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How to Cite a Thesis or Dissertation in APA

In this citation guide, you will learn how to reference and cite an undergraduate thesis, master’s thesis, or doctoral dissertation. This guide will also review the differences between a thesis or dissertation that is published and one that has remained unpublished. The guidelines below come from the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2020a), pages 333 and 334. Please note that the association is not affiliated with this guide.

Alternatively, you can visit EasyBib.com for helpful citation tools to cite your thesis or dissertation .

Guide Overview

Citing an unpublished thesis or dissertation, citing a published dissertation or thesis from a database, citing a thesis or dissertation published online but not from a database, citing a thesis or dissertation: reference overview, what you need.

Since unpublished theses can usually only be sourced in print form from a university library, the correct citation structure includes the university name where the publisher element usually goes.

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year published). Title in sentence case [Unpublished degree type thesis or dissertation]. Name of institution.

Ames, J. H., & Doughty, L. H. (1911). The proposed plans for the Iowa State College athletic field including the design of a reinforced concrete grandstand and wall [Unpublished bachelor’s thesis]. Iowa State University.

In-text citation example:

• Parenthetical :  (Ames & Doughty, 1911)
• Narrative :  Ames & Doughty (1911)

If a thesis or dissertation has been published and is found on a database, then follow the structure below. It’s similar to the format for an unpublished dissertation/thesis, but with a few differences:

• The institution is presented in brackets after the title
• The archive or database name is included

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year published). Title in sentence case (Publication or Document No.) [Degree type thesis or dissertation, Name of institution]. Database name.

Examples 1:

Knight, K. A. (2011). Media epidemics: Viral structures in literature and new media (Accession No. 2013420395) [Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Trotman, J.B. (2018). New insights into the biochemistry and cell biology of RNA recapping (Document No. osu1523896565730483) [Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University]. OhioLINK Electronic Theses & Dissertations Center.

In the example given above, the dissertation is presented with a Document Number (Document No.). Sometimes called a database number or publication number, this is the identifier that is used by the database’s indexing system. If the database you are using provides you with such a number, then include it directly after the work’s title in parentheses.

If you are interested in learning more about how to handle works that were accessed via academic research databases, see Section 9.3 of the Publication Manual.

In-text citation examples :

• Parenthetical citation : (Trotman, 2018)
• Narrative citation : Trotman (2018)

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year Published). Title in sentence case [Degree type thesis or dissertation, Name of institution]. Name of archive or collection. URL

Kim, O. (2019). Soviet tableau: cinema and history under late socialism [Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh]. Institutional Repository at the University of Pittsburgh. https://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/37669/7/Olga%20Kim%20Final%20ETD.pdf

Stiles, T. W. (2001). Doing science: Teachers’ authentic experiences at the Lone Star Dinosaur Field Institute [Master’s thesis, Texas A&M University]. OAKTrust. https://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2001-THESIS-S745

It is important to note that not every thesis or dissertation published online will be associated with a specific archive or collection. If the work is published on a private website, provide only the URL as the source element.

In-text citation examples:

• Parenthetical citation : (Kim, 2019)
• Narrative citation : Kim (2019)
• Parenthetical citation : (Stiles, 2001)
• Narrative citation : Stiles (2001)

We hope that the information provided here will serve as an effective guide for your research. If you’re looking for even more citation info, visit EasyBib.com for a comprehensive collection of educational materials covering multiple source types.

If you’re citing a variety of different sources, consider taking the EasyBib citation generator for a spin. It can help you cite easily and offers citation forms for several different kinds of sources.

To start things off, let’s take a look at the different types of literature that are classified under Chapter 10.6 of the Publication Manual :

• Undergraduate thesis
• Master’s thesis
• Doctoral dissertation

You will need to know which type you are citing. You’ll also need to know if it is published or unpublished .

When you decide to cite a dissertation or thesis, you’ll need to look for the following information to use in your citation:

• Author’s last name, and first and middle initials
• Year published
• Title of thesis or dissertation
• If it is unpublished
• Publication or document number (if applicable; for published work)
• Degree type (bachelor’s, master’s, doctoral)
• Thesis or dissertation
• Name of institution awarding degree
• DOI (https://doi.org/xxxxx) or URL (if applicable)

Since theses and dissertations are directly linked to educational degrees, it is necessary to list the name of the associated institution; i.e., the college, university, or school that is awarding the associated degree.

To get an idea of the proper form, take a look at the examples below. There are three outlined scenarios:

• Unpublished thesis or dissertation
• Published thesis or dissertation from a database
• Thesis or dissertation published online but not from a database

American Psychological Association. (2020a). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

American Psychological Association. (2020b). Style-Grammar-Guidelines. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles/parenthetical-versus-narrative

Published August 10, 2012. Updated March 24, 2020.

Written and edited by Michele Kirschenbaum and Elise Barbeau. Michele Kirschenbaum is a school library media specialist and the in-house librarian at EasyBib.com. Elise Barbeau is the Citation Specialist at Chegg. She has worked in digital marketing, libraries, and publishing.

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To cite a published thesis in APA style, it is important that you know some basic information such as the author, publication year, title of the thesis, institute name, archive name, and URL (uniform resource locator). The templates for an in-text citation and reference list entry of a thesis, along with examples, are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

Use the author surname and the publication year in the in-text citation.

Author Surname (Publication Year)

Cartmel (2007)

Parenthetical:

(Author Surname, Publication Year)

(Cartmel, 2007)

Reference list entry template and example:

The title of the thesis is set in sentence case and italicized. Enclose the thesis and the institute awarding the degree inside brackets following the publication year. Then add the name of the database followed by the URL.

Author Surname, F. M. (Publication Year). Title of the thesis [Master’s thesis, Institute Name]. Name of the Database. URL

Cartmel, J. (2007). Outside school hours care and schools [Master’s thesis, Queensland University of Technology]. EPrints. http://eprints.qut.edu.au/17810/1/Jennifer_Cartmel_Thesis.pdf

To cite an unpublished dissertation in APA style, it is important that you know some basic information such as the author, year, title of the dissertation, and institute name. The templates for in-text citation and reference list entry of an online thesis, along with examples, are given below:

Author Surname (Year)

Averill (2009)

(Author Surname, Year)

(Averill, 2009)

The title of the dissertation is set in sentence case and italicized. Enclose “Unpublished doctoral dissertation” inside brackets following the year. Then add the name of the institution awarding the degree.

Author Surname, F. M. (Publication Year). Title of the dissertation [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Name of the Institute.

Averill, R. (2009). Teacher–student relationships in diverse New Zealand year 10 mathematics classrooms: Teacher care [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Victoria University of Wellington.

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Adapted from American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed).  https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Formatting:

• Italicize the title
• Identify whether source is doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis in parentheses after the title

See Ch. 10 pp. 313-352 of APA Manual for more examples and formatting rules

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How do I cite a dissertation in MLA style?

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

A dissertation is a unique type of source. It is a finished, stand-alone work written under the auspices of an institution. In a change from the previous edition of the MLA Handbook ,    we do not distinguish between published and unpublished dissertations. To cite a dissertation, include in the entry the author, title, and date of publication as core elements. As an optional element, list the institution granting the degree and a description of the work.

Njus, Jesse. Performing the Passion: A Study on the Nature of Medieval Acting . 2010. Northwestern U, PhD dissertation.

If you accessed the dissertation through an online repository, include this fact as the title of the second container:

Njus, Jesse. Performing the Passion: A Study on the Nature of Medieval Acting . 2010. Northwestern U, PhD dissertation.  ProQuest , search.proquest.com/docview/305212264?accountid=7432.

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Citing Dissertations (7th edition)

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For a doctoral or master's thesis available from a database service such as ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global:

Reference List

Dempsey-Richardson, C. (2013). 'It's like we were being watched ... like there were only three walls, and not a fourth wall': Manifestations of metafiction in Buffy the vampire slayer  (Order No. 14333 04638 ) [Master's thesis, Eastern Kentucky University].  ProQuest  Dissertations & Theses Global.

Nicosia, M. (2016).  Performing the female superhero: An analysis of identity acquisition, violence, and hypersexuality in DC comics  [Doctoral dissertation, Bowling Green State University]. Electronic Theses and Dissertation Center.  https://etd.ohiolink.edu/

In-Text Citations

Parenthetical citations:

• Paraphrase: (Dempsey-Richardson, 2013);  (Nicosia, 2016)
• Quotation: (Dempsey-Richardson, 2013, p. 6);  (Nicosia, 2016, p. 110)

Narrative citations: Dempsey-Richardson (2013);  Nicosia (2016)

NOTE: Remember to use proper spacing and hanging indentations.

Kassover, A. (1987). Treatment of abusive males: Voluntary vs. court mandated referrals  [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Nova University.

Considine, M. (1986). Australian insurance politics in the 1970s: Two case studies  [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Melbourne.

Parenthetical citations:  (Kassover, 1987); (Considine, 1986)

Narrative citations: Kassover (1987); Considine (1986)

NOTE:   Remember to use proper spacing and hanging indentations.

Hutcheson, V. (2012). Dealing with dual differences: Social coping strategies of gifted and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer adolescents [Master's thesis, The College of William & Mary]. William & Mary Digital Archive.  https://digitalarchive.wm.edu/handle/10288/16594

Parenthetical citations: 

• Paraphrase: (Hutcheson, 2012)
• Quotation: (Hutcheson, 2012, p. 12)

Narrative citation: Hutcheson (2012)

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citing thesis

Theses and dissertations..

Titles of theses and dissertations are given in italics. References to theses should include the name of the university (or other institution) and year of completion of the thesis. If the thesis has been published, it should be treated as any other book reference (see  3.12.1 , References to Books, Complete Data).

General format for Thesis/Dissertation 

1. Maiti N.  Association Between Bullying Behaviors, Health Characteristics, and Injuries Among Adolescents in the United States.  Dissertation. Palo Alto University; 2010.

2. Ghanbari S.  Integration of the Arts in STEM: A Collective Case Study of Two Interdisciplinary University Programs . Dissertation. University of California; 2014. Accessed October 14, 2016.  http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9wp9x8sj

3. Neel ST.  A Cost-Minimization and Policy Analysis Comparing Immediate Sequential Cataract Surgery and Delayed Sequential Cataract Surgery From Payer, Patient, Physician, and Surgical Facility Perspectives in the United States.  Master’s thesis. London School of Economics and Political Science; 2013.

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(Author's surname, Year)

This was seen in an Australian study (Couch, 2017). 

Couch (2017) suggests that…

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Published thesis

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of thesis [Type of thesis, Name of institution awarding degree]. Name of archive or site. https://xxxxxx

Stored in a database

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of thesis (Database Publication number, if assigned) [Type of thesis, Name of institution awarding degree]. Database Name.

Taffe, S. (2017).  The Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders: The politics of inter-racial coalition in Australia, 1958–1973  [Doctoral thesis, Monash University]. Bridges.  https://doi.org/10.4225/03/59d4482289ea4

Bozeman, A. Jr. (2007).  Age of onset as predictor of cognitive performance in children with seizure disorders  (Publication No. 3259752) [Doctoral dissertation, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

Unpublished thesis

Author, A. A. (Year).  Title of thesis or dissertation  [Unpublished Doctoral dissertation or Master's thesis]. Name of Institution.

Imber, A. (2003).  Applicant reactions to graduate recruitment and selection  [Unpublished Doctoral dissertation]. Monash University. 

For further guidance, see the APA Style website- Published Dissertation or Thesis , Unpublished Dissertation or Theses .

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• Dissertation

6 étapes incontournables pour réaliser une dissertation

Publié le 2 octobre 2019 par Justine Debret . Mis à jour le 31 janvier 2024.

En français, la dissertation est un exercice d’argumentation qui se construit en 6 étapes. Nous allons vous expliquer comment faire une dissertation de A à Z.

Pour faire une dissertation, c’est très simple :

• Lire et analyser le sujet
• Trouver la problématique
• Faire le plan de la dissertation
• Rédiger l’introduction
• Rédiger le développement
• Faire la conclusion

Pour tout comprendre sur comment faire une dissertation, nous allons utiliser un exemple concret issu des annales du Bac S de philosophie de 2019.

Table des matières

1. lire et analyser le sujet, 2. trouver la problématique, 3. faire le plan de la dissertation, 4. rédiger l’introduction, 5. rédiger le développement de la dissertation, 6. ecrire la conclusion, présentation gratuite.

Vous allez devoir produire une réflexion organisée sur un sujet spécifique qui vous est imposé.

Le sujet peut être :

• une question
• un thème ou concept
• une citation

Si vous avez le choix entre plusieurs sujets, sélectionnez celui qui vous inspire le plus et sur lequel vous avez le plus de connaissances. Il faudra le choisir rapidement si vous devez faire une dissertation lors d’un examen de quelques heures (dans les 10 premières minutes).

Une fois le sujet choisi, vous allez devoir définir chaque terme présent dans l’intitulé, afin de mieux le comprendre.

Exemple : Reconnaître ses devoirs, est-ce renoncer à sa liberté ?

Essayez ensuite de reformuler le sujet complètement à partir de vos définitions ou de synonymes.

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Lisez plusieurs fois la reformulation du sujet rédigée à partir de vos définitions. Au brouillon, écrivez toutes les idées qui vous viennent à l’esprit sur le sujet (exemples, auteurs, événements, …).

C’est à partir de ces connaissances et votre reformulation que vous allez pouvoir trouver votre problématique.

Petit conseil ! Utilisez cette question clé : à quel(s) problème(s) ces connaissances tentent-elles de répondre ?

Une question centrale va émerger et c’est à partir de cette dernière que votre dissertation va se construire pour créer un débat où s’affrontent des thèses divergentes.

Le plan d’une dissertation peut prendre diverses formes. L’important est qu’il réponde bien à votre problématique pour que vous évitiez le hors-sujet.

• Utilisez votre brouillon initial sur lequel vous avez noté vos idées.
• Classez ensuite ces idées par thématique ou argument.
• Normalement, vous pourrez arriver à deux ou trois idées principales, divisées en deux ou trois sous-parties qui seront illustrées par des exemples concrets.
• N’oubliez pas de rédiger une transition entre chaque grande partie (conclusion de la partie actuelle et introduction de la partie suivante).

I) Les devoirs de l’Homme, une soumission naturelle et nécessaire ?

1) Les devoirs, un concept pluriel et contextuel -> Expliquez ici quels sont les différents devoirs que nous rencontrons et en quoi il divergent en fonction des cultures et systèmes étatiques. -> L’existence de devoirs pluriels (travail, citoyenneté, devoir par rapport à la famille, devoir scolaire, droits et devoirs de l’Homme).

2) L’Homme contraint par nature ? -> Concept de contrainte imposée par la nature sur l’Homme (la nature de l’Homme). -> Hobbes et “l’Homme est un loup pour l’Homme” : il abandonne sa liberté et vit en société pour survivre car la nature de l’Homme est agressive.

3) L’Homme : un animal social contraint pour sa liberté ? -> Aristote parlait du concept d’”animal social”. -> Le devoir de morale et d’empathie chez Rousseau fait qu’un être est humain (naturellement) et sociable. -> Sartre et son concept de liberté et libre arbitre : l’Homme est libre et responsable de ses actes naturellement (c’est inné). C’est pour cela qu’il peut vivre en société.

– TRANSITION –

II) La libération de l’Homme par le devoir

1) La culture libératrice -> Le devoir nous permet de nous cultiver et donc de nous libérer de la nature qui est en nous (Kant). -> L’école et l’éducation, le vote, … sont des droits et devoirs qui nous libèrent de notre ignorance naturelle (innée) et de la contrainte du déterminisme. -> Freud et les pulsions de l’Homme qui sont contrôlées intérieurement pas le surmoi. La pression sociale et les devoirs sociaux nous permettent de nous libérer de nos pulsions et désirs en les rejetant dans le ca.

2) Le travail comme contrainte de libération quotidienne -> Le concept de travail comme contrainte/liberté (apporte l’estime de soi, mais nous contraint lourdement) avec Platon, Marx (“l’opium du peuple”) et Kant.

3) La reconnaissance comme liberté -> Kant définit l’autonomie comme la capacité à se donner ses propres règles et de les suivre. La liberté ne consiste donc pas à échapper à toute règle, à tout devoir, mais à se les donner et à y soumettre ses actes. -> Exemple du devoir de mémoire des survivants de la Seconde Guerre mondiale : processus de libération psychologique personnelle et rôle de devoir citoyen.

L’introduction d’une dissertation doit suivre une structure stricte. Elle introduit le sujet, la problématique et le plan.

Les parties d’une introduction de dissertation sont :

• Une amorce ou phrase d’accroche.
• L’énoncé du sujet.
• La définition des termes et reformulation du sujet.
• La problématique.
• L’annonce du plan.

Le droit de vote est considéré par les institutions comme un devoir moral pour les citoyens, comme le rappelle l’inscription figurant sur les cartes électorales : « Voter est un droit, c’est aussi un devoir civique ».

Les devoirs explicitent un comportement à suivre ou à ne pas suivre. Ils préconisent la conformité avec une règle. Cette notion semble en contradiction avec celle de la liberté, car le devoir s’opposerait à une impulsion ou un désir qui définirait notre liberté.

Toutefois, cette conception de la liberté est naïve et limitée, car être libre ne consiste pas à faire ce que l’on veut. De même, le devoir ne se limite pas à une contrainte imposée de l’extérieur. Il peut s’agit d’une obligation qu l’on décide de s’imposer librement.

Nous questionnons donc ces concepts en essayant de répondre à la problématique suivante : peut-on vraiment dire qu’on renonce à sa liberté quand on fait le choix de se soumettre à ses devoirs, quand on exerce donc sa liberté avec son libre-arbitre ?

Notre raisonnement questionnera tout d’abord les devoirs de l’Homme comme une soumission naturelle et nécessaire (I), avant d’interroger la possible libération de l’Homme par le devoir (II).

Le développement d’une dissertation comporte toujours deux ou trois parties. Si vous faites une dissertation en deux parties, vous devrez rédiger trois sous-parties pour chacune (deux si vous faites trois grandes parties).

Chaque partie soutient une idée centrale qui répond à la problématique, alors que chaque sous-partie s’articule autour d’un argument qui soutient et illustre l’idée directrice.

Vos arguments doivent absolument être illustrés par un exemple !

Entre chaque partie, vous devez rédiger une transition qui conclut la partie précédente et annonce la partie suivante.

La conclusion d’une dissertation est une brève synthèse du développement en indiquant nettement la réponse à la question posée dans l’introduction. Il est aussi possible d’ajouter une ouverture à la fin.

Notre étude a montré qu’au-delà du poids contraignant des devoirs que l’on peut sentir au premier abord, ils n’entravent pas notre réelle liberté. Bien au contraire, nos devoirs nous libèrent de la nature humaine qui est en nous et qui nous rend esclave de nos pulsions, désirs et violence interne. Reconnaître ses devoirs et les accepter, contribue à entretenir notre puissance d’agir et donc notre liberté.

Le concept de devoir reste très lié à celui de droit dans les démocraties occidentales. Le droit de vote est-il libérateur ?

Voici une présentation que vous pouvez utiliser pour vous améliorer ou partager nos conseils méthodologiques sur la dissertation. N’hésitez pas à la partager ou à l’utiliser lors de vos cours :).

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Debret, J. (2024, 31 janvier). 6 étapes incontournables pour réaliser une dissertation. Scribbr. Consulté le 15 avril 2024, de https://www.scribbr.fr/dissertation-fr/comment-faire-une-dissertation/

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How to cite “The dissertation journey” by Roberts and Hyatt

Apa citation.

Formatted according to the APA Publication Manual 7 th edition. Simply copy it to the References page as is.

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Roberts, C., & Hyatt, L. (2018). The dissertation journey (3rd ed.). Corwin Press.

Chicago style citation

Formatted according to the Chicago Manual of Style 17 th edition. Simply copy it to the References page as is.

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Roberts, Carol, and Laura Hyatt. 2018. The Dissertation Journey . 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

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Formatted according to the MLA handbook 9 th edition. Simply copy it to the Works Cited page as is.

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Roberts, Carol, and Laura Hyatt. The Dissertation Journey . 3rd ed., Corwin Press, 2018.

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🤔 What is an APA Citation Generator?

An APA citation generator is a software tool that will automatically format academic citations in the American Psychological Association (APA) style.

It will usually request vital details about a source -- like the authors, title, and publish date -- and will output these details with the correct punctuation and layout required by the official APA style guide.

Formatted citations created by a generator can be copied into the bibliography of an academic paper as a way to give credit to the sources referenced in the main body of the paper.

👩‍🎓 Who uses an APA Citation Generator?

College-level and post-graduate students are most likely to use an APA citation generator, because APA style is the most favored style at these learning levels. Before college, in middle and high school, MLA style is more likely to be used. In other parts of the world styles such as Harvard (UK and Australia) and DIN 1505 (Europe) are used more often.

🙌 Why should I use a Citation Generator?

Like almost every other citation style, APA style can be cryptic and hard to understand when formatting citations. Citations can take an unreasonable amount of time to format manually, and it is easy to accidentally include errors. By using a citation generator to do this work you will:

• Save a considerable amount of time
• Ensure that your citations are consistent and formatted correctly
• Be rewarded with a higher grade

In academia, bibliographies are graded on their accuracy against the official APA rulebook, so it is important for students to ensure their citations are formatted correctly. Special attention should also be given to ensure the entire document (including main body) is structured according to the APA guidelines. Our complete APA format guide has everything you need know to make sure you get it right (including examples and diagrams).

⚙️ How do I use MyBib's APA Citation Generator?

Our APA generator was built with a focus on simplicity and speed. To generate a formatted reference list or bibliography just follow these steps:

• Start by searching for the source you want to cite in the search box at the top of the page.
• MyBib will automatically locate all the required information. If any is missing you can add it yourself.
• Your citation will be generated correctly with the information provided and added to your bibliography.
• Repeat for each citation, then download the formatted list and append it to the end of your paper.

MyBib supports the following for APA style:

Daniel is a qualified librarian, former teacher, and citation expert. He has been contributing to MyBib since 2018.

Scribbr Citation Generator

Accurate APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard citations, verified by experts, trusted by millions

Scribbr for Chrome: Your shortcut to citations

Cite any page or article with a single click right from your browser. The extension does the hard work for you by automatically grabbing the title, author(s), publication date, and everything else needed to whip up the perfect citation.

Perfectly formatted references every time

Inaccurate citations can cost you points on your assignments, so our seasoned citation experts have invested countless hours in perfecting Scribbr’s citation generator algorithms. We’re proud to be recommended by teachers and universities worldwide.

Enjoy a citation generator without flashy ads

Staying focused is already difficult enough, so unlike other citation generators, Scribbr won’t slow you down with flashing banner ads and video pop-ups. That’s a promise!

Citation Generator features you'll love

Look up your source by its title, URL, ISBN, or DOI, and let Scribbr find and fill in all the relevant information automatically.

APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard

Generate flawless citations according to the official APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard style, or many other rules.

Export to Word

When your reference list is complete, export it to Word. We’ll apply the official formatting guidelines automatically.

Lists and folders

Create separate reference lists for each of your assignments to stay organized. You can also group related lists into folders.

Export to Bib(La)TeX

Are you using a LaTex editor like Overleaf? If so, you can easily export your references in Bib(La)TeX format with a single click.

Custom fonts

Change the typeface used for your reference list to match the rest of your document. Options include Times New Roman, Arial, and Calibri.

Industry-standard technology

Scribbr’s Citation Generator is built using the same citation software (CSL) as Mendeley and Zotero, but with an added layer for improved accuracy.

Annotations

Describe or evaluate your sources in annotations, and Scribbr will generate a perfectly formatted annotated bibliography .

Citation guides

Scribbr’s popular guides and videos will help you understand everything related to finding, evaluating, and citing sources.

Secure backup

Your work is saved automatically after every change and stored securely in your Scribbr account.

• Introduction
• Finding sources

Evaluating sources

• Integrating sources

Citing sources

Tools and resources, a quick guide to working with sources.

Working with sources is an important skill that you’ll need throughout your academic career.

It includes knowing how to find relevant sources, assessing their authority and credibility, and understanding how to integrate sources into your work with proper referencing.

This quick guide will help you get started!

Finding relevant sources

Sources commonly used in academic writing include academic journals, scholarly books, websites, newspapers, and encyclopedias. There are three main places to look for such sources:

• Research databases: Databases can be general or subject-specific. To get started, check out this list of databases by academic discipline . Another good starting point is Google Scholar .
• Your institution’s library: Use your library’s database to narrow down your search using keywords to find relevant articles, books, and newspapers matching your topic.
• Other online resources: Consult popular online sources like websites, blogs, or Wikipedia to find background information. Be sure to carefully evaluate the credibility of those online sources.

When using academic databases or search engines, you can use Boolean operators to refine your results.

Generate APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard citations in seconds

Get started

In academic writing, your sources should be credible, up to date, and relevant to your research topic. Useful approaches to evaluating sources include the CRAAP test and lateral reading.

CRAAP is an abbreviation that reminds you of a set of questions to ask yourself when evaluating information.

• Currency: Does the source reflect recent research?
• Relevance: Is the source related to your research topic?
• Authority: Is it a respected publication? Is the author an expert in their field?
• Accuracy: Does the source support its arguments and conclusions with evidence?
• Purpose: What is the author’s intention?

Lateral reading

Lateral reading means comparing your source to other sources. This allows you to:

• Verify evidence
• Contextualize information
• Find potential weaknesses

If a source is using methods or drawing conclusions that are incompatible with other research in its field, it may not be reliable.

Integrating sources into your work

Once you have found information that you want to include in your paper, signal phrases can help you to introduce it. Here are a few examples:

Following the signal phrase, you can choose to quote, paraphrase or summarize the source.

• Quoting : This means including the exact words of another source in your paper. The quoted text must be enclosed in quotation marks or (for longer quotes) presented as a block quote . Quote a source when the meaning is difficult to convey in different words or when you want to analyze the language itself.
• Paraphrasing : This means putting another person’s ideas into your own words. It allows you to integrate sources more smoothly into your text, maintaining a consistent voice. It also shows that you have understood the meaning of the source.
• Summarizing : This means giving an overview of the essential points of a source. Summaries should be much shorter than the original text. You should describe the key points in your own words and not quote from the original text.

Whenever you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, you must include a citation crediting the original author.

Citing your sources is important because it:

• Allows you to avoid plagiarism
• Establishes the credentials of your sources
• Backs up your arguments with evidence
• Allows your reader to verify the legitimacy of your conclusions

The most common citation styles are APA, MLA, and Chicago style. Each citation style has specific rules for formatting citations.

Generate APA, MLA, Chicago,  and Harvard citations in seconds

Scribbr offers tons of tools and resources to make working with sources easier and faster. Take a look at our top picks:

• Citation Generator: Automatically generate accurate references and in-text citations using Scribbr’s APA Citation Generator, MLA Citation Generator , Harvard Referencing Generator , and Chicago Citation Generator .
• Plagiarism Checker : Detect plagiarism in your paper using the most accurate Turnitin-powered plagiarism software available to students.
• AI Proofreader: Upload and improve unlimited documents and earn higher grades on your assignments. Try it for free!
• Paraphrasing tool: Avoid accidental plagiarism and make your text sound better.
• Grammar checker : Eliminate pesky spelling and grammar mistakes.
• Summarizer: Read more in less time. Distill lengthy and complex texts down to their key points.
• AI detector: Find out if your text was written with ChatGPT or any other AI writing tool. ChatGPT 2 & ChatGPT 3 supported.
• Proofreading services : Have a human editor improve your writing.
• Citation checker: Check your work for citation errors and missing citations.
• Knowledge Base : Explore hundreds of articles, bite-sized videos, time-saving templates, and handy checklists that guide you through the process of research, writing, and citation.

ProQuest™ Dissertations & Theses Citation Index

The ProQuest™ Dissertations & Theses Citation Index (PQDT) is the world's most comprehensive curated collection of multi-disciplinary dissertations and theses, offering over 5.5 million records representing dissertations and theses from thousands of universities around the world.

Extending from they early 1600s to present, PQDT coverage is broadly multidisciplinary and includes foundational research in the life sciences, mathematics, computer science, engineering, social sciences, and humanities. Within dissertations and theses is a wealth of scholarship, yet it is often overlooked because most go unpublished.

Key Features

The ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Citation Index will be a standalone database and included in an All Databases search by default. WoS users also have filter options available in each search so that they can search broadly and then narrow focus on a particular collection, subject category, document type, etc. If a user wants to locate dissertations or theses specifically, they can also search of ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Citation Index only.

Standalone and aggregated search

PQDT is included in ALL Database search and can also be searched as a unique collection.

Track citation activity in Web of Science Core Collection

Dissertations and theses that have been cited by Web of Science Core Collection records will include a citation count and a link to the citing articles.

Claim dissertation or theses to a Web of Science Researcher Profiles

Researchers can manually claim their dissertation or thesis to their Web of Science Researcher Profile and make it part of the public view of their profile.

Links to Full Text of dissertations and theses on ProQuest platform

Institutions that subscribe to PQDT Global on the ProQuest platform will be able to link directly to their entitled full text.

Note: ProQuest Dissertation and Theses Citation Index will be released to customers in two phases. Phase 1: In July 2023, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Citation Index will go live with metadata records for 5.5+ million dissertations and theses. The records will not include cited reference indexing, which means that functionality such as Related Records and Cited References lists and associated navigation will not display. Phase 2: In late 2023, Linked Cited References lists and Related Records will be released to fully connect dissertations to the Web of Science citation network. If you have any questions regarding PQDT entitlement or functionality, please contact the Web of Science support team .

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Reference List: Other Print Sources

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style  can be found here .

Important Note: Because the 7 th edition of the APA Publication Manual heavily emphasizes digital and electronic sources, it does not contain explicit instructions for certain less-common print sources that earlier editions covered. For this reason, some of the examples below have been adapted from the instructions for sources with similar attributes (e.g., the conference proceedings example is derived from the instructions the 7 th edition manual gives for citing edited collections). Every example below that has been adapted in this way is accompanied by a note explaining how it was adapted.

Please also note: While this resource contains many examples of citations for uncommon print sources that we think are helpful, it may not account for every possibility. For even more examples of how to cite uncommon print sources, please refer to the 7 th edition of the APA Publication Manual.

Entry in a Dictionary, Thesaurus, or Encyclopedia with a Group Author

The 7 th edition of the APA manual does not provide specific guidance on how to cite physical reference works such as dictionaries, thesauruses, or encyclopedias. Therefore, this citation, as well as the one for an individual author of an entry in a reference work, is modeled on that of a chapter in an edited book or anthology, both which are similar in format to reference works.

Institution or organization name. (Year). Title of entry. In Title of reference work (edition, page numbers). Publisher name.

Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. (1997). Goat. In Merriam Webster’s collegiate dictionary (10 th ed., pp. 499-500). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.

Entry in a Dictionary, Thesaurus, or Encyclopedia with an Individual Author

Lastname, F. M. (Year). Title of entry. In F. M. Lastname (ed.), Title of reference work (edition, page numbers). Publisher.

Tatum, S. R. (2009). Spirituality and religion in hip hop literature and culture. In T. L. Stanley (ed.), Encyclopedia of hip hop literature (pp. 250-252). Greenwood.

Work Discussed in a Secondary Source

Provide the source in which the original work was referenced:

Nail, T. (2017). What is an assemblage? SubStance , 46 (1), 21-37. http://sub.uwpress.org/lookup/doi/10.3368/ss.46.1.21

Note: Provide the secondary source in the references list; in the text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Deleuze and Guattari’s work is cited in Nail and you did not read the original work, list the Nail reference in the References. In the text, use the following citation: 

Deleuze and Guattari’s concept of the assemblage (as cited in Nail, 2017)….

Dissertation Abstract

The 7 th edition of the APA manual does not provide specific guidance on how to cite dissertation abstracts. Therefore, this citation models that of a journal article, which is similar in format.

Lastname, F. M. (Year). Title of dissertation. Dissertation Abstracts International , Vol., Page.

Angeli, E. L. (2012). Networks of communication in emergency medical services. Dissertation Abstracts International, 74 , 03(E).

Dissertation or Master’s Thesis, Published

Lastname, F. M. (Year). Title of dissertation/thesis (Publication No.) [Doctoral dissertation/Master’s thesis, Name of Institution Awarding the Degree]. Database or Archive Name.

Angeli, E. L. (2012). Networks of communication in emergency medical services (Publication No. 3544643) [Doctoral dissertation, Purdue University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Note: If the dissertation or thesis is not published in a database, include the URL of the site where the document is located.

Dissertation or Master’s Thesis, Unpublished

Lastname, F. M. (Year). Title of dissertation/thesis [Unpublished doctoral dissertation/master’s thesis]. Name of Institution Awarding the Degree. 

Samson, J. M. (2016). Human trafficking and globalization [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

Federal or State Statute

Name of Act, Public Law No. (Year). URL

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, Publ. L. No. 111-148, 124 Stat. 119 (2010).  https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-111publ148/pdf/PLAW-111publ148.pdf

Report by a Government Agency or Other Organization

Organization Name. (Year). Title of report. URL

United States Government Accountability Office. (2019). Performance and accountability report: Fiscal year 2019 . https://www.gao.gov/assets/710/702715.pdf

Report by Individual Authors at Government Agency or Other Organization

Lastname, F. M., & Lastname, F. M. (Year). Title of report . Organization Name. URL

Palanker, D., Volk, J., Lucia, K., & Thomas, K. (2018). Mental health parity at risk: Deregulating the individual market and the impact on mental health coverage . National Alliance on Mental Illness. https://www.nami.org/About-NAMI/Publications-Reports/Public-Policy-Reports/Parity-at-Risk/ParityatRisk.pdf  

Conference Proceedings

The 7 th edition of the APA manual does not provide guidance on citing conference proceedings. Therefore, this citation models that of an edited collection, which is similar in format.

Lastname, F. M., & Lastname, F. M. (Eds.). (Year). Title of Proceedings . Publisher. URL (if applicable)

Huang, S., Pierce, R., & Stamey, J. (Eds.). (2006). Proceedings of the 24 th annual ACM international conference on the design of communication . ACM Digital Library. https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1166324&picked=prox

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Dissertation : comment utiliser efficacement une citation ?

Que ce soit en philosophie, en français, ou toute autre matière littéraire, utiliser correctement une citation dans votre dissertation peut vous rapporter des points. Employer une citation n’est pas obligatoire et peut vous desservir si ce n’est pas fait correctement. Découvrez la méthode pour insérer la citation qui fera mouche dans votre dissertation !

Pourquoi utiliser une citation ?

Si elle est exacte et bien choisie, la citation valorise votre copie. Elle montre que vous avez de la culture et que vous savez l’utiliser intelligemment. La citation prouve aussi au correcteur que vous avez compris le sujet et que vous êtes capable de l’illustrer avec la pensée d’un auteur (ce qui implique aussi que vous avez compris la pensée de l’auteur).

La citation peut être utile pour introduire votre devoir (sauf si le sujet est déjà une citation, dans ce cas-là, il ne faut pas expliquer une citation par une autre citation) ou pour conclure en évitant cependant la citation bateau de la fin de copie. Imaginez plutôt la dernière citation comme le sujet d’une autre dissertation qui permettrait d’ouvrir le domaine que vous venez de traiter.

Les dangers à éviter

Il faut absolument éviter les citations approximatives ou même complètement inventées, destinées à donner une allure théorique à la dissertation . Le correcteur n’est pas stupide, il se rendra immédiatement compte de la supercherie.

La citation n’aura de sens et d’intérêt que si elle s’intègre à votre propos. Il faut éviter l’effet "cheveu sur la soupe". En effet, une citation qui reste allusive et qui n’est pas commentée et analysée ne sert à rien. La citation ne sert pas à remplacer votre absence de réflexion. Elle doit toujours marquer une convergence entre les propos de l’auteur cité et la démarche logique de votre pensée. Ne la séparez pas du reste de votre devoir et n’hésitez pas à user de mots introducteurs ou de connecteurs logiques (Selon Platon : "…", D’après Marx, "…" ou Si l’on en croit Weber, "…" ou encore Quoiqu’en dise Rousseau "…".)

Il faut que vous soyez absolument certain que la citation est bien de l’auteur auquel vous l’attribuez.

Les techniques

La typographie La citation est toujours reproduite entre guillemets. Si vous donnez le titre de l’ouvrage (ce qui n’est pas obligatoire), il faut le souligner.

Le commentaire La citation doit systématiquement être accompagnée d’un commentaire personnel. Votre commentaire ne doit pas s’apparenter à de la paraphrase. Il doit justifier comment la citation choisie permet d’éclairer votre argument.

Il faut toujours rendre à César ! Vous devez citer l’auteur des propos que vous rapportez. Evitez la périphrase allusive "Comme l’écrit cet auteur du 18ème siècle," ou "Dans l’antiquité un auteur a dit que ", ça fait vraiment mauvais effet !

Les astuces

Vous n’êtes plus sûr de l’exactitude de la citation, contentez-vous alors de commenter l’idée que vous vouliez énoncer par une formule générale. Ainsi, vous hésitez : "Ouvrez une école, vous fermerez une prison", a dit Victor Hugo ou Victor Hugo pensait qu’ "ouvrir une école, c’est fermer une prison" La différence est peu importante nous rétorquerez-vous, mais elle l’est cependant assez pour que le correcteur sursaute si vous choisissez la mauvaise, contournez le problème en écrivant : Victor Hugo croyait en l’école comme un moyen de sauver les Hommes de la prison.

En respectant ces quelques conseils vous gagnerez facilement quelques points supplémentaires mais gardez en mémoire qu’un mauvais usage de la citation est pire que l’absence de citation.

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Manuscript Submission Guidelines for De Gruyter

Submitting your manuscript is a big step towards getting your book published. To give your book the best chances of success, read our guide on how to prepare a manuscript for submission and publishing in the correct manuscript format.

Drafting Manuscripts

When preparing your draft manuscript, there are many recommended guidelines to follow to ensure your book easily makes it through to publication. Please note that additional instructions that supplement these general manuscript guidelines may apply, depending on the specific subject area.

Before you begin, please note the difference between manuscripts that will be professionally typeset and a camera-ready copy (CRC):

A manuscript that will be typeset must be prepared according to the instructions we’ve provided here. In order to easily create a document following our requirements, we provide a word template1. After your manuscript has been accepted for publication, it will be professionally typeset as a printer copy.

Camera-Ready Copy (CRC) provides the opportunity to create a printer’s copy yourself. When preparing a CRC, technical and formal aspects must be considered. You will receive specific instructions and practical guidance (i.e., templates, fonts) from your contact person after the conclusion of the contract.

2. Author Guidelines for Manuscript Submission

When preparing an online manuscript submission, please send us editable word processing files (e.g., .doc, .docx, .odt) as well as PDF versions of the documents as a reference (for the clear display of special characters/non-latin fonts). If your manuscript contains figures, graphics, or large tables, please submit them as separate files rather than including them in the document.

We also encourage all book authors to provide an ORCID ID when submitting their manuscript for publication. ORCID is a free, not-for-profit service offering each researcher a unique digital identifier. Authors who don’t have an ORCID ID can register for one at Orcid.org . Contact our team at De Gruyter for more information and assistance with this.

2.1 File Formats

All accepted file formats are listed in the following table.

Table 1. Accepted file formats

Figures and graphics should be a minimum of 300 dpi but preferably 600 dpi.

Editable formats are preferred as they are easier to process during typesetting.

Processing of these figures and graphics generated by custom written applications is not possible without the respective applications themselves.

2.2 File Naming Conventions

For the further processing of your manuscript within the publishing house, we kindly request that you use file names for files, images, tables, etc., that reflect their content-related order within your publication.

Here are the criteria you should keep in mind for file naming:

clear and precise assignment

file names should not be too long

no special characters or umlauts

use a numbering system with leading zeros for continuous documents such as contributions, for example, 01, 02 ...09, 10 or 001 ... 020... 130

The following examples demonstrate a possible file name structure.

Example for monographs: [name author/editor_short-title-of-the-chapter_date]

Rosenberger_SatiricSpeech_2014-07-25

Example for contributions:

[continuous-document-number_name Author(s)/editors_contribution-title_date]

03_Gabriel-Hogrebe_NewDesireforMetaphysics_2015-01-04

Example for figures/tables:

[chapter-number/name-or-chapter-number_fig/tab-number_name Author(s)/editors]

03_fig2_Gabriel-Hogrebe 01_ fig1.5_Meier chapter5_tab5.2_Schmidt

3. Obtaining Usage Rights

Please note that it is the author's/editor’s responsibility to obtain usage rights to third-party materials that are owned by others, such as images, figures, maps or tables. Once permissions have been obtained, the author/editor should forward them to the publisher, including any special provisions regarding credit lines. The publisher will not assume any liability for copyright infringement by authors.

4. Software

There are primarily two ways to create your manuscript using software: word processing software and LaTeX.

4.1 Word Processing Software

You should draft your manuscript using a standard word processing application (i.e., MS Word or Open Office). If you use another application, please contact us in advance and/or submit your manuscript in the Rich Text Format (.rtf).

If your manuscript makes use of non-latin fonts or special characters (e.g., Hebrew, Greek or Coptic), please use a Unicode font and tell us which one you have used.

If you use LaTex, please submit your LaTex files as well as a reference PDF of the final version. Be sure to send us all .sty files and macros you have used. Please check the preamble before submitting your files and delete references to packages used and/or commentary that is not relevant to the manuscript.

Please refrain from using images generated by LaTeX (i.e., using packages such as pict2e, MetaPost, PSTricks, or tikZ). The images should be submitted in .eps format.

5. Typeface, Emphasis, and Punctuation

Italics should be used for:

words, phrases, and sentences treated as linguistic examples

foreign-language expressions

titles of books, published documents, newspapers, and periodicals

Italics may also be used to:

draw attention to significant terms (at first mention only)

emphasise a word or phrase in a quotation, if indicated accordingly. For example, quote “[emphasis mine]”

Boldface type should be used sparingly, but it may be used to draw attention to a particular linguistic feature in numbered examples (not in running text).

Single quotation marks should be used only for the translation of non-English words. For example, cogito ‘I think’.

Double quotation marks should be used in all other cases. For example, for:

direct quotations in running text

“qualified” words or phrases

Brackets within parentheses should be square brackets.

Full stops should be placed last, following any other punctuation, but before footnote numbers. For example:

“... word”.

...word.7 (but ... word7 ... . within a sentence).

Parenthetical dashes are longer than hyphens. If you are unable to use dashes, please use two hyphens.

An en-dash “–” is used to indicate continuing or inclusive numbers, such as “1965–1966” or pages “5–8”. If your software does not provide an en-dash, please use two hyphen characters.

5.1 Specific Formatting to Avoid

Here is a list of formatting practices that you should avoid:

Manual line breaks (commonly added using shift and enter)

Fixed page breaks

Indentation with space characters or tabs

Alternate letter spacing (with space characters)

Do not use double round brackets

Special symbols based on components from different fonts (with sub- or superscript formatting or changed spacing)

Do not emphasise phrases or whole passages of running text

Underlining text and use of multi-colour text and capital letters for emphasis should be avoided

6. Uniform Formatting

It is mandatory that all documents are submitted in a uniform format.

Use standard file types and formats in your word processing software

If several authors or individuals were involved in drafting the manuscript (such as for an anthology), please make sure that all articles have the same format, such as:

layout, style, and spelling,

consistent use of signs, numbers, symbols, highlightings, spellings, etc. according to the language in the manuscript.

Please note the following in regards to uniform formatting and languages:

If the manuscript is in German, orthography should be based on the latest edition of Duden or Wahrig.

If the manuscript is in English, either American or British English may be used, but spelling should be uniform throughout the manuscript, contribution or single articles. Orthography should follow the respective rules (for example, the Chicago Manual of Style).

If the manuscript is for a book series, please check in advance if there are special standardisation requirements. In the event of uncertainty, consult with the editor for the series.

6.1 Key Uniform Formatting Elements

Please pay special attention to the uniform formatting of the following elements.

7. Headings

Your manuscript should be subdivided into sections (and, if necessary, subsections). These sections should be labelled with headings.

All headings, including chapter and contribution headings, should be left-justified. Please do not use capitals.

Headings and contribution titles should be succinct (approximately 80–100 characters) and expressive and should not be concluded with a period. Please avoid an excessive number of sections/subsections if possible.

If the manuscript is in English, please write headings as follows:

“sentence style” (i.e., capitalisation of the first word and all proper nouns)

“headline style” (i.e., capitalisation of all words, except articles and prepositions).

The main title of the publication should be set in “headline style.”

Make sure that headline capitalisation is uniform throughout the entire document.

8. Paragraphs

All first paragraphs start without an indent. Following paragraphs should have an indent in the first line. Also, do not add blank lines between paragraphs.

When adding quotes, you should use:

Rounded quotation marks (“...”) not "straight" ones.

Single quotation marks enclose quotations within quotations

Quotes are also formatted differently, depending on their length.

Short quotes (up to 60 words) should be integrated into the body text with quotation marks.

Longer quotes (more than three lines) should be formatted as block quotes. They should not be enclosed within quotation marks. Please add two returns before and after the blockquote and do not indent it with tabulator or space characters.

When quoting a source, please make sure to faithfully transcribe spelling and punctuation. To add information or paraphrasing for clarity, use brackets [ ]. To jump over a section of the source material, use ellipses [...].

All quotations in languages other than English should be followed by the translation in square brackets.

Please provide the source and page number(s) for all quotations.

10. Abbreviations

Here are our guidelines on using abbreviations:

Use only the most common abbreviations (i.e., etc., e.g., et al.).

Do not use periods after acronyms (i.e., SFH, not S.F.H.).

Abbreviations common in linguistics (NP, V, ACC) may be used in numbered examples, but the terms should be written out in full in the text, where possible.

Names of languages may be abbreviated when prefixed to words cited, as in “the meaning of OEngl. guma ” but not in running text, as in “the meaning of guma in Old English.”

Names of theories or concepts may be abbreviated. The abbreviation must be introduced at first mention, e.g., “the Spatialization of Form Hypothesis (SFH).”

Do not use sequences of letters to represent titles of books or names of publishers. For example, “Jackendoff 1993” not “S&C” (Semantics and Cognition); “Oxford University Press” not “OUP.”

11. Citations

Brief citations should be used in the text. Here are different examples of how to write citations:

The date should always be shown in brackets. For example:

“Bloomfield (1933: 123–125) introduced the term ...”

“In his (1922) article, Sapir argued that ...”

Full bibliographical details should be provided in the reference section at the end of the book or article.

With articles in journals or anthologies, indicate the page range without abbreviating the second number. Please provide page numbers in full, and do not use “f.”, “ff.”. For example, 273–275 rather than 273 ff. or 273–75.

Where possible, avoid referring to an entire book, but provide page numbers instead.

12. Appendices and Footnotes

If you need to include additional materials, please do so in an appendix following the text. It’s also important to use footnotes, not endnotes, at the bottom of a page to provide an explanation, reinforcement, or reference for an element of your work.

Footnote numbering should be continuous in the manuscript but, if desired, the numbering can start over at the beginning of each new chapter. We recommend resetting the footnote numbering for each new chapter if the total number of footnotes is more than approx. 1000.

Footnote numbers in the text should be superscript (small raised) numbers without parentheses. The number of the footnote should directly follow the word in question or a punctuation mark, with no blank space inserted.

Please avoid using footnotes in headings or titles. This affects footnotes that are indicated by number as well as footnotes marked with an asterisk. Notes, acknowledgments, and other information should be included by adding a separate paragraph to the footer.

13. Bibliography and References

Here are our guidelines on how to create a bibliography and references:

The format for reference entries for Linguistics manuscripts should follow the Unified Style Sheet for Linguistics . For all other subjects, we allow most styles including APA, Chicago, MLA, IEEE, as long as they are consistently used throughout the manuscript. Please check with your editor to confirm the most appropriate style to use.

Please provide full author date citation and do not use dashes or abbreviations such as ibid, ebd., a.a.O., op. cit., p. and pp.

All reference entries should be standardised.

All works cited in the text must be listed in the reference section.

The reference section should only include works that are cited in the text.

Where possible, please provide the full first names of authors and editors.

Initials require periods and should be spaced, e.g., Ronald W. Langacker, R. M. W. Dixon.

Entries should show the full title and subtitle of each work.

Page numbers of articles in journals or edited works should be inclusive.

Reference entries for multiple works by the same author/editor or group of authors/editors should be listed chronologically, with the oldest publication at the top and the newest at the bottom.

The reference entries for authored works and edited works by a single author should not be mixed together but rather grouped separately.

Provide both the place of publication and the name of the publisher

Translate titles in languages other than French, German, Italian and Spanish into English. The translation should be written in the Roman alphabet, in lowercase, and should be placed in square brackets directly after the italicised original title

Abbreviate “edition” in reference entries as “edn.” (to set it apart from “ed.” for “editor”)

Please do not:

Drop digits in inclusive page numbers

Abbreviate the names of journals, book series, publishers or conferences

Use “et al.” in reference entries; all authors/editors should be named

Use EM-dashes to replace repeated author/editor names, as each reference must be complete as a unit

Use line returns within individual reference entries. The right- and left-hand margins will be set during technical production

13.1 Sample Reference Entries

Book (authored work) Sposato, Adam. 2021. A Grammar of Xong . Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.

Book (edited work) Fagard, Benjamin, José Pinto de Lima, Dejan Stosic & Elena Smirnova (eds.). 2020. Complex Adpositions in European Languages: A Micro-Typological Approach to Complex Nominal Relators . Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.

Contribution in an edited work Koch, Harold. 2021. Associated motion in the Pama-Nyungan languages of Australia. In Antoine Guillaume & Harold Koch (eds.), Associated Motion , 231–324. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Roever, Carsten & Naoki Ikeda. 2020. Testing pragmatic competence in a second language. In Klaus P. Schneider & Elly Ifantidou (eds.), Developmental and Clinical Pragmatics , 475–496. (Handbooks of Pragmatics 13). Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.

Entries for contributions in edited works should always include full bibliographical information for the edited work. Abbreviating the entry (here with “In Guillaume & Koch, 231–324”) is not acceptable.

If a contribution in an edited work is cited in the article text, a separate, additional entry for the edited work should not be included in the References unless the edited work is cited directly and as a whole.

New edition Plag, Ingo, Sabine Arndt-Lappe, Maria Braun & Mareile Schramm. 2015 [2007]. Introduction to English Linguistics , 3rd edn. Berlin/Boston: Mouton De Gruyter.

Translation Lagopoulos, Alexandros Ph. & Karin Boklund-Lagopoulou. 2016. Θεωρία σημειωτικής: Η παράδοση του Ferdinand de Saussure [Semiotic theory: the tradition of Ferdinand de Saussure]. Athens: Patakis Publishers.

The English translation of the title should not be capitalised.

Journal article van de Weijer, Jeroen, Weiyun Wei, Yumeng Wang, Guangyuan Ren & Yunyun Ran. 2020. Words are constructions, too: A construction-based approach to English ablaut reduplication. Linguistics 58(6). 1701–1735.

Journal article (online) Peters, Arne & Susan Coetzee-Van Rooy. 2020. Exploring the interplay of language and body in South African youth: A portrait-corpus study. Cognitive Linguistics 31(4). https://doi.org/10.1515/cog-20...

Publication date is the year of online publication or the year of the latest update. If neither is available, please provide the access date in parentheses at the end of the entry.

Special issue of a journal (cited as a whole) van Krieken, Kobie, José Sanders & Eve Sweetser (eds.). 2019. Time and Viewpoint in Narrative Discourse. [Special issue]. Cognitive Linguistics 30(2).

Thesis/dissertation De Clercq, Karen. 2013. A unified syntax of negation . Ghent: Ghent University dissertation.

Article in conference proceedings Rao, A. Giridhar. 2017. English in multilingual India: Promise and illusion. In Hywel Coleman (ed.), Multilingualism and development: Selected proceedings of the 11th Language & Development Conference, New Delhi, India, 2015 , 281–288. London: British Council.

Talk or poster presented at a conference or other event Buckley, Eugene. 2013. Prosodic structure in Southeastern Pomo stress. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas (SSILA), Boston, 3–6 January, 2013.

Several works by one author/editor with the same publication date Vennemann, Theo. 2000a. From quantity to syllable cuts: On so-called lengthening in the Germanic languages. Journal of Italian Linguistics/Rivista di Linguistica 12. 251–282. Vennemann, Theo. 2000b. Triple-cluster reduction in Germanic: Etymology without sound laws? Historische Sprachwissenschaft 113. 239–258.

Website content Google. 2020. “Privacy Policy.” Privacy & Terms. https://www.google.com/policie... (last modified 30 September 2020) De Gruyter. n.d. „The Joshua A. Fishman Award presented by Mouton“. https://cloud.newsletter.degru... (accessed 15 January 2021)

Publication date is the year of online publication or year of the latest update. If neither is available, please provide the access date in parentheses at the end of the entry.

Newspaper article Lohr, Steve. 2018. March 8. It’s true: False News Spreads Faster and Wider. And Humans Are to Blame. New York Times . https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/08/technology/twitter-fake-news-research.html

14. Referring to Text Passages

If you are referring to other text passages within the same publication, please indicate the chapter number rather than specific pages or page ranges (i.e., see ch. 5.3.3), as these can change during the production process. However, if it becomes necessary to refer to page numbers, please insert XXX. The placeholder will be removed at the end of the production process.

15. Mathematical Formulas and Equations

Please use the program Math Type or the formula editor in Word to add formulas to your manuscript. It is important that you use just one formula editor within the manuscript.

If formulas are to be numbered, use automatic numbering as well as consecutive numbering for the entire chapter. The numbers should be right-justified and enclosed in parentheses.

16. Measurement Units

Please use a metric system such as the International System of Units (SI). For compound units, Unicode symbols must be used.

17. Interlinear Type

Please use blind tables (=tables without frames) for formatting glosses and transcriptions.

18. Indices

Alphabetically organised indices are a useful aid for the readers of academic works. Your manuscript may feature one index or several indices. For example, you could include a register of persons, or a subject index, language index, or author index.

On average, textbooks and handbooks contain six to 10 index entries per book page, while monographs and anthologies contain four to eight index entries per book page. In this connection, image captions, figure captions, and tables may be taken into account.

As a rule, index entries should be in the singular and noun forms should be used. The spelling in the manuscript should dictate the spelling in the index. This also applies to terms that are spelled with a hyphen.

Cross-references make it easier for readers to use the index. The use of cross-references is advisable if the entry that is cross-referenced contains additional information, such as subentries or page numbers.

In case you have conceptual queries, the respective responsible editor will be happy to assist you.

18.1 The Index Function in Word Processing Software

When drafting your manuscript with standard word processing software, the index should be contained in the primary file. If you are using Microsoft Word, please use the native index feature.

If you are using another program, please use the index feature in that program, if available.

This is the preferred method for creating your index.

18.2 Manual Indexing

For manual preparation, the indices will be typeset on the basis of a file provided by the author/editor, listing all entries and the corresponding page numbers. This file must be based on the final set of proofs.

The quality of a manual index critically depends on the careful selection of keywords. Here is how to ensure your index is high quality:

Use only a small number of keywords that best capture the essence of your work.

Index only the most central occurrences of a keyword and not every single occurrence of the keyword.

Index the main body of the text, and do not tag keywords in chapter titles, references, and footnotes.

When indexing phrases rather than individual words, please choose an appropriate keyword under which the phrase is to be sorted. For example, you need to decide whether “conceptual structure” is to be indexed under “conceptual” or under “structure, conceptual.”

In some instances, you may want to index a passage with a particular keyword that is not directly used in the passage. You are welcome to do this.

If you want to index a passage that extends across several pages, please add the keyword and the page range. For example, conceptual structure, 130–142 .

Tables should be created using the table functionality of Word or Excel. When creating tables, do not use empty spaces or tabs, and please ensure that the table is clearly structured.

If the tables are submitted in separate files, be sure to note clearly where the tables are to be inserted in the main text (i.e., include here chapter5_tab5.2_Schmidt.xls). Each table should have a short heading and a numbering (i.e., Table 1 or Table 1.2, Table 2.4).

Footnotes within tables should not be included in the regular numbering of the publication. They are to be included at the end of the table.

Tables should be given titles and numbered consecutively throughout a monograph and per chapter in an edited volume. The title of a table should appear above the table.

20. Images and Figures

Images and figures should not be inserted directly into the manuscript but should be saved in a separate file. Please clearly note where the image/figure should be positioned in the manuscript (i.e., “include here 01_ fig1.5_Meier.jpg“). Each image/figure should have a numbering, an alternative text to ensure accessibility and a short caption that explains abbreviations and symbols. If the manuscript contains a large number of images/figures, please submit a separate list that provides information about the images/figures, their respective sizes, etc.

As with tables, figures should also be given titles and numbered consecutively throughout a monograph and per chapter in an edited volume. However, in this case, the title of a figure should appear below the figure.

Images can be supplied in both colour or grayscale, but grayscale is the preferred option. Colour images are possible in reasonable amounts or if colour is required for legibility of the content.

Detailed information concerning the submission of image files can be found in our Image & Figure Instructions.

If your book or article describes a language that is little known, or if it will help the reader to identify geographic locations, it may be useful to include a map. Please bear in mind the following:

All national boundaries in the area shown on the map must be drawn in, and countries, counties or federal states bordering on the area of main interest must be named (i.e., a land-locked area should not be represented as if it were an island).

All major oceans, lakes, rivers and towns shown should be labelled.

An inset can be useful to help identify the location of the area in question.

22. Media Files (Audio and Video)

When including media files, please deliver audio and video files as separate files and do not integrate them directly into the manuscript. Please note clearly where the files are to be positioned in the manuscript. Media files should possess a short caption and should be numbered consecutively.

Table 2. File formats for multimedia files

23. Linguistic Examples

When including linguistic examples, you must:

Number examples consecutively throughout a monograph (i.e., not chapter by chapter)

Number examples article by article in an edited work

Linguistic examples with interlinear glossing should follow the Leipzig Glossing Rules and should be presented as shown below.

Use the table function to align the glosses in invisible tables (remove table borders and use gridlines for orientation). This allows for the alignment to be retained when your manuscript is paginated during production. Please do not use blank spaces and/or multiple tabs to align the glosses. These are difficult to retain during typesetting, and unwanted shifting may thus occur.

Examples in English should be set in italics:

References to examples in the text should take the form “see (2a) and (2b)” with both numbers and letters in brackets.

24. Additional Material

When submitting your manuscript, you are welcome to submit additional material for release at De Gruyter Online. Please coordinate this with the editor. Please clearly label this material, compile it in a .zip file, and submit it with your manuscript.

Manuscript Preparation Checklist

1. our guidelines to ensure your manuscript is ready.

Want to make sure your manuscript is ready? Here’s a checklist that covers some of the most important guidelines.

2. Document Structure

Have you used the unaltered, predefined style sheets?

Have you defined, under “Paragraph” (in Word/InDesign), any potentially necessary spacing between layout elements and the configuration of lines and paragraphs?

Have you made sure not to add any additional blank paragraphs or double spaces?

Are any section titles (for example, Part I: Literary work; Part II: Essays, etc.) inserted clearly as section titles? That is, separate sheets of paper containing only the section title.

Do cross-references made in the body text refer to chapter numbers (and not page numbers)?

Have you removed any footnotes from the titles?

Do the column titles and headers (shortened, where necessary) match the chapter titles?

Are the names of the authors in the bibliography written out in full in each entry and not abbreviated with ellipses or dashes?

Are Unicode fonts being used consistently for symbols that cannot be executed using De Gruyter fonts, for example, Hebrew, Arabic, or special symbols?

Are all fonts running in the correct direction?

Are keywords and references marked in the text?

Are all images used in the document complete? Are all images saved as separate files, and do the file names match the file references in the text?

Do all lines/tables/figures fit in the type area?

Do all the pages always start at the same height of the type area? (No blank lines at the beginning of the page; figures/tables/linguistic examples/quotations begin at the same height as the text.)

Have you made sure that there is not too much empty space at the end of the type area?

Layout elements

Do the dedication, foreword, table of contents, first chapter (in the case of edited volumes, all chapters), bibliography, index and appendices all start on the right side (i.e., on odd pages)?

Is your page numbering correct (front matter in Roman numerals; body matter and back matter in Arabic numerals)?

Is the first-line indent correct in new paragraphs within the body text and in quotations and footnotes? (Exception: paragraphs after titles and insertions [e.g., quotations, tables, lists, figures, formulas, etc.] are not indented.)

Have the running titles been removed from empty pages and the first pages of chapters/articles?

Are all running titles/headers only on one line?

Have you manually removed all empty vertical spaces before main chapter titles (at the top of the page)?

Have you made sure there are no periods at the end of titles?

Have you made sure there are no blank spaces before footnote indicators (i.e., superscript footnote numbers) in the body text?

Is the spacing after the footnote numbers uniform in the footnotes?

Does the layout of the tables adhere to the De Gruyter corporate layout?

Do the figures adhere to the De Gruyter corporate layout?

Are the titles of the tables and the captions placed after the figures?

Are the individual elements in the formulas easy to read?

Have you made sure that block quotations do not have quotation marks before or after them?

Are hyperlinks formatted properly and not manually underlined?

Have you made sure there are blank spaces, not commas, after headwords in index entries?

Are the positions of elements that should be included marked in the text (e.g., images, tables, media files)?

Typographical details

Are there any “widows” or “orphans” (i.e., single lines at the top or bottom of the page)?

Have all large gaps between words been removed? (Has the automatic hyphenation tool been activated? Have you checked – and, where necessary, manually separated – technical terms, hyperlinks and word groups separated by a forward slash?)

Are the quotation marks and apostrophes used correctly?

Have you made sure that there are no straight (“dumb”) quotes or apostrophes where there should be typographic ones?

Have you checked to ensure that all symbols used in pairs (i.e., quotes and parentheses) are complete?

Have you made sure there are no blank spaces before or after the slash in word pairs separated by slashes (e.g., Berlin/Boston)?

Have you correctly entered a non-breaking space wherever it is necessary?

Have you made sure there are no punctuation marks at the beginning of a line?

Have you made sure there is no space before or after the en-dash in order to express a range of numbers or period of time? For example, 1999–2000.

Have en-dashes been used instead of bullet points in lists?

Have you made sure to avoid underlining, two forms of emphasis (e.g. italics and bold), all uppercase formatting, and small caps?

Are all non-latin characters or symbols available as Unicode-font?

Are quotes longer than three lines set as block quotes with a space before and after?

Have you used correct quotation marks throughout the whole publication?

Is the usage of footnotes consistent (i.e., citation system)? Are all footnotes removed from headings and/or titles?

4. PDF Export

Has the PDF file been created in the final format (155x230/170x240 mm) and not in A4 format (210x287 mm)?

Have the fonts been embedded, and can the text be searched/copied in the PDF file?

Are the colour settings accurate (grayscale for B/W figures/text; CMYK for colour figures)?

Are all font sizes 5 pt or greater?

Is the image resolution high enough? (Pixel images: 300 ppi; grayscale/colour images with writing: 600 ppi; line drawings: 1200 ppi)

5. Additional Checks

Are all files available and named? Do the files have the correct formats (for example, .doc or .docx for Word files)?

Are the usage rights obtained for all third-party content?

Is the manuscript completely revised and edited (content, language)? Are all spellings and highlighting used consistently (especially when working together with several persons)?

Were all points checked that should be avoided?

Does all supplementary material exist in a zip file?

Need additional assistance with your manuscript submission?

If you have a question that we were unable to answer here, please contact your responsible editor .

More information for authors

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