beneficial use (DENR 1990 ). In 2003, pollution hotspots of surface water were assessed by the World Bank and evaluated by province using DO and BOD criteria while groundwater sources tested TDS and coliform. Water quality status of surface waters was categorized and rated as Satisfactory (S), Marginal (M), and Unsatisfactory (U) while groundwater quality status was rated either Satisfactory (S) or Unsatisfactory (U) (Table 12.6 ).

Standard rates for evaluation of groundwater and surface water quality (World Bank 2003 )

a Dissolved oxygen

b Biological oxygen demand

c Total dissolved solids

Results of the 3-year monitoring project conducted by the World Bank reported on the Water Quality Scorecard for Surface Waters from Regions 9–11 and 13 are satisfactory with marginal ratings for the Mercedes River (Region 9), Manicahan River (Region 9) and Agusan River (Region 13) (World Bank 2003 , p.36). Several surface water bodies on the island were rated as unsatisfactory including the Saaz River (Region 9) and the Padada, Tuganay, and Agusan Rivers in Region 11 (World Bank 2003 , p.36). There were no available data for Region 12 and ARMM .

There were further gaps in analysis. No groundwater data were available for Regions 12, 13, and ARMM for both TDS and coliform while for Region 9 and 11, no coliform data were available (World Bank 2003 ). Zamboanga del Sur (Region 9) and Misamis Oriental (Region 10) groundwater sources were rated unsatisfactory for TDS while Misamis Oriental (Region 10) was rated unsatisfactory for coliform (World Bank 2003 , p.37).

Point and Nonpoint Sources

Water pollution can be classified in terms of its source—(1) point source pollution, and (2) nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution refers to any pollution with an identifiable pollution source with a specific and known discharge point. On the other hand, nonpoint source pollution refers to pollution with no known or identifiable source (World Bank 2003 ).

Point source pollution can be categorized into three main sources—domestic wastewater discharges, agricultural wastewater discharges, and industrial wastewater discharges. Pollution load is calculated using BOD as the measuring parameter indicating pollution contribution from point sources is 24% from Industrial discharges, 31% from Domestic or Municipal discharges, and 45% from Agricultural discharges (EMB 2014 , p.24) The calculations for domestic, agricultural, and industrial BOD can be seen in the documents published by World Bank ( 2003 ), EMB ( 2014 ), Economopoulos ( 1993 ).

Domestic discharges contain the most organic waste with suspended solids and coliforms from common household and kitchen activities (World Bank 2003 ). The problem is attributed to the lack of appropriate domestic sewage treatment system allowing allows 90% of inadequately treated domestic sewage discharged into surface waters (Greenpeace 2007 , p.19). Major areas that generate BOD are Metro Manila and Region 4A (18% and 15%, respectively) while only small levels of BOD are generated in Mindanao regions (World Bank 2003 , p.7). In Mindanao, regions 10, 11, and 12 went above the 50 thousand megaton mark for BOD load while areas within regions of 9, 13 and ARMM were below 50 thousand megaton marks (World Bank 2003 ).

In terms of agricultural BOD , Regions 4 and 1 contributed the most BOD in the country (13% and 12%, respectively). In Mindanao, region 10 is ranked fourth in BOD attributed to active animal and vegetable farming in this region, while Region 13 and ARMM (1.2% and 3.0%, respectively) had the least agricultural BOD contribution (World Bank 2003 , p.21). Notable is that Region 13 also has the least agricultural BOD contribution for the whole country.

Industrial BOD contribution depends on the volume and characteristics of industrial effluents which vary by industry type. Water-intensive industries discharge huge amounts of waste water (Canencia and Walag 2016 ; World Bank 2003 ). Most of the water-intensive industries are in Luzon in the National Capital Region, Regions 3 and 4, thus having the most BOD contribution (42.5%, 9.0%, and 14.1%, respectively) while other regions, such as 11 (6.6%), 9 (3.3%), 10 (2.2%), and 8 (1.1%), have relatively smaller contributions. Finally, ARMM reports 0% BOD contribution due the absence of or an insignificant number of large industries (World Bank 2003 , p.21).

Nonpoint source pollution depends generally on the land use thus it is calculated and estimated based on the different land uses. Several technologies are now available to help monitor, control, and mitigate the effects of point source pollutions but there remains difficulty in these activities for nonpoint sources (Greenpeace 2007 ). The difficulty in monitoring is evident in the lack of information and scarcity of monitoring on the contribution of solid waste, a major source of nonpoint pollutants (World Bank 2003 ).

Health and Environmental Impact

Human population and the surrounding environment are at risk when bodies of water like rivers, streams, and lakes are polluted with wastewater or spillage. These source bodies of water, in turn, contaminate nearby groundwater making humans susceptible to environmentally-related illness and disease resulting in mortality and morbidity (Cabral 2010 ; Grimes et al. 2015 ). Specifically, inadequate sanitation and hygiene brought about by lack of clean, safe, and comfortable facilities could promote the risk of acquiring diarrhea (Pfadenhauer and Rehfuess 2015 ) “which is second to pneumonia as the leading cause of morbidity in the Philippines” (DOH 2012 , p.63) in diseases related to the environment. Several studies discussed in this section have firmly established the relationship between polluted water supply and disease in the Philippines (WEPA n.d. , para 7):

Untreated wastewater… makes water unfit for drinking and recreational use, threatens biodiversity, and deteriorates overall quality of life. Known diseases caused by poor water include gastro-enteritis, diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, and more recently, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).

Water bodies in urban areas are the most susceptible to contamination due to the direct and indirect pollution caused by unprecedented development. However, rural surface waters are endangered due to farming, animal production, and other food sector industries that release organic pollutants into the water system. Consequently, the environmental impact of improper sewerage leading to unsanitary water causes a variety of debilitating health effects on living creatures—land-dwelling animals, aquatic life and humans.

Water Supply Contamination and Diseases in Humans

Excessive levels of fecal coliform organism and E. coli indicative of surface water contamination was detected in a recent study of Cagayan de Oro River upstream. The contamination was attributed to improper disposal of animal wastes, human wastes which are discarded directly to the river, and poor sewerage in nearby communities (Lubos et al. 2013 ; Lubos and Japos 2010 ).

Several studies confirm the need for increasing attention to watershed management and sanitation. The Labo and Clarin Rivers are considered important to the different communities in Misamis Occidental, where both tested positive for coliforms; the site along the agroforest and agricultural areas had the highest total coliform (Labajo-Villantes and Nuneza 2014 ) confirming the need for increasing attention to watershed management. Several problematic physicochemical and bacteriological qualities were also reported in several rivers—the Aligodon, Misamis Oriental, Daveo River, and Talomo (Ido 2016 ; Laud et al. 2016 ).

Morbidity from outbreaks of diarrhea continue to be a major health problem stemming from groundwater contamination of wells on farmland in villages in North Cotabato (Pelone 2014a ) and the application of herbicides on cornfields that are washed down to river systems (Bacongco 2014 ). One death and 32 instances of mortality was consequent to contamination through leakage of distribution pipes in Zamboanga City (Pelone 2014b ) where 14/19 residents there later tested positive for norovirus (Radyo Natin 2016 ).

Fish Kills and Red Tide Occurrences

Low DO levels in water, abrupt and abnormal shifting water temperature, and deteriorating water quality are common environmental conditions that kill aquatic life (EMB 2014 ). Several fish kills were documented and recorded throughout the island including the 1 km long algal bloom of Cochlodinium sp. in the coastal area Jasaan, Misamis Oriental in 2003 (Jabatan 2004 ). The bloom occurs because of high surface temperature, favorable transport, radiation available for photosynthesis, and enrichment for organic nutrients (Kim et al. 2016 ; Lee and Choi 2009 ; Tomas and Smaydab 2008 ).

Several fish kills were reported in the island to have been caused by oxygen depletion due to overcrowding and harmful algal blooms Lake Sebu and Lake Seloton in South Cotabato and Iligan bay (Fernandez 2017 ; Vicente et al. 2002 ). Consequently, government representatives of Maguindanao took precautionary measures to ensure the balance of environment and marine life in the Lake Buluan by regulating the number of fish pens (Sarmiento 2017 ).

The health of humans and marine species are both continuously threatened by occurrences of Red Tide. Mindanao’s affinity for red tides, shown on the data from the Incidences of Red Tide in Coastal Areas in 2016, has been credited to northeast monsoon-driven upwellings (EMB 2014 ). Balite Bay in Mati, Davao Oriental was exposed to red tide from January to March 2016, posing significant threats to aquatic life until finally deemed toxin free in early March (Bureau of Fish and Aquatic Resources 2016 ).

Improper Sewerage and Sanitation

In the Philippines, 76.8% of families have sanitary toilet facilities but only less than 10% are connected to piped sewerage system while the rest rely on septic tanks, pit latrines, or open defecation (EMB 2014 , p.28). Both the existence of unsuitable sewerage systems or absence thereof greatly impacts the quality of different bodies of water because this type of contamination may give rise to various water-borne diseases caused by various microorganisms (EMB 2014 ).

While incidents of diarrhea have been deadly several other viral infections can result from unsanitary water. Instances of hepatitis in Surigao del Sur (Crisostomo and Serrano 2006 ) and leptospirosis in Davao City (Zapanta et al. 2014 ) were all attributed to poor sanitation and improperly maintained sewage system. Rural areas are typically affected where water systems, such as traditional wells and rivers, contain fecal matter that contaminates the source (Bain et al. 2014 ).

Mine Tailing Spillages and Siltation

Several activities and sources of mercury and heavy metals that pollute water bodies can be attributed to mercury mining, gold mining, chemical industry, metal smelting, coal combustion, and metropolitan and agricultural runoffs (Li et al. 2009 ). Several mining industries are in the eastern and western sections of Mindanao where reports of spillages, heavy metal pollution, and siltation of nearby bodies of water have taken place (Appleton et al. 1999 ; Cortes-Maramba et al. 2006 ).

The gold mining industry has a strong presence in Eastern Mindanao near the Agusan River where the gold-rush town of Diwalwal has a foothold. Initial analysis revealed that the Diwalwal drainage, evident downstream of the river system, was characterized by extremely high levels of mercury in solution and sediments downstream (Appleton et al. 1999 ) exceeding multiple international guidelines.

Different kinds of organisms were also recorded as having been contaminated with mercury from different main tailings. Contaminations were also found in rice, fish and mussels from Naboc River (Appleton et al. 2006 ; Drasch et al. 2001 ) and in three species of fish in Davao del Norte (Akagi et al. 2000 ). Population and biodiversity of damselflies and dragonflies in Surigao del Sur (Quisil et al. 2014 ) and oyster production in Zamboanga Sibugay Province (Lim and Flores 2017 ) have also been drastically affected by mine tailing ponds.

Efforts to Address Water Quality

Water quality is a physical and chemical problem. Several projects have been conducted both by the government and nongovernment agencies to address recurring and perennial challenges regarding the protection and conservation of water resources. Programs on the enhancement of water quality in the Philippines are spearheaded by the DENR with the support of various nongovernment organizations, financing institutions, and development partners (EMB 2014 ).

Environmental Management Bureau Projects and Programs

The DENR is mandated, through the EMB, to be the national authority responsible for the prevention and control of pollution and assessment of environmental impact. Aside from the enforcement and compliance activities of EMB in 12.3, the EMB also take part in projects and activities to enhance and rehabilitate water quality throughout the country.

Designation of Water Quality Management Area

The Water Quality Management Area ( WQMA) is established by the NWRB together with DENR to assign water quality management areas using appropriate physiographic units to protect water bodies and its tributaries ( EMB n.d.b ). The WQMA follows a two-step process by first initiating an assessment followed by the development of an agency Action Plan crafted to improve the quality of a certain body of water. Mindanao has ten bodies of water were designated as WQMAs in 2016.

Philippine Environment Partnership Program

The Philippine Environment Partnership Program ( PEPP) was created to support self-regulation among industries towards improved environmental performance. The voluntary industry partnerships with DENR promote mandatory self-monitoring and compliance with environmental standards (DENR 2003 ). Under this program, PEPP evaluates and classifies establishments according to tracks. Industries classified as Track 1 are companies driven by competitiveness that go beyond compliance while Track 2 classified industries are companies that are currently unable to comply with regulations. Several companies have been awarded the Seal of Approval from Mindanao, but the first honor went to the San Miguel Brewery, Inc. in Darong, Davao Del Sur, Region 11. Other companies who received this recognition include many food, materials, and energy suppliers from Regions 10, 11, and 12 (DENR n.d. ).

Financing Institutions and Development Partners

Financing institutions and development partners aid various projects aiming to promote, conserve, rehabilitate, and manage water quality. While the World Bank, Development Bank of the Philippines, JICA , and USAID all contributed to various national projects to protect, conserve, manage and rehabilitate the water bodies in the Philippines, we emphasize support for projects on Mindanao Island.

Land Bank of the Philippines

The Land Bank of the Philippines, together with the DENR , implemented the “ Adopt-a-Watershed Project” restoring 14 hectare (ha) total area of denuded forestlands in six pilot areas nationwide (EMB 2014 ). (1 ha is equal to 10,000 m 2 .) Two major watersheds in Mindanao were covered in Phase 1(2006–2011) of this project, Lasang River in Davao Del Norte and Silway River in South Cotabato. In Phase 2 (2012–2015) of this project, 10 ha total watershed was covered in Mindanao, these are Paquibato, Davao City and Olympog in General Santos City. In the last Phase (2015–2018), and additional 14 ha of Mindanao watersheds found in Zamboanga Sibugay, Lanao del Sur, Davao del Norte, and South Cotabato will undergo restoration (Land Bank of the Philippines 2014 ).

Asian Development Bank

The Asian Development Bank ( ADB) provided technical assistance to Cebu and Davao cities to improve access to water supply and sanitation services. The Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Project (2011–2014) aimed to increase continuous water supply in Cebu and Davao City by 2022 from 50 to 80% of the population while the coverage for clean and hygienic sanitation was targeted to improve from 10 to 50%. Furthermore, marine biodiversity ecosystems in the provinces of Cagayan de Oro and Davao Oriental were also allocated funds by ADB to enhance coastal services and reduce poverty among fisher folks (EMB 2014 ).

Research and Development Initiatives

Various research and development initiatives and programs conducted by DENR and Department of Science and Technology (DOST ) have been reported to address water quality problems nationwide. DENR conducted leachate characterization study from various solid waste disposal facilities from 2005 to 2007 assessing the impacts of leachate on groundwater and studies on toxicity testing to assess the harmful effects of substances like cyanide, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and nitrates with fish and invertebrate test organisms. The collected data from the tests were used in the formulation of parameters for environmental quality assessment and monitoring (EMB 2014 ).

The DOST also conducted various research and development initiatives geared towards prevention and control of water pollution under a five-year plan from 2011 to 2016 entitled, “Science & Technology Water Environment Roadmap.” Various programs and projects are investigating and implementing water technologies. They include water treatment technological improvement and innovation, wastewater treatment and remediation technologies, and space technology applications on water resources such as Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR ) technology and photonics for aquatic resource assessment (EMB 2014 ).

Recommendations to Improve Quality, Control, and Management

The environmental impact and negative health consequences elicited from water scarcity and pollution aid in refining the existing legal framework and policies on quality control, regulation on water usage, and water management. Major recommendations include policy amendments to the Philippine Water Code and Clean Air Act and various methods to further enhance local community involvement in government organized activities.

Policy Amendments

Major policy recommendations include the development of an institutional framework under the purview of the Philippine Water Code and amending the Clean Air Act to eliminate the use of concentration-based standards through the introduction of a two-tiered permit system. Suggestions include providing clarification of the roles and responsibilities of the various enacted national and local government units.

Centralized Regulation

A central regulatory body mandated within the main Philippine Water Code would provide an essential reporting structure that legally defines the framework for extraction, allocation, and management of the country’s water resources. The transition to central control recognizes the presumably adequate existing law but may afford the necessary opportunity to successfully address the constant challenge of policy enforcement resulting from government institutions having overlapping functions and responsibilities (Rola et al. 2015 ). Thus, an institutional framework where all water users understand their roles and responsibilities should be enacted under the Philippine Water Code. The NWRB , currently enforcing the Water Code of the Philippines, is a prime candidate for transition. The existing organizational chart of NWRB allows conferring of water right but much of the proportion of water right is freely held by other public institutions like DENR (watershed management), LWUA (domestic water supply), and National Irrigation Administration (NIA) (irrigation water supply) as shown in Fig. 12.1 .

Current organizational chart of National Water Resources Board (National Water Resources Board n.d ., Used by Permission of Public Domain)

This proposal reinforces the technical capacity and administrative function of NWRB by restructuring agency responsibilities to become the country’s water resources management authority. Hence, a single, independent, and autonomous regulatory board will ensure the protection of water consumers, enshrine accountability and transparency throughout the water resource management of the country, and implement an honest and dynamic tariff policy. Further, these steps would streamline all projects and activities geared towards water quality improvement, sustainable allocation, and distribution among all users. The proposed central agency would carry the name National Water Resources Management Office (Fig. 12.2 ) having the mandate to manage and protect the country’s water resources.

Organizational chart of proposed National Water Resources Management Office (Tabios III 2014 ; Rola et al. 2015 , Used by Permission)

A Two-Tiered Discharge Permit System in the Clean Water Act

The current policy on effluent standards, as mandated by Republic Act 9275, appears to be relatively insensitive to the real ambient conditions due to the use of concentration-based standards unconsciously allowing industries to dilute their effluent by over extraction of groundwater (Madrazo 2002 ). A two-tiered system for discharge permits mandated in the Clean Water Act should alleviate this problem. The proposed system charges industries for both the volume and concentration of water discharged thus encouraging industries to meet water quality standards to avoid paying higher environmental fees. Although many industries meet the standards set by law, the fees they pay will reflect the volume of effluent discharge addressing the dilution problem (Madrazo 2002 ). This revision on the provision of discharge permits has three primary benefits: (1) the Clean Water Act will become stringent in terms of reinforcing ambient water quality and effluent standards, (2) better water quality in receiving bodies of water, and (3) water quality improvements to communities’ dependent on receiving bodies for livelihood and domestic purposes. Additionally, the environmental user’s fee would produce additional benefits when disbursed to support data enhancing local water quality research, production of modern water treatment technology, implementation and enforcement of local ordinances through added personnel and equipment, and special training monitoring and inspection personnel.

Clarification of Roles and Responsibilities of National and Local Government Units

Under the current Clean Water Act, DENR is mandated with the responsibility to enforce various provisions under the said law. Although the agency is capable and competent, the current budget allocation is unlikely to increase covering the cost for additional personnel and equipment even when duties are added as prescribed by existing and new legislations (USAID and AECEN 2004 ). Thus, DENR operations will be hampered. To address this issue, a revision of the Clean Water Act must be made to devolve some of the functions of DENR to local government units. Local governments are in the best position to perform monitoring and inspection tasks because of existing personnel and available budget (Rola et al. 2015 ). Further, they can also more easily link monitoring to enforcement in their own new permitting system. Nevertheless, the LGUs require technical training which the DENR can provide. The revision for the Clean Water Act shall be based upon the reorientation of the task of DENR from reinforcement and implementation of the act to provision of standards, training, and oversight over LGUs. In this setup, LGUs will be empowered to effectively manage their own water resources, efficiently resolve local issues and concerns cutting the long delay of bureaucracy, and sustainably provide support and monitoring services for industries to forward local development. Furthermore, since LGUs are empowered they can easily identify issues and challenges and implement programs for the improvement of water quality involving local communities and barangays.

Local Community Involvement in Government Organized Activities

The civil society in the Philippines is very strong and vocal particularly in respect to the environment. National and local nongovernment organizations (NGOs) are very keen in monitoring proposed projects or activities that may pose serious deleterious effects to the environment. For this reason, tapping local community involvement and public participation in various government projects and activities is beneficial to the government, environment, and population. Recommendations encompass a series of local community involvement in government organized activities spanning the important aspect of citizen engagement in environmental impact assessments prior to development and community-managed services, among others.

Public participation in environmental impact assessment (EIA ) activities is very significant not only in the process of consultations but also in the process of issuance and renewal of Environmental Compliance Certificates (ECC) (EMB 2007 ). Certain provision in the EIA requires the creation of a multisectoral monitoring team especially for major development projects. This provision allows public participations to ensure compliance with environmental standards by companies and industries as stipulated in the ECC.

EcoWatch Program is a private sector initiative listing and publicizing major polluters. DENR has adopted this initiative and encourages public participation in monitoring major polluters ( EMB n.d.c ). This system creates negative publicity for the involved firms since they are “color-coded” according to their compliance with environmental regulations. EcoWarch also allows public recognition and praise to firms and companies categorized as green, silver, and gold.

The Kapitbisig Laban sa Kahirapan-Comprehensive and Integrated Delivery of Social Project (KALAHI-CIDSS) is a World Bank project working with different impoverished communities in the Philippines. The project utilizes a community-driven development approach by enabling villagers to make their own decisions in identifying, developing, implementing, and monitoring development initiatives based on their current need (World Bank 2014 ). Public participation was very significant due to clearly established guidelines on participation, accountability, and transparency. Furthermore, an impact study revealed that the income of the household beneficiaries who participated in the project rose significantly by 12% as measured in terms of consumption (World Bank 2014 , para 4).

There are numerous waterless municipalities around the country and about 213 are found in Mindanao (Llanto 2013 ). SALINTUBIG Project was conceived in 2011 by the DILG, DOH, and National Anti-Poverty Commission (NAPC). Their common objective is to provide water supply systems to the 455 waterless municipalities, barangays, health centers, and resettlement sites in the Philippines. To reach their goals community members and LGU personnel were given technical training in terms of planning, implementation, and operation of water supply facilities. This program emphasizes the capacity building mechanisms and the provision of technical assistance to LGUs in the pursuit of sustainable and efficient water supply services in the country (National Anti-Poverty Commission n.d .).

Cagayan de Oro City through the Cagayan de Oro Water District (COWD ) sought the private sector to implement a design-build-operate contract for their septic facility. Through this setup, the private proponent will design and construct the treatment facility, purchase and operate desludging trucks, and implement a program for desludging septic tanks around the city. The local government on the other hand will approve a comprehensive citywide septic management ordinance, develop and targeted promotional campaign (USAID 2010 ).

The Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation (PCWS ) assists in the creation of institutions providing technical assistance for the effective community management of water supply and sanitation systems. The formation of the Provincial Water and Sanitation Center in Agusan del Sur facilitated the capacity building of the municipal-level project implementers, providing sustainable support to community water and sanitation associations (Asian Development Bank 2006 ).

Lack of access to clean, potable water and improved sanitation is still a longstanding issue in most rural areas in the Philippines. Climate Resilience in Water Stressed Communities (CREST ) is a project funded by USAID, local governments and communities in the Philippines to bring potable water to these areas and conflict-affected regions of Mindanao (USAID 2016 ). This project utilized a community-based, participatory approach to bring safe and potable drinking water through innovative water and water sanitation technologies resilient in the face of climate change.

Finally, the Estero Program is a collaborative effort among estero community members, local government units, private company donors, and DENR through EMB, to clean up waterways that empty into rivers and other bodies of water ( EMB n.d.a ). This is an effort to mobilize members of the community to actively engage in clean up, planning and implementation of continued plans to keep the estero clean in continuous projects. Immediate of their initial efforts that were observed by residents and other locals include less flooding due to unimpeded water flow and reduction of water-borne diseases.

Clean water is essential to improving the quality of public health. Therefore, maintenance and improvement of the quality of water is important to achieving this objective. In the Philippines, several legal frameworks and policies have been established with the mandate of quality control, regulation of water use, and water supply management. National government agencies, taskforces, and committees have been established in response to the implementation of laws and departmental administrative orders. These government agencies through various consultative meetings and research developed ambient water and wastewater emission standards for the protection of water bodies in the country. Although these legal framework and policies are in place, several obstacles are still presently challenging the realization of providing clean and potable water for all Filipinos. These challenges are apparent in the fragmented establishment of legal policies cascading into weak reinforcement that, in turn, is ineffective in preventing pollutants from contaminating fresh and groundwater sources that impacts public health. Efforts must be made to address problems on water quality and pollution, shortage and scarcity of water, and the health and environmental impacts. This could begin in the development of a unified inter-agency and multisectoral taskforce on the management of water bodies. The system of rewards and incentives to improve environmental compliance of firms and industries must be further strengthened. Although several government agencies are mandated with the task of improving the water quality, this requires a multisectoral approach which necessitates the involvement of local government units and communities.

Initiatives by different civic societies and community associations are crucial in the improvement of the water quality throughout the island. Attention should also be given in the capacity building of local communities especially in their involvement on monitoring the compliance of different firms and industries. A good amount of investment must also be made in locally developed and produced sanitation and sewerage systems to introduce public accountability among every citizen. A community association must also be encouraged to manage water distribution and management of wastewater treatment facilities. These efforts to involve and engage local communities would address the challenge on the financial and personnel constraint of both the EMB and DENR . Together with the National Government, the rights and powers stipulated by legislative policies, support from various international and local Nongovernment Organizations, and active and responsible participation from local community members, the dream of providing clean, safe, and accessible water resources is possible. The rich resources of the Philippines must not be taken for granted and action must be taken before it’s too late. The community, an untapped resource, must be involved in the various efforts to conserve and preserve the very foundation of life—water. Therefore, now is the time to revise and translate national laws and policies through the involvement of community to better the environmental condition of the Philippines.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to acknowledge the United Nations, World Health Organization, and the World Bank for access to their outstanding resources. The authors accept responsibility for all analysis and interpretation.

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From living water to toxic sludge: the Philippine island devastated by an oil spill – a photo essay

The slick from sunken tanker Princess Empress has harmed livelihoods, caused health problems and done untold damage to marine life. Can Mindoro island recover?

• Words and photographs by Alecs Ongcal

I t is a beautiful sunny day on Mindoro island but a nauseating stench fills the air and black sludge covers the beaches and rockpools. The cause? A massive oil spill off the eastern coast of the island, from the tanker Princess Empress, carrying 800,000 litres of industrial fuel oil when it sank on 28 February.

The resultant oil slick, stretching for 75 miles, threatens hundreds of fishing communities near Pola , as well as biodiversity in more than 20 marine protected areas .

Vicente Madera Jr’s livelihood from fishing is under threat from the oil spilled from the MT Princess Empress, which capsized in February

The Philippine maritime authorities located the wreck this week and a state of disaster has been declared for nine districts in Oriental Mindoro province. In the village of Buhay na Tubig, which translates as “living water”, locals like fisherman Vicente Madera Jr have seen their income disappear.

With five children and a wife who works as a classroom volunteer, Madera, 49, does not know where to turn. The lack of food is a constant worry, as fish was the mainstay of their daily meals. Now, they eat vegetables and their remaining livestock.

Thick black oil clings to the shoreline at Buhay na Tubig, near Pola, in Oriental Mindoro

The number of families affected in the province stands at 21,000 . People who rely on the sea are struggling to make ends meet, the oil spill affecting local businesses and tourism as well as daily life.

Madera’s neighbour, Elenor Pabula, says: “We used to have fish every day, but now we’re lucky if we can get some vegetables from our garden. It’s the children we are actually worried about.

“We can’t give them vegetables every day, and now we have no money to give them for their daily allowance [for school meals].”

Local council head Annabel Ferrera is worried for her village. The barangay hall, top, where Buhay na Tubig’s administration is based

The barangay captain - local council head – Annabel Ferrera, fears for her community. Some people harvest coconuts, but the province is still recovering from super-typhoon Rai (known locally as Odette) , which ravaged the region in late 2021. She worries that desperate people in her community may resort to desperate measures, such as the illegal drug trade.

The toxic oil spill has impacted the health of islanders.

“I have been experiencing difficulty breathing since the oil spill,” Ferrera says. “My throat itches and it’s very difficult to swallow food. When I visited the town’s clinic, they gave me cetirizine, assuming it was an allergy.”

Oil clinging to the rocky shoreline at Buhay na Tubig

Almost a dozen people in Buhay na Tubig have visited the clinic with similar symptoms. In Oriental Mindoro, at least 122 islanders have fallen ill, according to Governor Humerlito Dolor. Other symptoms reported include vomiting, diarrhoea, coughs, dizziness, eye irritation and fevers.

Testing air toxicity levels at Buhay na Tubig

Toxicologists are monitoring and treating people affected. The Philippines government has advised those with respiratory illnesses to evacuate and for others to wear an industrial gas mask and ensure they get water from safe sources.

A cash-for-work programme, introduced this month, has been extended until May. The programme pays 355 pesos (£5.30) for 15 days to those assisting in the clean-up operations.

Islanders from Buhay na Tubig join in the clean-up as part of the government’s cash-for-work programme

The government has allocated more than 84.4m pesos to the programme, initially intended for 14,000 participants.

Some complain compensation levels do not match what they earn from fishing.

Cleaning the oil-polluted shore of Mindoro island is a daunting, laborious job

Madera says he could usually earn up to 1,000 pesos on a good day, enough to feed his children and send them to school.

Some fishers are leaving for labouring and odd jobs in the towns.

Cleaning up the beaches around Buhay na Tubig as part of the government’s cash-for-work scheme

Everyone who can is helping the clean-up, a daunting and slow task.

They can work on cleaning for only two hours at a time to minimise exposure to the oil’s toxins.

A crab covered in oil in a rock pool at Buhay na Tubig

The government says it has distributed at least 20m pesos in cash aid to people affected. It has also given food packs to more than 21,000 families in Oriental Mindoro and about 6,600 in Antique province in the west of Panay island, south of Mindoro. However, the list of those in need keeps on growing as the spill spreads.

The Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) is assessing biodiversity sites and has designated affected coastal towns as “exclusion areas”.

A Philippine Coast Guard team laying absorbent pads on water contaminated with oil

The PCG and the islanders are using absorbent pads to soak up oil on land, while coast guards have laid booms around the suspected location of the wreck.

Miles from the shore of Oriental Mindoro, a Philippine Coast Guard ship sprays oil dispersant to break up the slicks

Some PCG vessels have been modified to spray dispersants that break down the oil slicks into smaller droplets. But dispersants are themselves damaging to marine life. Jefferson Chua, a Greenpeace Philippines campaigner, says the toxic dispersants don’t remove oil but leave residue in the area, causing further environmental damage.

Philippine coast guards onboard the vessel BRP Bagacay prepare the oil dispersant before spraying it on the slick off Oriental Mindoro

Fears that the spill could reach the Verde Island Passage (VIP), the strait that separates the islands of Luzon and Mindoro, a rich area of marine biodiversity, worsened last week when the spill was sighted off Verde Island .

The PCG has since said there are no longer any traces of the spill in the waters around the island . Nevertheless, threat to the reefs and other marine life has renewed calls for the government to ban oil tankers passing through the VIP.

Shells covered in oil near Buhay na Tubig

Several organisations called for an investigation, prompting the Philippine senate to open an inquiry, which has already found that the MT Princess Empress had no up-to-date permit to operate. The ship’s owner, RDC Reield Marine Services, said the company had complied with requirements to amend its licence last December. The Maritime Industry Authority (Marina) administrator, Hernani Fabia, said the application was still pending.

Clearing the beaches of contaminated debris in the cash-for-work programme

On 21 March, justice minister, Jesus Crispin Remulla, called for criminal charges over the spill. The Department of Justice has issued subpoenas for documents as it builds its case. Remulla has also called on Marina to provide relevant documents amid allegations that the agency allowed the tanker to operate without a permit.

In Buhay na Tubig people want justice and compensation.

Vicente Madera Jr does not know what the future holds for him and his family. He wonders if he will ever be able to fish again or if the “living water” will one day thrive again.

Vicente Madera Jr is uncertain what the future holds for him, his family and his community

• The Guardian picture essay
• Marine life
• Philippines
• Endangered habitats
• Asia Pacific

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The Environment in Asia Pacific Harbours pp 309–328 Cite as

Manila Bay: Environmental Challenges and Opportunities

• G. S. Jacinto 2 ,
• R. V. Azanza 2 ,
• I. B. Velasquez 2 &
• F. P. Siringan 3  

2579 Accesses

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4. Conclusion

Manila Bay has a wide range of environmental problems that need to be addressed — from land-based and sea-based sources of pollution to harmful algal blooms, subsidence and groundwater extraction, overexploitation of fishery resources, and habitat conversion and degradation. However, there are reasons to be optimistic. There is greater accountability expected of public officials vis-a-vis environmental laws, significant and increasing infrastructure investments to treat and reduce domestic sewage discharges into the bay, the implementation of the Manila Bay Environmental Management Project, and the adoption the concept and practice of ICM by local government units and communities around Manila Bay.

The Manila Bay Coastal Strategy’s response to the many issues confronting the bay is articulated as follows:

“Manila Bay stakeholders are partners in: raising public awareness and participation, protecting human welfare, ecological, historical, cultural and economic features, mitigating environmental risks, implementing effective policies and environment management and governance, and developing areas and opportunities in a sustainable manner.”

Time will tell if the envisioned response will be pursued and continued so that Manila Bay will revert to be a clean, safe, wholesome, and productive ecosystem for the present and future generations.

We acknowledge with thanks the help and assistance of Dr. Laura David, Roselle Ty Borja, and Iris Uy Baula. We are also grateful to the Philippine Coast Guard for giving us access to the most recent oil spill data.

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Jacinto, G.S., Azanza, R.V., Velasquez, I.B., Siringan, F.P. (2006). Manila Bay: Environmental Challenges and Opportunities. In: Wolanski, E. (eds) The Environment in Asia Pacific Harbours. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3655-8_19

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4 Biggest Environmental Issues in the Philippines in 2024

In the run-up to COP28, the urgency intensifies for the world to address the ongoing climate crisis. Although activities in the Global North herald the climate crisis for the most part, some nations in the Global South also contribute to a host of environmental issues like air and plastic pollution. Here are the top 4 environmental issues in the Philippines and the government’s approach to curtailing them. 

1. Air Pollution

Over the course of the year, air pollution has become particularly problematic in the Philippines. Going by World Health Organization’s (WHO) health and environment scorecard , the country records an annual mean of 24 micrograms per cubic metre (µ g/m³) for fine particulate matter, significantly surpassing the recommended maximum level of 5 µ g/m³. For the most part, air pollution in the Philippines stems from the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil. Considering that 53% of the population is without access to clean fuels and technology for cooking, this is bound to further exacerbate air quality in the long run. 

Air pollution in the Philippines is also caused by vehicular emissions, particularly in areas like Metro Manila. In 2022, other recorded surges in air pollution outside Metro Manila include the San Fernando City Station in Pampanga, Antipolo City Station, Biñan City Station, Puerto Princesa City Station, and the Davao City Station. 

According to William Cuñado , Environmental Management Bureau Director at the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), lifting Covid-19 restrictions particularly deteriorated air quality in Metro Manila . For the most part, this was due to an acute surge in the number of vehicles on the street, which had fallen to 10% in the country’s National Capital Region during the lockdown period. 

Another factor was the prevalent use of firecrackers during new year celebrations. Given that the particulate matter ( PM 10 ) in firecrackers contains a mixture of carbon, sulfur, and other fine particles that pose a danger to public health, the DENR affirmed its commitment to controlling air pollution spikes of this nature. However, for this approach to be successful, it would require local government units to enforce the available Executive Order 28 on the controlled use of firecrackers. 

On another note, although the government introduced the Clean Air Act of 1999, groups like Greenpeace Philippines and the Center for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) point out its outdated nature in the international community. For this reason, there have been pressing calls for the government to update its standards to meet the reality of air pollution in the country. 

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2. Plastic Pollution

Among the environmental issues in the Philippines is also plastic pollution , a particularly severe problem for the country. Evident by the World Bank’s use of the word ‘staggering’ to describe the situation in the Philippines, an insufficient waste management system, coupled with a high dependence on single-use plastics set the scene for the country’s annual generation of 2.7 million tons of plastic waste.   

Much like any rapidly developing country, the Philippines faces unsustainable plastic consumption due to an inefficient recycling system. Estimates show that the country loses around US$890 million to unrecycled plastic products. However, despite the considerable scale of plastic pollution in the Philippines, residents of the country and some companies have been at the forefront of recycling efforts so far. For instance, companies like Infinity Eight Trading and Marketing Corporation buy plastic waste from scrap dealers, turn them into pellets, and resell them as raw materials to remake food cartons and bottles. 

While critics trace the Philippines’ plastic pollution problem to the poor enforcement of laws, the government, nonetheless, introduced its Extended Producer Responsibility Act   (EPRA) in 2022. With this new law in play, companies are mandated to create EPR programs for plastic waste reduction, recovery, and diversion. Accordingly, by 2028, companies are expected to have achieved an 80% offset or recovery of their plastic product footprint. 

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3. Marine Pollution

As the third-largest contributor to marine plastics, marine pollution accounts for one of the most pressing environmental issues in the Philippines. Considering that the country generates over 2 million tons of plastic waste every year, the World Bank reports that an estimated 20% of this waste ends up in the sea. Depicting the state of marine pollution in the Philippines, Theresa Lazaro, the country’s Foreign Affairs Undersecretary, cited reports that “there would be more plastics than fish by 2050 , while oceans would be overheated and acidified if people fail to act now”. For this reason, marine pollution also endangers biodiversity in the Philippines .

In recent years, the government has initiated various measures to curb marine pollution in the country. One of them is the Philippine Port Authority’s signed agreement with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Philippines to address marine pollution around ports. Through this agreement, the objective is to achieve a 50% reduction in plastic waste leakage in the Port of Cagayan de Oro, the Port of Batangas, and t he Manila North Port. 

Another response to marine pollution in the Philippines is the government’s implementation of a National Plan of Action on Marine Litter . Envisioned to achieve zero waste in Philippine waters by 2040, the plan seeks to set a wide range of policies into motion, ranging from public-private partnerships to an improvement of public awareness about marine pollution. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ), the approach’s rationale has to do with a recognition that most of the marine plastics polluting the sea are traceable to land-based sources, such as an improper waste disposal system. For this reason, an integrated effort that also curbs land-based plastic pollution while also educating the public on waste management practices is envisioned to be more effective. 

While the government envisions the aforementioned EPR law as a step in the right direction, there are many other factors that need to be considered. For instance, much like earlier efforts to curb plastic and air pollution in the Philippines, a significant level of commitment will be a crucial determinant of its effectiveness. 

4. Sea Level Rise

Floods have been recurrent in the Philippines in 2022 . On Christmas day alone, erratic rains trigger devastating flooding in Northern Mindanao and the Vasayas region that killed at least 51 people .  

This comes at the back of the country topping this year’s World Risk Index , which assesses sea level rise (a cause of coastal flooding) as one of its indicators. In line with the problem, Earth.Org’s projection shows that residents of the country’s capital city, Manila, will be displaced by 2100 if the current trend continues. At the moment, Manila is already subsiding at 20 millimetres per year , surpassing the mean sea level rise almost tenfold. 

You might also like: Flooding Will Hit Asia the Hardest- Report

So far, mitigation efforts have not been very successful. Nonetheless, in 2022, the DENR announced a plan to install infrastructures like floodgates, pumping stations, box culverts, and additional drainage connection systems. This was in addition to declogging operations carried out across drainage canals in Manila. Accordingly, DENR also plans to particularly focus on the city’s low-lying areas to abate coastal flooding. 

Flood mitigation may be crucial to the Philippines’ strategy on sea level rise, however, there are concerns that the government’s approach fails to consider its long-term threat. For the most part, this is due to solutions such as the decision to wall off the coast only partially. Although the several gaps in the seawall were necessary to provide fishing boats access to the bay, however, Vonne Villanueva, disaster risk reduction and management officer in the City of Navota, said the coastline may have to be closed to truly protect the city from rising sea levels. 

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Causes Of Water Pollution In The Philippines

This sample essay on Causes Of Water Pollution In The Philippines offers an extensive list of facts and arguments related to it. The essay’s introduction, body paragraphs, and the conclusion are provided below.

The Philippines is an archipelago, which means it is made up of a group of islands and is rich in bodies of water such as the oceans, rivers, and lakes. However, according to the data released by Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEEP) in 2005, 42. 89% of the waters in the Philippines are contaminated.

These contaminated waters have not only been continuously harming people, but also the aquatic ecosystem Of the country. It is said that approximately 31 percent of illness monitored for a 5-year period were caused by water borne sources.

Moreover, more and more ecosystems are being polluted, causing serious diseases, water shortages, and extinction of aquatic animals and coral reefs. In this essay, I would like to discuss about three main sources of water pollution in the Philippines and its possible solutions: one, domestic waste; two, agricultural waste; and three, industrial waste.

The first reason concerns domestic waste. Domestic waste refers to the organic pollution that usually comes from our houses by generating activities such as using the toilet, doing the laundry, and washing dishes. Unknown to any Filipinos, their homes are the biggest source of water pollution, contributing 48 percent of the organic pollution in the country.

Water Pollution Research Paper

The reason for this is that most of the houses in the Philippines are not connected to a water sewerage system, which results to the contamination of groundwater with effluents and wastes from septic tanks.

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Exposure, ingestion, or contact with this contaminated water, which usually occur in the less fortunate area of the country, kill 1,997 people per 1 00,000 population by either cholera, bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, or typhoid fever, the Department of Health stated. Most Filipinos are not aware of this issue, and if they were, most would not be able to afford connecting on a sewerage system. The next reason concerns the running off of agricultural waste. The Philippines is mainly an agricultural country with a land of 30 million hectares, 47 percent of which is agricultural.

Having stated this, agricultural waste in the Philippines contributes 37 percent of the water pollution in the country. No one would question the critical value of water and food to human civilizations. However, these agricultural productions possess a serious threat to the rivers. The agricultural production of the Philippines has been based upon a large amount application of chemicals to the land. Fertilizers used for farming contain a large quantity of nitrogen and phosphorus.

These enrich the soil near the lakes and rivers, and help algae grow at a considerable rate. These algae use all the oxygen and do not leave anything for the rest of the aquatic life around. Moreover, algae formation blocks the passage of light and air for the other aquatic animals. This has an adverse effect on the biological life of these aquatic animals, which is termed Transportation. The third reason concerns the discharge of industrial waste.

The industrialization of the Philippines has led to more and more infrastructure constructions and factories starting to line up along the rivers. These factories find rivers and oceans a convenient place to dump their waste materials such as acids, toxic metals, oil, and pesticides. For example, in Manila, the capital city of the Philippines, an oil depot built along the Passing River has been releasing liquid and solid wastes that worsened the contamination of the river, making the river a huge sewer system. These toxic substances are quite armful for humans as well as aquatic animals. Living near these contaminated rivers means surrounding one’s self with infected mosquito that can give people dengue fever.

In addition, with all these waste in the rivers, our fish get sick or are killed, leading to extinction of fish and decrease of food production in the Philippines. It is important that action is taken to combat these problems. For example, to lessen the distribution of domestic wastes to the water pollution in the Philippines, proper assassination of the masses about the need for proper disposal of domestic waste should be implemented. Educational projects where the people are taught about the importance and proper domestic waste disposal should be set up. This will deal with the problem of the ignorance of the masses.

Setting up adequate waste handling, such as putting biodegradable and non-biodegradable trash cans in schools and public areas, disposal facilities and a proper disposal location with proper management will save people from carelessly disposing waste. Moreover, the government should enforce existing laws and restructure the budget for environmental issues and ensure at least 50 percent of the houses are connected on a water rage system. To lessen and stop agricultural wastes that pollutes water, prevention of the usage of harmful chemical as fertilizers are needed. While people may find nitrogen and phosphorus helpful, much of their volume is being washed off on lawns and into the nearest waterways. These also tend to degrade the quality of the soil, causing more and more reliance on the chemicals over time.

Transportation can be avoided by using minimal required amounts Of chemical fertilizers and or by using natural fertilizers such us manure or compost. Making sure that the fields where these chemicals and fertilizers are to close to the rivers, taking extra care while using fertilizers during rainy seasons in the Philippines usually from June to September, which can run-off and transmitted to the waters and can cause blockage of waterways, death of marine life and breakage of food chain should be done immediately and seriously. For the reduction of industrial wastes, the government should not permit factories and buildings to be built near or along the oceans or rivers. Building these infrastructures away from the waters will prevent the discharge of waste materials such as oil and toxic metals. These companies will have no other options, but to segregate their wastes and dispose it properly.

Any offender shall be punished by the law and pay a big amount of fine, which will be then used to treat the contaminated water by filtration and sedimentation. This way, companies will be more careful about their decisions in choosing locations on where to build their factories. Moreover, this law will only have positive outcomes because the money that the offenders pay will be for a good and better cause. In conclusion, the Philippines is a country enriched of seas, rivers, lakes, ND other bodies of water that are now polluted due to different human activities. There are three main sources of water pollution in the Philippines.

The first is domestic wastes which come from houses when people bathe, wash clothes, and wash dishes. Learning about proper waste disposal and enforcing laws should be done to lessen this pollution source. The second source is agricultural waste, which refers to the large amount of chemicals put in the land for food production, which after used, are washed away to the waters and produces algae that harms the aquatic ecosystem and pollutes it. Reversion of the usage of chemicals used in agricultural work will help decrease the amount of pollution. The third source is Industrial waste.

Industrial wastes are the effluents coming from big factories that are built and connected to the rivers and lakes. Making new laws that will punish these factories and companies will contribute to minimizing water pollution in the Philippines. To sum up, human activities in general are the main reasons for the severe water pollution in the Philippines and we humans, are also the only ones who can stop this critical environmental problem.

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