e commerce research paper 2022

Open e-commerce 1.0, five years of crowdsourced U.S. Amazon purchase histories with user demographics

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May 13, 2024

• #civic technology
• Alex Berke Research Assistant
• Robert Mahari Research Assistant
• Alex 'Sandy' Pentland Professor of Media Arts and Sciences; Toshiba Professor
• Kent Larson Professor of the Practice
• Dan Calacci Former Research Assistant

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Berke, A., Calacci, D., Mahari, R. Yabe, T., Larson, K., & Pentland, S. Open e-commerce 1.0, five years of crowdsourced U.S. Amazon purchase histories with user demographics. Sci Data 11, 491 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-03329-6

This is a first-of-its-kind dataset containing detailed purchase histories from 5027 U.S. Amazon.com consumers, spanning 2018 through 2022, with more than 1.8 million purchases. Consumer spending data are customarily collected through government surveys to produce public datasets and statistics, which serve public agencies and researchers. Companies now collect similar data through consumers’ use of digital platforms at rates superseding data collection by public agencies. We published this dataset in an effort towards democratizing access to rich data sources routinely used by companies. The data were crowdsourced through an online survey and shared with participants’ informed consent. Data columns include order date, product code, title, price, quantity, and shipping address state. Each purchase history is linked to survey data with information about participants’ demographics, lifestyle, and health. We validate the dataset by showing expenditure correlates with public Amazon sales data (Pearson r = 0.978, p < 0.001) and conduct analyses of specific product categories, demonstrating expected seasonal trends and strong relationships to other public datasets.

zkTax: A pragmatic way to support zero-knowledge tax disclosures

Berke, A., South, T., Mahari, R., Larson, K., & Pentland, A. (2023). zkTax: A pragmatic way to support zero-knowledge tax disclosures. arXiv preprint arXiv:2311.13008.

Privacy Limitations Of Interest-based Advertising On The Web: A Post-mortem Empirical Analysis Of Google’s FLoC

Alex Berke and Dan Calacci. 2022. Privacy Limitations of Interest-based Advertising on The Web: A Post-mortem Empirical Analysis of Google’s FLoC. In Proceedings of the 2022 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS ’22), November 7–11, 2022, Los Angeles, CA, USA. ACM, New York, NY, USA, 13 pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/3548606.3560626

The Tradeoff Between the Utility and Risk of Location Data and Implications for Public Good

Calacci, Dan, Alex Berke, Kent Larson, Sandy Pentland. "The tradeoff between the utility and risk of location data and implications for public good." Presented at the Oxford & London School of Economics Connected Life conference. (2019). https://arxiv.org/abs/1905.09350

Contact Tracing Technologies: Methods and trade-offs

Alex Berke and Kent Larson, City Science group, MIT Media Lab (2020).

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• Published: 04 May 2024

E-commerce and foreign direct investment: pioneering a new era of trade strategies

• Yugang He   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5758-069X 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  566 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This study explores the dynamic interplay between foreign direct investment, e-commerce, and China’s export growth from 2005 to 2022 against the backdrop of the rapidly evolving global economy. Utilizing advanced analytical models that combine province- and year-fixed effects with fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least-squares methodologies, we delve into how foreign direct investment and e-commerce collectively boost China’s export capabilities. Our findings highlight a significant alignment between China’s export expansion and the global sustainable development agenda. We observe that China’s export growth transcends mere international investment and digital market engagement, incorporating sustainable practices such as effective utilization of local labor resources and an emphasis on technological advancements. This study also uncovers how knowledge capital and educational attainment positively impact export figures. A notable regional disparity is observed, with the eastern regions of China being more responsive to foreign direct investment and e-commerce influences on export trade compared to their western counterparts. This disparity underscores the need for region-specific policy approaches and sustainable strategies to evenly distribute the benefits of foreign direct investment and e-commerce. The study concludes that while foreign direct investment and e-commerce are crucial for China’s export growth, the underlying theme is sustainable development, with technological innovation and human capital being key to ongoing export success. The findings advocate for policies that balance economic drivers with sustainable development goals, ensuring both economic prosperity and environmental sustainability.

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Introduction.

In its ascent towards global economic preeminence, China has undergone transformative alterations in its provincial export trade architecture, metamorphosed by the intricate orchestration of economic vectors and technological advents within the globally interconnected milieu. Central to this paradigm shift is the synthesis of foreign direct investment, the burgeoning trajectory of e-commerce, the proper deployment of indigenous labor resources, and tactically channeled technological capital. An adept comprehension of these intricate dynamics becomes essential for informed forecasts pertaining to China’s export evolution and its symbiotic relationship with sustainable developmental objectives. The exponential proliferation of China’s export vertical can be attributed to its accurate incorporation of foreign direct investment, pivotal in catalyzing technological assimilations, fortifying workforce competencies, and forging novel market corridors. In tandem, the surge in e-commerce has revolutionized market penetration modalities, enabling Chinese offerings to seamlessly infiltrate global commerce arenas. Moreover, China’s abundant labor capital, juxtaposed with deliberate technological ventures, has accentuated its competitive foothold in global trade arenas. Yet, the velocity of this expansive trajectory beckons a meticulous assessment through a prism of sustainability, addressing facets of resource optimization, laboral integrity, and ecological prudence.

In the current academic landscape, a significant emphasis has been placed on dissecting the myriad ramifications of foreign direct investment on export enhancement, with studies underscoring its cardinal role in technological integration and amplifying operational efficacy. The integration of e-commerce facets, as delineated by Hao et al. ( 2023 ), offered a refined perspective, spotlighting the instrumental role of digital conduits in transcending conventional trade barriers. The interrelation of labor capital, as articulated by Zhang et al. ( 2016 ), in concert with technological advancements, as expounded by Autor et al. ( 2015 ), underscored the salience of indigenous assets and frontier innovations in the export dialog. However, despite the expansive literature, a comprehensive appraisal amalgamating these aspects, especially within the framework of China’s regional disparities, is palpably lacking. From a methodological standpoint, diverse econometric paradigms have been employed in antecedent research, yet province- and year-fixed effect models are increasingly lauded for their analytical precision. The eastern corridors, advantaged by their littoral proximity, have conventionally steered the export zeitgeist. Academic contributions, such as those by Duan et al. ( 2020 ), underscored this region’s proficiency in harnessing foreign direct investment and e-commerce potentialities. In juxtaposition, the central and western sectors, albeit resource-rich and labor-abundant, evince a marked lag in technological embrace and foreign direct investment influx. This regional polarization, as theorized by Zhong et al. ( 2022 ), accentuates the necessity for tailored policy interventions to promulgate balanced and sustainable growth vectors. In this context, our scholarly pursuit seeks to redress the prevailing knowledge chasm. The intricate interplay of foreign direct investment, e-commerce, labor dynamics, and technological innovation in molding China’s export tapestry is indubitable. Yet, exhaustive scrutiny, particularly one sensitive to regional grades, stands as an academic imperative. Grounded in methodological robustness and echoing sustainability principles, this study aims to demystify this intricate interconnection, catalyze informed policy deliberations, and buttress China’s odyssey towards a sustainable export paradigm.

Drawing upon the aforementioned analytical discourse, this research delves into the complex relationship between foreign direct investment, e-commerce, and the growth of exports in China from 2005 to 2022, situated within the context of a rapidly changing global economic landscape. Using advanced statistical methods, such as province- and year-fixed effects analysis along with fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least-squares methods, the study gives a more complete picture of how foreign direct investment and e-commerce work together to make China’s exports stronger. A key aspect of this study is its alignment with the global sustainable development agenda, examining how China’s export growth extends beyond basic international investment and digital commerce. It integrates sustainable practices, such as the effective use of local labor and a focus on technological advancement, offering insights into the role of knowledge capital and educational attainment in boosting export figures. Our analysis reveals a pronounced regional variation in the impact of foreign direct investment and e-commerce on export trade, with Eastern China showing greater responsiveness compared to the Western regions. This finding highlights the necessity for region-specific policies and sustainable strategies to ensure a balanced distribution of foreign direct investment and e-commerce benefits across the country. The study’s methodology stands out in the existing literature for its comprehensive approach, combining advanced econometric techniques to dissect the multifaceted influences on China’s export sector. It addresses a gap in previous research by providing a clearer picture of the interplay between foreign direct investment, e-commerce, and export growth within the unique context of China’s evolving economy. The research emphasizes the need for a nuanced understanding of China’s position in the global economy, exploring the relationship between foreign direct investment and e-commerce in a way that prior empirical studies have not fully captured. By doing so, the study offers valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders, advocating for strategies that not only foster economic growth but also align with sustainable development objectives, ensuring the long-term prosperity and environmental sustainability of China’s economy.

This study presents several significant contributions to the current academic understanding of China’s export sector, particularly focusing on sustainable development. First, our analysis synthesizes the roles of foreign direct investment and e-commerce, offering fresh insights into their collective influence on China’s exports. This aspect builds upon the work of Fidrmuc and Korhonen ( 2010 ), who underscored the impacts of global capital and digital advancements on emerging economies. Our study extends this perspective by explicitly linking these factors to export growth in the Chinese context. Second, we introduce a nuanced approach by examining regional variations in export performance, moving beyond the limitations of previous studies that often treated China’s economy as a uniform entity. Grübler et al. ( 2007 ), who emphasized the value of regional analysis in producing more thorough economic insights than national overviews, served as an inspiration for this strategy. Third, our research highlights the role of local labor resources as a key component of sustainable export strategies. This aligns with Sun’s ( 2022 ) assertion of human capital as a critical driver of economic growth, positioning it as a sustainable asset in China’s export framework. Fourth, the study delves into the impact of technological investment on sustainable export growth, expanding upon Qian et al. ( 2021 ) thesis that technology is fundamental to achieving green growth. We explore how technological advancements contribute specifically to the sustainability of China’s export sector. Lastly, the research advocates for a balanced approach to economic growth and environmental sustainability, echoing Wright’s ( 2019 ) argument for the necessity of balancing economic development with ecological preservation. Our study furthers this dialog by illustrating how such a balance can be achieved within the context of China’s export dynamics. Together, these facets of our research offer new perspectives on the complex relationship between economic activities, technological innovation, and sustainable development in the context of China’s growing role in the global market. These insights are particularly relevant for policymakers and business leaders looking to navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by China’s evolving export landscape.

The subsequent sections of this article are structured as follows: section “Literature review” delves into a comprehensive review of extant literature, shedding light on prior research in this domain. In the section “Variables and model”, we elucidate the methodological approach, detailing the variables employed and the underlying model. Section “Empirical results” offers a synthesis of the empirical results, coupled with a discussion of the implications. Lastly, the section “Conclusions” culminates with conclusions, policy recommendations, and avenues for future research in this field.

Literature review

In today’s global trade environment, the interplay between foreign direct investment and e-commerce has become a critical factor influencing export trends. Current research highlights foreign direct investment’s pivotal role in driving technology transfer and expanding markets. Concurrently, e-commerce platforms have revolutionized trading patterns, facilitating instantaneous market connections and broadening international reach. Additionally, elements like labor resource allocation and technological progress intertwine with these primary factors, creating a multifaceted framework that reveals the complexities of modern export strategies.

In contemporary academic discourse, the impact of foreign direct investment on China’s export trade has received significant attention. Yet, the complex relationship with e-commerce remains insufficiently explored. The prevailing literature, as seen in the works of Li et al. ( 2019 ), Wang et al. ( 2020 ), and Jin and Huang ( 2023 ), mainly focuses on the direct effects of foreign direct investment on export efficiency through capital infusion and technological transfers. These studies, however, tend to overlook the burgeoning dimension of digital commerce. Addressing this gap, Fu et al. ( 2016 ), Chen et al. ( 2023 ), and Lei and Xie ( 2023 ) provide a more nuanced perspective by acknowledging the role of digital transformation in global trade. They underscore e-commerce’s potential to complement foreign direct investment, particularly in enhancing market access for Chinese exports. Expanding on this viewpoint, Qi et al. ( 2020 ), Klimenko and Qu ( 2023 ), and Yan et al. ( 2023 ) examine how e-commerce platforms democratize export opportunities, even for smaller entities, thus amplifying foreign direct investment’s impact. The insights of Zhang and Yang ( 2022 ), Mahalik et al. ( 2023 ), and Cordes and Marinova ( 2023 ) served as inspiration for this research’s more integrative approach. It goes beyond the traditional analysis of foreign direct investment’s influence on exports to include the transformative role of e-commerce. This methodological advancement builds upon and extends the analyses of Götz ( 2020 ), Auboin et al. ( 2021 ), and Ha ( 2022 ), who, despite their thoroughness, did not fully address the synergistic relationship between foreign direct investment and digital trade channels. Aligned with the analytical frameworks of Agarwal and Wu ( 2015 ), He et al. ( 2021 ), and Shanmugalingam et al. ( 2023 ), this study emphasizes a thorough understanding of trade dynamics in the digital era. By incorporating e-commerce as a key variable alongside foreign direct investment, it fills a critical gap in the literature. This approach resonates with the findings of Zhang and Zeng ( 2023 ), Xiao and Abula ( 2023 ), and Sun et al. ( 2024 ) on the growing influence of digital platforms on trade and extends their work by empirically quantifying this impact within the context of China’s export landscape. In conclusion, this research contributes significantly to the existing body of literature by integrating the crucial role of e-commerce. It provides a more comprehensive view of the dynamics shaping China’s export trade, thereby addressing a vital need in the ongoing academic conversation.

The existing literature recognizes the impact of e-commerce on China’s export trade but lacks a thorough exploration of its synergistic effects with foreign direct investment and traditional trade mechanisms. Previous studies, such as those by Giuffrida et al. ( 2017 ) and Li et al. ( 2019 ), have primarily focused on the direct impact of e-commerce on market expansion and customer engagement, emphasizing its role in broadening the global reach of Chinese products. However, these studies often treat e-commerce as an isolated factor, not integrating it with broader economic elements like foreign direct investment. A more nuanced perspective is emerging from research such as Blanchard, Jean-Marc ( 2019 ), Villegas-Mateos ( 2022 ), and Singh and Singh ( 2022 ), which begin to address the interaction between e-commerce and foreign direct investment but do not provide a comprehensive analysis. These studies show how e-commerce platforms can enhance export efficiency in conjunction with foreign direct investment, yet they stop short of examining how e-commerce is transforming traditional export models. This research addresses this gap by adopting an integrative methodology, drawing on the approaches of Wang et al. ( 2021 ) and Yin and Choi ( 2023 ). This methodology extends beyond evaluating the direct effects of e-commerce on exports to also consider its interplay with foreign direct investment. Such an approach expands upon the frameworks used in studies by Zhang ( 2019 ) and Phang et al. ( 2019 ), which, while insightful, did not fully capture e-commerce’s complex dynamics within China’s integrated market economy. Additionally, this study aligns with the emerging literature, such as the works of Gao ( 2018 ) and Li et al. ( 2020 ), advocating for a holistic view of digital trade’s role in economic growth. By incorporating a comprehensive array of variables, including technological advancement and digital infrastructure quality, this research provides a more robust analysis than previous studies like those by Katz and Callorda ( 2018 ), Sinha et al. ( 2020 ), and Wei and Ullah ( 2022 ). In conclusion, this study overcomes previous shortcomings in academic research by offering a detailed empirical examination of how e-commerce, in conjunction with foreign direct investment and traditional trade mechanisms, shapes China’s export landscape. It contributes significantly to academic discourse by presenting a more complete understanding of e-commerce’s role in the modern economy, thus fulfilling a critical need in the ongoing narrative on global trade and digital economics.

In analyzing China’s export sector, the influence of labor resource allocation, technological advancements, knowledge capital, and educational attainment, particularly in relation to e-commerce, warrants a deeper exploration. Initial research efforts, exemplified by Bhaumik et al. ( 2016 ), Song and Wang ( 2018 ), and Liu and Xie ( 2020 ), have individually evaluated the impacts of labor and technology on export performance, underscoring their roles in bolstering China’s position in international markets. Yet, these studies typically overlooked the integration of e-commerce into their analytical models. Recent scholarly works, including those by Kwak et al. ( 2019 ), Elia et al. ( 2021 ), and Tang and Li ( 2023 ), have started to recognize the combined effect of technological prowess and labor skills within the framework of e-commerce. However, these investigations fall short of comprehensively examining how knowledge capital and education intersect with e-commerce to affect export trends. The methodologies of Lin et al. ( 2020 ), Hanelt et al. ( 2021 ), and Abdul-Rahim et al. ( 2022 ) served as the foundation for this study’s holistic approach to closing this research gap. Our approach is comprehensive, assessing not just the direct impacts of labor, technology, education, and knowledge on exports but also situating these impacts in the context of the growing e-commerce domain. This method expands upon the analytical scope of previous studies like Wei et al. ( 2020 ) and Li et al. ( 2023 ), which, despite their thoroughness, did not fully delve into the complex relationship between e-commerce and China’s export dynamics. Furthermore, our study aligns with the evolving scholarly narrative, as seen in the works of Banalieva and Dhanaraj ( 2019 ) and Huang et al. ( 2023 ), advocating for an integrated view of digital commerce’s interaction with traditional economic variables. By including an extensive analysis of factors such as digital infrastructure and market development in e-commerce, this research offers a more detailed examination than earlier studies by Gorla et al. ( 2017 ) and Wang et al. ( 2024 ). In summary, this research fills existing gaps in the literature by thoroughly investigating how labor resources, technological investments, knowledge capital, and education, in conjunction with e-commerce, shape the export sector in China. It provides a comprehensive perspective on the synergy between traditional economic elements and digital trade, addressing a critical need in the ongoing discussion of global trade and economic progression.

Variables and model

Numerous studies have explored the significant impact of foreign direct investment on a nation’s export trends, highlighting foreign direct investment’s critical role in reshaping export strategies. Researchers like Choong ( 2012 ) and Otchere et al. ( 2016 ) have pointed out that foreign direct investment not only provides essential capital but also facilitates technological transfer, thereby boosting efficiency and productivity in host countries. Moreover, the aspect of sustainability is increasingly becoming interlinked with foreign direct investment, often bringing eco-friendly technologies and sustainable methodologies to the forefront, enhancing a nation’s prospects for long-term export stability, as noted by Perrini and Tencati ( 2006 ). Simultaneously, the influence of the digital revolution, particularly the rise of e-commerce, has significantly transformed the nature of exports. Studies by Wang ( 2010 ) and Teng et al. ( 2022 ) highlight that in China’s expanding digital landscape, e-commerce platforms have leveled the playing field, allowing even smaller businesses to access the global market. According to Rita and Ramos ( 2022 ), Amornkitvikai et al. ( 2022 ), and He et al. ( 2021 ), e-commerce is also in line with the global trend towards sustainable trading due to its traceable and transparent nature. Considering these complex interactions, export trade volume becomes an appropriate variable to study, representing the combined and sustainable effects of foreign direct investment and e-commerce. This research, therefore, focuses on the export trade volumes of China’s provinces, incorporating foreign direct investment inflows and e-commerce transaction data as independent variables. This approach aims to shed light on their hypothesized influence on provincial export patterns.

To fully grasp the complex factors affecting export trade, it’s crucial to look beyond conventional indicators like foreign direct investment and e-commerce. A deeper exploration into academic literature and fundamental economic theories uncovers the critical role of labor resource allocation and technological advancements in shaping export patterns. The foundational Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, supported by research from Castilho et al. ( 2012 ) and Antràs et al. ( 2017 ), underscores the vital impact of labor resources on global trade trends. Darku ( 2021 ) extends this perspective, emphasizing the sustainability aspects and suggesting that effectively managed labor resources can contribute to more equitable and environmentally responsible trading practices. Additionally, examining the role of technology provides insights into the nuances of export competitiveness. Rooted in Romer’s theory of endogenous growth and backed by findings from Jones ( 2019 ) and Anzoategui et al. ( 2019 ), there is a consensus that deliberate technology investments boost productivity and support sustainable growth through cleaner, more efficient production methods. Zhou et al. ( 2021 ) further clarify this idea, showing how sustainable technologies and competitive exports are interlinked. Recognizing the importance of these two factors, this study incorporates labor resource allocation and technological inputs as key control variables. To empirically anchor these theoretical concepts, we use urban employment data from various provinces as indicators of labor resource allocation and local government spending on technology as a reflection of technological investments. Building on the work of Mansion and Bausch ( 2020 ), Lyu et al. ( 2022 ), and Mohammad Shafiee et al. ( 2023 ), this paper also introduces knowledge capital quantified by the number of patent licenses. Following Atkin ( 2016 ), Ahmed et al. ( 2020 ), and Blanchard and Olney ( 2017 ), the paper incorporates education level, measured by the average number of schooling years.

Due to data availability, this paper selects balanced provincial-level data from 2005 to 2022. Since 2005, e-commerce across various Chinese provinces has seen rapid development, making this period particularly relevant to the study’s context. The unavailability of data from Tibet necessitates the inclusion of 30 other provinces and municipalities in China, namely Beijing, Tianjin, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Fujian, Jiangxi, Shandong, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Chongqing, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, and Xinjiang. The data used in this study is sourced from three official databases, each providing specific insights into our variables of interest. The Bureau of Statistics of China supplies data on export trade volume, knowledge capital, education level, labor resource endowment, and technological investment. Information on e-commerce is obtained from the China E-commerce Report, while data on foreign direct investment is sourced from the Statistical Bulletin of China’s Outward Foreign Direct Investment.

In examining the interplay between foreign direct investment and e-commerce on export trade using China’s province data, it is imperative to adopt a robust econometric technique that effectively captures both time-invariant and entity-specific heterogeneities. The two-way fixed effects regression model, as elaborated upon by Wooldridge ( 2010 ) and advocated by Baltagi ( 2021 ), is particularly adept at mitigating potential omitted variable biases in panel data, making it especially suitable for our study’s empirical context. By incorporating both entity and time-fixed effects, this approach controls for unobserved province-specific factors that may influence export trade (such as local policies or geographical advantages) and time-specific shocks (like global economic trends or national regulatory shifts) that uniformly affect all provinces. By accounting for these dual dimensions of variability, the model ensures that the estimated effects of foreign direct investment and e-commerce are purged of confounding influences, thus bolstering the credibility of causal inferences drawn from the results. Given the dynamism of China’s economic landscape, combined with the evolving trajectories of foreign direct investment and e-commerce, leveraging the two-way fixed effects regression offers a rigorous and robust approach to discerning their impact on export trade. The model is shown as follows:

In Eq. ( 1 ), the subscript ‘ i ’ represents individual provinces, while t delineates the temporal dimension, capturing the yearly variations. Within this model, ex symbolizes the export trade volume, serving as our dependent variable. On the explanatory side, ec corresponds to e-commerce metrics, ‘fdi’ quantifies foreign direct investment inflows, ‘lab’ encapsulates labor resource endowment, and ‘tec’ signifies the magnitude of technological investment. ‘kn’ indicates knowledge capital. ‘ed’ stands for education level. The term a 0 denotes the intercept, providing a baseline measure for our regression. The vector [ a 1 , a 6 ] comprises the coefficients estimated for each explanatory variable, reflecting their respective strengths and directions of influence on export trade. To control for potential unobserved heterogeneities, η embodies province-specific fixed effects, while δ accounts for year-specific fixed effects, ensuring that time-invariant provincial attributes and common temporal shocks are appropriately adjusted for. The error term, ϵ , is presumed to follow a white noise process, indicating randomness and the absence of serial correlation. The empirical focal points of this study are the coefficients a 1 and a 2 . In our analytical framework, the ‘+’ symbol is strategically used to represent the expected positive effect of various independent variables—including e-commerce, foreign direct investment, labor resource endowment, technological investment, knowledge capital, and education level—on the export volumes of Chinese provinces. This symbolism is central to our hypothesis, positing that these variables play a beneficial role in shaping export trends across different provinces. The underlying premise of this hypothesis is that variables like foreign direct investment, enhanced e-commerce capabilities, and other pertinent factors positively stimulate export activities. In essence, the '+' sign indicates a probable correlation where increases or improvements in these independent variables are likely to correspond with a rise in export volumes from the provinces. Such a correlation is instrumental in dissecting how various economic elements and technological progressions, specific to China’s varied regional landscapes, can bolster the nation’s export capacity. This exploration is particularly salient for understanding China’s export mechanics. It provides a nuanced view of how strategic investments in technology, human capital development, and leveraging local resources can collectively uplift the export sector, reinforcing China’s position in the global economy. The ‘+‘ sign, therefore, not only signifies a positive correlation but also serves as a gateway to understanding the multifaceted drivers that enhance export efficiency in the context of China’s evolving economic landscape.

Robustness test

Considering the relatively modest scale of our sample in this study, there exists a plausible risk of heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation in the outcomes estimated through the use of annual and provincial fixed effects models. These statistical issues could potentially introduce biases into our analytical results, thereby affecting the reliability of our conclusions. To mitigate this challenge, our research strategically implements two advanced econometric methodologies: fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least squares. The fully modified ordinary least-squares technique, a refined version of the ordinary least-squares methodology, is particularly adept at addressing complexities arising from heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation. The efficacy of this approach in handling such statistical nuances is well documented in the works of scholars such as Pedroni ( 2001 ), Christou and Pittis ( 2002 ), Trapani ( 2015 ), Li et al. ( 2020 ), Kripfganz and Sarafidis ( 2021 ), Norkutė et al. ( 2021 ), and Kheifets and Phillips ( 2023 ). These studies validate the use of fully modified ordinary least squares as a robust tool for enhancing the accuracy of econometric estimations, especially in scenarios similar to those in our study. Similarly, the dynamic ordinary least squares method offers a comprehensive solution for addressing the challenges of endogeneity and serial correlation, which are common in time-series data. Research by Chudik and Pesaran ( 2015 ), Moon and Weidner ( 2017 ), Liu et al. ( 2020 ), Ahn and Thomas ( 2023 ), Hartono et al. ( 2023 ), and Fingleton ( 2023 ) underscore the effectiveness of dynamic ordinary least squares in ensuring more precise and reliable results in econometric analysis. This technique, by adjusting for both the lead and lag dynamics of the variables, enhances the accuracy of regression coefficients, thereby providing a more nuanced understanding of the underlying data patterns. Both fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least squares are sophisticated enhancements of the traditional least-squares approach. These methods have been specifically adapted to address the intricate statistical issues inherent in panel data analysis, like the one employed in our study. By incorporating these advanced techniques, we aim to mitigate potential biases arising from heteroskedasticity, autocorrelation, and endogeneity, thereby enhancing the credibility and robustness of our findings. Equation ( 2 ) in our study meticulously outlines the application of these methods, demonstrating their integration into our analytical framework to yield more reliable and insightful results.

This outcome is directly derived from the differential regression, as shown in Eq. ( 3 ).

Let’s consider \(\tilde{\Theta }\) and \(\tilde{\Psi }\) to represent the long-term covariance matrix calculated using the residuals denoted by \([\tilde{{\uptau }_{{\rm{t}}}}=(\tilde{{\uptau }_{1{\rm{t}}}},\tilde{{\uptau }_{2{\rm{t}}{^\prime} }}){^\prime} ]\) . Based on this assumption, we are able to represent the modified data as depicted in Eq. ( 4 ). This representation considers the complex interdependencies reflected in the covariance matrix, laying the groundwork for subsequent examination and understanding of the data within the framework of our chosen model.

In our study, the term for bias correction, crucial for refining our model, is detailed in Eq. ( 5 ). This component is essential for enhancing the accuracy and dependability of our results, as it compensates for possible biases encountered during the estimation phase.

Therefore, the formulation of the fully modified ordinary least-squares estimator, pivotal to our analysis, is encapsulated in Eq. ( 6 ). This estimator is integral to refining our estimations, as it addresses potential issues of serial correlation and endogeneity within our regression models. By employing the fully modified ordinary least-squares method, we gain a more accurate and insightful comprehension of the relationships present in our dataset.

In Eq. ( 6 ), \({\rm{Z}}_{\rm{t}}=({\rm{y}}_{\rm{t}}^{{\prime} }{\rm{D}}_{\rm{t}}^{{\prime} })\) . Developing estimators for the long-term covariance matrix, a critical component in the implementation of fully modified ordinary least squares, is highlighted in studies by Atil et al. ( 2023 ), Wagner ( 2023 ), Phillips and Kheifets ( 2024 ), and Pelagatti and Sbrana ( 2024 ). This process is essential for the precision and efficacy of the fully modified ordinary least-squares approach. It entails refining the OLS regression by including both preceding and subsequent factors, ensuring that the error component in Eq. ( 1 ) remains uncorrelated with the entire historical sequence of random regressor variations. This method, as detailed in the research by Mark and Sul ( 2003 ), Panopoulou and Pittis ( 2004 ), Bruns et al. ( 2021 ), and Wang et al. ( 2024 ), is efficiently captured in Eq. ( 7 ).

By incorporating q lags and r leads of the differenced regressors, the persistent correlation between variables τ 1 t and τ 2 t is effectively neutralized. This adjustment allows the estimation of φ  = ( β ′, γ ′)’ through the least-squares estimator to align with the asymptotic distribution achieved via the fully modified ordinary least-squares method. These methods are notably effective, as emphasized by Bai et al. ( 2021 ), Chebrolu et al. ( 2021 ), De Menezes et al. ( 2021 ), Zhao et al. ( 2022 ), and Bollen et al. ( 2022 ), in overcoming challenges like endogeneity, serial correlation, and biases that are typically prevalent in studies with smaller sample sizes.

Empirical results

Descriptive statistical analysis.

For the purpose of this study, data extraction was conducted, harnessing information from 31 distinct provincial datasets covering the temporal bracket of 2005–2022. This compilation was sourced directly from the authoritative National Bureau of Statistics of China, ensuring data authenticity and integrity. An initial stage of rigorous analytical procedures was executed, encompassing both qualitative descriptive statistical evaluations and quantitative correlation analyses. This served to provide a holistic view of the data landscape, enabling the identification of patterns and inter-variable relationships. The culminating findings from this analytical phase are methodically tabulated in Table 1 . For clarity and comprehensive representation, the results are segmented into two distinct panels: Panel A elucidates the statistical analysis of variable description, while Panel B delineates the correlation matrices.

Within Panel A of Table 2 , an examination of the data yields insights into provincial economic dynamics. The export trade registers an average value of 2.226, complemented by a notably narrow standard deviation of 0.085. This suggests a trend of ascent in export trade across the majority of provinces. Conversely, the foreign direct investment landscape, with a mean of 0.241 and a slightly more dispersed standard deviation of 0.117, indicates a predominant trajectory of foreign direct investment enhancement among provinces, albeit with some variability. E-commerce, represented by a mean of 2.276, portrays a positive trend; however, its relatively expansive standard deviation of 0.572 implies a diverse range of advancements and perhaps volatility within this sector. This is emblematic of the rapidly evolving and heterogeneous landscape of e-commerce in China, a reflection that aligns with empirical observations on the nation’s digital commerce forefront. The labor resource endowment is quantified with a mean of 2.791 and a standard deviation of 0.315, providing insights into a generally favorable labor capital across provinces. The metrics for technological investment, with an average of 0.997 and a standard deviation of 0.441, underline the ongoing endeavors in technological innovation but also hint at disparities in the extent and pace of such investments across the provinces. Finally, the metric for knowledge capital is calculated with an average value of 4.012 and a standard deviation of 1.506. Meanwhile, the education level is measured, showing an average value of 0.907 and a standard deviation of 0.217.

In the wake of conducting a correlation analysis, the subsequent findings are articulated in Panel B of Table 1 . An inaugural examination of the data reveals a discernible positive relationship between foreign direct investment and e-commerce relative to the scope of China’s provincial export trade. Parallel to this, a deeper analytical traverse into the data underscores a tangible connection between labor resource endowment and technological forays as pivotal determinants of export trajectories. This interrelationship accentuates the premise that provinces emphasizing sustainable labor methodologies and avant-garde technological endeavors are not solely shaping a resilient economic structure but are concurrently enhancing their export trade capacities. This synergy between sustainability-oriented strategies and burgeoning trade volumes fortifies the argument that sustainability stands as a potent stimulant, accentuating both foreign direct investment and e-commerce outcomes. Furthermore, the analysis essentially establishes a positive correlation between knowledge capital, education level, and the export trade of China’s provinces.

In this investigation, a quintet of econometric techniques is deployed to discern the nuanced impacts of foreign direct investment and e-commerce on export trade. These methodologies encompass pooled ordinary least squares (Model 1), panel ordinary least squares (Model 2), province-specific fixed effects (Model 3), year-fixed effects (Model 4), and a provincial and year-fixed-effects approach integrating both provincial and annual dimensions (Model 5). The outcomes of these estimations are documented in Table 2 . Upon evaluating the data through the prism of the Chow test, we discerned a clear rejection of the null hypothesis, indicating the inadequacy of pooled ordinary least squares for this dataset. Subsequent to this, the Hausman test was executed, which further rejected the null hypothesis, rendering the province-fixed effect model suboptimal. The decision to employ Model 5—integrating both province- and year-fixed effects—is grounded in several advanced econometric postulations. Kropko and Kubinec ( 2020 ), Hill et al. ( 2020 ), and Fernández-Val and Weidner ( 2018 ) posited that in the presence of unobserved heterogeneity—factors that remained constant over time but vary across entities or vice versa—implementing province- and year-fixed effects can yield unbiased and consistent estimators. This became particularly salient when considering phenomena such as global economic oscillations or overarching regulatory changes, which exerted a consistent impact across all provinces. By accounting for these twin axes of variability, Model 5 ensures the extrication of extraneous influences from the core relationship between foreign direct investment, e-commerce, and export trade. This approach enhances the robustness of the analysis, fortifying the validity of causal extrapolations drawn from the empirical results.

In Table 2 , our primary focus is on the insights garnered from Model 5. However, it is crucial to recognize the crucial role that the outcomes of the additional four models played. These models act as a robustness check, lending further credibility to our main findings. Model 5’s empirical data highlights a robust and statistically significant link between the surge in foreign direct investment and the increase in export trade within Chinese provinces. Specifically, a 1% increase in foreign direct investment inflows is associated with a 0.209% rise in provincial export trade volume. Shifting our analysis to the impact of e-commerce on the export landscape of Chinese provinces, we observe a compelling dynamic. E-commerce is identified as a significant driver of export growth. Quantitatively speaking, a 1% growth in e-commerce activities results in a 0.405% increase in provincial export volumes. Moreover, our research identifies critical factors influencing export patterns in Chinese provinces, notably labor resources and technological investments. The study reveals that a 1% elevation in labor resource availability correlates with a 0.715% increment in export volumes at the provincial level. In the same vein, a 1% rise in technological investments is linked to a 0.304% boost in exports. Additionally, the study brings to light the constructive effects of knowledge capital and education levels on provincial export trade. An increase of 1% in these variables is found to enhance export volumes by 0.083% and 0.101%, respectively.

The positive correlation between foreign direct investment inflows and increased export trade can be understood through various theoretical frameworks and empirical studies. Drawing on the research of Adikari et al. ( 2021 ), Rehman et al. ( 2023 ), and Zhang and Chen ( 2020 ), the eclectic paradigm suggests that foreign direct investment promotes export trade by transferring advanced technologies, managerial expertise, and marketing skills to the host country. These spillover effects enhance the competitiveness of domestic firms, boosting their export potential. Additionally, foreign direct investment helps to establish export-oriented industries within host economies, as seen in China’s Special Economic Zones, which act as production and export hubs (Chiang and De Micheaux, 2022 ; Ngoc et al., 2022 ; Huang et al., 2023 ; Vukmirović et al., 2021 ). This influx of capital, technology, and knowledge through foreign direct investment acts as a catalyst, creating a trade-friendly environment and aligning provinces with a more globally integrated economic path. Several factors support e-commerce’s positive impact on provincial export volumes. Firstly, e-commerce reduces informational disparities, fostering a transparent market conducive to robust exports. Additionally, as e-commerce platforms grow, their value proposition to users strengthens, encouraging an environment ripe for increasing transactions, including exports. Thirdly, e-commerce inherently reduces transactional friction, enabling businesses to engage more effectively in international trade. The theories and results of researchers like Onjewu et al. ( 2022 ), who contend that e-commerce lowers traditional trade barriers and enables even small businesses to participate in global markets, support this viewpoint. Lipton et al. ( 2018 ) and Fritz et al. ( 2004 ) show that online platforms allow businesses to overcome geographic limitations, thus expanding their export reach. Tolstoy et al. ( 2021 ) and Zhong et al. ( 2022 ) discuss how e-commerce’s digital footprint lessens the constraints of geographical distance, creating a more fluid international trade environment. Khan and Khan ( 2021 ) and Watson et al. ( 2018 ) illustrate how digital trade avenues boost export growth by adapting to market changes and consumer preferences. Additionally, Xi et al. ( 2023 ) and Deng et al. ( 2023 ) highlight the relationship between digital infrastructures and export portfolio diversification, with e-commerce spurring product innovation and differentiation. In conclusion, the integration of these theoretical insights and empirical evidence underlines the significant role of e-commerce as a key driver in enhancing the scale of export trade in Chinese provinces.

Labor resources and technological investments have been identified as key factors positively influencing the scale of export trade in Chinese provinces. This result is consistent with the Heckscher–Ohlin theorem, which states that regions typically export goods that effectively use their most abundant resources, according to research from Kunroo and Ahmad ( 2023 ) and Akther et al. ( 2022 ). Given China’s substantial labor force, provinces endowed with richer labor resources are naturally capable of higher production, thereby supporting larger export volumes. Conversely, the relationship between technological investments and the strength of exports is anchored in contemporary economic growth theories, particularly those emphasizing the role of technology in economic development. Aghion et al. ( 1998 ) reinforce this notion, demonstrating that technological investment in regions not only enhances productivity but also provides a competitive advantage in international markets, thus boosting export capacity. Moreover, the study finds that both knowledge capital and education levels positively impact the scale of export trade in Chinese provinces. This underscores the importance of intellectual resources and educational attainment as drivers of export dynamics in a rapidly evolving economy like China’s. The correlation with knowledge capital reflects China’s strategic emphasis on innovation and intellectual property. Liu et al. ( 2017 ) emphasize that investments in research and development, especially in technology and sciences, have significantly enhanced China’s export capabilities, leading to an increase in patents and technological breakthroughs. Due to these advancements, Chinese products now have a competitive advantage in the global market with higher value and higher quality. Similarly, the significance of education in boosting export trade is notable. Yang ( 2012 ) points out that China’s focus on higher education and vocational training has equipped its workforce with the necessary skills for export-oriented industries, facilitating the production of more sophisticated, high-value products. Chen et al. ( 2022 ) further discuss how the synergy between technological advancement and educational development contributes to a more dynamic and diversified export sector. This interplay is vital for China’s ability to adapt to global economic changes and more effectively participate in international trade. In conclusion, the increase in exports due to heightened knowledge capital and education levels signifies China’s strategic transition towards a knowledge-based economy. This shift is reshaping the structure of its domestic industries and redefining China’s role and competitiveness in the global market.

In this study, meticulous measures were taken to guarantee both the accuracy and reliability of the results, especially those obtained from the analysis using the province and year-fixed effect models. To ensure the dependability of our findings, an extensive robustness check was conducted on the outcomes of the province and year-fixed effect model. This involved the use of two econometric techniques: fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least squares. The implementation of fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least squares was critical in substantiating the integrity of the inferences drawn from the province and year-fixed effect model. The employment of these methods not only bolsters the solidity of our results but also reflects a commitment to the best standards of empirical rigor and methodological thoroughness. This approach to data verification underlies the credibility and trustworthiness of our conclusions. The specifics of these findings are systematically outlined in Table 3 .

Table 3 presents a detailed evaluation of the estimated parameters, focusing on both their magnitude and statistical significance. Remarkably, the findings obtained through the application of fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least squares align closely with those from the initial province and year-fixed effect model. This alignment between fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least squares, in comparison to the province and year-fixed effect model, robustly confirms the accuracy of the original model. The consistency observed across these varied econometric methods not only strengthens the trustworthiness of the province and year-fixed effect model but also substantiates the reliability of the study’s overall findings. The convergence of results across these methodologies indicates that the initial province and year-fixed effect model was meticulously crafted and successfully captured the essential dynamics of the variables under examination. The adoption of this comprehensive cross-validation process, which incorporates multiple analytical techniques, reinforces the solidity and validity of the research’s conclusions. This multi-faceted approach to analysis assures a high level of confidence in the integrity and reliability of the study’s results.

Regional heterogeneity analysis

Spanning a considerable geographical expanse, China is officially categorized into three distinct regional demarcations: eastern, central, and western. The eastern precinct is widely acknowledged as the epitome of China’s developmental zenith, encapsulating its most economically advanced locales. Conversely, the central sector is recognized for its intermediary developmental status, while the western swathes are often delineated by developmental lacunae. These territories, though unified under a single nationhood, manifest disparate attributes ranging from their economic growth trajectories, state-directed policy nuances, and infrastructural development gradients to their inherent geographical peculiarities. To delve into the multifaceted influence of foreign direct investment and e-commerce on regional export dynamics, our empirical approach disaggregated the core dataset, structuring it into three region-specific sub-samples. This strategic bifurcation aimed at discerning the variable intensities of foreign direct investment and e-commerce influences across these heterogeneous regions. The analytical outcomes derived from this region-centric examination are detailed in Table 4 .

Reflected in Table 4 , the repercussions of foreign direct investment on export trade reveal intricate regional gradations within China’s geographical tapestry. Concretely, a marginal ascent of 1% in foreign direct investment is associated with a 0.278% enhancement in the export dynamism of the eastern provinces. This increment tapers to 0.179% for central provinces and further diminishes to 0.161% for their western counterparts. The scholarly discourses of Contractor et al. ( 2020 ), Dang and Zhao ( 2020 ), and Batschauer da Cruz et al. ( 2022 ) elucidated that the synergy between foreign direct investment and export growth hinged upon a triad of factors: intrinsic firm capabilities, locational attributes, and the operational modus operandi. The eastern provinces, historically recognized as China’s economic epicenter, are imbued with a robust infrastructural matrix, streamlined trade corridors, and a business milieu that gravitates towards global market integration. These intrinsic locational advantages, complemented by the spatial competition theory proposed by Proost and Thisse ( 2019 ), Redding and Rossi-Hansberg ( 2017 ), and Goerzen et al. ( 2013 ), amplify the efficacy of foreign direct investment in spurring export trade. On the contrary, the central belt, despite its ascending economic trajectory, is intermittently stymied by transitional economic impediments, occasionally attenuating the foreign direct investment-export nexus. The western provinces, albeit burgeoning, still navigate developmental constraints, resonating with Wang and Zhao ( 2015 ) and Jiang et al. ( 2016 )‘s backwash effects, wherein peripheral regions grapple to harness the complete spectrum of foreign direct investment benefits. From a sustainability lens, echoing the tenets of Milne and Gray’s ( 2013 ) Triple Bottom Line framework, the magnitude and mode of foreign direct investment’s assimilation should be judiciously balanced to ensure economic, social, and environmental equanimity. The immediate economic impetus observed, particularly in the eastern provinces, warrants an integrated approach wherein foreign direct investment infusion aligns with sustainable practices, ensuring that regional development dovetails with ecological stewardship and socio-cultural inclusivity. Such a harmonized trajectory ensures that the fruits of foreign direct investment are not ephemeral but perennial, fostering a resilient and sustainable export landscape across all regions.

Referring to the results presented in Table 4 , an augmentation of 1% in e-commerce transaction volume is observed to lead to a differentiated impact on the export trade across China’s tripartite regional structure: specifically, a surge of 0.397% in the eastern provinces, an enhancement of 0.365% in the central provinces, and a growth of 0.325% in the western provinces. This regional heterogeneity in the influence of e-commerce on export trade can be supported by a confluence of academic perspectives and established theoretical underpinnings. Drawing insights from Porter, Michael’s ( 2011 ) Competitive advantage theory, the eastern provinces, having established themselves as economic powerhouses, have already harnessed advanced infrastructural frameworks and digital ecosystems. This enables them to efficiently leverage the capabilities of e-commerce, thereby reflecting a more pronounced augmentation in their export trade. The central provinces, as highlighted by North and Douglass’s ( 1989 ) theory of institutional change, are navigating through evolving institutional landscapes, mediating between traditional trade mechanisms and burgeoning digital frontiers. While they have made significant strides, the transformational gaps that exist temper the full realization of e-commerce benefits in the domain of exports. The western provinces, on the other hand, are still grappling with foundational challenges. Drawing from Sachs and Warner’s ( 2001 ) resource curse hypothesis, these provinces, abundant in natural resources, might have historically focused more on primary sectors, leading to a lag in the adoption and integration of e-commerce into their economic tapestry. This could partially elucidate the relatively muted growth in export trade from e-commerce advancements. Incorporating the sustainability ethos, as expounded in the triple bottom line approach by Elkington ( 1998 ), the expansion of e-commerce should not merely serve economic objectives. It should be orchestrated in a manner that respects ecological boundaries and promotes social inclusivity. Especially in regions like the western provinces, where development is paramount, it is critical to ensure that the surge in e-commerce-driven exports is not at the expense of environmental degradation or social disparities, thereby upholding a balanced, sustainable developmental trajectory.

Conclusions

Amidst the fast-paced evolution of the global economy, key factors such as foreign direct investment and e-commerce have become instrumental in reshaping China’s export sector between 2005 and 2022. Our analytical models, which utilize a combination of province- and year-fixed effects analysis along with fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least-squares methodologies, shed light on how foreign direct investment and e-commerce synergistically enhance China’s export capabilities. Significantly, this expansion in China’s exports aligns with the global agenda for sustainable development. It’s encouraging to see that China’s growth in exports extends beyond the realms of international investment and digital marketplaces, intertwining sustainable practices like optimizing local labor resources and prioritizing technological advancements. These approaches contribute to a more sustainable export environment. Our findings further reveal that variables such as knowledge capital and educational levels positively influence China’s export figures. Additionally, our analysis of regional disparities provides a deeper understanding. The eastern regions of China show greater responsiveness to foreign direct investment and e-commerce in driving export trade, whereas the western regions respond more modestly. This variation highlights the need for tailored policies and sustainability strategies to ensure a fair distribution of the benefits from foreign direct investment and e-commerce across all regions. In conclusion, while foreign direct investment and e-commerce are key drivers of China’s export growth, the broader story is one of sustainable development. Technological innovation and human capital development are pivotal to China’s continued success in exports. Moving forward, it is essential for policymakers to maintain a careful equilibrium between these economic drivers and sustainable development goals, fostering a balance between economic growth and environmental sustainability.

Drawing upon the insights derived from this study, we elucidate several policy recommendations along with practical solutions. First, for policymakers and business leaders, investing in technology and education is identified as a crucial strategy. The significant impact of technological innovation and a well-educated workforce on export growth underscores the necessity for ongoing investment in these domains. For academia, this opens avenues for further research into specific types of educational programs and technological innovations that most effectively enhance export capabilities. Businesses, especially in the export sector, should prioritize employee training and the adoption of cutting-edge technologies to maintain competitiveness. Second, considering the varied responsiveness to foreign direct investment and e-commerce between China’s eastern and western regions, it’s imperative for regional authorities and business managers to customize their policies and strategies to suit the unique needs and strengths of their regions. This could involve targeted investments in infrastructure and digital capabilities in the eastern regions while simultaneously focusing on cultivating other competitive advantages in the western regions. Academia can play a role by conducting region-specific research to identify the most effective strategies for each area. Third, the intersection of export growth with sustainable development goals necessitates a comprehensive approach to policymaking. Managers in the export sector are encouraged to integrate sustainable practices into their business models, such as the utilization of environmentally friendly technologies and adherence to fair labor practices. This area also presents an opportunity for academic research into the effective implementation of sustainable practices in the export sector, aiming to balance profitability and competitiveness. Finally, our findings suggest that although foreign direct investment and e-commerce are significant drivers of export growth, their benefits are not uniformly experienced across all regions. This indicates the need for balanced development strategies that ensure equitable benefits from foreign direct investment and e-commerce across various regions. Strategies might include enhancing e-commerce infrastructure in less-developed areas or offering incentives for foreign investment in regions currently less engaged with these investments. For academics, this highlights the necessity of researching ways to optimize the impact of foreign direct investment and e-commerce across diverse regions, promoting equitable economic growth. These policy implications offer a strategic roadmap for leveraging key drivers of export growth in China, highlighting the importance of regional customization, sustainable development, and balanced economic strategies.

In the course of this research, certain limitations emerged that warrant acknowledgment. Firstly, the study’s timeframe, spanning from 2005 to 2022, may not fully capture the evolving dynamics of foreign direct investment and e-commerce in the context of China’s longer-term economic history. A more expansive temporal analysis could provide deeper historical insights. Secondly, while the fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least-squares methodologies and fixed effect models offer robustness, they may not encompass all the nuanced intricacies of the interactions between the chosen variables. Future research could employ mixed-method approaches, blending quantitative and qualitative inquiries to attain a richer understanding. Thirdly, our focus on regional heterogeneity, while pivotal, may overlook intra-regional variances that can significantly influence export trends. Subsequent studies might delve deeper into micro-level analyses, probing district- or city-level data. Fourthly, the emphasis on sustainability, though aligned with global imperatives, is predominantly viewed through the lenses of labor and technology. Incorporating other sustainability metrics, such as environmental or social indicators, could render a holistic view. Lastly, the external validity of our findings, primarily centered on China, might be limited in their generalizability to other nations. Comparative studies juxtaposing China’s experiences with those of other global players could bridge this gap. Addressing these limitations would not only refine the existing body of knowledge but also ensure a more comprehensive alignment of economic strategies with sustainable development goals.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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He, Y. E-commerce and foreign direct investment: pioneering a new era of trade strategies. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 566 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03062-w

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BRIEF RESEARCH REPORT article

A study of cross-border e-commerce research trends: based on knowledge mapping and literature analysis.

• 1 College of Science and Technology, Ningbo University, Cixi, Zhejiang, China
• 2 College of Computer Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
• 3 Department of Distribution Management, Shu-Te University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

As a result of the trend toward economic globalization, the vigorous development of cross-border e-commerce has attracted many scholars to study this field, involving many related fields, such as consumer behavior, advertising, information systems, and supply chain management. Throughout the existing literature, it can be found that most of the research focuses on certain influencing factors of the development of cross-border e-commerce, and there is no systematic and macro- overview of the development trend of research in this field in recent years, nor the integration and analysis of keywords. Given that the research in the field of cross-border e-commerce is fragmented to a large extent, to effectively explore the research trend in this field, we must understand the current situation of cross-border e-commerce. Systematic bibliometric analysis can solve this problem by providing publishing trends and information on various topics. Therefore, based on the scientific database web, this study collected 198 references related to cross-border e-commerce from 2016 to 2021, briefly introduced the current situation and development trend of cross-border e-commerce, visually analyzed and refined the journals, authors, research institutions, countries, publication years, keywords, citations of academic publications in this field, and other key information, and summarized the development trend and path of CEBC in the existing research. It is helpful for researchers to solve the current research gap, understand the future research direction in this field, and help academia establish a strict knowledge system.

Introduction

With the continuous development of Internet technologies in recent years, trade between countries has grown closer, and economic development has gradually moved toward globalization and integration. Cross-border e-commerce has great potential for development in countries or regions with similar geographical and cultural characteristics. In other words, it has the potential to develop new revenue models or methods both domestically and internationally ( Cho and Lee, 2017 ). The infinite possibilities of cross-border e-commerce have prompted it to enter a new stage of rapid development. Cross-border e-commerce has not only successfully broken traditional trade barriers between countries but also promoted world trade gradually by encouraging merchants and consumers to participate in inter-enterprise trade (global B2B) and transactions between consumers and enterprises (global B2C). The move toward borderless trade will also bring a series of major changes affecting economies and trade patterns worldwide. According to research by Cho and Lee (2017) , one-third of e-commerce represents cross-border e-commerce. Taking the European Union (EU) as an example, 15% of overseas sellers offered products to consumers in the EU through e-commerce channels in 2014 ( Kawa and Zdrenka, 2016 ), a 25% increase from previous years ( Kawa and Zdrenka, 2016 ). The development history of cross-border e-commerce shows that it will provide huge space and opportunities for global economic growth in the near future ( Wei et al., 2019 ). In recent years, research in the area of cross-border e-commerce has received more attention as a result of the industry’s rapid growth. Deng and Wang (2016) found that the pioneers of third-party platforms relying on cross-border e-commerce have advantages over the latter in terms of learning effects and conversion costs through online search and mining methods, and they can better solve the cost, technology, and market inconsistencies. Liu and Lai (2016) further summarizes and discusses the current status of the cross-border third-party logistics market, transportation business models, logistics service applications, and the impact of integration with my country’s cross-border e-commerce on the development of cross-border e-commerce. Valarezo et al. (2018) explore the determinants of an individual’s decision to implement cross-border e-commerce. Zhang et al. (2019) analyzed the characteristics and influencing factors of talent demand and concluded that there is a large gap in the demand for cross-border e-commerce talents, while Cheng et al. (2019) created a design based on the four capabilities of market knowledge, technical skills, analytical ability, and business practice ability. A cross-border e-commerce talent training model was developed to address this gap, and the effectiveness of the model was evaluated. Gao (2021) studied the influence mechanism of the application of blockchain technology in cross-border e-commerce on consumers’ purchase intention, explained the application status of blockchain technology in various fields of cross-border e-commerce, and based on this, divides the quality of the cross-border e-commerce blockchain system into three dimensions: commodity information quality, logistics service quality, and payment security.

A review of previous research reveals that the majority of articles on cross-border e-commerce concentrate on a particular aspect that has influenced the industry’s growth rather than providing a comprehensive description of the industry’s development trend in recent years. The lack of integrated analysis of keywords in the cross-border e-commerce field and the lack of statistical analysis on specific time points. With the development of globalization, there are many research branches in the field of cross-border e-commerce, and there are many factors affecting its development. Therefore, systematically summarizing the development trend of cross-border e-commerce has important reference significance for promoting its development and for researchers entering the field of cross-border e-commerce research. This research mainly uses Citespace as a tool for bibliometric analysis and selects SSCI and SCI journals included in WOS from 2016 to 2021 for analysis. This study analyzes key information such as journals, authors, research institutions and countries, publication years, keywords, and citations of publications to establish a knowledge map of cross-border e-commerce research in order to understand the basic characteristics and dynamic changes of cross-border e-commerce. The analysis provides certain theoretical guidance for follow-up research on the development of cross-border e-commerce.

This research will adopt the methods of bibliometrics and content analysis and use CiteSpace software to analyze the research process and future development trends in this field, hoping to solve the following problems: (1) Understand the fundamental characteristics of the literature in the field of cross-border e-commerce from 2016 to 2021. (2) Using the number of papers published as an indicator, create a collaboration network from three perspectives: authors, institutions, and countries to investigate the research status of cross-border e-commerce. (3) Create a keyword co-occurrence map and analyze keyword clusters to understand the overall changing trend of the cross-border e-commerce field. (4) Analyze the current situation of cross-border e-commerce development through content analysis.

Literature review

Cross-border e-commerce.

Cross-border e-commerce (CBEC) refers to cross-border logistics transactions between multiple parties from different customs regions through e-commerce platforms ( Ai et al., 2016 ). Typical participants are the two main players (buyers and sellers), e-commerce platforms (cross-border online platforms), and other third-party service companies (cross-border logistics providers and payment providers). International buyers order products through online e-commerce platforms, and cross-border transactions are handled by third parties (such as logistics companies or payment companies; Mou et al., 2019a ). With the development of electronic information technology and the deepening of economic globalization, great changes have taken place in the consumption patterns and demands of consumers. Supported by growing demand and favorable policies, cross-border e-commerce is developing vigorously in the global environment and has become an important channel for promoting international trade ( Li and Chan, 2016 ; Kim et al., 2017 ). Cross-border e-commerce, the process of selling goods directly to foreign consumers through digital intermediaries, has received increasing attention over the past few decades ( Sinkovics et al., 2007 ; Giuffrida et al., 2020 ). By 2022, business-to-consumer (B2C) cross-border online sales are expected to account for 22% of total global e-commerce ( Forrester Research, 2019 ). Based on its economic surplus and rapid growth, there is a broad consensus that CBEC has become one of the most important pillars of international trade ( UNCTAD, 2016 ).

However, cross-border e-commerce products have long transportation times, high-quality return services are difficult to achieve, and transportation costs are too high. Ding et al. (2017) pointed out that the development of cross-border e-commerce will continue to face obstacles such as cultural differences between countries, consumer behavior, laws and regulations, product and marketing issues, payment conditions, and logistics restrictions. Strzelecki (2019) studied the characteristics required to accurately identify customer needs when e-tailers provide services to customers. The willingness to repurchase can reflect the subjective probability of consumers buying from the same store repeatedly ( Wu et al., 2014 ). ( Mou et al. 2019b ) studied the relationship between customer repurchase intention and actual purchase behavior in the future. Strong repurchase intentions can attract more buyers for the company and increase the market share of the store or enterprise. Although electronic services are gaining popularity around the world, there are still strong uncertainties. Therefore, trust in a certain enterprise or commodity occupies an important position in the minds of customers and is an important determinant of their acceptance of electronic services ( Mou et al., 2016 ).

In the past, there have been many discussions on the positive impact of cross-border e-commerce on the economy and its potential growth and future development; challenges and opportunities for both the supply and demand sides of the market; intensified price competition; improved retail efficiency; positive impact on production in other industries; impact on individuals; and a study of household consumer benefits, labor productivity, and GDP growth. In addition, research on cross-border e-commerce suppliers and consumers has gradually increased. For example, by analyzing the online shopping situation that determines consumers’ purchase intentions, four kinds of clues that promote this kind of consumer behavior can be identified, namely online promotion clues; content marketing clues, personalized recommendation clues, and social comment clues. Additionally, brand familiarity is introduced into the analysis of the influence of cross-border online shopping on consumers’ purchase intention. It is concluded that these four contextual cues for cross-border online shopping have a significant positive impact on consumers’ purchase intentions ( Xiao et al., 2019 ). There is no doubt that the choice of partnership between enterprises is an important factor affecting cross-border e-commerce. On the basis of a literature review, Huang et al. (2021) concluded that the good reputation of enterprises, trust between enterprises, and information sharing are all conducive to the realization of cooperation, thus constructing a theoretical model of partner selection for cross-border e-commerce enterprises. An in-depth discussion on the choice of partners for cross-border e-commerce enterprises under the B2B model. According to relevant reviews, previous studies have not explored the relevant literature process of cross-border e-commerce. Therefore, this study summarizes the context of cross-border e-commerce research through bibliometric methods.

Research methodology

The Web of Science (WOS) is an online multidisciplinary literature database in which current research is reviewed based on high-quality journal articles in order to obtain valuable information. This study conducted bibliometric data analysis since 2016 mainly in that bibliometric methods mostly adopt a time period as the scope of search. For example, a time period of more than 5 years can be regarded as a scope of search. In order to ensure the rationality of data collection and reduce the deviations and errors in time selection ( Xu et al., 2022 ); the time period from 2016 to 2021 was considered as the scope of search for this study. The reasons why the WOS database was used include: First, this database contains the main literature from SCI and SSCI journals. Second, it is viewed as a source of literature from core journals by most countries and researchers. Lastly, other databases, such as SCOPUS and Science Direct, were not employed in this study because most of them collect papers from seminars or non-English papers, which can lead to deviations and errors in data analysis ( Su et al., 2020 ; Jia et al., 2022 ). Based on the above reasons, the WOS database was adopted in this study. In terms of data retrieval, the main research is mainly searched through the keyword “Cross Border e-commerce” or “Cross Border Electronic Commerce” or “Cross-border e-commerce” in the WOS database, and conducted according to the time point from 2016 to 2021. In the end, a total of 223 articles were obtained. After selecting the “article” type to search SCI and SSCI journal articles, 23 articles were deleted, and two articles were deleted according to the subject and abstract. The exclusion factors included irrelevant cross-border e-commerce, literature and trend analysis, non-empirical research, and non-English studies ( Su et al., 2020 ; Lin et al., 2022 ; Zhu et al., 2022 ). Finally, the contents of 198 articles were retained, and a bibliometric mapping analysis was obtained.

Furthermore, in order to effectively carry out data analysis, this study referred to Nagariya et al. (2021) and Lin et al. (2022) in terms of clustering analysis. Content categories were supplemented objectively through multiple methods to reduce the deviations, errors, and shortcomings of graphic results of conventional bibliometric methods. With respect to content analytical methods, 198 papers were systematically processed. Specifically, two university professors and three researchers read the papers and then double-checked them to ensure content correction.

The procedure framework of this research is as follows: Figure 1 .

Figure 1 . Procedure framework.

Publication trends

The main retrieval time of this study was selected between 2016 and 2021. The article type is limited to papers, and finally, there are a total of 198 papers that fit the theme. The number of publications per year is shown in Figure 2 . The number of articles published in a journal can reflect the research level and development level of the subject area, and the change in the popularity of a certain topic can be derived from it. Through the publication status from 2016 to 2021, it can be seen that there are more than seven papers published on this topic every year, and it can be seen that this field is at the beginning and continuous exploration stage. Through the summary of the number of published articles, it is found that the increase in the number of published articles after 2020 has increased rapidly, which may be closely related to the global new crown pneumonia epidemic, including special issues in 2021 such as “Sustainable Cross-Border Business Models,” which is aimed at cross-border businesses during the epidemic. Overall, since 2016, the research on cross border e-commerce has shown steady growth. In particular, by the end of 2021, the cumulative number of articles had reached 76. It can be seen that cross-border e-commerce has gradually become a hot topic and research frontier.

Figure 2 . Annual publication 2016–2021.

According to the 198 articles on cross-border e-commerce obtained from WOS data (see Table 1 ), the statistical description and analysis of the number of journal publications can help one observe the development of the disciplinary knowledge structure in the field of cross-border e-commerce and provide insights into subsequent research. The authors provide guidance for the submission of relevant papers. Among them, the Electronic Commerce Research journal has made the greatest contribution to cross-border e-commerce research. A total of 16 papers have been published, with a total of 99 citations and an average citation of 6.19. Among them, most of the literature uses the establishment of models to study the factors that affect consumers’ purchasing decisions and the relevant policies of customs on cross-border goods ( Li and Li, 2019 ). Secondly, Sustainability is the second most published journal, with a cumulative citation rate of 90, but the average citation rate is higher than the second-ranked journal at 6.43. The third-ranked journal is the European Journal of Marketing, with eight publications and 15 cumulative citations, and an average citation rate of 1.88. The citation rate is lower than in the previous two journals. It is worth discussing the Journal of International Economic Law. This journal itself only includes five articles, but the cumulative citations amounted to 24, and the average citation rate reached 4.8, which is higher than the third-ranked journals. It mainly discusses the policy challenges of a data-driven economy and the impact of international tax and trade regimes on cross-border e-commerce ( Mitchell and Mishra, 2019 ).

Table 1 . Statistical table of journal publication.

Author’s cooperation network

There are a total of 138 nodes and 91 connections in the author’s co-occurrence graph, and the network density is 0.0096. It can be seen that the cooperation network density between authors is low, the author’s cooperation relationship is not close enough, and the research authors are in a relatively scattered state. The five core authors in this study published 20 papers, accounting for 10.10% of all 198 papers, which also showed that the authors did not cooperate enough. The results of Figure 3 show that only three groups of authors form cooperation networks, namely, Fu Jia and Ying Wang, Lin Xiao and Xiaheng Zhang, and Shuzhong Ma and Hongsheng Zhang, which implies that though most CBEC topics attract the attention of a majority of researchers, few researchers conduct deep research on CBEC (at most five papers so far), and the cooperation among researchers is loose without a specific focus. Moreover, we can infer that, in terms of CBEC research, most researchers work individually or in small groups without established research authorities or centers. Nevertheless, despite the lack of specific cooperation networks, researchers follow some common research directions, such as how to improve service capabilities of supply chains, relevant strategic analysis of cross-border e-commerce, and analysis of customer purchase intentions.

Figure 3 . Author cooperation networks with more than three articles.

The numbers of published papers per author are shown in Table 2 . It can be seen that there are five authors who have published more than three papers. Among them, the highest number of publications was five times, accounting for 3.62% of the total number of scholars. The number of authors with a publishing frequency of 2 accounted for 4.35%, and the number of authors with a publishing frequency of 1 accounted for almost as high as 92.03%. Most of the researchers are dabbling in the field of “cross-border e-commerce” for the first time, and several of them have only published one study, which shows that there are fewer high-yield core authors who are deeply involved in the field of “cross-border e-commerce” and have more outstanding achievements. Although there are no scholars with a high publication output in this field, in terms of citation frequency, the article published by Li et al. (2018) has been cited 144 times, and it mainly studies how small and medium-sized enterprises enter into the cross-border e-commerce field on the Alibaba platform, so as to improve their market competitiveness. It can be seen that researchers pay more attention to this.

Table 2 . Authors with more than three papers and their affiliated institutions.

When studying the citation rate of authors through the analysis of the WOS database, it is concluded that there are six articles with a high citation rate (more than 40) and two articles with a high citation rate, one of which is a study by Li et al. (2018) . The study mainly investigates how entrepreneurs of under-capacity small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) can drive the digital transformation of their companies in the context of scarce resources and aims to expand the understanding of digital entrepreneurship and digital transformation through an inductive process model. Another highly cited article is that by Liu and Li (2020) , which proposes a blockchain-based framework based on the cross-border e-commerce environment, integrates a series of blockchain-based models, and develops a corresponding set of techniques and methods to address product traceability issues. These techniques and methods contribute significant research value to integrating decentralized management systems in supply chains. Kim et al. (2017) probed into the influence of distance on CBEC and concluded that a shorter distance can raise the loyalty of buyers. Courier procedures were simplified to reduce buyers’ hesitation in purchase due to distance. Additionally, Valarezo et al. (2018) analyzed the CBEC data from Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE) to identify factors influencing individuals’ purchases and deemed that males show a relatively higher acceptance of CBEC commodities. In addition, there are four other highly cited studies, and the main research topics are mostly regarding express logistics services and obstacles, advantages and disadvantages, and the driving factors of cross-border e-commerce (refer to Table 3 ).

Table 3 . Most frequently cited authors.

Countries and institutions

An analysis of the issuing institutions can reflect the high-yield research institutions and cooperation in this field. We draw the co-occurrence map of publishing institutions using CiteSpace, and obtain statistical information on the publishing situation of research institutions (See Table 4 ). The top research institutions in terms of published papers are Xidian University (five papers), Zhejiang Gongshang University (five papers), Zhejiang University (five papers), and other universities, indicating that these institutions conduct more in-depth cross-border e-commerce research and have high authority. From the perspective of the type of research institutions, the number of universities that have published more than three papers among 125 universities or research institutions has reached 13. It can be seen that the research on cross-border e-commerce is not carried out by a few universities, and it has gradually spread. From a geographical point of view, research institutions are mainly concentrated in China, the United Kingdom, the United States, and other countries, which are closely related to the current development of the country’s cross-border e-commerce field. The co-occurrence graph of the issuing agency has 124 nodes and 81 connections, and the network density is 0.0106 (See Figure 4 ). Most nodes are distributed in a sporadic state, and the connections between nodes are few and thin, indicating that the research institutions are scattered, the cooperative research results are few, and an academic research team that integrates and develops has not yet been formed. The existing cooperation between research institutions is mainly based on the close cooperation of several universities in China, and there is occasional cooperation between international institutions, such as the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, the South China University of Technology, Minjiang University, York University, and other universities that have mutual cooperation relationships.

Table 4 . Organizations with more than three papers.

Figure 4 . The organization’s cooperation network with more than three articles.

This study analyzes data recorded from 2016 to 2021 (See Table 5 ). A total of 24 countries have conducted relevant research in the field of “cross-border e-commerce,” and a total of five countries have published at least five articles. China is the country with the highest productivity in “cross-border e-commerce,” accounting for 63.96% (i.e., 126 publications are from Chinese authors). The United States is the country with the second highest output in the cross-border e-commerce sector, accounting for 6.09% (i.e., 12 publications are from authors in the United States). The United Kingdom is the third country in terms of output in the field of “cross-border e-commerce,” accounting for 5.08% (i.e., 10 publications are from United Kingdom authors) followed by South Korea (eight articles), and Taiwan (seven articles). Overall, China’s publication volume in the field of “cross-border e-commerce” exceeds that of the other four countries combined, which may be closely related to the development of China’s domestic cross-border e-commerce industry, which proves that China’s cross-border e-commerce industry leads the position in e-commerce.

Table 5 . Countries with more than five publications.

Keyword analysis

The timeline graph provides a holistic view of the cluster time span and how those clusters are connected, with the results shown below. The keyword co-occurrence map can intuitively reflect the frequency of keywords in the research field, and the topic of the article can be clearly understood through keyword analysis. This study mainly formed six clusters. Nodes in each row represent keywords in each cluster, and links represent relationships between different keywords. Furthermore, the results between clusters show that the keyword correlations in each cluster are high. Cluster 0 is the largest cluster because it contains the most articles. Consecutive large nodes and extensive links in this cluster demonstrate its liveness, with the label of cluster 0 representing the most noteworthy topic among them. Clusters 0–1 also have larger nodes and involve more keywords, suggesting that they are relatively prominent topics in cross-border e-commerce. In the CiteSpace interface, we selected keyword as the node type, set the time slice to 1, used g -index for the selection criteria, and set k  = 25. After running the software, the keyword co-occurrence map was obtained ( Figure 5 ). There are 198 nodes and 620 connections in the graph, and the network density is 0.0562. Keywords with a frequency greater than or equal to 1 and a centrality greater than or equal to 0.1 are listed, as shown in the figure.

Figure 5 . Timeline of the “Cross-border e-commerce” cited network.

Cluster 0 is marked as “purchase intention,” which means that the study of this cluster can be generalized as the study of purchase intention. However, looking at the keywords of this category, words with strong relationships include trust, internet, impact, online, information, electronic commerce, b2c e-commerce, price, behavior, economic growth, eBay, channel, acceptance, word of mouth, sourcing strategy, social commerce, reputation, customer satisfaction, and competition. These words reflect that this topic mainly investigates the influence of various factors on customer purchase intention in cross-border e-commerce. For example, Guo et al. (2018) examined the impact of sellers’ trust on buyers and their perceived risk of chargeback fraud on sellers’ transaction buyer intentions in the context of cross-border e-commerce and developed a conceptual model that identified a set of institutional mechanisms to enhance seller trust and reduce their perceived risk. In addition, Chen J. and Yang L. (2021) explored the mediating effect of network structure embedded in customer experience and consumer purchase intention in the context of cross-border e-commerce. Tikhomirova et al. (2021) analyzed the interaction between consumers’ national culture, trust tendency, credibility perception, and other personal traits in different e-commerce environments and their impact on purchase intention.

Cluster 1 is labeled “web service,” which means that the study of this cluster can be summarized as the study of web services. However, looking at the keywords of this category, words with strong relationships include management, determinant, integration, strategy, design, firm, firm performance, orientation, decline, capability, organization, and competitive advantage. These words reflect that the issue is mainly in studying the operation and management of network services and supply chains and their important role in cross-border e-commerce. For example, Wang et al. (2020) elaborated on how cross-border e-commerce generates supply chain service capabilities, thereby improving the quality of supply chain relationships between e-commerce and other platform users. For another example, Fang (2021) starts with the concept and application principle of the green supply chain, analyzes how to integrate the green supply chain into each link of the logistics industry chain, and the problems existing in the operation of green logistics, and explores from the perspective of the green supply chain. The path of innovation and development of e-commerce enterprises and the method of introducing the concept of green environmental protection into the management decision-making of the logistics industry are proposed. In addition, Yu et al. (2021) , based on the resource-based view and organizational capability theory, examined the impact of information technology (IT) on enterprise performance through supply chain integration (SCI) from the upstream and downstream perspectives of the supply chain.

Cluster 2 is labeled “performance,” which means that the study of this cluster can be generalized as the study of performance. However, looking at the keywords of this category, the words with strong relationships include technology, future, demand, algorithm, air, delivery, choice, machine, and optimization. These words reflect that the topic mainly explores various related performance capabilities and the impact of cross-border e-commerce development. For example, Ai et al. (2016) studied the impact of cross-border logistics performance on the development of the manufacturing industry. Through the comparison of various logistics performance factors, it was found that solving cross-border payment and regulatory legal issues can promote the development of cross-border e-commerce. In addition, Ma and Liang (2021) studied the factors affecting the export performance of cross-border e-commerce companies and found that, compared with industry competition, high-quality business services, diverse product choices, and low-priced products can promote the export performance of cross-border e-commerce enterprises. Furthermore, Xia and Liu (2021) adopted IoT tracking technology and multi-objective decision-making to propose an optimal management and coordination method to improve cross-border e-commerce supply chain performance. Through the sorting of the above cluster 2, the categories of performance mainly involve logistics performance, enterprise export performance, supply chain performance, and electronic trade performance.

Cluster 3 is labeled “cross-border e-commerce,” which means that the study of this cluster can be generalized as the study of cross-border e-commerce. Words with strong relationships include framework, business, innovation, network, indicator, evolution, China belt, and business electronic commerce. Comparing the citation frequencies of these words, logistics has the highest citation frequency, followed by intention, framework, and business. These words reflect the issue of exploring cross-border e-commerce. In the application of this clustering, consumers’ purchase intention is a hot topic of various researchers, which runs through the papers from 2016 to 2021. It can be seen that with the continuous change in the social environment, consumers’ purchase intentions will also change. Exploring the influencing factors of cross-border e-commerce consumers’ purchase intention can provide decision support for the management and operation of cross-border e-commerce, so as to better promote the development of cross-border e-commerce ( Lu et al., 2021 ).

Cluster 4 is labeled “perceived risk,” which means that the study of this cluster can be generalized as the study of perceived risk. Looking at the keywords of this category, the words with strong relationships include customer loyalty, ambiguity, service, moderating role in the online marketplace, consumer trust, satisfaction, perspective, and drive. These keywords highlight how to influence customer satisfaction and purchase intention in the cross-border e-commerce environment. For example, Luo and Ye (2019) combined the characteristics of consumers on the IOO platform, with the structure of social capital. Starting from the dimensions of relationship and cognition, it draws the conclusion that consumers’ social capital of different dimensions can affect customer loyalty through different values. Others, such as Chen N. and Yang Y. P. (2021) , believe that the cross-border e-commerce platform can be regarded as a social network, and the roles of platform companies, service providers, sellers, and consumers, among other, on the platform will be embedded in the network because of their mutual connection. Sellers can achieve the purpose of improving consumers’ purchase intentions by combining different strategies of network structure characteristics (network density, network centrality) and customer experience. Yang et al. (2021) combined perceived risk, transfer cost, and user loyalty VSL framework theory, constructed a new cross-border e-commerce mobile market user transfer intention framework, and analyzed user loyalty in the cross-border e-commerce mobile market, transfer costs, and transfer intentions.

Cluster 5 is labeled “cross-border logistics,” which means that the study of this cluster can be summarized as the study of cross-border logistics. Looking at the keywords of this category, the core words mainly include chain network competition, risk supply chain, decision, efficiency, energy, quality, system, and big data. In the application of clustering, researchers mainly focus on how to improve the efficiency of the supply chain and improve its ability to deal with risks ( Liu and Li, 2020 ; Zhu and Zhou, 2020 ; Fang and Wang, 2021 ; Niu et al., 2021 ; Xia and Liu, 2021 ). In addition, following the trend of environmental protection, the research on green supply chains has gradually formed a trend. Fang (2021) starts with the concept and application principle of the green supply chain and analyzes how it can be integrated. The integration of supply chains into all aspects of the logistics industry chain, and the problems existing in the operation of green logistics, explore the path of innovation and development of e-commerce enterprises from the perspective of the green supply chain and put forward the method of introducing the concept of green environmental protection into the management and decision-making of the logistics industry ( Zhang and Liu, 2021 ). Based on the action mechanism and model of the cross-border e-commerce green supply chain centered on customer behavior, and according to the green level evaluation requirements of the green supply chain, the analytic hierarchy process is used to evaluate the green supply chain.

Discussion and implications

Research discussion.

This study mainly uses WOS for data analysis and finally selects 198 papers published between 2016 and 2021. The results of the data analysis draw the following conclusions:

1. Cross-border e-commerce research began to show an upward trend in 2019. In particular, in 2021, due to the impact of the new crown pneumonia epidemic, related cross-border e-commerce issues have attracted more attention from researchers.

2. On the issue of cross-border e-commerce, among the four major e-commerce journals in recent years, Electronic Commerce Research has shown steady growth in its number of publications. The main factor is that the journal was published in 2019 The Special Issue: Cross-border e-Commerce Initiatives under China’s Belt and Road Initiative and the Special Issue: Electronic Commerce in the Asia-Pacific region issued during 2020 all have related themes for submissions, so a large number of researchers have submitted papers to this paper. Contrarily, what is more interesting is that the open-source journal Sustainability ranks second in the number of publications on cross-border e-commerce issues.

3. With regard to highly cited literature, there are currently two highly cited articles in the WOS database, one of which is the only one with a cross-border e-commerce citation rate exceeding 100 ( Li et al., 2018 ). Another study is an article published in the International Journal of Information Management in 2020, applying blockchain technology in the supply chain of cross-border e-commerce ( Liu and Li, 2020 ), which was cited in a short 2-year period. The citation rate also broke 60, which also means that the application of artificial intelligence technology in cross-border e-commerce has become a hot spot in recent years.

4. For the part of the cooperation network between the country and the author, according to the findings of the data, the current research on the main hot spots of cross-border e-commerce is mainly in China, and there are cooperation networks in a few regions. However, it is still mainly based on cooperation with Chinese universities, such as Hong Kong Polytechnic University, South China University of Technology, Minjiang University, and York University, among others. This part also means that there is less international cooperation in cross-border e-commerce research.

5. The part of keyword network analysis mainly includes six clusters, namely purchase intention, web service, performance, cross-border e-commerce, perceived risk, and cross-border logistics. These six categories include the development of cross-border e-commerce website technology, the discussion of performance evaluation indicators for cross-border enterprises, cross-border transportation and logistics, and research on cross-border e-commerce consumer behavior. The topic of purchase intention has always been a research topic that cross-border e-commerce purchase intentions are keen on, but the topic of combining cross-border e-commerce supply chain and artificial intelligence is a topic that can be continuously paid attention to in the future.

Implications for academic research

Based on the above research results, it can be inferred that research on cross-border e-commerce is still relatively nascent, especially because the related research is mainly based in Asia. Therefore, future research can discuss the differences in the current situation of cross-border e-commerce promotion in different countries or regions so as to further understand how to promote operations in different environments and regions. Further, most of the previous studies used questionnaires to analyze cross-border e-commerce consumer behavior. In the follow-up research, we should consider adopting the method of integrating neuroscience to analyze cross-border e-commerce purchase behavior. From the perspective of the topic, follow-up research can begin from artificial intelligence combined with cross-border e-commerce and cross-border e-commerce green supply chains, as outlined in previous studies by Zhu and Zhou (2020) and Fang and Wang (2021) . Together with Liu and Li (2020) and other researchers, they discuss green supply chains. This direction is also in line with current mainstream issues such as carbon neutrality and carbon emissions. Artificial intelligence combined with cross-border e-commerce is also a direction that can be further discussed in the future ( Xia and Liu, 2021 ).

Implications for practical

In short, we have found that CBEC research presents different evolution and development paths. The research perspectives in recent years have evolved from consumers’ purchase behaviors, to CBEC development and policies. During the later period, researchers began studying the opportunities and challenges of CBEC. Also, the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the development of global CBEC topics. CBEC is ushering in a new round of opportunities and challenges. In conclusion, CBEC research has evolved from consumers’ purchase behaviors to the influences of new post-pandemic technologies and improvements in the global supply chain on CBEC.

Research limitations

This study mainly uses the method of bibliometrics to analyze the literature, and there are certain limitations to this method. Regarding the method of data collection, this research mainly uses the WOS database to analyze the current situation of the literature on cross-border e-commerce published in SSCI/SCI from 2016 to 2021. Because the data analysis only covers articles included in SSCI/SCI, papers from conferences such as SCOUP or core workshops in the field of e-commerce (e.g., WHICEB, ICE-B) are not considered. Therefore, it is suggested that follow-up research should deepen the discussion on articles that address cross-border e-commerce topics included in core international conferences or databases.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Author contributions

YC and GLC designed the research and provided guidance throughout the entire research process. YC, GLC, and JS collected the references, did the literature analysis, and wrote the manuscript. ML, XM, and SW helped translating and offered modification suggestions. SW participated in the collecting, analyzing, and organizing of the literature. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: cross-border e-commerce, knowledge graph, mixed research, trend of development, bibliometric analysis

Citation: Chen Y, Li M, Song J, Ma X, Jiang Y, Wu S and Chen GL (2022) A study of cross-border E-commerce research trends: Based on knowledge mapping and literature analysis. Front. Psychol . 13:1009216. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1009216

Received: 01 August 2022; Accepted: 26 September 2022; Published: 14 December 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Chen, Li, Song, Ma, Jiang, Wu and Chen. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Sainan Wu, [email protected] ; Guan Lin Chen, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Artificial intelligence in E-Commerce: a bibliometric study and literature review

Affiliations.

• 1 ICN Business School, CEREFIGE - Université de Lorraine, 86 rue du Sergent Blandan, 54003 Nancy, France.
• 2 TBS Business School, 6 Place Alfonse Jourdain, 31000 Toulouse, France.
• 3 School of Management and Marketing, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522 Australia.
• PMID: 35600916
• PMCID: PMC8932684
• DOI: 10.1007/s12525-022-00537-z

This paper synthesises research on artificial intelligence (AI) in e-commerce and proposes guidelines on how information systems (IS) research could contribute to this research stream. To this end, the innovative approach of combining bibliometric analysis with an extensive literature review was used. Bibliometric data from 4335 documents were analysed, and 229 articles published in leading IS journals were reviewed. The bibliometric analysis revealed that research on AI in e-commerce focuses primarily on recommender systems. Sentiment analysis, trust, personalisation, and optimisation were identified as the core research themes. It also places China-based institutions as leaders in this researcher area. Also, most research papers on AI in e-commerce were published in computer science, AI, business, and management outlets. The literature review reveals the main research topics, styles and themes that have been of interest to IS scholars. Proposals for future research are made based on these findings. This paper presents the first study that attempts to synthesise research on AI in e-commerce. For researchers, it contributes ideas to the way forward in this research area. To practitioners, it provides an organised source of information on how AI can support their e-commerce endeavours.

Keywords: Artificial intelligence; Bibliometrics; Literature review; e-commerce.

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Institute of Applied Informatics at University of Leipzig 2022.

New Partnership Establishes AI-Enabled Answerbase as the Ecommerce Helpful Content SEO Tool for Red Shark Digital

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May 14, 2024, 10:11 ET

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Answerbase, an AI-enabled ecommerce SEO tool, announced today a new partnership with Red Shark Digital, establishing Answerbase as the recommended optimization tool for Red Shark Digital's ecommerce merchants. The integration of Answerbase will fulfill Google's demand to create helpful, reliable, people-first content, rather than designing content for high search engine rankings. This partnership brings together two category leaders in Ecommerce SEO Automation Tools and Digital Marketing Services to expand Red Shark Digital's ecommerce SEO offerings, helping to drive conversions and promote new, organic traffic to ecommerce stores.

AUSTIN, Texas , May 14, 2024 /PRNewswire-PRWeb/ -- Answerbase, an AI-enabled ecommerce SEO tool, announced today a new partnership with Red Shark Digital, North Carolina's premier digital marketing agency, establishing Answerbase as the recommended optimization tool for Red Shark Digital's ecommerce merchants. The integration of Answerbase will fulfill Google's demand to create helpful, reliable, people-first content, rather than designing content for high search engine rankings. This partnership brings together two category leaders in Ecommerce SEO Automation Tools and Digital Marketing Services to expand Red Shark Digital's ecommerce SEO offerings, helping to drive conversions and promote new, organic traffic to ecommerce stores.

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The ecommerce SEO landscape has dramatically changed over the last couple of years, with Google's release of the Helpful Content Update in August of 2022. This update includes guidance on utilizing AI for efficient content creation in February of 2023, the release of Google's "Helpful Content System" at the end of 2023, which is now a signal in their automated ranking systems, and then, most recently, the increased display of individual product page merchant listings within the first page of SERPs and Google's update in March.

Ecommerce merchants have had to adjust to this quickly evolving landscape, and according to Danny Sullivan , Google's Search Liaison, there is much more to come. Danny recently communicated that customers need to "Buckle Up", causing a bit of angst in the SEO community and prompting him to clarify what he meant;

"...there's so much coming that I don't want to say buckle up, because those who are making good, people-first content should be fine. But that said, there's a lot of improvements on the way." ( 1 )

Many websites have seen a 30-60% drop in organic traffic over the last couple of years and through Google's update in March, posing a unique challenge for ecommerce merchants with thousands of pages on their sites needing quick optimization. This is the job that Answerbase has been built to do.

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Digital marketing agencies like Red Shark Digital are on the front line of this shifting SEO landscape, highlighting why partnering with Answerbase is critical for their future success as they adopt new AI-enabled tools that allow merchants to adjust to the changing market.

Ecommerce merchants can add Answerbase to their ecommerce site either through their ecommerce platform's app store (Shopify, Bigcommerce, etc.) or through Answerbase's widgets or APIs directly.

About Answerbase

Answerbase is an AI-Enabled Ecommerce Helpful Content platform, filling in product related informational gaps for ecommerce sites so they have the most efficient way to get their customers answers to their presales product questions while distributing that helpful information and content in a way that it becomes the ecommerce site's primary driver of new organic customer acquisition through product page SEO . For more information, visit www.answerbase.com .

About Red Shark Digital

Red Shark Digital is an award-winning, full-service digital marketing agency, with disciplines in SEO , creative design, website development, and paid advertising . The professionals at Red Shark Digital consistently deliver measurable results that propel their clients to success, utilizing innovative strategies across diverse online channels to help businesses nationwide reach their marketing and sales goals. To learn more about Red Shark Digital, visit: https://www.redsharkdigital.com/

Media Contact

James Arnold , Answerbase, 1 2013455567, [email protected] , https://www.answerbase.com

SOURCE Answerbase

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