ap psychology case study definition

AP Psychology Case Studies: Applying Concepts

AP Psychology is a fascinating course that delves into the complexities of human behavior and mental processes. One valuable method of understanding and applying psychological concepts is through case studies. In this guide, we'll explore the importance of case studies in AP Psychology and provide strategies for effectively analyzing and applying psychological concepts within this context.

 The Significance of Case Studies in AP Psychology

1. real-world application:.

   - Case studies allow students to apply theoretical concepts to real-world scenarios, enhancing their understanding of how psychology operates in practical situations.

2. Critical Thinking Skills:

   - Analyzing case studies requires critical thinking. Students must evaluate and interpret information, make connections to psychological theories, and draw conclusions based on evidence.

3. Integration of Knowledge:

   - Case studies integrate knowledge from various psychological perspectives, demonstrating the interconnectedness of concepts and theories within the field.

4. Skill Development:

   - Working with case studies hones essential skills such as analytical thinking, problem-solving, and effective communication of psychological insights.

 Strategies for Analyzing and Applying Concepts in Case Studies

 1. identify key concepts:.

   - Begin by identifying the key psychological concepts relevant to the case. This may include theories, principles, or specific terms associated with the topic.

 2. Understand the Context:

   - Gain a comprehensive understanding of the case's context. Consider the individual's background, experiences, and the situational factors that may influence their behavior.

 3. Apply Psychological Theories:

   - Apply relevant psychological theories to explain and analyze the behaviors or phenomena observed in the case. Consider perspectives such as behavioral, cognitive, biological, psychodynamic, and socio-cultural.

 4. Consider Multiple Perspectives:

   - Explore the case from multiple psychological perspectives. This not only demonstrates a nuanced understanding but also allows for a more comprehensive analysis.

 5. Use Empirical Evidence:

   - Support your analysis with empirical evidence from psychological research. Reference studies, experiments, or observations that align with the concepts you're applying.

 6. Connect to Course Themes:

   - Relate the case study to overarching themes in AP Psychology. Consider how the case exemplifies topics like memory, learning, motivation, personality, or psychological disorders.

 7. Explore Ethical Considerations:

   - Consider the ethical implications of the case. Discuss any ethical concerns related to the research methods, treatment approaches, or the impact on individuals involved.

 8. Examine Research Methods:

   - Evaluate the research methods used in the case study. Discuss the strengths and limitations of these methods and consider alternative approaches that might provide additional insights.

 9. Predict Future Behaviors:

   - Based on psychological principles, make informed predictions about future behaviors or outcomes for the individuals involved in the case.

 10. Compare and Contrast:

    - Compare the case study with similar cases or contrasting examples. Highlight similarities and differences, discussing how contextual factors may contribute to variations in behavior.

 11. Address Multicultural Perspectives:

    - Consider multicultural perspectives in your analysis. Explore how cultural factors may influence the case and discuss the relevance of cultural competence in understanding the behavior observed.

 12. Draw Informed Conclusions:

    - Conclude your analysis by summarizing key findings and drawing informed conclusions. Discuss the implications of your analysis on the broader field of psychology.

 Example Case Study Analysis: "The Phobic Patient"

Let's apply these strategies to a hypothetical case study:

 Case Background:

   - The patient exhibits an intense fear of flying, leading to avoidance of travel. This fear emerged after experiencing turbulence on a previous flight.

   - Key Concepts: Anxiety disorders, specifically phobias.

   - Context: Understand the impact of the turbulence experience on the patient's current fear. Consider any past experiences or predispositions.

   - Psychological Theories: Apply behavioral theories to explain how the fear developed through conditioning. Consider cognitive theories to explore the role of thoughts and perceptions in maintaining the phobia.

   - Multiple Perspectives: Analyze the case from behavioral, cognitive, and biological perspectives. Discuss how each perspective contributes to a comprehensive understanding.

   - Empirical Evidence: Reference studies on classical conditioning and cognitive-behavioral therapy for phobias. Use research findings to support your analysis.

   - Ethical Considerations: Discuss ethical considerations related to the treatment of phobias, emphasizing the importance of informed consent and the use of evidence-based practices.

   - Predictions: Predict how the patient's fear might manifest in other areas of life. Consider potential treatment approaches and their effectiveness.

   - Research Methods: Evaluate the case study's research methods, such as interviews or psychological assessments. Discuss the strengths and limitations of these methods.

   - Multicultural Perspectives: Consider cultural factors that may influence the perception and treatment of phobias. Explore how cultural competence can enhance therapeutic outcomes.

   - Conclusions: Summarize key findings and conclude by discussing the broader implications for understanding and treating specific phobias.

By following these strategies, you can effectively analyze case studies in AP Psychology, demonstrating a deep understanding of psychological concepts and their real-world applications.

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AP Psychology Unit 1 Notes: Scientific Foundations

February 12, 2024.

Get ready for the AP Psychology exam with our free AP Psychology study notes. We've compiled concise unit summaries and key terms and people to jumpstart your AP test prep. These AP Psychology study notes should be used to supplement what you’re learning in your AP Psych class. More study strategies and expert tips can be found in our latest AP Psychology Test Prep Book .

[ READ NEXT: AP Psychology Unit 2 Notes: Biological Bases of Behavior   ]

AP Psychology: Unit 1 Summary

This first unit focuses on the historical origins of the science of psychology, current psychological perspectives, and the research methods psychologists use to gather data about human thinking and behavior. 

History of Psychology

One way to think about the history of psychology is to organize the various theorists and theories into “waves,” or schools of thought. Each wave is a way of thinking about human thought and behavior that dominated the field for a certain period of time until a new way of looking at psychology started to dominate the field. There are five ways: Introspection, Gestalt Psychology, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, and Multiple Perspectives.

Different contemporary psychologists look at human thought and behavior from different perspectives. Contemporary perspectives can be placed into eight broad categories: Humanistic, Psychoanalytic, Biopsychology (or Neuroscience), Evolutionary (or Darwinian), Behavioral, Cognitive, Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural), and Biopsychosocial.

Research and Methodology

Psychology is a science, and it is therefore based on research. Though people are often guided effectively by their common intuition, sometimes it leads us astray. People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along; this tendency is called hindsight bias. After an event occurs, it is relatively easy to explain why it happened. The goal of scientific research, however, is to predict what will happen in advance.

An understanding of research methods is fundamental to psychology. Because of that, you are more likely to see a free-response (or essay) question on this topic than on any other. Sometimes psychologists conduct research in order to solve practical problems. For instance, psychologists might compare two different methods of teaching children to read in order to determine which method is better or they could design and test the efficacy of a program to help people quit smoking. This type of research is known as applied research because it has clear, practical applications. Other psychologists conduct basic research. Basic research explores questions that are of interest to psychologists but are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications. Examples of basic research would include studying how people form their attitudes about others and how people in different cultures define intelligence.

Get ahead of the AP game! Our flexible, expert-led AP Psychology Review Course will help you build up your score by breaking down the exam.

Ap psychology: unit 1 key terms & people.

Below, we describe some of the Unit 1 key terms and people you should review ahead of the AP Psychology exam.

• Introspection: The examination of one’s own mental and emotional processes.
• Structuralism: The idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations, a theory developed by Wilhelm Wundt.
• Gestalt Psychology: Gestalt psychology tried to examine a person’s total experience because the way we experience the world is more than just an accumulation of various perceptual experiences. Gestalt theorists demonstrated that the whole experience is often more than just the sum of the parts of the experience.
• Sigmund Freud: Freud revolutionized psychology with his psychoanalytic theory. While treating patients for various psychosomatic complaints, Freud believed he discovered the unconscious mind—a part of our mind over which we do not have conscious control that determines, in part, how we think and behave
• Repression: Freud believed that this hidden part of ourselves builds up over the years through repression – the pushing down into the unconscious events and feelings that cause so much anxiety and tension that our conscious mind cannot deal with them.
• Behaviorism: Behaviorists maintain that psychologists should look at only behavior and causes of behavior – stimuli (environmental events) and responses (physical reactions) – and not concern themselves with describing elements of consciousness.
• B.F. Skinner: Another behaviorist, B. F. Skinner expanded the basic ideas of behaviorism to include the idea of reinforcement – environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses.
• Eclectic: Currently, there is no one way of thinking about human thought and behavior that all or even most psychologists share. Many psychologists describe themselves as eclectic – drawing from multiple perspectives.
• Humanist Perspective: Humanists stressed individual choice and free will. They believe that we choose most of our behaviors and these choices are guided by physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs.
• Psychoanalytic Perspective: Psychologists using this perspective believe that the unconscious mind – a part of our mind that we do not have conscious control over or access to – controls much of our thought and action. Psychoanalysts would look for impulses or memories pushed into the unconscious mind through repression. This perspective thinks that to understand human thought and behavior, we must examine our unconscious mind through dream analysis, word association, and other psychoanalytic therapy techniques.
• Biopsychology (or Neuroscience) Perspective: Biopsychologists explain human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes. Human cognition and reactions might be caused by effects of our genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters in the brain or by a combination of all three.
• Evolutionary (or Darwinian) Perspective: Evolutionary psychologists (also sometimes called sociobiologists) examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Some psychological traits might be advantageous for survival, and these traits would be passed down from the parents to the next generation.
• Behavioral Perspective: Behaviorists explain human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning. Behaviorists look strictly at observable behaviors and human and animal responses to different kinds of stimuli.
• Cognitive Perspective: Cognitive psychologists examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events. In this perspective, the rules that we use to view the world are important to understanding why we think and behave the way we do.
• Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural) Perspective: Social-cultural psychologists look at how our thoughts and behaviors vary between cultures. They emphasize the influence culture has on the way we think and act. A social-cultural psychologist might explain a person’s tendency to be extroverted by examining his or her culture’s rules about social interaction.
• Biopsychosocial Perspective: This modern perspective acknowledges that human thinking and behavior results from combinations of biological (“bio”), psychological (“psycho”), and social (“social”) factors. Psychologists who emphasize the biopsychosocial perspective view other perspectives as too focused on specific influences on thinking and behavior (sometimes called “being reductionistic”).
• Hindsight bias: People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along; this tendency is called hindsight bias.
• Hypothesis: A hypothesis expresses a relationship between two variables. Variables, by definition, are things that can vary among the participants in the research.
• Theory: A theory aims to explain some phenomenon and allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting data that support the theory.
• Valid: Good research is both valid and reliable. Research is valid when it measures what the researcher set out to measure; it is accurate.
• Reliable: Research is reliable when it can be replicated; it is consistent. If the researcher conducted the same research in the same way, the researcher would get similar results.
• Sampling: The individuals on which the research will be conducted are called participants (or subjects), and the process by which participants are selected is called sampling.
• Experiment: Psychologists’ preferred method of research is the experiment because only through a carefully controlled experiment can one show a causal relationship. An experiment allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable and control for confounding variables.
• Correlation: A correlation expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause. Correlations can be either positive or negative. A positive correlation between two things means that the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other. A negative correlation means that the presence of one thing predicts the absence of the other.
• Naturalistic observation: Sometimes researchers opt to observe their participants in their natural habitats without interacting with them at all. Such unobtrusive observation is called naturalistic observation. The goal of naturalistic observation is to get a realistic and rich picture of the participants’ behavior. To that end, control is sacrificed.
• Case study method: The case study method is used to get a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants. While case studies allow researchers to get the richest possible picture of what they are studying, the focus on a single individual or small group means that the findings cannot be generalized to a larger population.
• Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics, as the name suggests, simply describe a set of data. For instance, if you were interested in researching what kinds of pets your schoolmates have, you might summarize that data by creating a frequency distribution that would tell you how many students had dogs, cats, zebras, and so on.
• Correlation: A correlation measures the relationship between two variables. Correlations can be either positive or negative.
• Inferential statistics: Whereas descriptive statistics provide a way to summarize information about the sample studied, the purpose of inferential statistics is to determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected.

Next, test your AP Psychology Unit 1 knowledge using our free Key Terms Worksheets!

AP Biology Resources

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• AP Psychology Sample Free Response Question

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, the best ap psychology study guide.

Advanced Placement (AP)

AP courses cover a lot of complex information, and it's not always easy to find great study materials and strategies. I've written this AP Psychology study guide as a way to make the process of studying for the AP test and other in-class assessments a little less overwhelming. It will help you figure out how to structure your studying, give you strategies to better understand the material, and provide links to notes and practice resources. If you follow the advice in this guide, you'll be on your way to a high AP Psych score!

What's in This AP Psychology Study Guide?

This guide will help you study for the AP Psychology exam and other assessments in your class by providing study strategies and other resources that pertain to the material covered in the course.

In the first section, you'll learn how to create a study plan for the exam that supports your needs as a student . This section applies exclusively to the final AP exam, so it's less relevant if you're just studying for an in-class test.

The next section provides study tips that are specific to AP Psychology and will serve you well as you prepare for both in-class tests and the final exam.

Finally, the last part of this AP Psychology guide is devoted to notes, outlines, videos, and other online resources that will be useful in your studying.

AP Psychology Study Plans: 2 Options for Your Prep

Before you start studying for AP Psych, you should know the difference between where you are in your knowledge of the material and where you want to be.

Find an official practice test , print it out, and take it as though it were the real AP Psych test (70 minutes for the 100 multiple-choice questions and 50 minutes for the two free-response questions). Then, use the following chart to estimate your final AP score based on your raw scores:

To calculate your final score, you must first add up all the multiple-choice questions you answered correctly (each question is worth 1 point). Next, convert the number of points you earned on the free-response questions to a value out of 50. For example, if you got 8 out of 14 points on the two free-response questions (each question is worth 7 points), it would convert to about 29 out of 50.

Lastly, add your multiple-choice score (out of 100) and your free-response score (out of 50) to find your composite raw AP Psychology score (out of 150). Use the chart above to see the estimate for your final AP score on a scale of 1-5 .

Depending on how much you need to improve and the amount of time you have before the exam, you might choose to structure your studying in different ways. I'll go through a 10-hour plan and a 20-hour plan. The shorter plan is for students hoping to improve by just a single AP point or raise their score within the same AP range so that they feel more comfortable during the test. The longer plan is for students hoping to improve by 2 or more points (and can be extended further if necessary).

I know this doesn't seem like much time, but a few hours of focused studying goes a long way for this particular subject. Psychology is one of the shorter AP tests (just two hours in total), so practice testing won't be as long of a process.

Additionally, questions tend to be based on memorization of definitions of terms and some logical reasoning; there aren't as many complex thought processes involved. Overall, AP Psychology is considered one of the easier AP tests . M ost students will probably be able to earn a high score (4 or 5) by studying for 10 hours or less.

Option 1: 10-Hour AP Psychology Study Plan

• Take a diagnostic test (2 hours)
• Score the test and analyze your mistakes (1.5 hours)
• Study content and revise your strategy, keeping in mind your mistakes on the diagnostic test (2 hours)
• Take another practice test (2 hours)
• Final study session to clear up any issues you had on the second test (1 hour)

Option 2: 20-Hour AP Psychology Study Plan

• Study content and revise your strategy, keeping in mind your mistakes on the diagnostic test (3 hours)
• Study content areas for which you're still missing questions, do more practice questions, and continue to revise your strategy (3 hours)
• Take a third practice test (2 hours)
• Final study session to clear up any confusion (1.5 hours)
• Wrap up your studying with a final practice test (2 hours)

Each of these psychology study plans has the same basic components, but the second one allows you to spend more time studying content and has more room for additional practice tests. If you're trying to improve by 2 or more AP points, it's likely that there are some major gaps in your content knowledge that warrant additional studying.

It's extremely important that you document and analyze your mistakes on each AP practice test if you're hoping to make big improvements. Mistakes come in several different forms, and you should be aware of this so that you can make appropriate changes to your test-taking strategy and study plan after each practice test.

If most of your incorrect answers are the results of careless mistakes or poor time management, the solution to your problem isn't necessarily more content review. These types of mistakes respond better to additional practice testing that increases your familiarity with time limits and question formats .

If, on the other hand, you find that all or most of your incorrect answers are due to gaps in content knowledge, you can use this info to focus your studying on the areas that cost you the most points. I suggest categorizing your mistakes so that you know where to direct your studying. In this case, you might not need to make many modifications to your actual test-taking strategy.

Most students will have a mixture of both types of mistakes , but it's still good to be mindful of where your biggest problems lie so that you can tackle them more efficiently.

AP Psychology Exam: 4 Essential Study Tips

Before you start studying content for AP Psychology, I want to give you a few studying and test-taking tips that will help you get the most out of your time. Here are some pointers to keep in mind when preparing for the AP test and any other in-class assessments throughout the year.

Tip 1: Get Familiar With Important Terms

You'll need to have extensive knowledge of the definitions of psychological terms for both the multiple-choice and free-response sections of the test. Some definitions are relatively intuitive, but others are almost impossible to figure out if you haven't studied them directly.

Be meticulous about going over all the terms covered in your class so that you don't second-guess yourself on the test. This is especially important for free-response questions for which you will be asked to describe how terms relate to certain situations. You need to understand them beyond just the ability to pick their correct definitions out of a multiple-choice lineup. Flashcards are a particularly useful study tool for AP Psychology.

Tip 2: Make the Abstract Concrete

With all the confusing terminology involved in this course, it's easy to get mixed up and think that a term means one thing when it really means another. Since psychology deals with how people act and process information on a day-to-day basis, it's a great idea to connect terms to specific scenarios in your life .

For example, you might connect a term such as "reciprocity norm," which says that people tend to treat others the same way they have been treated, to a situation in which a store employee was rude to you. Maybe they received poor treatment from other customers and were reflecting that back onto you (they also could just be a jerk, but it's nice to give people the benefit of the doubt).

When you make this type of connection, the term becomes stickier in your memory because it's tied to the heavy weight of a real-life experience. You can practice applying psychology terms to your everyday life at any time as the concepts are constantly demonstrated all around us.

Tip 3: Think Logically

Remember to listen to your common sense when answering questions on the AP Psych test. In some cases on the exam, you can figure out the answer with nothing but a little bit of logic. It's common for students to forget this and start to worry when they don't know what every part of the question means.

In this case, take a step back and think about which answer makes the most sense based on what you do know. You might be surprised by how many questions you can answer this way!

Here's an example (which I used in my AP Psychology review article as well ) of what I mean:

There are a few complex terms here and the question might seem pretty wordy, but it's actually very basic .

When they were scared, the monkeys preferred the soft cloth mother over the uncomfortable wire mother with food. Logically, we can conclude that the answer is B. Overthinking is the downfall of many high-achieving students, so don't start to doubt yourself just because the answer seems too simple to you!

Tip 4: Write in Complete Sentences, not Complete Essays

Although this isn't really a study tip, I think it's important to know before the exam; it probably also applies to in-class tests.

Psychology is about your grasp of science—not English—so don't bother with introductions, conclusions, or any other fluff in your answers to the free-response questions. All you need to do is give a direct answer in a complete sentence. You'll save time and make it easier for the graders to give you points.

It's smart to get used to doing this on practice free-response questions so that you'll be a pro by exam time.

AP Psychology Content: Notes, Outlines, and Videos

Here are some helpful resources that cover all the content you'll see on the AP Psychology exam. (Note that these are not the same as the new units described in the 2020 Course and Exam Description , though they cover similar topics and ideas.) Depending on your learning style, you might decide to look at notes or follow along with a video in areas for which your understanding is weaker.

You can also use these resources throughout the year to review for in-class assessments. If you had difficulty understanding a concept as it was taught to you in class, for example, you might use the notes and videos in this article to access alternative explanations.

You could also use these AP Psychology notes to supplement your studying if you found that you were consistently coming up with incorrect answers to questions in a certain topic area on quizzes or practice tests.

History and Approaches

Research methods, biological bases of behavior.

• Neural Processing and the Endocrine System
• Genetics, Evolutionary Psychology, and Behavior

Sensation and Perception

States of consciousness.

• Thinking, Problem Solving, Creativity, and Language

Motivation and Emotion

• Emotions, Stress, and Health

Developmental Psychology

Personality, testing and individual differences, abnormal psychology.

• PowerPoint ( Part 1 and Part 2 )

Treatment of Psychological Disorders

Social psychology, overall review.

• List of Terms and People to Remember
• Full Playlist of Crash Course Psychology Videos

Additional Resources to Test Your AP Psychology Knowledge

If you're unsure of where to start with your AP Psych prep or prefer to learn in a more interactive way, here are some additional online resources for reviewing concepts and taking practice tests.

The College Board

It's best to prioritize official resources over unofficial ones , as these will be the most accurate. Here are some great College Board materials you can use in your AP Psychology prep.

• The College Board website : You get access to tons of free-response questions, along with answer guides and sample responses, from 1999 to 2021. You can also get more practice questions through AP Classroom , a new digital tool that your AP teacher can use to assign homework and give out questions to students.
• 2020 AP Psychology Course and Exam Description : This free guide offers 15 multiple-choice questions, two free-response questions, and answer explanations for both (you can see free-response answers in the scoring guidelines ). All information has been updated for the current exam format and content.
• 2014-15 AP Psychology Course Description : This older but still relevant guide contains 25 multiple-choice questions (with answers) and two free-response questions.
• 2012 AP Psychology Exam
• 1999 AP Psychology Exam
• 1994 AP Psychology Exam

This site includes practice questions that cover all the current topics in AP Psychology . It divides them into easy, medium, and hard difficulty levels and records how many questions within each level you've answered correctly. This makes it simple to gauge which areas need the most work. You'll need to create and pay for an account to access most of the questions.

This popular quiz website offers a bunch of flashcards with AP Psych terms to help you practice, including a strong set of flashcards based on the Myers textbook and a set that goes through all the famous psychologists you should know .

Varsity Tutors

Famed test-prep company Varsity Tutors has several multiple-choice diagnostic tests to help you get a feel for how much you already know about AP Psych. It also has a bunch of mini quizzes organized by topic area and labeled based on difficulty level. Flashcards for AP Psychology terms and concepts are included here as well.

High School Test Prep

This site has lots of free practice AP Psych tests organized by topic area . You'll get immediate feedback with detailed answer explanations as you go along.

Conclusion: Using This AP Psychology Study Guide

Following the advice in this study guide is a promising step toward earning a high score on the AP Psychology test and other psychology tests throughout the school year.

AP Psychology is a completely manageable subject if you prepare for the exam responsibly. Memorizing key terms, applying confusing psychology concepts to your everyday life, using common sense to solve practice questions, and staying focused on the free-response section will help you be successful, both in class and on the AP test.

After reading this article, you should have everything you need to be able to answer even the most challenging questions the College Board throws at you on the AP Psych exam !

What's Next?

For more info on how to prepare for the AP Psychology exam, check out my comprehensive review guide .

Are you looking for some review books to supplement your AP studying? Read about the best review books for AP Psychology . You can also try our articles on specific psychology topics, like this one about Stockholm Syndrome .

Still trying to decide how many AP classes you should take in high school? Then you'll definitely want to read this article for some advice !

Samantha is a blog content writer for PrepScholar. Her goal is to help students adopt a less stressful view of standardized testing and other academic challenges through her articles. Samantha is also passionate about art and graduated with honors from Dartmouth College as a Studio Art major in 2014. In high school, she earned a 2400 on the SAT, 5's on all seven of her AP tests, and was named a National Merit Scholar.

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AP® Psychology

Behavioral perspective: ap® psychology crash course.

• The Albert Team
• Last Updated On: March 1, 2022

The behavioral perspective is all about acting throughout life as a result of some form of motivation or incentive. It relates to the reasons that an individual will participate in any given act rather than the way that they react. This perspective seeks to better explain the physiological needs of any living organism, as well as the way motivation can impact behavior. It considers different types of motivation and how different levels of motivation can impact the amount or type of work or effort that an individual will be willing to put forth.

This AP® Psychology crash course will prep you for the free response questions that you will see on your AP® Psychology exam. It will look at why someone will work harder for a better outcome. Though it hasn’t been on the AP® Psychology exam’s free response section for some time, there have been questions on the differences between the behavioral perspective and other psychological perspectives.

Defining the Behavioral Perspective

Any living organism has certain needs that must be met in order to it to survive. These can include sleep, food and water. If these criteria are met, the organism will be able to sustain a level of homeostasis. According to the behavioral perspective, a desire for this homeostasis is what drives and motivates an individual.

The drive for homeostasis also affects the actions of an individual in another way. If, at any point, homeostasis is interrupted or changed, the individual will be motivated to act. This motivation will continue until they are able to achieve the same level of homeostasis again. This relates to feelings of hunger, for example, if an individual is hungry they will seek out food.

Another aspect of motivation is related to learned behaviors. An individual will learn certain behaviors such as anxiety because of conditioning. In fact, Neal Miller is best known for creating the theory of operant conditioning. This theory states that an individual can be taught to do something because they are working towards or against a specific action.

Finally, there is incentive motivation. This theory says that an individual can be motivated to action by something that is outside of themselves. For example, getting a new car will motivate a teenager to graduate high school. Getting money will motivate an adult to go to work every day.

Different types of motivation can be used in different ways. By combining each of these types of motivation it is possible to understand why a person will act the way that they do.

Who Founded the Behavioral Perspective?

This perspective was contributed to by a number of important and well known psychologists including; Ivan Pavlov, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner.

Different aspects of the behavioral perspective have been founded by different psychologists. The unlearned drive, which states an individual will do what is necessary to regain homeostasis, was founded by Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and Clark Hull. He created a specific equation to explain the relationship between learning and drive.

The learned drive, which states that an individual can be taught to participate in a specific action, was founded by B.F. Skinner. His theory of operant conditioning, based on studies conducted with rats, allowed him to begin research into types of behaviors that must be learned.

Incentive motivation was founded most for Kenneth Spence. He explained that the value of the incentive itself will also increase the type of response that is given. For example, an individual will work harder at their studies if they are getting a brand new car than they will if they are getting $50.

Examples of the Behavioral Perspective

Andrew is planning on taking the AP® Psychology exam. He knows that if he gets a 5 on the exam it will look good when he is applying to college. If this happens he will be more likely to get into any college he chooses. He decides to study in order to get the good grade, but when a friend wants him to go skiing he decides to stop studying for the weekend to leave town. He has studied for a week and has worked through his study materials. He believes he can get a good enough score without studying anymore.

According to the behavioral perspective, and more specifically incentive motivation, Andrew has a motivator to achieve a good grade, so that he can get into a good college. He wants to achieve this goal and therefore he will work towards it. But this motivator could be improved if, for example, his mother offers him a new car in exchange for a 5 on his exam. Because this incentive is larger than the one he would currently gain by achieving a 5, he would likely choose to spend more time studying in order to achieve it.

Eliza wants to be the star of the ballet recital next month. Her teacher has stated that not everyone will even be in the recital and everyone will have to practice hard in order to get a spot. If she practices once a week she will be able to be in the recital. If she practices three times a week she knows that she will get the star role. The star role may mean that she is signed to a ballet company. If she is only in the recital she will likely not be noticed and will not get into a ballet company. Because Eliza’s dream is to be in a ballet company, she decides to practice three times a week.

The behavioral perspective states that Eliza has a motivating factor sufficient to push her into working hard. The motivation for getting into the recital is not great enough to prompt her to work as hard as necessary because she will still not achieve her dream, but getting into a ballet company is enough of a motivation. Because getting signed to a ballet company is important to her, she decides to work harder to achieve that goal. This external motivation is sufficient for her.

When Mark comes home for school every day he is very hungry. His lunch is often at 10am and when he gets out of school at 2:30pm he has to go to soccer practice. By the time he gets home it is after 5pm and he hasn’t eaten in several hours. Usually his mother makes sure there are snacks in the cupboard or on the counter, waiting for him.

Today there are no snacks waiting but he is still very hungry. Usually Mark does not cook at home. He waits for his family to get there and his parents will cook. Today, however, there are no snacks and no one is home to make dinner. There are ingredients for a pizza in the fridge. Mark sets out to make a pizza for himself.

Because Mark is hungry, his body is not at a level of homeostasis . He is determined to reach that homeostasis (to not be hungry anymore) and therefore decides to make something to eat. The motivation of being hungry, an unlearned behavior, is enough to make him do something to reach a level of homeostasis again, even though he normally would not engage in the activity (i.e. cooking).

What Else to Know About the Behavioral Perspective

This perspective has several stages which make up different aspects of the human mind. By combining all of these types of motivation, an individual will continue to work towards bettering themselves as well as making themselves more happy and secure. In general, humans want to achieve homeostasis and they want to achieve a pleasant situation. As a result, they will continue to use motivators to achieve these goals.

The AP® Psychology exam will require you to understand the differences between the behavioral perspective and other perspectives which are similar. These include psychodynamic and biological perspectives. You will need to know the similarities and differences between these theories, the importance of each of them, and how they were founded.

The behavioral perspective is still used today. It has been studied further than it was at the original time of its inception in the 20 th century. This theory emerged as the answer to psychoanalytic theory, which was based in a similar area of thought.

So here’s a quick AP® Psychology review for the behavioral perspective. It was founded by B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike and John B. Watson, the behavioral perspective has four different parts; drive theory, incentive motivation, unlearned drive and learned drive. It also relates to achieving a state of homeostasis and the intrinsic motivation of the individual.

This theory, though sometimes considered outdated, still has merits as a way of understanding the reasons that an individual will act the way that they do. It has been replaced in some instances by newer theories; however, it has still remained valid based on the studies and research done in the Little Albert case as well as through B.F. Skinner’s research with rats.

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6.7 Gender and Sexual Orientation

6 min read • january 8, 2023

Ashley Rossi

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Review all units live with expert teachers & students

Science tells us that males and females are much more similar than they are different. At birth, we are bestowed with 46 chromosomes —23 from our mother and 23 from our father. Of these, 45 are identical in males and females. It is only in the 23rd pair that sex is assigned🧬

Gender Development Before Puberty

During prenatal development , sex is determined by the inheritance of the father’s chromosome on the 23rd pair. All embryos receive an X chromosome from their mother. From their father, the developing child will either inherit a second X chromosome or a Y chromosome . 

Image Courtesy of NIH .

This inheritance makes all the difference. Males will be born with the XY chromosome pair, while females will be born with XX chromosome pair. The Y chromosome carries a gene that triggers the production of the primary male hormone known as testosterone . 

At about seven weeks after conception, this gene will trigger the development of the testes . It is important to note that testosterone is also present in females, but in lower amounts. Around the fourth or fifth month of development, these sex hormones will also play a role in developing fundamental differences between the male and female brains.

Gender Development During Puberty

Pubescent development features the growth of primary sex characteristics —referring to the reproductive organs and external genitalia. In males, the primary sex characteristics are the testes, which produce sperm, and the penis, which is used for sexual intercourse and the release of sperm. In females, the primary sex characteristics are the ovaries, which produce eggs, and the uterus, which is the organ where a fertilized egg implants and grows into a baby. While typical infants are born with their external genitalia and reproductive organs intact, these features grow and develop further during puberty. 

Puberty also features the development of secondary sex characteristics , which are linked to gender but are nonreproductive. They are highly influenced by hormones. In girls, this may refer to the growth of breast tissue or the widening of hips . In males, this is characterized by the growth of facial hair 🧔🏻 and the deepening of the voice 🗣️ .

In females, puberty will begin with the budding of breasts and the development of pubic hair. It culminates in the female's first menstrual cycle , sometimes referred to as menarche . 

Technically speaking, upon her first menstrual cycle a young girl is physically able to bear a child (although pregnancies in very young women come with high levels of risk). Still, she is far from being emotionally or socially ready. In today’s more developed societies, women bear children 👶 later than they have historically. This has been linked to a more modern push for gender equality, allowing women in developed nations to access higher education and be more career driven than they were 50 years ago. Women in developed nations also have education and access to birth control at their discretion.

In various regions, females are entering puberty earlier than they have in the past. This interesting reality may be linked to our diets which increasingly consist of high-fat foods and gender-mimicking hormones. Alternatively, it may be the result of external stressors related to the disruption of the family unit. 

In males, puberty is characterized by the growth of the testes , sprouting of facial and pubic hair, and deepening of the voice. Eventually, males will experience the first ejaculation and begin producing viable sperm. While both genders are likely to experience a growth spurt in pubescent years, these growth spurts are often more pronounced in males. 

Differences in Gender Development

The process described above is characteristic of typical gender development in the prenatal environment. However, abnormalities in the inheritance of sex chromosomes or hormonal exposure can produce atypical gender development . Intersex refers to individuals who are born with either intermediate sexual organs and genitals or a combination of sex characteristics. 

Additionally, gender development can be affected by other factors as well. The tragic case of David Reimer shows how the development of gender can be influenced by postpartum factors. 

During a botched circumcision, virtually all of David’s penis was removed. At the advice of psychologist John Money , David’s parents decided to sexually reassign him as female. Hence, David lived a portion of his life as “Brenda” Reimer. 

Although his parents and doctors attempted to raise him as a “typical girl,” problems soon arose. David never felt “right” as a female and, upon learning of his condition, decided to revert to his life as a male. 

Sadly, David was never able to find fulfillment in either gender and took his own life at the age of 38. David’s case illustrates just how complex and intricate human gender and sexuality are. 

It also should stand as a primary example of how the cases of individuals who struggle with their sexuality (whether that be transgender persons, intersex persons, or those with varying sexual orientations ) must be treated with empathy and sensitivity 😊

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation refers to our enduring patterns of sexual attraction. Individuals who are attracted to members of the opposite sex identify as heterosexual while those attracted to members of the same sex identify as homosexual . For the most part, the majority of people identify as heterosexual across cultures. 

Modern psychologists believe sexual orientation is not a conscious choice, and therefore, cannot be consciously changed. So where do these preferences come from? 

While psychologists still do not definitively know, there is some interesting research that suggests a biological basis for sexual orientation . Across non-human species, heterosexuality appears to be the norm, but researchers have determined same-sex relations do occur. 🌈

Furthermore, researcher Simon LeVay found evidence to suggest there may be fundamental differences between heterosexual and homosexual brains. Correlations found in twin studies 👯‍♀️ further sustain the suggestion that there may be some sort of genetic link to sexual orientation .  In a series of well-known fruit fly studies, researchers have been able to alter the fly’s sexuality by mutating a single gene. While it is true that the human brain is far more complex than a fly’s, the findings still suggest a biological link.

Practice FRQ

The free response question below is from the 2008 AP ® Psychology Exam. While it is still useful practice, the format of FRQ questions has changed slightly since then.

The Smith-Garcias are planning for their first baby. Both parents-to-be have had a psychology course and are looking forward to applying the principles they learned from theories and research that address child development.

A) Summarize one main idea or finding of each of the following four researchers.

Skinner's operant conditioning

Bandura's social learning theory

Ainsworth's attachment research

Baumrind's research on parenting styles

B) Provide a specific example of actions the Smith-Garcias might take to raise their child to produce positive outcomes using each of the theories below to address the corresponding psychological concept.

Skinner's operant conditioning: tantrum management

Bandura’s social learning theory: sharing behavior

Ainsworth’s attachment research: self-reliance

Baumrind’s research on parenting styles: self-esteem.

Key Terms to Review ( 17 )

Chromosomes

David Reimer

Gender Development

Heterosexual

Prenatal Development

Primary Sex Characteristics

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Simon LeVay

Testosterone

Twin Studies

X Chromosome

Y Chromosome

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