definition of abnormal psychology essay

How Psychologists Define and Study Abnormal Psychology

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Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Abnormal psychology is a branch of psychology that studies, diagnoses, and treats unusual patterns of behavior, emotions, and thoughts that could signify a mental disorder.

Abnormal psychology studies people who are “abnormal” or “atypical” compared to the members of a given society.

Remember, “abnormal” in this context does not necessarily imply “negative” or “bad.” It is a term used to describe behaviors and mental processes that significantly deviate from statistical or societal norms.

Abnormal psychology research is pivotal for understanding and managing mental health issues, developing treatments, and promoting mental health awareness.

Defining Abnormality

The definition of the word abnormal is simple enough, but applying this to psychology poses a complex problem:

What is normal? Whose norm? For what age? For what culture?

The concept of abnormality is imprecise and difficult to define. Examples of abnormality can take many different forms and involve different features, so that, what at first sight seem quite reasonable definitions, turns out to be quite problematic.

There are several different ways in which it is possible to define ‘abnormal’ as opposed to our ideas of what is ‘normal.’

Statistical Infrequency

Under this definition of abnormality, a person’s trait, thinking or behavior is classified as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual.

With this definition, it is necessary to be clear about how rare a trait or behavior needs to be before we class it as abnormal. For instance, one may say that an individual who has an IQ below or above the average level of IQ in society is abnormal.

The statistical approach helps to address what is meant by normal in a statistical context. It helps us make cut–off points in terms of diagnosis.

Limitations

However, this definition fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behavior. For example, obesity is statistically normal but not associated with healthy or desirable. Conversely, a high IQ is statistically abnormal but may well be regarded as highly desirable.

Many rare behaviors or characteristics (e.g., left-handedness) have no bearing on normality or abnormality.  Some characteristics are regarded as abnormal even though they are quite frequent. 

Depression may affect 27% of elderly people (NIMH, 2001).  This would make it common, but that does not mean it isn’t a problem.

The decision of where to start the “abnormal” classification is arbitrary. Who decides what is statistically rare, and how do they decide? For example, if an IQ of 70 is the cut-off point, how can we justify saying someone with 69 is abnormal, and someone with 70 is normal?

This definition also implies that abnormal behavior in people should be rare or statistically unusual, which is not the case.

Instead, any specific abnormal behavior may be unusual, but it is not unusual for people to exhibit some form of prolonged abnormal behavior at some point in their lives, and mental disorders such as depression are very statistically common.

Violation of Social Norms

Violation of social norms is a definition of abnormality where a person’s thinking or behavior is classified as abnormal if it violates the (unwritten) rules about what is expected or acceptable behavior in a particular social group. Their behavior may be incomprehensible to others or make others feel threatened or uncomfortable.

Every culture has certain standards for acceptable behavior or socially acceptable norms .

Norms are expected ways of behaving in a society according to the majority, and those members of a society who do not think and behave like everyone else break these norms and are often defined as abnormal.

With this definition, it is necessary to consider the degree to which a norm is violated, the importance of that norm, and the value attached by the social group to different sorts of violations, e.g., is the violation rude, eccentric, abnormal, or criminal?

There are a number of influences on social norms that need to be taken into account when considering the definition of the social norm:

With this definition, it is necessary to consider the following:

• The degree to which a norm is violated,
• The importance of that norm,
• The value attached by the social group to different sorts of violations, e.g., is the violation rude, eccentric, abnormal, or criminal?

The most obvious problem with defining abnormality using social norms is that there is no universal agreement over social norms.

Social norms are culturally specific – they can differ significantly from one generation to the next and between different ethnic, regional, and socio-economic groups.

In some societies, such as the Zulu, for example, hallucinations and screaming in the street are regarded as normal behavior.

Social norms also exist within a time frame and therefore change over time.  Behavior that was once seen as abnormal may, given time, become acceptable and vice versa.

For example, drunk driving was once considered acceptable but is now seen as socially unacceptable, whereas homosexuality has gone the other way. 

Until 1980 homosexuality was considered a psychological disorder by the World Health Organization (WHO), but today is socially acceptable.

Social norms can also depend on the situation or context we find ourselves in. Is it normal to eat parts of a dead body?

In 1972 a rugby team who survived a plane crash in the snow-capped Andes of South America found themselves without food and in sub-freezing temperatures for 72 days. To survive, they ate the bodies of those who had died in the crash.

Failure to Function Adequately

Failure to function adequately is a definition of abnormality where a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life, or experience personal distress.

They may be unable to perform the behaviors necessary for day-to-day living, e.g., self-care, holding down a job, interacting meaningfully with others, making themselves understood, etc.

Rosenhan & Seligman (1989) suggest the following characteristics that define failure to function adequately:

• Maladaptiveness (danger to self)
• Vividness & unconventionality (stands out)
• Unpredictably & a loss of control
• Irrationality/incomprehensibility
• Causes observer discomfort
• Violates moral/social standards

One limitation of this definition is that apparently abnormal behavior may actually be helpful, functional, and adaptive for the individual.

For example, a person who has the obsessive-compulsive disorder of hand-washing may find that the behavior makes him cheerful, happy, and better able to cope with his day.

Many people engage in behavior that is maladaptive/harmful or threatening to self, but we don’t class them as abnormal:

• Adrenaline sports
• Smoking, drinking alcohol
• Skipping classes

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

Abnormality can be defined as a deviation from ideal mental health.

This means that rather than defining what is abnormal, psychologists define what normal/ideal mental health is, and anything that deviates from this is regarded as abnormal.

This requires us to decide on the characteristics we consider necessary for mental health. Jahoda (1958) defined six criteria by which mental health could be measured:

• A positive view of the self
• Capability for growth and development
• Autonomy and independence
• Accurate perception of reality
• Positive friendships and relationships
• Environmental mastery – able to meet the varying demands of day-to-day situations

According to this approach, the more satisfied these criteria are, the healthier the individual is.

It is practically impossible for any individual to achieve all of the ideal characteristics all of the time.  For example, a person might not be the ‘master of his environment’ but be happy with his situation.

The absence of this criterion of ideal mental health hardly indicates he is suffering from a mental disorder.

Ethnocentric

Ethnocentrism , in the context of psychology, refers to the tendency to view one’s own culture or ethnic group as the standard or norm, and to judge other cultures, values, behaviors, and beliefs based on those norms. I

White, middle-class men devise most definitions of psychological abnormality. It has been suggested that this may lead to disproportionate numbers of people from certain groups being diagnosed as “abnormal.”

For example, in the UK, depression is more commonly identified in women, and black people are more likely than their white counterparts to be diagnosed with schizophrenia.

Similarly, working-class people are more likely to be diagnosed with a mental illness than those from non-manual backgrounds.

Models of Abnormality

Behavioral Model of Abnormality

Behaviorists believe that our actions are determined largely by the experiences we have in life rather than by the underlying pathology of unconscious forces.

Abnormality is therefore seen as the development of behavior patterns that are considered maladaptive (i.e., harmful) for the individual.

Behaviorism states that all behavior (including abnormal) is learned from the environment (nurture) and that all behavior that has been learned can also be ‘unlearnt’ (which is how abnormal behavior is treated ).

The behavioral approach emphasizes the environment and how abnormal behavior is acquired through classical conditioning , operant conditioning , and social learning .

Classical conditioning has been said to account for the development of phobias. The feared object (e.g., spider or rat) is associated with fear or anxiety sometime in the past. The conditioned stimulus subsequently evokes a powerful fear response characterized by avoidance of the feared object and the emotion of fear whenever the object is encountered.

Learning environments can reinforce (re: operant conditioning) problematic behaviors. E.g., an individual may be rewarded for having panic attacks  by receiving attention from family and friends – this would lead to the behavior being reinforced and increasing in later life.

Our society can also provide deviant maladaptive models that children identify with and imitate (re: social learning theory).

Cognitive Perspective of Mental Health Behavior

The cognitive approach assumes that a person’s thoughts are responsible for their behavior. The model deals with how information is processed in the brain and the impact of this on behavior.

The basic assumptions are:

• Maladaptive behavior is caused by faulty and irrational cognitions.
• It is the way you think about a problem rather than the problem itself that causes mental disorders.
• Individuals can overcome mental disorders by learning to use more appropriate cognitions.

The individual is an active processor of information .

How a person perceives, anticipates, and evaluates events rather than the events themselves, which will have an impact on behavior.

This is generally believed to be an automatic process; in other words, we do not think about it.

In people with psychological problems, these thought processes tend to be negative, and the cognitions (i.e., attributions, cognitive errors) made will be inaccurate:

These cognitions cause distortions in how we see things; Ellis suggested it is through irrational thinking, while Beck proposed the cognitive triad.

Medical / Biological Perspective of Mental Health Behavior

The medical model of psychopathology believes that disorders have an organic or physical cause. The focus of this approach is on genetics, neurotransmitters , neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, biochemistry, etc.

For example, in terms of biochemistry – the dopamine hypothesis argues that elevated levels of dopamine are related to symptoms of schizophrenia.

The approach argues that mental disorders are related to the physical structure and functioning of the brain.

For example, differences in brain structure (abnormalities in the frontal and pre-frontal cortex, enlarged ventricles) have been identified in people with schizophrenia.

The Diathesis-Stress Model

According to the diathesis-stress model , the emergence of a psychological disorder requires first the existence of a diathesis, or an innate predisposition to that disorder in an individual, and second, stress, or a set of challenging life circumstances which then trigger the development of the disorder.

In the diathesis-stress model, these challenging life events are thought to interact with individuals’ innate dispositions to bring psychological disorders to the surface.

For example, traumatic early life experiences, such as the loss of a parent, can act as longstanding predispositions to a psychological disorder. In addition, personality traits like high neuroticism are sometimes also referred to as diatheses.

Furthermore, individuals with greater innate predispositions to a disorder may require less stress for that disorder to be triggered, and vice versa.

In this way, the diathesis-stress model explains how psychological disorders might be related to both nature and nurture and how those two components might interact with one another (Broerman, 2017).

Psychodynamic Perspective of Mental Health Behavior

The main assumptions include Freud’s belief that abnormality came from psychological causes rather than physical causes, that unresolved conflicts between the id, ego, and superego can all contribute to abnormality, for example:

• Weak ego : Well-adjusted people have a strong ego that can cope with the demands of both the id and the superego by allowing each to express itself at appropriate times. If the ego is weakened, then either the id or the superego, whichever is stronger, may dominate the personality.
• Unchecked id impulses : If id impulses are unchecked, they may be expressed in self-destructive and immoral behavior. This may lead to disorders such as conduct disorders in childhood and psychopathic [dangerously abnormal] behavior in adulthood.
• Too powerful superego : A superego that is too powerful, and therefore too harsh and inflexible in its moral values, will restrict the id to such an extent that the person will be deprived of even socially acceptable pleasures. According to Freud, this would create neurosis, which could be expressed in the symptoms of anxiety disorders , such as phobias and obsessions.

Freud also believed that early childhood experiences and unconscious motivation were responsible for disorders.

An Alternative View: Mental Illness is a Social Construction

Since the 1960s, it has been argued by anti-psychiatrists that the entire notion of abnormality or mental disorder is merely a social construction used by society.

Notable anti-psychiatrists were Michel Foucault, R.D. Laing, Thomas Szasz, and Franco Basaglia. Some observations made are:

• Mental illness is a social construct created by doctors. An illness must be an objectively demonstrable biological pathology, but psychiatric disorders are not.
• The criteria for mental illness are vague, subjective, and open to misinterpretation criteria.
• The medical profession uses various labels, e.g., depressed and schizophrenic, to exclude those whose behavior fails to conform to society’s norms.
• Labels and treatment can be used as a form of social control and represent an abuse of power.
• Diagnosis raises issues of medical and ethical integrity because of financial and professional links with pharmaceutical companies and insurance companies.

Why is abnormal psychology important?

Abnormal psychology is a crucial field that focuses on understanding, diagnosing, and treating atypical behaviors, emotions, and thought processes, which can lead to mental disorders.

Its importance lies in enhancing our comprehension of mental health disorders, developing effective treatment strategies, and promoting mental health awareness to reduce stigma.

Additionally, this field helps in implementing preventive measures, guiding mental health legislation and policies, improving the quality of life for those with mental health issues, and serving as an educational tool for professionals and the public.

Through these various contributions, abnormal psychology helps foster a better understanding and handling of mental health matters in society.

How did the study of abnormal psychology originate?

The study of abnormal psychology originated in ancient times, with early explanations attributing abnormal behaviors to supernatural forces. The Greeks later proposed naturalistic explanations, such as Hippocrates’ theory of bodily humors.

After regression during the Middle Ages, the field progressed in the 19th and 20th centuries, with figures like Philippe Pinel and Sigmund Freud advocating humane treatment and developing therapeutic approaches, respectively.

The 20th century also saw the creation of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Currently, the field draws from various disciplines, including psychology, psychiatry, neuroscience , and genetics.

What are the 4 key objectives of the field of abnormal psychology?

The field of abnormal psychology has four primary objectives:

Description: This involves accurately describing, defining, and classifying different psychological disorders. This is important for practitioners and researchers to communicate effectively about each disorder.

Explanation: This involves determining the causes or etiology of different disorders. Researchers aim to understand the biological, psychological, and social factors that contribute to the development and maintenance of abnormal behaviors or mental health disorders.

Prediction: By understanding the course of different disorders, psychologists can predict how they might develop or change over time. This can help forecast the likely course of a disorder in an individual, given certain characteristics or conditions.

Change: Ultimately, the goal of abnormal psychology is to develop effective interventions and treatments that can alleviate the suffering caused by mental health disorders. This objective seeks to change maladaptive behaviors, thoughts, and emotions, promoting mental well-being and functional life skills.

What makes defining abnormality difficult?

Defining abnormality in psychology is challenging due to cultural variations, subjectivity, context-dependent norms, societal changes over time, and difficulty discerning when behaviors or emotions become clinically significant. Cultural norms heavily influence perceptions of normality and abnormality.

Additionally, what’s considered abnormal in one context may be normal in another. Definitions also evolve with societal and scientific progress. Furthermore, distinguishing when feelings like sadness or anxiety become severe or prolonged enough to be deemed abnormal is complex.

These factors highlight the need for a nuanced, culturally sensitive, and individualized approach to abnormal psychology.

Why are correlational research designs often used in abnormal psychology?

Correlational research designs are often used in abnormal psychology because they allow researchers to examine the relationship between different variables without manipulating them, which can provide valuable insights into mental health conditions. These designs are particularly useful in cases where variables cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons.

For example, it would be unethical and impractical to manipulate a factor such as childhood trauma to observe its effects on mental health in adulthood. However, a correlational design would allow researchers to examine the relationship between these variables as they naturally occur.

Additionally, correlational designs can help identify risk factors for various mental health conditions. For instance, researchers might find that high-stress levels correlate with an increased risk of depression. Such findings can provide a foundation for preventive measures and guide future research.

However, a key limitation of correlational research is that it cannot establish causality. Just because two variables are correlated does not mean one causes the other. Therefore, correlational findings often need to be followed up by experimental or longitudinal studies to explore potential causal relationships.

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How Psychologists Define and Study Abnormal Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

Microgen Images/Science Photo Library / Getty Images

What Is Abnormal Psychology?

Defining abnormality.

Abnormal psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with psychopathology and abnormal behavior, or the patterns of emotion, thought, and behavior that can be signs of a mental health condition. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) to personality disorders.

The term "abnormal" is the subject of considerable debate. What exactly is "normal" and who gets to decide? The social norms that are often used to determine what is normal versus abnormal can shift over time, so settling on a standard definition isn't simple or straightforward.

Counselors, psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field, often in a clinical context. Rather than the distinction between normal and abnormal, psychologists in this field focus on the level of distress that behaviors, thoughts, or emotions might cause.

This article discusses what abnormal psychology is and the different topics studied by this area of psychology. It also covers how abnormality is defined and some of the criticisms of abnormal psychology.

If a behavior is creating problems in a person's life or is disruptive to other people, then this would be an "abnormal" behavior. In such cases, the behavior may require some type of mental health intervention.

According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), nearly one in five U.S. adults live with a mental illness.

The following characteristics are usually included:

• Abnormal behavior occurs infrequently . However, statistical infrequency alone is not a sufficient definition. Some healthy, desirable, and beneficial behaviors also occur infrequently. And other uncommon behaviors or characteristics have no bearing on how a person behaves or functions. So just because something is unusual or uncommon does not mean it should be defined as abnormal.
• Abnormal behavior creates distress . These behaviors may disturb the individual, or they may be upsetting and disruptive to others.
• Abnormal behavior affects a person's ability to function . People who are displaying these behaviors may struggle to function normally in their daily life, which can affect their relationships, work, school, and home life.
• Abnormal behavior is socially disruptive . It may violate social norms and make it difficult for people to function in social settings and maintain social relationships. 

Abnormal psychology doesn't just address behaviors that are considered statistically infrequent. Instead, it focuses on behaviors that create distress, make it difficult to function, and that may be socially disruptive. 

What Are the Four Approaches to Abnormal Psychology?

There are a number of different perspectives used in abnormal psychology. While some psychologists or psychiatrists may focus on a single viewpoint, many mental health professionals use elements from multiple areas in order to better understand and treat psychological disorders.

Psychoanalytic Approach

This perspective has its roots in the theories of Sigmund Freud. The psychoanalytic approach suggests that many abnormal behaviors stem from unconscious thoughts, desires, and memories.

While these feelings are outside of awareness, they are still believed to influence conscious actions.

Therapists who take this approach believe that by analyzing their memories, behaviors, thoughts, and even dreams , people can uncover and deal with some of the feelings that have been leading to maladaptive behaviors and distress.

Behavioral Approach

This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on observable behaviors. In behavioral therapy, the focus is on reinforcing positive behaviors and not reinforcing maladaptive behaviors.

The behavioral approach targets only the behavior itself, not the underlying causes. When dealing with abnormal behavior, a behavioral therapist might utilize strategies such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning to help eliminate unwanted behaviors and teach new behaviors.

Medical Approach

This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on the biological causes of mental illness, emphasizing understanding the underlying cause of disorders, which might include genetic inheritance, related physical illnesses, infections, and chemical imbalances. Medical treatments are often pharmacological in nature, although medication is often used in conjunction with some type of psychotherapy.

Cognitive Approach

The cognitive approach to abnormal psychology focuses on how internal thoughts, perceptions, and reasoning contribute to psychological disorders. Cognitive treatments typically focus on helping the individual change their thoughts or reactions.

Cognitive therapy might also be used in conjunction with behavioral methods in a technique known as cognitive behavioral therapy  (CBT).

Psychologists often look at abnormal behaviors through a number of different perspectives including the psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, and medical approaches. Such perspectives can influence how a condition is treated, but therapists also often draw on techniques from multiple approaches.

Topics in Abnormal Psychology

The main topics in abnormal psychology are the study, understanding, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders. Psychological disorders are defined as patterns of behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple areas of life. These conditions create distress for the person experiencing symptoms.

Mental health professionals use the " Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ," published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), for a variety of purposes. The manual contains a listing of psychiatric disorders, diagnostic codes, information on the prevalence of each disorder, and diagnostic criteria. Some of the categories of psychological disorders include:

• Anxiety disorders , such as social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder
• Mood disorders , such as depression and bipolar disorder
• Neurodevelopmental disorders, such as intellectual disability or autism spectrum disorder
• Neurocognitive disorders including delirium
• Personality disorders , such as borderline personality disorder, avoidant personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
• Substance use disorders

Criticisms of Abnormal Psychology

The field of abnormal psychology is not without criticism. In addition to debates over the use of the term "abnormal" itself, some believe that this area has a number of shortcomings.

In particular, some feel that this area stigmatizes vulnerable and oppressed people. Critics also suggest that the field of abnormal psychology tends to pathologize normal variations in human behavior.

Some also propose that the medical approach to mental illness often focuses only on biological and genetic determinants of distress rather than taking a more holistic view .  It also does not account for the fact that there are major cultural differences in what is deemed normal and abnormal.

Research has also found that learning more about abnormal psychology appears to do little to combat stigma regarding mental illness. One study found that teaching students about abnormal psychology did not reduce mental health stigma, improve attitudes toward mental illness, or increase help-seeking behaviors among students.

Abnormal psychology may focus on atypical behavior, but its focus is not to ensure that all people fit into a narrow definition of "normal." In most cases, it is centered on identifying and treating problems that may be causing distress or impairment in some aspect of an individual's life. By better understanding what is "abnormal," researchers and therapists can come up with new ways to help people live healthier and more fulfilling lives.

Frequently Asked Questions

Correlational research is often used to study abnormal psychology because experimental research would be unethical or impossible. Researchers cannot intentionally manipulate variables to see if doing so causes mental illness. While correlational research does not allow researchers to determine cause and effect, it does provide valuable information on relationships between variables.

Key concepts include that abnormality can be viewed through many different lenses and that mental disorders often have multiple causes, including genetics and experiences. Another is that culture has an influence on how we define abnormality, so what is considered abnormal in one culture is perfectly normal in another.

The study of abnormal behavior dates back to the time of the ancient Greeks. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, thinkers such as Sigmund Freud suggested that mental health conditions could be treated with methods including talk therapy.  

The study of abnormal psychology has helped researchers and therapists better understand the causes of mental disorders and develop methods to effectively treat these conditions. By understanding the factors that affect mental health, psychologists can help people overcome impairment, relieve distress, and restore functioning.

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Cheng AW, McCloskey K, Matacin ML. Teaching personality and abnormal psychology with inclusivity . In: Mena JA, Quina K, eds. Integrating Multiculturalism and Intersectionality into the Psychology Curriculum: Strategies for Instructors . American Psychological Association; 2019:225-241. doi:10.1037/0000137-018

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Kendra MS, Cattaneo LB, Mohr JJ. Teaching abnormal psychology to improve attitudes toward mental illness and help-seeking . Teaching Psychol . 2012;39(1):57-61. doi:10.1177/0098628311430315

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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What is Abnormal psychology? Meaning, history, and Theoretical perspectives

• by Psychologs Web
• March 6, 2024
• 5 minutes read

The study of psychopathology and abnormal conduct, or the thought, emotion, and behavior patterns that may indicate a mental health issue, is known as abnormal psychology. The phrase encompasses a wide range of problems, including personality disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and depression.

Psychotherapists, psychologists, and counselors frequently work directly in this field, frequently in a clinical setting. Psychologists in this profession concentrate on the potential level of distress that behaviors, ideas, or emotions could produce rather than the line that separates normal from aberrant.

Examining Abnormal Behavior

A conduct is considered “abnormal” if it is causing problems in the individual’s life or if it is upsetting to others. In certain situations, the behavior can call for mental health treatment of some kind.

It is rare to witness abnormal behavior. Still, statistical infrequency by itself does not provide a satisfactory characterization. Additionally, some desirable, healthful habits are sporadic. Nor does it matter what other unusual traits or behaviors a person has in terms of behavior or functioning. It does not follow that something should be classified as abnormal simply because it is uncommon or unique.

Also Read: Forensic Psychology vs Criminal Psychology

Distress is caused by abnormal conduct. These actions could be distressing and bothersome to others, or they might disturb the individual. The functioning of an individual is impacted by abnormal conduct. These behaviors can make it difficult for the person exhibiting them to go about their everyday lives regularly, which can have an impact on their relationships, jobs, education, and home lives.

Topics in Abnormal Psychology

The investigation, comprehension, identification, management, and avoidance of psychological illnesses are the principal foci of abnormal psychology. Behavioral or psychological symptoms that are repetitive and affect several aspects of life are referred to as psychological illnesses. The person exhibiting symptoms of these diseases is distressed.

The “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,” which is published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), is used for many purposes by mental health professionals. A list of mental illnesses, diagnostic codes, prevalence data for each condition, and diagnostic standards are all included in the handbook. The following are a few categories of psychiatric disorders:

• Multiple anxiety-inducing disorders, including GAD , social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder.
• Mood disorders include BPD (bipolar disorder) and depression.
• Neurodevelopmental conditions including autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disabilities neurocognitive conditions, such as delirium
• BPD, OCD and avoidant personality disorder.

Also Read: Intellectual Disability: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment

Historical context of abnormal psychology.

The study and management of behavior considered abnormal or deviant (either statistically, functionally, morally, or in another sense) has a long history, and the methods employed have frequently varied among cultures. Many theories from the broader field of psychology and other sources are used by the area of abnormal psychology to identify many explanations for various illnesses, but much still depends on what is meant to be “abnormal.” There has historically been a distinction between biological and psychological explanations, which is indicative of a dualistic philosophy concerning the mind-body issue. Different methods have also been used in the attempt to categorize mental illnesses. Subnormal, supernormal, and paranormal are the three classifications that fall under the umbrella of abnormal.

Abnormal behavior was frequently viewed in prehistoric civilizations as the product of evil spirits, Satan, deities, or witches who had taken possession of the individual. It was thought that this type of demonic possession happened when the victim behaved in a way that went against the prevalent religious doctrine at the time. The trephination procedure, which was employed by cave inhabitants as a form of treatment, involved cutting a portion of the skull open with a stone tool called a trephine. They thought that the opening in the skull would allow evil spirits to exit, curing the sufferer’s mental illness and allowing them to resume their regular activities.

Theoretical perspectives

Abnormal psychologists investigate mental, cognitive, and/or behavioral disorders that persons face. conduct that is upsetting (socially unacceptable), stressful, maladaptive (or self-defeating), and frequently the outcome of warped thinking (cognition) is referred to as abnormal conduct. A number of theories and views (models, methods based on data) make an effort to explain why aberrant behavior occurs.

1) The medical perspective:

Those who have a medical perspective look at biological and physiological aspects as the origins of abnormal conduct, which is treated as a disease or mental illness, diagnosed by symptoms, and cured by treatment. Hospitalization and medicines are frequently chosen treatment options above psychological evaluation. (Recent research correlating metabolic abnormalities with various atypical behaviors lends support to this approach.)

Also Read: Cognition and Aging: How Age Impacts Memory and Mental Abilities?

2) The psychodynamic perspective:

The psychodynamic approach, suggested as a substitute to the medical model, arose from Freudian theory of psychoanalysis, which holds that psychological diseases are the result of anxiety caused by unresolved, unconscious conflicts. Treatment focuses on identifying and resolving issues.

3) The behavioral perspective:

Advocates of a behavioral perspective argue that poor or inefficient learning and conditioning cause abnormal behavior. The goal of treatments is to modify abnormal behavior and, through traditional learning methods, instruct individuals in developing new, more suitable, and adaptive responses. For example, a behavioral analysis of a child abuse case may conclude that a father abuses his children because he learnt abusive conduct from his father and must now learn more suitable parenting techniques.

4) The cognitive perspective:

The cognitive perspective suggests that individuals engage in deviant behavior due to specific ideas and behaviors, often rooted in incorrect assumptions. Designed to help individuals with maladjustment, treatments aim to facilitate the acquisition of new cognitive processes and values. Therapy is the process of unlearning and replacing harmful habits with more beneficial ones.

Also Read: Is It Possible To Work With Schizophrenia?

5) The social‐cultural perspective:

Social contexts, including family, community, and culture, shape abnormal behavior. People believe that cultural characteristics acquired through learning and cognitive processes significantly influence abnormal behavior. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia, for example, are psychological disorders prevalent in Western cultures that place a high priority on the slim female body.

Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies human behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that fall outside the statistical or societal norm, with “norm” being a relative term. More understanding and empathy, especially in recent years, have helped shed light on this field and on mental health disorders, lifting stigma and ushering in a new era for medical treatment and therapy. The richness and complexity of the abnormal branch of psychology means there are plenty of opportunities to explore, whether that leads you to research or to practice.

• Perspectives on Abnormal Behavior . (n.d.). https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/psychology/psychology/abnormal-psychology/perspectives-on-abnormal-behavior#:~:text=From%20the%20social%E2%80%90cultural%20perspective,important%20in%20producing%20abnormal%20behavior.
• What is abnormal psychology?  (2023, September 19). UAGC. https://www.uagc.edu/blog/what-abnormal-psychology
• Daffin, A. B. &. L. W., Jr, Cuttler, C., & Cummings, J. A. (2020, July 2). 2.1 Historical perspectives on mental illness. Pressbooks. https://openpress.usask.ca/abnormalpsychology/chapter/part-2/#:~:text=Prehistoric%20cultures%20often%20held%20a,religious%20teachings%20of%20the%20time.

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1.2: Understanding Abnormal Behavior

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• Page ID 65331

• Alexis Bridley and Lee W. Daffin Jr.
• Washington State University

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Section Learning Objectives

• Define abnormal psychology, psychopathology, and psychological disorders.
• Explain the concept of dysfunction as it relates to mental illness.
• Explain the concept of distress as it relates to mental illness.
• Explain the concept of deviance as it relates to mental illness.
• Explain the concept of dangerousness as it relates to mental illness.
• Define culture and social norms.
• Know the cost of mental illness to society.
• Identify and describe the various types of mental health professionals.

Definition of Abnormal Psychology and Psychopathology

The term abnormal psychology  refers to the scientific study of people who are atypical or unusual, with the intent to be able to reliably predict, explain, diagnose, identify the causes of, and treat maladaptive behavior. A more sensitive and less stigmatizing term that is used to refer to the scientific study of psychological disorders is psychopathology.   These definitions beg the questions of, what is considered abnormal and what is a psychological or mental disorder?

Defining Psychological Disorders

It may be surprising to you, but the concept of mental or psychological disorders has proven very difficult to define and even the American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2013), in its publication, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5 for short), states that though “no definition can capture all aspects of all disorders in the range contained in the DSM-5” certain aspects are required. While the concept of mental or psychological disorders is difficult to define, and no definition will ever be perfect, it is recognized as an extremely important concept and therefore psychological  disorders  (aka mental disorders ) have been defined as a psychological dysfunction which causes distress or impaired functioning and deviates from typical or expected behavior according to societal or cultural standards. This definition includes three components (3 Ds). Let’s break these down now:

• Dysfunction – includes “clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning” (pg. 20). In other words, dysfunction refers to a breakdown in cognition , emotion , and/or behavior . For instance, an individual experiencing delusions that he is an omnipotent deity would have a breakdown in cognition because his thought processes are not consistent with reality. An individual who is unable to experience pleasure would have a breakdown in emotion. Finally, an individual who is unable to leave her home and attend work due to fear of having a panic attack would be exhibiting a breakdown in behavior. Abnormal behavior has the capacity to make our well-being difficult to obtain and can be assessed by looking at an individual’s current performance and comparing it to what is expected in general or how the person has performed in the past.
• Distress   or Impairment –   Distress can take the form of psychological or physical pain, or both concurrently. Simply put, distress refers to suffering. Alone though, distress is not sufficient enough to describe behavior as abnormal. Why is that? The loss of a loved one would cause even the most “normally” functioning individual pain and suffering. An athlete who experiences a career-ending injury would display distress as well. Suffering is part of life and cannot be avoided. And some people who display abnormal behavior are generally positive while doing so. Typically, if distress is absent then impairment must be present to deem behavior abnormal. Impairment refers to when the person experiences a disabling condition “in social, occupational, or other important activities” (pg. 20). In other words, impairment refers to when a person loses the capacity to function normally in daily life (e.g., can no longer maintain minimum standards of hygiene, pay bills, attend social functions, or go to work). Once again typically distress and/or impairment in functioning are required to consider behavior abnormal and to diagnose a psychological disorder.
• Deviance – A closer examination of the word abnormal shows that it indicates a move away from what is normal, typical, or average. Our culture – or the totality of socially transmitted behaviors, customs, values, technology, attitudes, beliefs, art, and other products that are particular to a group – determines what is normal and so a person is said to be deviant when he or she fails to follow the stated and unstated rules of society, called social norms . What is considered “normal” by society can change over time due to shifts in accepted values and expectations. For instance, just a few decades ago homosexuality was considered taboo in the U.S. and it was included as a mental disorder in the first edition of the DSM; but today, it is generally accepted. Likewise, PDAs, or public displays of affection, do not cause a second look by most people unlike the past when these outward expressions of love were restricted to the privacy of one’s own house or bedroom. In the U.S., crying is generally seen as a weakness for males but if the behavior occurs in the context of a tragedy such as the Vegas mass shooting on October 1, 2017, in which 58 people were killed and about 500 were wounded, then it is appropriate and understandable. Finally, consider that statistically deviant behavior is not necessarily negative. Genius is an example of behavior that is not the norm.

Though not part of the DSM 5’s conceptualization of what abnormal behavior is, many clinicians add a 4th D – dangerousness to this list. Dangerousness refers to when behavior represents a threat to the safety of the person or others. Individuals expressing suicidal intent, those experiencing acute paranoid ideation combined with aggressive impulses (e.g., wanting to harm people who are perceived as “being out to get them”), and many individuals with antisocial personality disorder may be considered dangerous. Mental health professionals (and many other professionals including researchers) have a duty to report to law enforcement when an individual expresses an intent to harm themselves or others. Nevertheless, individuals with depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder are typically no more a threat to others than individuals without these disorders. As such, it is important to note that having a mental disorder does not automatically deem one to be dangerous and most dangerous individuals are not mentally ill. Indeed, a review of the literature (Matthias & Angermeyer, 2002) found that only a small proportion of crimes are committed by individuals with severe mental disorders, that strangers are at a lower risk of being attacked by a person with a severe mental disorder than by someone who is mentally healthy, and that elevated risks to behave violently are limited to a small number of symptom constellations. Similarly, Hiday and Burns (2010) showed that dangerousness is more the exception than the rule.

What is the Cost of Mental Illness to Society?

This leads us to consider the cost of mental illness to society. The National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) indicates that depression is the number one cause of disability across the world “and is a major contributor to the global burden of disease.” Serious mental illness costs the United States an estimated $193 billion in lost earnings each year. They also point out that suicide is the 10th leading cause of death in the U.S. and 90% of those who die from suicide have an underlying mental illness. In relation to children and teens, 37% of students with a mental disorder age 14 and older drop out of school which is the highest dropout rate of any disability group, and 70% of youth in state and local juvenile justice systems have at least one mental disorder. Source: https://www.nami.org/Learn-More/Mental-Health-By-the-Numbers . In terms of worldwide impact, the World Economic Forum used 2010 data to estimate $2.5 trillion in global costs in 2010 and projected costs of $6 trillion by 2030. The costs for mental illness are greater than the combined costs of cancer, diabetes, and respiratory disorders (Whiteford et al., 2013). And finally, “The Social Security Administration reports that in 2012, 2.6 and 2.7 million people under age 65 with mental illness-related disability received SSI and SSDI payments, respectively, which represents 43 and 27 percent of the total number of people receiving such support, respectively” (Source: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/directors/thomas-insel/blog/2015/mental-health-awareness-month-by-the-numbers.shtml ). So as you can see the cost of mental illness is quite staggering for the United States and other countries.

Check this out: Seven Facts about America’s Mental Health-Care System

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/...=.12de8bc56941

In conclusion, though there is no one behavior that we can use to classify people as abnormal, most clinical practitioners agree that any behavior that strays from what is considered the norm or is unexpected within the confines of one’s culture, that causes dysfunction in cognition, emotion, and/or behavior, and that causes distress and/or impairment in functioning, is abnormal behavior. Armed with this understanding, let’s discuss what mental disorders are.

Types of Mental Health Professionals

There are many types of mental health professionals that people may seek out for assistance. They include:

Table 1: Types of Mental Health Professionals

Prescription Rights for Psychologists

To reduce inappropriate and over-prescribing it has been proposed to allow appropriately trained psychologists the right to prescribe. Psychologists are more likely to choose between therapy and medications, and so can make the best choice for their patient. The right has already been granted in New Mexico, Louisiana, Guam, the military, the Indian Health Services, and the U.S. Public Health Services. Measures in other states “have been opposed by the American Medical Association and American Psychiatric Association over concerns that inadequate training of psychologists could jeopardize patient safety. Supporters of prescriptive authority for psychologists are quick to point out that there is no evidence to support these concerns (Smith, 2012).”

For more information on types of mental health professionals, please visit:

http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/types-mental-health-professionals

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34 Abnormal Psychology

Susan A. Nolan is Professor and Chair of the Department of Psychology at Seton Hall University.

• Published: 17 April 2015
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This chapter offers recommendations, evidence-based when possible, on teaching abnormal psychology in an effective and engaging manner. In the first section, we address issues related to the content of an Abnormal Psychology course. We outline the traditional content areas, as well as current topics that are often underemphasized, such as controversies with diagnosis, and international and cross-cultural issues. In the second section, we provide an overview of pedagogical tools that are particularly relevant for an abnormal psychology course, including the use of case material, role-play, and simulation; we provide suggestions on how to use these tools to create a stimulating and interactive classroom. In the third section, we outline ethical issues that can emerge when teaching abnormal psychology, such as informed consent and classroom management of sensitive topics, and offer suggestions for creating an ethical classroom environment.

Instructors assigned to teach Abnormal Psychology should consider themselves lucky! In the American Psychological Associations (APA) glossary of psychological terms, abnormal psychology is defined as “The area of psychological investigation concerned with understanding the nature of individual pathologies of mind, mood, and behavior” ( APA, 2013 ). The abnormal psychology course (also called psychopathology) is one of the most popular courses in the psychology curriculum and holds intrinsic interest for many students ( Perlman & McCann,1999 ). As of 2005, it is taught at 98 percent of campuses and taken by 41 percent of psychology majors ( Stoloff et al., 2010 ). The demand can perhaps be attributed to the general public’s interest in and awareness of many of the topics covered in the course, and their perception of its relevance to many people’s lives. Not surprisingly, Nolen-Hoeksema (1998) noted that some students may take an abnormal psychology course to better understand friends and family who have been diagnosed with a mental illness. Indeed, in a survey of two abnormal psychology courses, Connor-Greene (2001) found that 96 percent of students reported knowing at least one person with a mental illness. Moreover, according to Connor-Greene, students already knew much of the appropriate terminology for various disorders ( Connor-Green, 2001 ). Regardless of the reasons, students are clearly motivated to enroll in an abnormal psychology course.

Yet, paradoxically, students’ excitement for learning about mental illness raises several challenges in the abnormal psychology classroom. First, there are pedagogical difficulties related to content: In particular, how do instructors maintain students’ interest while talking about integral components of the course matter that can be perceived as dry or difficult—research methods, individual differences, psychometrics, and neuroscience? Second, there are issues related to best practices in teaching: For example, how do instructors balance the engaging anecdotes that students might wish to share in class with “drier” empirical content? And third, perhaps particular to a course focusing on mental illness, there are challenges related to ethics: How do instructors uphold the ethics of the field of psychology in teaching and learning situations in which students sometimes stereotype others, disclose too much information, or attempt to diagnose based on a single undergraduate course on psychopathology?

This chapter provides recommendations, evidence based whenever possible, on how to most effectively teach abnormal psychology in spite of potential obstacles. Specifically, in the three sections of this chapter, we will try to address the questions we asked in the preceding paragraph. First, we will cover issues related to the content of an abnormal psychology course, with a discussion of the traditional content areas, as well as important topics that are both engaging and frequently underemphasized; specifically, we will discuss positive psychology, controversies related to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ), and international and sociocultural issues. These sometimes-controversial content areas provide pedagogical fodder for introducing students to an empirical approach to thinking critically about ambiguous topics. And related to critical thinking, we will also discuss the importance of teaching skills as well as knowledge.

Second, we will consider pedagogical tools that are particularly important in an abnormal psychology course, such as using case material, connecting the material to “real life,” making difficult concepts approachable and engaging, and teaching students to be critical consumers of mental health information. We will share best practices related to both the overarching curriculum of the course and the day-to-day pedagogy in the classroom. Third, we will explore the ethical issues that arise when discussing mental health; from boundary issues to confidentiality, from informed consent to developing ground rules for in-class discussion. We will ground this discussion of ethics in the policy and guidelines that the field of psychology, and particularly the APA, has adopted.

At first blush, the content in an abnormal psychology course might seem obvious. A glance at the tables of contents of the bestselling textbooks shows a fairly common core. There are typically several introductory chapters—some history of the field, an overview of the perspectives on psychopathology, a primer on assessment and diagnosis, and the basics of research in this area, often including a piece on neuroscience. Then, there is a series of chapters that cover the major categories of psychological disorders, outlining the etiology, symptoms, epidemiology, and treatment for each. Following the disorders, there may be one or two cross-cutting chapters—perhaps a segment on health and stress or on the intersection of mental health and the legal system.

New instructors often feel pressure to cover all the chapters in this book, but the authors of this chapter encourage instructors to pare down their content coverage for three main reasons. First, textbooks tend to cover more material than can be taught in a semester. Second, there are important areas in the field that either neglected entirely or are folded into traditional chapters, but are current, engaging, and (in our opinion) important to address. We’ll discuss some of these areas later, and encourage you to include them in your courses. Third, as we will discuss, many instructors want to foster the teaching of skills as well as the teaching of facts. By focusing the course on fewer chapters, students’ time in and out of class can be used to help them develop skills in addition to attaining knowledge.

An examination of the tables of contents of 10 popular abnormal psychology textbooks provides some indication of the most commonly covered material as well as content that is more idiosyncratic. Although these books include between 14 and 19 chapters, there are only 10 separate chapters that are in all 10 books:

An introduction.

Perspectives on psychopathology.

Assessment and diagnosis.

Anxiety disorders.

Mood disorders.

Dissociative disorders.

Eating disorders.

Sexual and gender identity disorders.

Schizophrenia.

Disorders of childhood and adolescence.

There are also many content areas that do not show up as a chapter in at least one of the ten volumes reviewed: research methods, somatoform disorders, stress-related disorders, suicide, substance-related disorders, disorders of aging and cognition, personality disorders, and ethics and legal issues. It is important to note that textbooks frequently fold some of these topics into other chapters, but it is telling when a topic is not perceived to merit its own chapter.

Project Syllabus offers further insight into choosing content. The Society for the Teaching of Psychology’s Office of Teaching Resources in Psychology oversees Project Syllabus , an online forum that publishes peer-reviewed “quality examples of syllabi.” Of the six syllabi posted for the abnormal psychology course, five provide course calendars that list the chapters covered. Although a small sample, an analysis of these five “quality” syllabi yields useful guidance. These instructors included a mean of 10.4 and a median of 10 chapters in their courses—a good deal fewer than the mean of 16.6 and median of 17 chapters in the popular textbooks. Moreover, these five instructors only had six chapters in common on their syllabi: the chapters on perspectives on psychopathology, assessment and diagnosis, anxiety disorders, mood disorders, schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, and personality disorders. The runners up? Different combinations of four of out of five of these syllabi included eating disorders, substance disorders, and developmental disorders. It is interesting that some topics (like eating disorders) that are always included in textbooks are not always included in a course. Our advice: Don’t be shy about cutting back to about 10 chapters to achieve the learning goals for your course.

As we noted previously, there are several other important areas beyond most commonly covered content that instructors might not immediately consider, but they are easily woven into the course. These topics are often mentioned briefly or provided as whole sections of a chapter of abnormal psychology textbooks, but they do not tend to be the topic of an entire chapter. We focus on several here as examples—positive psychology, changes and controversies related to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ( DSM : American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ), and international and sociocultural diversity—but acknowledge that there are other important and current areas that instructors might include as well.

Positive psychology.

In their groundbreaking introduction to a special issue in the American Psychologist on positive psychology, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) lamented the focus on psychopathology at the expense of positive experience. The authors explained that “the aim of positive psychology is to begin to catalyze a change in the focus of psychology from preoccupation only with repairing the worst things in life to also building positive qualities” (p. 5). Much of what positive psychology researchers study can be viewed as antidotes to the main topics in an abnormal psychology course. A discussion of the future and of optimism, key parts of positive psychology, can be discussed related to anxiety and worry. An exploration of flow and happiness in the present, also central to positive psychology, can be contrasted with a discussion of mood disorders. In fact, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi observe that a study of positive qualities and personal strengths can help those with mental illness, pointing out that clinicians who emphasize clients’ strengths can bolster their clients’ resilience, and resilience is an essential part of any discussion on stress (and other disorders). The authors ask an important question for instructors of abnormal psychology: “What does mental health look like when seen from the perspective of positive psychology?” (p. 10).

We acknowledge that positive psychology has had its critics over the years (e.g., Lazarus, 2003 ) and stress that it is important to incorporate dissenting research into any discussion about this growing field. In spite of this, we urge instructors to incorporate at least a segment on positive psychology into their courses, if not a recurring piece. Although most students will encounter psychopathology themselves or in their loved ones at some point in their lives, all students can benefit from an exploration of positive psychology.

Diagnosis and the DSM.

Soon before this book went to press, the DSM headed into its fifth edition—(5th ed.; DSM–5;   American Psychiatric Association, 2013 )- the culmination of a renewed discussion of the limitations of and controversies related to the diagnosis of mental illness. Here we will discuss three broad issues that instructors could cover in a segment on diagnosis to dispel the myth that diagnosis is an exact science. We will first discuss problems with a categorical system of diagnosis, as opposed to continuous measurement. We will then talk about the political, rather than the scientific, inputs into the DSM . Lastly, we will talk about the pros and cons of using a diagnostic system such as the DSM .

Over the years, numerous researchers and clinicians have pointed out the problems inherent in the DSM (e.g., Widiger & Clark, 2000 ). One major problem results from its categorical system of diagnosis, sometimes described as “qualitative deviations from mental health” (p. 164; Hyman, 2010 ). Hyman notes the lack of continuous, qualitative scales in psychopathology diagnoses, in contrast to quantitative or “dimensional” measurements frequently used in general medicine (e.g., blood pressure, cholesterol). A cutoff that differentiates health from a disorder is, ultimately, arbitrary, and continuous measures might both be more accurate and provide important nuanced information (e.g., Widiger & Samuel, 2005 ). Indeed, research shows that lower levels of symptomatology can constitute a precursor to a diagnosable mental illness and should be monitored and potentially treated ( Shankman, Lewinsohn, Klein, Small, Seeley, & Altman, 2009 ). Debates about the model of diagnosis—qualitative versus quantitative—can incorporate critical thinking into class discussions.

Second, students should consider the potential impact of human biases and agendas on the DSM (For example, Cosgrove and Krimsky (2012) outline the financial considerations that might have influenced the 170 participants in the development of the DSM-IV (4th ed.; DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) and DSM-5 (5th ed., DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ), They reported, for example, that 69 percent of those working on DSM-5 had financial ties to the pharmaceutical industry, an increase from the 57 percent of those working on the DSM-IV. Political and cultural debates can also usurp science as the sole determinant of what should be in the DSM). For example, in recent years, the validity of a diagnosis of Internet addiction has been debated; is it its own disorder, an ancillary to another disorder, or a “phase of life problem” (e.g., Pies, 2009 )?

Internet addiction as a diagnosis was described first as a joke by a medical doctor, but rapidly became a cultural catchphrase ( Morahan-Martin, 2005 ). The discussions that have ensued in the run-up have been as much about the cultural role of the Internet in society as the science on Internet addiction, and offer an interesting window on the many factors that influence the DSM ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ). Morahan-Martin (2005) describes the debates about whether this diagnosis “trivializes the concept of substance-related addiction,” whether fear of newer technology makes people view hours on the Internet as an addiction in a way that we do not view hours spent watching television, and whether Internet addiction as a diagnosis is referendum of online relationships. Ultimately, internet addiction was not included in DSM-5.

More controversially, the political maneuvering that led to the removal of homosexuality from the DSM in 1973 ( Spitzer, 1981 ), engagingly outlined in the This American Life radio episode “81 words” ( Spiegel, 2002 ), has been paralleled by more current debates about Gender Identity Disorder (GID) (e.g., Drescher, 2009 ). When the DSM-IV-TR ( 4th ed., text rev.; DSM-IV-TR ; American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ) was released in 2000, GID was diagnosed if someone identified with the other gender—termed “cross-gender identification”—and experienced discomfort about their “assigned sex or a sense of inappropriateness in the gender role of that sex” (p. 576). In DSM-5 (5th ed.; DSM–5;   American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ), GID was replaced with gender dysphoria, which focuses on the emotional response to the experiences encapsulated in the previous GID diagnosis, rather than the behaviors. The psychiatrists and psychologists behind the changes cited a desire to reduce stigma as a reason for the revision ( Moran, 2013 ).

Similarly, discussions of sex and gender have changed over time. There was virtually no reference to sex or gender in the first DSM (1st ed.; DSM-1 ; American Psychiatric Association, 1952) in 1952; yet, since then, gender has increasingly been viewed as an important consideration, leading to controversy and debate (e.g., Kornstein, 2010 ). For example, there were controversies over Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder in the 1980s and 1990s, and discussions two decades later about whether women are overrepresented among those diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder with Atypical Features, which thus should not be considered “atypical” (e.g., Kornstein, 2010 ).

Finally, it is important to talk about the pros and cons of DSM -based diagnosis. On the one hand, the DSM plays an important role in mental health care. For example, diagnostic codes are necessary for clinicians to receive reimbursement from insurance companies, and the five-axis diagnosis model provides a useful shorthand for clinicians to communicate with one another. On the other hand, the DSM suffers from the problems described previously. In addition, researchers have noted inequities in its application, including bias based on race, gender, and social class (e.g., Garb, 2006 ). Moreover, because people who do not fit a diagnostic category are not covered by insurance, diagnoses might be manipulated for financial reasons ( Cooper, 2004 ). Further, a mental illness label can lead to stigma, which can exacerbate mental illness and lead people to avoid treatment (e.g., Ben-Zeev, Young, & Corrigan, 2010 ; Wahl, 2012 ).

The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) has criticized the DSM-5 (5th ed.; DSM–5;   American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ) for many of these reasons, stating that while it still provides a necessary structure for clinical work, it no longer provides a sufficient structure for research. The NIMH has developed a new system for researchers, the Research Domain Criteria project, that they hope will “[lay] the groundwork for a future diagnostic system that more directly reflects modern brain science” ( Insel & Lieberman, 2013 ). In summary, with regard to the DSM students should be made aware that diagnosis is often flawed, not based solely on scientific evidence, and potentially harmful—at the same time that it is a necessary tool.

International and sociocultural issues.

Around the world, there is an increasing emphasis on the internationalization of higher education across the curriculum and in the classroom (e.g., Billings, 2006 ; Green, Luu, & Burris, 2008 ), with a National Research Council ( NRC, 2008 ) report emphasizing the importance of a global emphasis in the social sciences in particular. Within psychology, APA, (2007) has outlined 10 Principles of Quality Undergraduate Programs that are related to the knowledge and skills that should be taught in undergraduate psychology curricula; one goal relates to “sociocultural and international awareness” in which “students will recognize, understand, and respect the complexity of sociocultural and international diversity” (p. 10). Further, in 2008, the annual APA Education Leadership Conference focused specifically on the internationalization of the psychology curriculum.

In this section, we will discuss several of the many topics through which international and sociocultural diversity can be introduced in a course in Abnormal Psychology—the role of demographics such as gender, the need for clinicians to be culturally aware, and differences in the prevalence and expression of mental illness across cultures. First, it is important to highlight demographics, including gender, race, sexual orientation, religion, and social class. See the section on the DSM earlier, in which we discussed ways in which some of these demographic characteristics relate to the development of the DSM and to bias in diagnosis.

Second, it is important for students to consider the need for cultural awareness and competence in clinicians, not only when diagnosing, but also when treating people with psychopathology. For example, Sue (2003) delivers an impassioned defense of cultural competence, which he framed as a clinical attempt to “respond to the needs of different ethnic groups or to appreciate cultural influences” (p. 965), and the APA agrees with him. Indeed, APA policy is driven by its published multicultural guidelines for psychologists (2002). More specifically, in the context of psychosocial disaster relief, a lack of cultural understanding can be problematic, particularly when the relief is provided largely by Westerners, as is often the case ( Miller, 2012 ). Again, APA policy is instructive; there are published guidelines for psychologists who provide aid following international emergencies. The guidelines emphasize that “traumatic stress and traumatic stress reactions, and appropriate interventions for recovery are profoundly embedded in culture” ( APA, 2008 ). Although many students will not go on to use this information in practice, we believe that, even for students who will not enter the mental health field, understanding the impact of culture on healing can enrich students’ appreciation for the complexities and subtleties of psychological intervention.

Third, mental illness can look quite different from one culture to another, which can challenge students’ notions of what mental illness is and further elucidate the political and cultural influences on the DSM . Starting with the DSM-IV (4th ed.; DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994), culture-bound syndromes, idiosyncratic disorders specific to a given location or culture, were an explicit category. For example, koro occurs in Asia and describes fear among men that their penis is retracting into their body or among women that their vulva and nipples are retracting (see Paniagua, 2000 , for an overview of culture-bound syndromes). In 1999, Guarnaccia and Rogler argued that because the DSM is now used internationally, it is incumbent on its developers to expand the research and coverage of these disorders. In response to arguments like this, the DSM-5 now includes a section on culturally relevant issues for each disorder. There also is evidence that disorders that once appeared tied to a given culture can spread. For example, anorexia nervosa, once an almost exclusively Western phenomenon, rapidly spread throughout Asia after the highly publicized death of a 14-year-old girl in 1994 ( Watters, 2010 ).

Teaching knowledge and skills.

To this point, we have focused on topics that are typically covered in an abnormal psychology course, as well as current topics that can cut across the traditional chapters. Yet, beyond the content, it also is important to consider the skills that we impart in an abnormal psychology course. First, the APA guidelines for the undergraduate major, described earlier, outline 10 learning goals, a number of which are skills-based—critical thinking, information and technological literacy, and communication skills among them. Further, psychologist Drew Appleby (2001) argues for explicit consideration of the “covert curriculum,” the skills and characteristics that students develop in their courses—qualities that overlap a good deal with the APA learning goals.

We believe that several of Appleby’s instances of these covert skills are particularly relevant in abnormal psychology. Students must learn to behave in a mature and respectful manner when discussing behaviors that might seem strange or humorous, but that might, for example, affect a classmate whose relative has a particular disorder. Students learn to manage stress and conflict successfully as they debate controversial issues with classmates who have had different experiences. Students must accept responsibility for their own behaviors and attitudes for a course in which expressing opinions might have real consequences for a classmate grappling with mental illness in her or his life. And throughout all this, students must build critical thinking skills as they wrestle with many of the inconsistencies and controversies in the field, such as the problems with the DSM-5 ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ), and seek out research rather than anecdotes to back (or overturn) their views.

In addition to choosing course content, identifying effective methods to help students comprehend this information is of fundamental importance to a successful course. Abnormal psychology courses afford instructors opportunities to incorporate a number of pedagogical techniques that can bring psychopathology to life for students. There is evidence that an interactive classroom leads to better learning than does a traditional lecture-based format ( Ruben, 1999 ), and the abnormal psychology course provides myriad opportunities to break away from a straight lecture format in engaging and memorable ways. In this section, we will present research on classroom activities and tools instructors can utilize to engage students when learning about psychopathology. Finally, we will recommend techniques and strategies that can be used to challenge negative stereotypes about psychopathology and the mentally ill.

Assessment.

There are several ways in which self-report assessments can be useful in an abnormal psychology course. For example, we can assess and challenge students’ understanding of mental illness with brief assessments of their existing knowledge. Alternately, we can provide students with self-report measures of symptomatology to help them understand a disorder in light of their own experiences. We will discuss specific approaches that address both of these goals in using assessment. With both types of assessments, instructors might find it beneficial to integrate discussions about validity, reliability, and cultural differences.

First, it can be helpful to begin the course with an assessment of students’ knowledge regarding mental illness and their exposure to and experience with someone who has been diagnosed with a mental illness. For example, as part of a classroom activity, Connor-Greene (2001) asked her students to list the following information: a psychiatric disorder; the person who suffered from it; and, on a scale from 1-5, how well they knew this person. Students were asked to limit their lists to people they knew who both showed symptoms of and received treatment for a psychiatric disorder. Based on this class exercise, 96 percent of the students reported knowing someone with a mental illness. Understanding incoming students’ knowledge about mental illness, including their misconceptions, can shape classroom discussions and provide information on how to best teach the course ( Connor-Greene, 2001 )

Second, assessments can be used for students to examine disorders in light of their own experiences. There is a range of assessment tools that can be used in this manner. Many measures are available for free online (e.g., assessmentpsychology.com ; apa.org ; psychologytools.org ). In addition, many abnormal psychology textbooks have an ancillary instructor’s manual that includes tests and measures that accompany the chapters on disorders. Alternately, campus counseling centers are often willing to share assessments that they use, which has the side benefit of informing students about services available on campus.

Some measures that can be used to introduce highly prevalent disorders include the Beck Depression Inventory ( Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996 ), the Beck Anxiety Inventory ( Beck & Steer, 1990 ), and the Eating Disorders Inventory ( Garner & Garfinkel, 1984 ). We find that it is useful to introduce a specific disorder by having students complete an assessment anonymously. When students complete such assessments, they have a better memory for the symptoms and are better able to think critically about issues surrounding a particular disorder.

Assessments might also be useful for discussions of difficult or controversial topics; for example, students might be asked to complete a measure such as the Revised Facts on Suicide Quiz ( McIntosh, Kelly, & Arnett, 1992 ). After students score their own quizzes, the instructor can engage them in a discussion of why particular items were misleading or incorrect, and can provide students with a list of resources related to suicide prevention. Hubbard and McIntosh (1992) found that this assessment activity increased students’ understanding about suicide and suicide prevention by challenging their knowledge.

However, we issue a word of caution; prior to any in-class assessment exercise, instructors should highlight that these measures are for educational purposes and are not to be used for self-diagnosis. Further, instructors should provide referral information to the university counseling center in case students wish to discuss their self-assessments with a mental health professional. Providing students with resources on where to obtain more information regarding mental illness and with whom to speak when there is a problem, encourages students to be more critical and knowledgeable consumers of mental health.

Incorporating real-life examples.

Students can find it difficult to relate to the complex experiences of people with mental illness. Traditionally, categorical lists of symptoms have been used in textbooks and the classroom to help students understand psychopathology. However, this one-dimensional approach offers little in the way of true understanding. Abnormal psychology instructors commonly expand on such lists by incorporating anecdotal experiences into classroom activities. These real-life examples can include informal class discussions where students might share relevant experiences, classroom presentations by students or guest lecturers on their experiences, case studies, and different forms of media (e.g., news, movies/TV, books).

There are several advantages to incorporating real or fictional first-hand experiences; for example, they can enrich students’ learning experience by “complementing the outsider-looking-in” perspective of textbooks with an insider perspective ( Norcross, Sommer, & Clifford, 2001 , p.125). The inclusion of examples and narratives can also help students develop an appreciation of and empathy for someone who has a mental illness ( Banyard, 2000 ) through material that highlights the complexity of etiology, symptoms, treatment, and prognosis. Discussions related to this material might include struggles experienced by family members, potential detrimental side effects of medications, impacts of stigma, and controversial issues in psychiatric treatment. First-person narratives also can demonstrate that people are not defined by mental illness, and have qualities, interests, and relationships beyond their psychopathology; this can help students recognize the greater context in which mental illness exists ( Grauerholz & Copenhaver, 1994 ).

Real-life examples can also provide a context for students to discuss the various approaches to psychopathology. Indeed, anecdotal evidence suggests that students particularly enjoy assignments that weave case-study material with theoretical perspectives ( Perkins, 1991 ). Further, by having students dissect a case study using several theoretical approaches, students learn how different theories offer specific, but often overlapping, insight into abnormal psychology. Finally, these discussions allow students to consider the values and the limitations of the various approaches with respect to the explanations for and treatment of psychological disorders.

Real-life examples can be introduced in several ways. First, instructors can harness students’ personal experiences. As previously mentioned, students taking an abnormal psychology course often come in with prior knowledge about psychopathology. One fairly innocuous way to include students’ experiences is to start the course by asking students to raise their hand if they, a family member, a significant other, or a close friend have ever been diagnosed or treated with a mental illness. The broad question allows students to respond without indicating who in their lives received the diagnosis or treatment. In our experience, students are typically surprised that almost every student in the class raises her or his hand. This provides an opportunity to talk about the prevalence of mental illness and the importance of maintaining a respectful dialogue throughout the course, knowing that it is likely that at least one student has been affected in relation to almost every course topic. This technique may also be used with individual topics, particularly with common disorders such as those related to anxiety, mood, or eating. If confidentiality is a concern, instructors can also utilize a classroom response system in which students answer potentially sensitive questions by choosing a response via a remote. Aggregated results can then be presented to the class, potentially “normalizing” experiences and increasing participation ( Brewster, 1996 ).

We have also had students approach us to offer to speak about their personal experiences with a mental illness—either their own experiences or that of a close family member or friend. Prior to such presentations, instructors should meet with potential volunteers to assess competence to produce an effective presentation ( Tolman, 2011 ). For instance, it can be helpful to determine if volunteers will overly emphasize negative aspects of their experience, because this can adversely affect students’ attitudes ( Kendra, Cattaneo, & Mohr, 2012 ) or inadvertently introduce risky behaviors (such as methods used by those with eating disorders) ( Yager, 2007 ). Another potential approach is for students to write about their experiences in a way that can be shared with the class anonymously (e.g., posted on the class Web page, read by the instructor). This approach protects the student from potential repercussions, particularly increased stigma, and also allows the instructor to minimize the likelihood that a student may be predominantly motivated by attention seeking. Additionally, the instructor can provide feedback to the student during the writing process, to ensure that the content is maximally instructive to the class. There are also ethical considerations to student disclosure, which are discussed later.

Another option is for instructors to invite guest speakers who live with mental illness, who work for an organization such as the National Alliance on Mental Illness ( NAMI, 2010 ), or who work as mental health clinicians. Having a speaker share her or his own life story and the recovery process can provide information in an accessible manner. It can also be useful to have a practitioner talk about her or his work with people with a mental illness, particularly if the course instructor does not have current clinical experience. University resources, such as a counseling center, student health center, or disability support services office, are potential sources for a clinician guest speaker, providing the dual benefit of teaching students about the treatment of mental illness and raising students’ awareness about the on-campus counseling center.

Published autobiographies written by people who have experienced mental illness or case studies written by clinicians can provide yet another way for students to learn from “real-life” information ( Norcross et al., 2001 ). An added benefit is that autobiographies or case studies avoid some of the aforementioned potential pitfalls of student self-disclosure ( Yager, 2007 ). Several studies suggest that students respond positively to incorporating autobiographies into classroom learning. Norcross and colleagues (2001) found that when autobiographies were used to supplement teaching material, students reported appreciating this style of teaching and believed that the autobiographies enhanced their understanding of mental illness. The authors assert that, for the first time, students experienced psychopathology as a “continuum of normal traits” and commented that the autobiographies “transformed mental disorders from something unfathomable and bizarre in strangers to something understandable and familiar in fellow humans” (p. 127). Banyard (2000) provides students’ qualitative responses to the use of autobiographies as a teaching tool. Students reported that autobiographies “… made it easier to understand the disorder seeing it from an actual patient’s point of view ;… made me realize how a disorder affects one’s sense of self and lifestyle; the readings in the (text) book were effective in portraying the facts … but to gain a clear understanding I needed to be able to empathize … absolutely need a combination of both types of reading” (p.42).

In an experimental investigation of the impact of using a narrative approach, Mann and Himelein (2008) compared a “diagnostic approach” lecture (students learned the DSM-IV criteria, read excerpts written by clinicians, viewed a third-person-perspective video, and participated in a diagnostic task of identifying the disorder based on a ambiguous case) with a “humanizing approach” lecture that utilized first-person narratives, first-person video documentary, and a poetry assignment, where students were instructed to write from the perspective of someone with a mental illness. Students in the narrative-infused classroom showed a significant decrease in stigma in comparison to those in the “diagnostic approach” classroom.

There are several ways in which instructors can use films and other media in the Abnormal Psychology classroom. For example, they can use educational films, news articles, clips from the popular media, and other sources to teach about particular disorders, provide a humanistic and historical perspective of mental illness, or assist in the process of reducing stigmatization and promoting empathy toward the mentally ill.

The inclusion of media portrayals of mental illness can provide an engaging and memorable way to convey information and spur discussion. They can also have the additional benefit of reducing stigma and misperceptions ( Hyler, Gabbard, & Schneider, 1991 ), and increasing empathy toward people with mental illness ( Heston & Kottman, 1997 ; Schulenberg, 2003 ; Wedding & Niemiec, 2003 ). According to the U.S. Surgeon General’s ( U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999 ) report, stigma is the number-one barrier to mental health treatment. Stigma is almost certainly enhanced by inaccurate depictions of mental illness in the media, a potential pitfall that will be discussed more fully later in the section on ethics. Given the detrimental effects of stigma, abnormal psychology courses can use the media to not only highlight the problems of stigma, but also increase empathy in students.

It is important, however, to choose examples in a thoughtful manner to avoid inadvertently perpetuating stereotypes, and to include assignments that explicitly challenge media sensationalization and misinformation. For this reason, we encourage instructors to use media portrayals of mental illness that have been suggested by reputable sources whenever possible. For example, the Society for the Teaching of Psychology’s Office of Teaching Resources in Psychology publishes several peer-reviewed film resources on its Web site, including Nelson’s (2006)   Using Film to Teach Psychology: A Resource of Film Study Guides ( http://teachpsych.org/otrp/resources/nelson06.pdf/ ). There are also texts that identify films useful for teaching abnormal psychology (e.g. Wedding, Boyd, & Niemiec, 2010 ). Furthermore, instructors might utilize publisher-produced videos that accompany the textbook.

Instructors might also assign students to find media clips or articles, and connect this activity to information literacy. For example, Connor-Greene (1993) assigned students to locate newspaper or magazine articles that report psychological research and compare the media coverage with the write-up in the original source (i.e., the published journal article). Such an activity can spur students to be critical consumers of information, learning that the popular press is not necessarily a reliable source. Further, students can learn about the problems that derive from generalizing beyond anecdotal examples presented in media sources and from assuming a causal understanding based on limited information ( Connor-Greene, 2001 ).

In contrast to the problems with the popular media, educational films tend to provide material and facts that are more directly grounded in research. Because educational films hew closer to the facts than many mass media sources, they tend to avoid misleading exaggerations. However, successful use of educational media still requires careful planning in choosing films, providing opportunities for classroom discussion about the movie content and reactions, and drawing connections to the assigned academic readings ( Hudock & Werden, 2001 ; Maynard, 1996 ; Rosenstock, 2003 ).

There is evidence that students value the inclusion of educational films. For example, one study investigating a two-part classroom session, with a lecture in the beginning of the class followed by an educational film, showed positive findings incorporating film to supplement the lecture. Inclusion of film engaged students in thought-provoking discussions and was a useful didactic vehicle for conveying a wide range of psychological information. Students reported a better understanding about psychopathology and showed an increased appreciation for how educational films influence our thinking about mental illness ( Fleming, Piedmont, & Hiam, 1990 )

Additionally, the type of media can impact student learning outcomes. For example, in one study, Corrigan, Larson, Sells, Niessen, & Watts (2007) sought to examine the differences in stigmatizing perceptions in participants who viewed either a 10-minute video of a person with mental illness receiving an intervention or a 10-minute educational video narrated by the same person. Participants who viewed the education video showed an increased willingness to acknowledge that people with mental illness are not to blame for their symptoms and disabilities, whereas those in the intervention video showed increased empathy ( Corrigan et al., 2007 ).

Simulation of mental illness.

In addition to providing students with examples of others’ experiences with mental illness, simulation exercises can help students to develop a greater understanding of the symptoms and impact of mental illness and can foster empathy among students ( Chaffin & Adams, 2012 ; Banks et al., 2004 ; Mantovani, Castelnuovo, Gaggioli, & Riva, 2003 ). For example, in one study of disability broadly defined ( Wurst & Wolford, 1994 ), nondisabled students were asked to choose one of four types of disabilities, and then to enact that role for the day—a visual impairment that simulated macular degeneration (using light-filtered glasses that blocked the central visual field), a hearing deficit (using sound-reducing earplugs), a motor disability (using a wheelchair or crutches), or a psychological disability (not talking for the day). Regardless of the specific disability, students noted the adverse effects of having these disabilities and the challenges of routine tasks that students previously took for granted; moreover, they exhibited an increase in emotional empathy and appreciation for people with disabilities.

Another new technology-based pedagogical technique involves Virtual Reality (VR) Simulators in which participants experience delusions and hallucinations as part of a simulated psychotic episode. Students involved in one study of VR ( Tichon, Loh, & King, 2004 ) described the simulation as more effective than verbal descriptions in creating an understanding of hallucinations. More than 80 percent of students exposed to the VR software found this to be a positive experience and agreed that VR successfully facilitated their learning about schizophrenia. Learning by using technology to understand and experience these diagnoses also may promote the development of empathy and awareness ( Tichon, Loh, & King, 2004 ).

However, a synthesis of 10 studies examined the effects of using simulation of hallucinations to reduce stigma, and found mixed results ( Ando, Clement, Barley & Thornicroft, 2011 ). Although empathy toward those suffering from hallucination increased in some studies, the desire for social distance from people with schizophrenia ( Ando, et al., 2011 ) and stigma also increased ( Brown, 2010 ; Brown, Yolanda, Espenschade, & O’Connor, 2010 ). Furthermore, these studies only show the impact of simulation use on attitudes toward the mentally ill and not on behavioral stigma outcomes (e.g., social interaction and care of people with schizophrenia).

These finding suggests that the use of simulations as part of an effective curriculum is inconclusive and needs additional evaluation for efficacy. Brown and colleagues (2010) noted that simulations are effective when they are personal and contextual; are enjoyable; do not cause discomfort; and are supplemented with other forms of intervention, such as education or contact. Clearly, additional efficacy research is warranted. Further, students should also be cautioned that a brief experience with a disability simulation represents only a glimpse of the actual experience of living with a disability.

An additional beneficial approach for familiarizing students with mental illness is role-playing. Role-playing has been shown to change students’ perceptions of negative stereotypes of people with psychological disorders and increase empathy toward this vulnerable population ( Anderson, Gundersen, Banken, Halvorson, & Schmutte, 1989 ). In a typical role-play activity, students choose a psychological disorder, research its symptoms, depict its characteristics by writing a brief biography, and then role-play the character(s) to the rest of the class. Following role-play, Poorman (2002) observed an increase in students’ self-reported empathy with the Interpersonal Reactivity Index ( Davis, 1980 ), a finding that was supported by interviews from focus groups. Specifically, students, on average, developed an improved understanding of psychopathology, decreased judgmental attitudes, and increased sympathy toward those with mental illness.

Evaluation of student academic performance.

Although many instructors utilize traditional methods of assessment, the content and goals of an abnormal psychology course also lend themselves to less common approaches. For most of our assignments, but especially those that are atypical in structure or objectives, we include grading rubrics to help students understand expectations and to provide clear feedback on their work. (See http://www.williamaltman.info/Bill_Projects/Rubrics.html/ for suggestions regarding rubrics.)

As mentioned previously, cases (real or fictional) of people with psychological disorders can be used for both in-class exercises and take-home assignments. To provide opportunities for students to apply diagnostic criteria, instructors can select a case (or allow them to select one on their own from the popular media) for students to “diagnose.” In addition to enhancing understanding of specific diagnoses, these assignments can highlight some of the challenges inherent in diagnosis, including the requirements for symptom duration or the subjectivity involved in determining if a person’s behavior meets the “impairment” criterion. A diagnostic assignment can also work well as a final, integrative paper, in which students apply and evaluate multiple concepts discussed during the course (e.g., assessment methods, theoretical orientations, treatment approaches). Cases can typically be found in textbooks; moreover, most publishers offer stand-alone texts that present case examples. Case authors often provide related critical thinking questions, which could be used either for class discussion or as an assessment of student comprehension. In addition to written cases, most textbooks provide ancillary video interviews of people with psychological disorders that can be used either in class or for a take-home assignment.

As we discussed earlier, teaching abnormal psychology can provide opportunities to assess critical thinking in the context of the numerous “controversial” issues that invite debate and evaluation. Textbook series such as “Taking Sides” from McGraw-Hill has an edition focused on abnormal psychology (see Halgin, 2013 ). Two sides of a controversial issue are presented with related discussion/critical thinking questions. Students can write reaction/response papers to the readings where they evaluate the different arguments, provide and defend their own opinions, and cite research to support their stance. Additionally, as noted earlier related to Gender Identity Disorder/Gender Dysphoria diagnoses, public radio often airs “human interest” stories that involve questions related to psychopathology. Students could be assigned a podcast and be asked to evaluate the content with regard to accuracy, and type and strength of arguments.

We also discussed activities in which students critically evaluate the popular media’s presentation of psychological issues. To assess students’ development in information literacy, instructors can evaluate their ability to evaluate media portrayals in light of research and theory covered in class. For instance, instructors can lead students through in-class activities where they find psychology-related popular press articles from reputable news sources (the Newseum website provides links to daily newspaper front pages from around the world http://www.newseum.org/todaysfrontpages/default.asp/ ). Class discussion might focus on evaluating an article with respect to course concepts, such as diagnostic controversies, new treatment approaches, and ethical issues. On exams, students can then read and critically evaluate a brief, novel article in ways that parallel the previous class discussion. For example, students might read an article on someone who has been involuntarily committed, and discuss the individual situation in light of the pros and cons outlined in class. Then, on the exam, an article on a different person might be presented for students to review and comment. In addition to traditional approaches to evaluation of student learning, instructors can take advantage of the numerous ways to apply abnormal psychology to real-world experiences.

In addition to issues related to content and pedagogy, teaching abnormal psychology raises particular ethical and procedural considerations— considerations often not found in other courses in psychology and other disciplines. Most importantly, abnormal psychology courses commonly include activities that provide exposure to mental illness in the “real-world.” Such activities introduce concerns related to voluntary participation on the part of the student as well as competence to consent to involvement in exercises where people with mental illness are involved. Additionally, such activities can touch on issues of confidentiality, as well as whether the activities actually lead to the intended learning outcomes, such as the reduction of stigma. Lastly, given the prevalence of mental health symptoms in the United States ( U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999 ), course content might overlap with issues directly and currently impacting students’ lives. This can lead to challenges in managing classroom behaviors and in effectively addressing students’ personal concerns.

Competence.

Although competence to teach specific content is relevant to any teaching situation, abnormal psychology courses are typically taught by current or former clinicians and by clinicians in training. Although this is the convention, that should not preclude instructors from other disciplines within psychology from teaching the course. In one study, students reported generally positive ratings when their abnormal psychology class was taught by an experimental psychologist ( Smith, 1989 ). For instructors who are concerned about whether they have the expertise to teach abnormal psychology, Sieracki (2009) provides several tips. Although the article, included in the Reference list later, focuses somewhat on clinical graduate students and new instructors, instructors from nonclinical fields might also find the suggestions useful.

Issues of informed consent.

Abnormal psychology courses lend themselves to experiential activities that, although typically interesting to students, can raise ethical concerns related to participation. In the same way that researchers are required to obtain informed consent from subjects, instructors might consider obtaining “informed consent” from students when they are asked to participate in activities that might be distressing, such as visiting a psychiatric facility or participating in in-class activities, such as sharing personal information or participating in pseudo-therapeutic activities. Students should always understand that their participation is voluntary and be afforded opportunities for alternate assignments, particularly if activities are related to grades ( Canu, 2008 ; Scogin & Rickard, 1987 ; Witting, Perkins, Balogh, Whitley, & Keith-Spiegel, 1999 ). When applicable, instructors should prepare students for the possibility of distress ( Scogin & Rickard, 1987 ) and have appropriate interventions prepared ( Canu, 2008 ).

As described in the previous section on pedagogy, introduction of personal accounts by those with mental illness can enhance students’ understanding of specific diagnostic content as well as decrease stigma toward those with psychological disorders ( Banyard, 2000 , Mann & Himelein, 2008 ). This is typically achieved through case literature and videos. Although we assume that consent was obtained from publishers who produce videos of people providing autobiographical accounts of their experiences, it can be useful to discuss relevant issues with students. Connections can be made between ethical discussions of competency to stand trial and competency to consent to share one’s experience for educational purposes.

For instance, if an instructor shows a video of a person experiencing psychotic symptoms, the class might discuss whether consent was obtained when the person was not symptomatic? Additionally, although students typically enjoy case material provided by instructors with clinical experience, ensuring the confidentiality of patients can be challenging, especially in small communities ( Halonen, 2005 ). Instructors might consider getting consent from their patients if they plan on discussing them in any depth during class. When there is any doubt related to confidentiality and consent of the patients being discussed, the instructor should err on the side of discussing published cases rather than her or his own experiences.

Impacting stigma.

As discussed earlier, prior studies suggest that exposure to those with mental health symptoms can reduce stigma (e.g., Banyard, 2000 ; Mann & Himelein, 2008 ; Wurst & Wolford, 1994 ), but stigma-reducing activities can also have unintended negative consequences (e.g. Brown, 2010 ). Limited research suggests that activities that emphasize learning about specific people and that focus on discussion and empathy building might be particularly effective ( Mann & Himelein, 2008 ). Regardless, instructors incorporating simulations, first-person accounts, and the like should use caution and examine the existing literature regarding potential impacts of various pedagogical approaches ( Brown, 2010 ).

Considering stigma is particularly important when utilizing popular media. As noted earlier in the section on pedagogy, accounts in the popular media can also provide challenges related to their negative portrayals of mental illness. In addition to inaccuracies with new media, films and television shows depicting mental illness are generally created for entertainment rather than educational purposes. As a consequence, depictions of people with mental illness are often incorrect or misleading ( Wahl, 1995 ), and are likely to emphasize disturbing characteristics, such as dangerousness ( Wedding & Niemiec, 2003 ). For example, Signorielli (1989) found that more than 70 percent of mentally ill characters in television dramas were depicted, either explicitly or implicitly, as committing acts of violence. This statistic contrasts with the fact that 92 percent of people with mental illnesses never show any signs of violence and only 4 percent of murderers show signs of psychological disturbance ( Swanson, Holzer, Ganju, & Jono, 1990 ). Mental health professionals also tend to be portrayed inaccurately (e.g., they are typically psychiatrists) or as incompetent ( Wedding & Niemiec, 2003 ).

Issues related to students’ own experiences.

In addition to learning more about the experiences of strangers with mental health issues, students in an abnormal psychology class might have their own direct experience with mental illness. The likely presence of students’ prior experiences raises ethical questions about the potential harm related to learning course material, including potentially insensitive comments by classmates and distress related to the personalization of course content. For example, students might become concerned that they or a close friend or family member has a mental illness. Limited data suggest a complex picture; learning about mental disorders has been associated with a decrease in student concern about their own likelihood of having a disorder but a possible increase in concern related to mental illness among family members ( Curtin, Martz, Bazzini, & Vicente, 2004 ; Hardy & Calhoun, 1997 ). To address any concerns a student might have about developing a disorder, instructors can try to emphasize that, in terms of genetics, probabilities do not mean certainties for the development of psychological disorders ( Connor-Greene, 2001 ). Publicizing campus and community resources can also empower students who have concerns about the mental health of themselves or family members ( Hardy & Calhoun, 1997 ).

Classroom management.

As previously stated, many of the topics related to abnormal psychology are intrinsically interesting to students, and often have personal relevance. Informal classroom discussions can be compelling and expand students’ understanding of mental health; however, they can raise classroom management concerns. Instructors should exercise caution that the entertainment aspect does not supersede the educational value ( Halonen, 2005 ) or that classmates are not made uncomfortable by inappropriate personal disclosures ( Perlman, 2007 ). In addition to redirecting discussions that begin to lose their educational value, instructors can suggest meeting individually with students who have difficulty identifying content that is appropriate for class discussion ( Perlman, 2007 ).

A situation in which a student has difficulties with in-class boundaries can be particularly challenging when a student is actively experiencing mental health symptoms that impact his or her classroom behavior. It creates a dilemma for an instructor who wants to be sensitive to the student in question but does not want the situation to negatively impact the rest of the class, either by making other students uncomfortable or consuming teaching time ( Halgin, 1982 ). Speaking with the student outside of class can help the instructor ascertain the student’s awareness of their behavior and any treatment the student might be receiving ( Goss, 1995 ; Halgin, 1982 ). A meeting with the student out of class can also facilitate referral to appropriate treatment resources if warranted (see later).

To manage in-class behaviors, instructors might selectively ignore the student or have another instructor sit with the student during class ( Goss, 1995 ). Halgin (1982) describes a situation in which a student with a thought disorder created regular classroom disruption. During a private meeting with the instructor, the student agreed to consider the educational benefit of his comments before contributing. The student was relatively successful throughout the semester, and the instructor only needed to remind him once about their agreement. In addition, instructors should contact campus mental health professionals directly if they have safety concerns related to a student’s behavior in or out of class ( Goss, 1995 ).

Students might also bring mental health concerns directly to the faculty member teaching the course, including concerns about their own vulnerabilities for certain disorders ( Halonen, 2002 ) or more direct requests for assistance from the instructor for themselves or family members. Although abnormal psychology courses can help students in their personal growth and development, the line between the coursework and “therapy” can become blurred, particularly if instructors have difficulty clarifying boundaries for students ( Halonen, 2002 ).

Perlman (2007) suggests using the APA’s ethics code ( APA, 2002 ) as a guide for interacting with students. For instance, in adhering to principles such as beneficence and nonmaleficence, and fidelity and responsibility, instructors should prioritize listening attentively and demonstrating caring when addressing student concerns. However, instructors should recognize the limits to their role, avoid a situation in which they take on a dual relationship (i.e., instructor, therapist) in a student’s life, and refer students to appropriate campus organizations ( Hardy & Calhoun, 1997 ; Keith-Spiegel, 1994 ; Perlman, 2007 ). Additionally, although safety issues take precedence if a student might pose a danger to themselves or others, “People’s Rights and Dignity” highlights the importance of respecting students’ privacy and confidentiality regarding sharing personal information that students disclose (see Perlman, 2007 for specific suggestions when students present with severe problems).

Although many suggest minimizing interactions with students with mental health concerns, Halgin (1982) asserts that teaching is not restricted to the classroom, and a “limited involvement” approach can positively impact students in nonacademic ways. For instructors choosing limited involvement, Halgin emphasizes an accurate assessment of one’s own competence related to possible clinical interventions, and the importance of identifying possible ethical and liability concerns.

Limitations of an undergraduate course.

Lastly, even in a course that emphasizes accuracy of information and effectively manages challenges related to discussing mental health content, students can be overconfident when applying the information they have learned to real-world experiences. They might overestimate their ability to diagnose and advise, with possible impacts on their personal relationships ( Halonen, 2005 ). Instructors can remind students that experiences in an abnormal psychology class do not qualify them to act as mental health professionals and that professional clinicians use complex methodologies to diagnose and treat ( Tomcho, Wolfe, & Foels, 2006 ). Additionally, emphasizing psychology’s scientific values, such as healthy skepticism and reliance on empiricism to make decisions can help students understand their own limits ( Halonen, 2005 ). Psychology courses, however, rarely provide explicit instruction for how to actively apply course-related material in daily life ( Pury, 2003 ). Providing exercises for students to practice how to respond if those in their lives ask questions or experience symptoms (e.g., refer them to a mental health professional; Pury, 2003 ) can help students apply the skills they have learned while being cognizant of their limitations.

In summary, we hope you enjoy teaching abnormal psychology, one of our favorite courses to teach. In this chapter, we first discussed the content of the typical abnormal psychology course, encouraging instructors to narrow their focus rather than covering the entire textbook and to consider including current topics such as positive psychology and controversies with the DSM ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ). We next discussed pedagogy that is unique to the abnormal psychology course, including the use of autobiographical narratives to better understand psychopathology, incorporating film and media in providing humanistic and historical perspective of mental disorders, and using simulations to improve attitudes toward mental illness.

Finally, we outlined ethical considerations, some of which are particularly relevant to abnormal psychology; these included suggestions to manage content that might have emotional implications for students, connect topics in the course with the APA ethics code (e.g., informed consent, fidelity and responsibility), and manage students’ beliefs regarding their own clinical expertise after taking an undergraduate class. We hope these discussions will help you achieve the learning objectives you outlined for your course, and leave your students with knowledge, skills, and critical thinking tools that will help them navigate mental health issues they encounter in their lives.

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Abnormal Psychology: Definition and Examples

Categories Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology is an area that focuses on people who exhibit behaviors that are considered atypical compared to a norm group. When most people hear the word ‘psychology,’ abnormal psychology is probably what immediately springs to mind.

Psychological disorders, psychotherapy, and psychiatric treatments are all subtopics related to the field of abnormal psychology.

Table of Contents

What Is Abnormal Psychology?

In order to talk about abnormal psychology, it is important to understand what ‘abnormal’ means. Today, experts recognize that mental disorders are far more common than previously believed.

The National Institute of Mental Health estimates that 1 in 5 Americans over 18 experience a diagnosable mental disorder in a given year. This amounts to approximately 52.9 million people in the U.S. alone.

Of these individuals, NIMH suggests that about 5.6% experience what is considered a serious mental illness. Almost half of these individuals also experience two or more disorders at once.

  What Is Normal and What’s Not?

There are many different ways that we can define abnormal behavior.

Statistical Variation

One method involves statistical deviation or looking at how frequently something happens. If a person exhibits a rarely occurring behavior, it could be said that the action is abnormal.

Deviation From Social Norms

Another method is to look at how the person compares to others in their peer group. Do other people engage in similar actions? If a specific behavior or pattern of behaviors violates social norms, then we tend to think of it as abnormal.

However, it is important to note that social norms tend to change over time. Things that were once considered abnormal by a previous generation may now be viewed as perfectly normal and acceptable.

Impact on Functioning

The impact of behaviors on an individual’s ability to function also plays an important role in identifying abnormal behavior. When maladaptive actions interfere with a person’s ability to function in day-to-day life or lead to psychological distress, they are often viewed as abnormal and in need of change.

Defining Abnormal

You can probably think of potential problems with each method of defining abnormal behavior. Just because something deviates from a statistical norm does not mean that it is a bad thing. For example, extremely high intelligence would be one example of a quality that lies outside of the statistical norm.

When comparing behaviors to specific social ideals, you might wonder exactly whose ideal we are talking about. What about social norms that vary based on factors like sex, age, socioeconomic status, or culture? The fact is that no single definition of abnormal behavior will ever be perfect.

Topics of Abnormal Psychology

The primary goals of abnormal psychology include learning more about the causes of mental illness and finding ways to help people suffering from psychological disorders. Some of the major topics of interest within this branch of psychology include:

• Defining specific mental illnesses
• Identify specific psychological disorders
• Developing treatments for mental illnesses
• Understanding the causes of mental illness
• Utilizing psychotherapy and medications to treat psychological disorders

Study Questions About Abnormal Psychology

As you are studying the topic of abnormal psychology, think about how you might answer the following questions.

•  What are some of the key ways that we define abnormality?
• What are some of the major purposes of abnormal psychology?
• How can studying abnormal psychology help us better understand how to treat mental illness?

National Institute of Mental Health. Mental illness .

Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Walters EE. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of twelve-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Archives of General Psychiatry, 2005 Jun;62(6):617-27.

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Exam Tip: Etiologies of Abnormal Psychology Tips for writing excellent essays in Paper 2

Travis Dixon November 20, 2019 Abnormal Psychology , Assessment (IB)

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As my students are preparing for an essay test this week on the topic “Etiology of Abnormal Psychology,” I thought I would share some advice on how to write good essays. The advice gets more specific and complex and the post goes on, so if nothing else I’d strongly recommend following tips 1 and 2.

The etiology of abnormal psychology topic requires that students can explain the potential causes of at least one disorder. In the themantic course we cover PTSD because the biological etiologies overlap nicely with the Criminology unit. But figuring out how to structure answers to these questions can be tricky. I’ll use examples from the PTSD unit to demonstrate a few basic tips I think will help students write better answers.

Read More: Etiologies

• Socio-cultural Etiology of PTSD: Socioeconomic status
• Cognitive Etiology of PTSD: Appraisals
• Biological Etiology of PTSD: Abnormalities in the brain

Tip #1: Start Simple, Establish Credibility

This will help establish your argument and also it builds credibility with your reader – they will see you know what you’re talking about and you have the evidence to back it up.

Example:  One etiology of PTSD is abnormalities in the brain, in particular the vmPFC, hippocampus and amygdala. This is such a common finding that there are numerous meta-analyses investigating how strongly these abnormalities are connected with PTSD (these were added to the revision textbook and can also be found here ). Or if you’re arguing about a cognitive etiology you might identify appraisals or socioeconomic status for socio-cultural etiologies.

Approach = Etiology/Explanation: Our biology, cognitive or sociocultural factors could be considered one etiology or one explanation. Similarly, a specific biological factor (e.g. genes or the hippocampus) could be considered one etiology or explanation. It is up to you  to be clear in your essay which etiology or explanation you are focusing on.

Tip #2: Go Deeper: Explain the Symptoms

Now you’ve established a connection between a specific etiology and the disorder, you can go deeper by explaining the symptoms. Remember that a disorder is simply a collection of symptoms, so to explain why someone gets a disorder you have to explain why someone develops particular symptoms. This requires a deeper understanding of the topic, so if you can clearly explain why the etiology might lead to symptoms (i.e. the disorder) then you’ll be showing in-depth knowledge and understanding.

If you’ve identified the brain as an etiology of a disorder, you should be able to explain clearly why abnormalities in specific areas might lead to specific symptoms.

Example:  PTSD symptoms are generally divided into three categories: arousal, avoidance and re-experiencing (I remember it because A.A.R. sounds like someone who is scared yelling “aaarrrrgghh.”). To develop your explanation of PTSD, you need to explain how the factor you’ve identified can explain one of those symptoms. For example, negative appraisals could explain symptoms related to arousal because of the top-down effect the appraisal has on the amygdala. Ideally, you would have a study that supports this explanation (e.g. Urry et al.). Or a more basic explanation could be that low volume in the hippocampus could explain memory problems, a common symptom of PTSD.

Remember: Etiology = Explanation.  If you’re explaining an etiology of a disorder, or explaining a disorder (Topic v Content), you’re doing the same thing. Similarly, you can explain prevalence rates and disorders by explaining sociocultural etiologies (see how here ). This is why my students prepare the Etiology topic for exams and ignore the others – it has the least content so allows for deeper analysis and conceptual understanding to be shown.

Tip #3: Critical Thinking

Remember that critical thinking is essentially arguing against your central argument – you are providing counter arguments. So if you need to find the limitations of the argument you’ve presented and the evidence you’ve used to support it. Ideally, you’ll do both!

Read More: Critical Thinking Summarized in ONE WORD!

A basic way of arguing against an etiology is to provide an alternative explanation. Something along the lines of, “Yes it might be biological,  but  it could also be cognitive.” And offer an alternative explanation for the disorder with a study. This is fine and will earn you a mark or two for critical thinking. But by itself it’s limited. This is why I recommend having three critical thinking points somewhere in your essay.

Offering an alternative explanation from a different approach (bio, cog, socio-cultural) is the simplest way to offer a counter-argument, so it’s also worth the least marks.

For example, if you used a correlational study to establish your argument earlier in the essay then you can evaluate the limitations of that methodology. Or, depending on the question, it might be relevant to point out that you’ve shown a disorder is not the product of a singular etiology or explanation, but rather a multitude of factors.

Better yet, the best alternative explanations are those that link in some way to the original argument. For example, if you’re saying that PTSD is a product of brain abnormalities, you could offer socio-cultural explanations for why those abnormalities may exist in the first place. Now you’re combining etiologies and showing an in-depth understanding of the topic.

My Best Advice

Adapt your response to the question! Do not go into the exam with a concrete, pre-conceived idea of how you will answer this topic because your answer needs to vary slightly depending on the question you are given. There is no way you can answer any possible question using the exact same content and structure. Have a framework, a guide, a model, yes, but be ready to adapt.

Read More: Exam Tips

• Exam Tip: How to explain prevalence of disorders
• Exam Question Bank: Paper 2: Abnormal Psychology

Tricky Bits: Broad Questions

“Discuss one or more etiologies of abnormal psychology.”

This type of question can be tricky. It is allowing you a lot of freedom to construct a thesis and build a central argument with the research. You can go in-depth with one etiology, or you could skim across the surface. It also doesn’t mention a specific disorder so you could write about one or many. This is where planning becomes important and writing a good introduction – make it really clear in your introduction how you’ve chosen to answer this question:

• Are you writing about one etiology or more? Which one/s?
• Are you writing about one disorder or more? Which one/s?

Because I prefer the depth over breadth approach, if it were me my introduction might look something like this:

One etiology of abnormal psychology is brain abnormalities. This can be seen in people with PTSD. In particular, abnormalities in the hippocampus, vmPFC and amygdala could explain why some people get PSTD. Meta-analyses (e.g Karl) and experimental research (e.g. Urry) can be used to demonstrate these etiologies. However, it’s also important to consider possible causes of the brain abnormalities, including poverty and chronic stress, if we are to truly understand the causes of PTSD.

The above introduction is effective because it restates the question broadly and then makes it clear the argument that is going to be put forward. It also introduces the “but” at the end, which is important in an introduction as it helps to identify the problem or issue that will be discussed in the essay.

Travis Dixon is an IB Psychology teacher, author, workshop leader, examiner and IA moderator.

What Is Abnormal Psychology? Definition, Examples, And Treatments

If you have a diagnosis under the label of "abnormal psychology," it may feel intimidating or frightening. However, abnormal psychology is a term in psychology to describe mental illnesses and symptoms that vary from popular psychology or commonality. It doesn't mean you are "abnormal" or "beyond help." The abnormal psychology field examines how emotional, behavioral, and cognitive tendencies can indicate mental illness.  

Many conditions labeled under abnormal psychology are common, and a diagnosis can be a positive experience. Understanding your symptoms in more detail can point you toward effective treatment, and many "abnormal" conditions are treatable. 

What is abnormal psychology?

The field of abnormal psychology includes assessing, treating, and preventing  maladaptive behavior . While there is no definition of abnormal psychology in current diagnostic manuals, there are specific ways of characterizing the term concerning how a person deviates from what is considered "average." In the clinical world,  abnormal psychology characterizes someone with a statistical deviation from normal behaviors or maladaptive self-behavior or relationships. 

Those with maladaptive behaviors might struggle to reach their goals and adapt to the demands of life. Those who are maladaptive in society may interfere with or disrupt social group functions. Their behavior is often considered non-typical, socially unacceptable, and deviating from the average. This behavior is not their fault, however. It is often caused by the mental illness they're living with and may be improved with treatment like medication or therapy. 

Diagnosing abnormal psychology disorders through behavior

Since abnormal psychological disorders can significantly affect the quality of life of those who face them daily, it can be essential to be diagnosed correctly. Diagnoses are a positive tool for some people, as they allow mental health professionals to provide individuals with effective tools. 

A standardized system helps clinicians diagnose mental illness consistently based on research, evidence, and clinical experiences. This system of diagnosis also aids in the treatment of the client and the development of new or updated diagnostic labels. The tool is not primarily used to label individuals but to help them understand themselves and receive support. 

What mental illnesses apply to abnormal psychology?

Abnormal psychology applies to all mental disorders, including anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, mood disorders, personality disorders, delusional disorders, substance use disorders, dissociative disorders, and developmental disorders. Below are further explanations of each. 

Anxiety disorders 

People who live with anxiety disorders experience increased anxiety, often daily. There are ten anxiety disorders listed in the DSM-5, and anxiety is the main symptom of each type. They include the following: 

• Panic disorder
• Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

Specific phobias

• Social anxiety disorder
• Separation anxiety disorder
• Selective mutism
• Agoraphobia
• Substance or medication-induced anxiety disorder
• Anxiety disorder due to another medical condition
• Other specified anxiety disorder

In the DSM-5, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is listed under obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is listed under trauma and stressor-related disorders. These conditions are no longer considered anxiety disorders. 

Phobias cause people to fear a specific stimulus or situation, such as heights or spiders. Individuals living with phobias may understand that their fears are maladaptive. However, even with this knowledge, the fear remains. There are three subclasses of phobias: simple phobia, social phobia, and agoraphobia. Phobias are often treated with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and exposure and response prevention (ERP). 

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

People with obsessive-compulsive disorder often experience constant intrusion of unwelcome thoughts, images, or impulses that cause fear. Compulsions are behaviors, rituals, or acts that reduce fear temporarily. Many individuals living with OCD are aware that their behavior is maladaptive but struggle to change it out of fear. Exposure and response prevention treatment are often recommended for OCD. 

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is caused by a traumatic event or chain of events. Traumatic events like accidents, violent personal assaults, and robbery, for example, may cause someone to develop PTSD. Prolonged events like abuse can also cause PTSD. 

PTSD can cause flashbacks, nightmares, insomnia, or guilt. Triggers of the event cause individuals living with PTSD to go into the fight-flight-freeze response, which often decreases their ability to cope. They may also experience symptoms of anxiety, depression, or substance use disorders.

Mood disorders

Disturbances of mood characterize mood disorders. There are two general classifications of mood disorders, including bipolar disorders and depressive disorders.

Bipolar disorder causes marked mood transitions from depressed states to hypomania or mania, which are terms to describe heightened energy, irritability, and ability. Mania can be dangerous and involve risky behaviors, delusions, psychosis, and insomnia. 

Depressive disorders are characterized by extended periods of sadness, often without an understandable cause. These conditions can also cause a lack of interest in previously enjoyed activities. 

Personality disorders

Personality disorders cause rigid and often unhealthy behavior patterns and thinking that affect daily function. People with personality disorders may have difficulty perceiving and relating to situations and people. They may experience severe challenges in relationships, social interactions, work, and school. Personality disorders include but aren't limited to: 

• Borderline personality disorder (BPD)
• Histrionic personality disorder (HPD)
• Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) 
• Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) 

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia can cause individuals to interpret reality differently than others. It may cause symptoms like hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking, as well as behaviors that impair the ability to function in daily life. Researchers are uncertain about the exact causes of schizophrenia, but they believe that a combination of genetics, brain chemistry, and environment contribute to it.

Substance use disorders

Substance use disorders involve dependency and addiction to specific substances. These conditions may include chemical dependence and substance use that interferes with daily life. For a substance use disorder diagnosis, an individual must struggle to function at work, in family roles, and with other obligations due to their usage. 

Dissociative disorders

A disconnection and lack of continuity between memories, thoughts, surroundings, behaviors, and identity characterize dissociative disorders. People with dissociative disorders escape reality in involuntary and often unsafe ways. These disorders may be developed to cope with trauma, such as past physical, sexual, or emotional abuse.

Impulse control disorder

Impulse control disorder is characterized by impulsivity. Afflicted individuals may struggle to resist temptations or urges to act, speak, or think about certain stimuli or thoughts. A disturbance in neurotransmission in the brain, traumatic childhood experiences, and frustration can cause impulse control disorders. People with impulse control disorder may display behavior such as pathological gambling, sexual complexity, kleptomania, trichotillomania, or intermittent explosive disorder.

Other conditions

Note that there are over 100 conditions in the DSM-5. Not all conditions are listed above. The study of abnormal psychology often covers a wide range of disorders. You're not alone if you believe you're living with a mental illness. Consider contacting a therapist for support and a more profound understanding of your symptoms. 

How is abnormality treated in psychology?

While there are several ways to approach the treatment of mental illness, medication and psychotherapy are often used in combination or on their own as the most effective options. Psychotherapy is a broad term for many types of talk therapy for mild and severe mental health concerns. There are over 400 therapeutic modalities . However, standard treatment options include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), psychodynamic therapy, dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and exposure and response prevention therapy. 

Treatments for abnormal psychology correlate to the underlying state of one's mental health. You may start by talking with a licensed therapist if any symptom has impacted your quality of life and ability to function. If you face barriers to finding support, you can also try online counseling through a platform like BetterHelp. 

Online psychotherapy is a highly effective therapeutic method, proven in  several studies  to significantly reduce symptoms of mood disorders such as major depressive disorder. These results are similar to those found in studies on face-to-face therapy. Online therapy has also been proven more cost-effective . If you want to find a therapist but are intimidated by the idea of making appointments and traveling to an office, online therapy may benefit you. With an internet-based platform, you can set appointments in your own time and work with a provider from home. 

What treatments are available for abnormal psychology disorders?

The most common treatments for abnormal psychological disorders are medications and psychotherapy. Other treatments may also prove beneficial. Many expressive therapies and unique treatments like electroconvulsive therapy and transcranial magnetic stimulation are also available.

What are major psychological disorders?

A few of the mental illnesses included in the DSM-5 include the following: 

• Mood disorders like depression or bipolar disorder
• Anxiety disorders like generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) 
• Psychotic disorders like schizophrenia 
• Substance use disorders like alcohol use disorder 
• Personality disorders like NPD or BPD 
• Eating disorders like anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa

What are the five most common mental health conditions in abnormal psychology?

The most common abnormal psychological disorders may include the following:

• Anxiety Disorders: Impacting over 40 million Americans 
• Depressive Disorders: Impacting over 280 million people worldwide 
• Eating Disorders: Impacting over 28.9 million Americans 

Substance Use Disorders: Impacting over 46.3 million Americans

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Definitions Of Abnormality, Including Deviation From Social Norms, Failure To Function Adequately And Deviation From Ideal Mental Health And Statistical Infrequency.

March 5, 2021 - paper 1 introductory topics in psychology | psychopathology.

• Back to Paper 1 - Psychopathology

Description, AO1:

Definition 1: Deviation from Social Norms (DSN)

Norms are commonly expected standards of behaving in a society according to the majority.

Sometimes these are written ( explicit ) and form laws that govern behaviour. Sometimes though, these norms of behaviour are unwritten ( implicit ) but generally accepted (e.g. not standing too close to people at a cash machine).

Whether explicit or implicit, social norms allow for the regulation of normal social behaviour. All societies have standards, or norms, for appropriate behaviours and beliefs (expectations about how people should behave and what they should think).

This definition therefore, suggests that  abnormality can be seen as someone who breaks these ‘rules of society’  (i.e. someone who doesn’t think or behave in a way that is accepted by that society).

Whenever behaviour breaks a “social norm” this is an indication that there may be some form of abnormality or may be a sign of a mental disorder.

Evaluation, AO3 of the DSN Definition:

Weaknesses:

(1) POINT:  The Social norms definition can be questioned, as social norms change over time and therefore a behaviour that broke social norms and was considered abnormal in 1950 may not be viewed as abnormal today.  EVIDENCE:  Being an unmarried mother in the 1940’s and 1950’s would be breaking social norms and therefore this behaviour was classed as abnormal. Many of these women were sectioned as ‘moral imbeciles’ and society demanded that they “give up” their babies.  EVALUATION:  This is a limitation because as this example shows, it is not the individual who has changed but the classification of the behaviour by society. This brings into question the validity of using this definition alone to define abnormality.

(2) POINT:  Social norms differ between cultures and this may be problematic.  EVIDENCE:  in British culture it is considered to be polite to finish the food on your plate at mealtimes. However, in India, to finish all food from you plate is a sign that you are still hungry.  EVALUATION:  This is a limitation because shows that what is considered ‘normal’ in one culture may actually be ‘abnormal’ in another. This means that this definition does not consistently produce an accurate definition of abnormal behaviour.

(3) POINT:  The “deviation from Social norms” definition of abnormality is limited because it suggests that all behaviour which breaks social norms is “abnormal” and it doesn’t distinguish between socially deviant behaviour and mental abnormality.  EVIDENCE:  For example, someone found guilty of being a drink-driver may have broken a social norm, but they are not considered to have a mental abnormality.  EVALUATION:  This is a limitation because it shows that the deviation from social norms definition is inadequate in identifying abnormality as there are many behaviours that are clearly socially deviant but not psychological abnormalities.

Definition 2: Failure to Function Adequately (FFA)

“Failing to function” is generally taken to mean that a person is  unable to cope with everyday life . Their behaviour is seen as maladaptive (not good for survival), disrupting their ability to work and conduct satisfying relationships and causes personal distress, as well as distress to others.

Rosenhan and Seligman (1989)  have suggested some  key characteristics of ‘failing to function adequately’:

• Personal Distress   Most people who seek psychiatric help of any kind are suffering from a sense of psychological distress or discomfort ( Sue et al, 1994 ) and a recognition that they are failing to function adequately.
• Observer Distress (or Discomfort)   Where someone’s behaviour causes discomfort and distress to others observing the behaviour.
• Maladaptive Behaviour  Where someone’s behaviour interferes with their ability to lead a normal life (e.g. agoraphobia)
• Unpredictable Behaviour-  If behaviour is unpredictable if it does not fit the situation or if it is unexpected and uncontrolled (e.g. sobbing for no reason or laughing at bad news).
• Irrational Behaviour  If a person’s behaviour doesn’t make sense to other people (difficult to understand)

Evaluation, AO3 of Failure to Function Adequately:

(1) POINT:  Failing to function does not always indicate the presence of a psychological abnormality.  EVIDENCE:  For example, someone who looses their job will not be able to get up and go to work/earn money for their family etc This may cause them personal distress but it does not indicate an abnormality.  EVALUATION:  This is a limitation as environmental factors may cause a failure to function rather than any psychological abnormality and this therefore questions the validity of using this definition to identify abnormality.

(2) POINT:  However, the presence of an abnormality doesn’t always result in a “failure to function.”  EVIDENCE:  An individual with depression may still be able to hold a job and run a family successfully. There are many examples of celebrities who have suffered from psychological disorders who have had successful careers and who would not be considered as “failing to function adequately” e.g., David Beckham has OCD, Stephen Fry has bipolar disorder. there are people who suffer from abnormalities such as depression however, are able to carry out everyday tasks like going to work, looking after a family etc They do not necessarily display a failure to function.  EVALUATION:  This is a limitation because it shows that this definition is inadequate in truly identifying behaviours that may be considered abnormal.

(3) POINT:   Behaviour that looks as if it is a “failure to function” may actually be behaviour that is admired by some in society.  EVIDENCE:  Some political prisoners who go on a hunger strike as part of their political protest will often be respected.  EVALUATION:  This is a limitation because although starving yourself may be seen as irrational, maladaptive and unpredictable, it is understandable in a particular social context and therefore would not be classed as a mental abnormality.

AO1, Description:

Definition 3: Deviation from Ideal Mental Health  (DIMH)

This definition stands out by not defining abnormality directly. Instead, it attempts to define a state of  ideal mental health  (i.e., factors necessary for ‘optimal living’).

Marie Jahoda  (1958) defined ideal mental health through a list of characteristics indicating psychological health and therefore the  absence  of the characteristics (rather than presence; as with the FFA definition) suggests abnormality.

Characteristics for ‘Optimal Living’:

• Strong sense of self-Identity   A psychologically healthy individual should be in touch with their own identity and feelings.
• Resistant to stress   Someone with ideal mental health should be resistant to stress and its negative effects.
• Self-actualisation   The mentally healthy individual should also be focused on the future and on fulfilling their potential (developing their talents and abilities).
• Autonomy   They should function as autonomous individuals, recognising their own needs and with an accurate perception of reality (i.e., to have the ability to act independently, to make their own decisions and to find satisfaction from within themselves).
• Empathy   The individual should show understanding towards others.

The fewer of these qualities you have, the more abnormal you are seen to be.

Evaluation, AO3 of the Deviation from Ideal Mental Health Definition:

(1) POINT:  The definition is problematic, as the characteristics of Ideal Mental Health are seen as far too idealistic. EVIDENCE:  Evidence to support this comes from Maslow (1968) who argued that only a few people ever achieve ‘self-actualisation’ and so the criteria is set too high.  EVALUATION:  This is a limitation because if this is true, most people are unable to achieve self-actualisation which means that the majority would be defined as being abnormal. However, if the majority of people are ‘abnormal’ then not achieving self-actualisation becomes ‘normal’ therefore indicating that the DIMH definition is a poor definition of abnormality.

(2) POINT:   The definition requires a subjective judgement on how many criteria need to be lacking in order to define someone as ‘abnormal.’  EVIDENCE:  For example, one individual might consider a lack of 2 criteria to be abnormal, whereas another would consider lacking 4 criteria to be abnormal.  EVALUATION:  This is a limitation because using subjective judgement in this way, decreases both the reliability (i.e., consistency) and the validity (i.e., accuracy) of this method of defining abnormality.

(3)  POINT:   The criteria used in the “Ideal Mental Health” definition, are based on Western culture and therefore the definition is ethnocentric.

Individualistic :  Cultures that place their emphasis on personal achievement                                                Collectivist:  Cultures that strive for the greater good of the community.

EVIDENCE:  For example, her emphasis on personal growth and individual autonomy reflects Western,  individualistic  culture (e.g. North-American) and not  collectivist  cultures.  EVALUATION:  This is a limitation because it means that the definition is subjective and should only be used in the culture in which it has been developed, is not value-free and therefore may be biased.

Definition 4: Statistical Infrequency

This approach defines abnormality as a behaviour that  deviates  from the  ‘average.’  The idea behind this approach is that the less frequently a behaviour occurs in people, the more likely it is to be abnormal. The difference between normal and abnormal is therefore one of quantity rather than quality the majority of people are normal with the minority of people being abnormal. The judgement of whether the behaviour is statistically frequent of infrequent is based on the mathematical principal of the normal distribution. It so happens that when measured and plotted on a graph, most human characteristics fall within  normal distribution.

The majority of characteristics would cluster around the middle of the graph. Any characteristic in this region would be considered to be normal (statistically common). A minority of characteristics would be out at the edges, or tails, making them statistically rare and therefore a  deviation from statistical norm.

Evaluation, AO3 of the Statistical Infrequency Definition:

(1) POINT:  A strength of the Statistical Infrequency definition of abnormality is that offers the prospect of clear guidelines for identifying behaviours as normal and abnormal.  EVIDENCE:  For example, the definition introduces an element of  objectivity  into the process of defining abnormality so that different mental health care workers can all view the same kind of behaviour in the same kind of way.  EVALUATION:  This is a strength because it offers a more scientific way of measuring abnormality, reducing subjectivity and therefore leading to a more accurate way of defining abnormality.

(1) POINT:  A criticism of this definition is that it suggests that anyone who differs from the ‘average’ is technically abnormal.  EVIDENCE:  For example, it doesn’t take into account the desirability of behaviours, highly intelligent people are statistically rare and are thus, according to this definition, abnormal.  EVALUATION:  This is a weakness as just because somebody falls outside of the statistically common area of the distribution curve, it doesn’t necessary mean that they are able. Therefore, suggesting that the statistical infrequency definition is not always accurate in defining abnormality.

(2) POINT:  A weakness of this definition is that it can be criticised as being  ethnocentric.  EVIDENCE:  For example, cultures differ in terms of what they consider normal behaviour. It would be very unusual for someone in Great Britain to take an extended rest period during the working day; however, in other cultures this is very common. EVALUATION:  This is a weakness because the definition cannot be applied/generalised to every culture and therefore in using this definition it may lead to some individuals being inaccurately defined as being abnormal.

(3)   POINT:  A further weakness is that the statistical approach definition requires a decision about the point at which a behaviour becomes statistically abnormal.  EVIDENCE:  For example, it is not clear at which point energetic and excitable behaviour from a child becomes a ‘problem’ behaviour requiring specialist intervention.  EVALUATION:  This is a problem as the definition is left open to criticism, such apparent arbitrariness makes it difficult to accurately define abnormality.

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Comparison of Normal and Abnormal Psychology Essay

Since the ancient times, civilizations across the world have attempted to understand and separate normal behavior from what is considered as abnormal.

Up until now, it can be said without doubt that the separation has not been easy since behavior is largely viewed as cultural specific, and what may pass for an acceptable behavior in one culture may be vilified in another (Ganellen, 2007). In equal measure, behavior is also viewed as time-specific, and a behavior that was largely acceptable some few decades ago may presently be labeled as barbaric or worse still, abnormal.

This, however, does not mean that it untenable to contrast and compare normal and abnormal psychology. To the contrary, comparisons have been fronted from all quarters, occasioning a multiplicity of theoretical frameworks that attempt to offer objective explanation on the two concepts (Bennet, 2006).

In behavioral psychology, the word ‘normal’ basically means not to deviate from the standard norms, hence normal psychology entails the study of normal patterns of behavior, emotions, and mind (Bennet, 2006).

On the contrary, the word ‘abnormal’ basically means to deviate from the norm, hence abnormal psychology or psychopathology is the scientific study of unusual patterns of behavior, thought systems, and emotions that undeniably affect the way individuals feel, reason, and behave to a point of disrupting their own sense of wellbeing. Both normal and abnormal psychology are cultural and time specific as explained above.

For example, child beating may be allowed in some cultures while it may be seen as an insane behavior in other cultures. Also, both normal and abnormal psychology attempts to explain the centrality of behavior in determining mental health (Ganellen, 2007; Bennet, 2006).

Some psychopathologists argue that abnormal behavior is separated from normal behavior through set criteria which may not be necessarily correct. This therefore means that although deviant behavior may be grouped as abnormal by the criteria set by society, it does not automatically imply the incidence of a mental disorder. In equal measure, normal behavior does not necessarily mean the patterns of behavior are not without blame since the action may be stereotyped to fit the needs and demands of society (Bennet, 2006).

Reference List

Bennet, P. (2006). Abnormal and clinical psychology: An Introductory textbook , 2 nd Ed. Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press

Ganellen, R.J. (2007). Assessing normal and abnormal personality functioning: Strengths and weaknesses of self-report, observer, and performance-based methods. Journal of Personality Assessment 89(1): 30-40. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database

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Definitions of abnormality -A-Level Psychology

Statistical infrequency:.

This occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic compared to the population e.g a low score on an IQ test.

Evaluation:

It has a real life application in diagnosing intellectual disability disorder.It is useful in clinical assessments.

Unusual characteristics can be positive and desirable for example scoring high on an IQ test.

It can result in labels which can cause distress to people

Deviation from social norms:

This concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a society.

It has a real life application in diagnosing antisocial personality disorder.

Cultural relativism-what may be regarded as abnormal to one culture may be considered normal in another culture.

It can lead to human rights abuses.

Failure to function adequately:

This occurs when someone is unable to cope with the ordinary demands of day to day life.This may cause distress to others.

It is subjective to patient experience so considers their distress even though it is difficult to measure distress.

Deviation from ideal mental health:

This occurs when an individual does not meet the set criteria for good mental health.

It sets an unrealistically high expectation of ideal mental health.

Cultural relativism-Jahoda’s criteria meet more of a western demand than other cultures.

Abnormality refers to behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that deviate from what is considered normal or typical within a particular society or culture.

In psychology, abnormality is typically defined using one or more of the following criteria: statistical infrequency, violation of social norms, personal distress, dysfunction or impairment, and unexpectedness or unpredictability.

Examples of abnormal behaviors can include excessive anxiety, phobias, depression, substance abuse, obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, and personality disorders.

The biological approach suggests that abnormal behavior is caused by biological factors such as genetics, brain chemistry, and hormonal imbalances.

The psychodynamic approach suggests that abnormal behavior is caused by unresolved conflicts and repressed feelings from childhood experiences.

The behavioral approach suggests that abnormal behavior is caused by learned responses to environmental stimuli.

The cognitive approach suggests that abnormal behavior is caused by faulty thinking patterns and beliefs.

The humanistic approach suggests that abnormal behavior is caused by a lack of personal growth and self-actualization.

The sociocultural approach suggests that abnormal behavior is caused by cultural and social factors such as poverty, discrimination, and lack of resources.

Abnormality is diagnosed using a variety of methods including clinical interviews, psychological tests, and observation of behavior.

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Abnormality

Definitions of abnormality.

__Psychopathology __refers to the study of mental disorders and abnormal behaviour.

Statistical deviation: Under this definition, a person’s trait, thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual (if most people don’t do it/have the characteristic). With this definition it is necessary to be clear about how rare a trait or behaviour needs to be before we class it as abnormal. For example, a small section of the population (less than 2.2%) have an IQ of less than 70, therefore they may be described as having an abnormally low IQ (intellectual disability disorder).

Evaluation:

• This does not consider the desirability of behaviours or traits. For example, very high intelligence or extremely altruistic behaviour are both statistically rare, but would not generally be classed as ‘abnormal’. Additionally, many rare behaviours or characteristics (e.g. left handedness) have no bearing on normality or abnormality.
• On the other side of the coin, some behaviours/characteristics are regarded as abnormal even though they are statistically quite frequent. For example, depression may affect 27% of elderly people. This would make it common but that does not mean it isn’t a problem. Therefore, statistical deviation is not enough to classify someone as abnormal.

__Deviation from social norms: __Under this definition, a person’s thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it violates the (unwritten) rules about what is expected or acceptable behaviour in a particular social group. Their behaviour may be incomprehensible to others, and make others feel threatened or uncomfortable. For example, a stranger sitting next to someone on the bus when all the other seats are available.

• What is normal in one culture may not be normal in another. This leads to the problem of cultural relativism, where the behaviour needs to be judges in the context of the culture it is taking place in. Ways of greeting, interacting, and acceptable subjects for discussion all vary so much between (and perhaps within) cultures, so the definition is too hard to apply
• Some groups could be unfairly labelled as abnormal by using this definition. For example, homosexuality was seen as going against social norms, and was even classified as criminal behaviour, but is not now recognised as such. Therefore, groups which deviate from the accepted standards of behaviour may find themselves being classified as mentally ill, unjustifiably.

Failure to function adequately: Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life. They may be unable to perform the behaviours necessary for day-to-day living, for example self-care, holding down a job, and interacting meaningfully with others. Rosenhan & Seligman (1989) suggested the following characteristics would not enable someone to function adequately:

• Maladaptiveness (being a danger to self)
• Vividness and unconventionality (standing out)
• Unpredictability & loss of control
• Irrationality/incomprehensibility
• Causes the observer discomfort
• Violates moral/social standards
• A strength is that this definition acknowledges the patient’s own feelings, for example if they are suffering, whereas the previous two do not.
• A weakness is that ‘failing to function’ could just be going against a social norm (e.g. living an alternative lifestyle which involves not going to work, not living in a fixed home). Therefore, a person could be judges as not functioning when they actually are.
• Most people fail to function adequately at some time, but are not considered ‘abnormal’. For example, after a bereavement most people find it difficult to cope normally. Indeed, they might actually be considered more abnormal if they functioned as usual. Therefore, this definition cannot be applied in all circumstances.

__Deviation from ideal mental health: __Under this definition, rather than defining what is abnormal, we define what is normal/ideal and anything that deviates from this is regarded as abnormal. This requires us to decide on the characteristics we consider necessary to mental health. Jahoda (1958) proposed the following criteria:

The absence of these criteria means, by definition, the person is suffering from abnormal behaviour.

• What is considered ‘ideal’ is historically and culturally specific. For example, being independent may not be valued in collectivist cultures, where value is placed on group activity. Therefore, this definition may not work in all cultures.
• Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health set the bar too high. Strictly applied, so few people actually meet all of these criteria that everyone ends up classed as abnormal and so the concept becomes meaningless.

Characteristics of Phobias

A phobia is an intense, irrational fear of something, someone, or a situation.

Behavioural characteristics (outward signs): Include panic, for example trying to run away, screaming and crying; avoidance, for example trying not to touch door handles in public places due to a phobia of germs; and endurance, for example having to ‘deal with’ the situation (having to get a flight when scared of flying).

Emotional characteristics (feelings): Include anxiety- being in an unpleasant, heightened state of arousal. The emotions experienced are out of proportion to the danger posed, for example an arachnophobia sufferer reacting with extreme anxiety at the sight of a tiny spider.

Cognitive characteristics (thoughts): Include paying selective attention to the feared object, so not being able to concentrate on anything else. Thoughts are often irrational, for example being afraid to go outside due to the (tiny) likelihood of something bad happening. Cognitive distortions are where normal objects are perceived as ugly or repulsive by the sufferer.

Characteristics of Depression

Depression is a disorder characterised usually by low mood and lowered activity levels.

Behavioural characteristics: Include lowered activity levels, for example finding it hard to get out of bed, or being agitated; disruption to sleep and eating behaviour, for example eating or sleeping more or less than usual; and aggression toward others and self-harm.

Emotional characteristics: Include a lowered mood, for example feeling worthless, unhappy and ‘empty’; anger, which can be directed toward the self or others; and lowered self-confidence and self-esteem.

Cognitive characteristics: Include poor concentration, for example being unable to stick to and finish a task; dwelling on the negative, for example only focusing on the bad aspects of a situation and ignoring the positive aspects; and absolutist thinking, where things are perceived as perfect successes or disasters, with nothing in between.

Characteristics of OCD

OCD is characterised by obsessive thoughts and/or compulsive behaviours.

Behavioural characteristics: These are the compulsions- the need to perform certain actions. These actions may be repetitive, for example tidying and ordering things continuously, and are usually done to reduce anxiety associated with an obsessive thought, for example, continual hand-washing in response to the thought of being contaminated by germs.

Emotional characteristics: Include anxiety and distress- the thoughts and actions are associated with unpleasant feelings. Often people with OCD also experience depression. They also include guilt and disgust, the feeling that the sufferer has done, or will do, something terrible. The disgust may be directed towards an external stimulus.

Cognitive characteristics: These are the obsessive aspect- obsessive thoughts which are unpleasant and are continually recurring, for example being worried that a door or window has been left unlocked in the house. OCD sufferers have insight into their thoughts, meaning that they know they are not thinking rationally, but they cannot help the thoughts and compulsive behaviours.

Jake suffers from a phobia of spiders. Whenever he sees a spider he shouts out in terror and tries to get as far away from it as possible. This is the case even with the smallest spiders he sees. Jake never goes to wildlife parks or watches nature documentaries; in case he sees a spider in these situations. When questioned about his fear, Jake says ‘I just hate the look of spiders, their beady eyes and crawling legs make me feel sick and afraid.’