academic essay writing phrases

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• 40 Useful Words and Phrases for Top-Notch Essays

To be truly brilliant, an essay needs to utilise the right language. You could make a great point, but if it’s not intelligently articulated, you almost needn’t have bothered.

Developing the language skills to build an argument and to write persuasively is crucial if you’re to write outstanding essays every time. In this article, we’re going to equip you with the words and phrases you need to write a top-notch essay, along with examples of how to utilise them.

It’s by no means an exhaustive list, and there will often be other ways of using the words and phrases we describe that we won’t have room to include, but there should be more than enough below to help you make an instant improvement to your essay-writing skills.

If you’re interested in developing your language and persuasive skills, Oxford Royale offers summer courses at its Oxford Summer School , Cambridge Summer School , London Summer School , San Francisco Summer School and Yale Summer School . You can study courses to learn english , prepare for careers in law , medicine , business , engineering and leadership.

General explaining

Let’s start by looking at language for general explanations of complex points.

1. In order to

Usage: “In order to” can be used to introduce an explanation for the purpose of an argument. Example: “In order to understand X, we need first to understand Y.”

2. In other words

Usage: Use “in other words” when you want to express something in a different way (more simply), to make it easier to understand, or to emphasise or expand on a point. Example: “Frogs are amphibians. In other words, they live on the land and in the water.”

3. To put it another way

Usage: This phrase is another way of saying “in other words”, and can be used in particularly complex points, when you feel that an alternative way of wording a problem may help the reader achieve a better understanding of its significance. Example: “Plants rely on photosynthesis. To put it another way, they will die without the sun.”

4. That is to say

Usage: “That is” and “that is to say” can be used to add further detail to your explanation, or to be more precise. Example: “Whales are mammals. That is to say, they must breathe air.”

5. To that end

Usage: Use “to that end” or “to this end” in a similar way to “in order to” or “so”. Example: “Zoologists have long sought to understand how animals communicate with each other. To that end, a new study has been launched that looks at elephant sounds and their possible meanings.”

Adding additional information to support a point

Students often make the mistake of using synonyms of “and” each time they want to add further information in support of a point they’re making, or to build an argument . Here are some cleverer ways of doing this.

6. Moreover

Usage: Employ “moreover” at the start of a sentence to add extra information in support of a point you’re making. Example: “Moreover, the results of a recent piece of research provide compelling evidence in support of…”

7. Furthermore

Usage:This is also generally used at the start of a sentence, to add extra information. Example: “Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that…”

8. What’s more

Usage: This is used in the same way as “moreover” and “furthermore”. Example: “What’s more, this isn’t the only evidence that supports this hypothesis.”

9. Likewise

Usage: Use “likewise” when you want to talk about something that agrees with what you’ve just mentioned. Example: “Scholar A believes X. Likewise, Scholar B argues compellingly in favour of this point of view.”

10. Similarly

Usage: Use “similarly” in the same way as “likewise”. Example: “Audiences at the time reacted with shock to Beethoven’s new work, because it was very different to what they were used to. Similarly, we have a tendency to react with surprise to the unfamiliar.”

11. Another key thing to remember

Usage: Use the phrase “another key point to remember” or “another key fact to remember” to introduce additional facts without using the word “also”. Example: “As a Romantic, Blake was a proponent of a closer relationship between humans and nature. Another key point to remember is that Blake was writing during the Industrial Revolution, which had a major impact on the world around him.”

12. As well as

Usage: Use “as well as” instead of “also” or “and”. Example: “Scholar A argued that this was due to X, as well as Y.”

13. Not only… but also

Usage: This wording is used to add an extra piece of information, often something that’s in some way more surprising or unexpected than the first piece of information. Example: “Not only did Edmund Hillary have the honour of being the first to reach the summit of Everest, but he was also appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.”

14. Coupled with

Usage: Used when considering two or more arguments at a time. Example: “Coupled with the literary evidence, the statistics paint a compelling view of…”

15. Firstly, secondly, thirdly…

Usage: This can be used to structure an argument, presenting facts clearly one after the other. Example: “There are many points in support of this view. Firstly, X. Secondly, Y. And thirdly, Z.

16. Not to mention/to say nothing of

Usage: “Not to mention” and “to say nothing of” can be used to add extra information with a bit of emphasis. Example: “The war caused unprecedented suffering to millions of people, not to mention its impact on the country’s economy.”

Words and phrases for demonstrating contrast

When you’re developing an argument, you will often need to present contrasting or opposing opinions or evidence – “it could show this, but it could also show this”, or “X says this, but Y disagrees”. This section covers words you can use instead of the “but” in these examples, to make your writing sound more intelligent and interesting.

17. However

Usage: Use “however” to introduce a point that disagrees with what you’ve just said. Example: “Scholar A thinks this. However, Scholar B reached a different conclusion.”

18. On the other hand

Usage: Usage of this phrase includes introducing a contrasting interpretation of the same piece of evidence, a different piece of evidence that suggests something else, or an opposing opinion. Example: “The historical evidence appears to suggest a clear-cut situation. On the other hand, the archaeological evidence presents a somewhat less straightforward picture of what happened that day.”

19. Having said that

Usage: Used in a similar manner to “on the other hand” or “but”. Example: “The historians are unanimous in telling us X, an agreement that suggests that this version of events must be an accurate account. Having said that, the archaeology tells a different story.”

20. By contrast/in comparison

Usage: Use “by contrast” or “in comparison” when you’re comparing and contrasting pieces of evidence. Example: “Scholar A’s opinion, then, is based on insufficient evidence. By contrast, Scholar B’s opinion seems more plausible.”

21. Then again

Usage: Use this to cast doubt on an assertion. Example: “Writer A asserts that this was the reason for what happened. Then again, it’s possible that he was being paid to say this.”

22. That said

Usage: This is used in the same way as “then again”. Example: “The evidence ostensibly appears to point to this conclusion. That said, much of the evidence is unreliable at best.”

Usage: Use this when you want to introduce a contrasting idea. Example: “Much of scholarship has focused on this evidence. Yet not everyone agrees that this is the most important aspect of the situation.”

Adding a proviso or acknowledging reservations

Sometimes, you may need to acknowledge a shortfalling in a piece of evidence, or add a proviso. Here are some ways of doing so.

24. Despite this

Usage: Use “despite this” or “in spite of this” when you want to outline a point that stands regardless of a shortfalling in the evidence. Example: “The sample size was small, but the results were important despite this.”

25. With this in mind

Usage: Use this when you want your reader to consider a point in the knowledge of something else. Example: “We’ve seen that the methods used in the 19th century study did not always live up to the rigorous standards expected in scientific research today, which makes it difficult to draw definite conclusions. With this in mind, let’s look at a more recent study to see how the results compare.”

26. Provided that

Usage: This means “on condition that”. You can also say “providing that” or just “providing” to mean the same thing. Example: “We may use this as evidence to support our argument, provided that we bear in mind the limitations of the methods used to obtain it.”

27. In view of/in light of

Usage: These phrases are used when something has shed light on something else. Example: “In light of the evidence from the 2013 study, we have a better understanding of…”

28. Nonetheless

Usage: This is similar to “despite this”. Example: “The study had its limitations, but it was nonetheless groundbreaking for its day.”

29. Nevertheless

Usage: This is the same as “nonetheless”. Example: “The study was flawed, but it was important nevertheless.”

30. Notwithstanding

Usage: This is another way of saying “nonetheless”. Example: “Notwithstanding the limitations of the methodology used, it was an important study in the development of how we view the workings of the human mind.”

Giving examples

Good essays always back up points with examples, but it’s going to get boring if you use the expression “for example” every time. Here are a couple of other ways of saying the same thing.

31. For instance

Example: “Some birds migrate to avoid harsher winter climates. Swallows, for instance, leave the UK in early winter and fly south…”

32. To give an illustration

Example: “To give an illustration of what I mean, let’s look at the case of…”

Signifying importance

When you want to demonstrate that a point is particularly important, there are several ways of highlighting it as such.

33. Significantly

Usage: Used to introduce a point that is loaded with meaning that might not be immediately apparent. Example: “Significantly, Tacitus omits to tell us the kind of gossip prevalent in Suetonius’ accounts of the same period.”

34. Notably

Usage: This can be used to mean “significantly” (as above), and it can also be used interchangeably with “in particular” (the example below demonstrates the first of these ways of using it). Example: “Actual figures are notably absent from Scholar A’s analysis.”

35. Importantly

Usage: Use “importantly” interchangeably with “significantly”. Example: “Importantly, Scholar A was being employed by X when he wrote this work, and was presumably therefore under pressure to portray the situation more favourably than he perhaps might otherwise have done.”

Summarising

You’ve almost made it to the end of the essay, but your work isn’t over yet. You need to end by wrapping up everything you’ve talked about, showing that you’ve considered the arguments on both sides and reached the most likely conclusion. Here are some words and phrases to help you.

36. In conclusion

Usage: Typically used to introduce the concluding paragraph or sentence of an essay, summarising what you’ve discussed in a broad overview. Example: “In conclusion, the evidence points almost exclusively to Argument A.”

37. Above all

Usage: Used to signify what you believe to be the most significant point, and the main takeaway from the essay. Example: “Above all, it seems pertinent to remember that…”

38. Persuasive

Usage: This is a useful word to use when summarising which argument you find most convincing. Example: “Scholar A’s point – that Constanze Mozart was motivated by financial gain – seems to me to be the most persuasive argument for her actions following Mozart’s death.”

39. Compelling

Usage: Use in the same way as “persuasive” above. Example: “The most compelling argument is presented by Scholar A.”

40. All things considered

Usage: This means “taking everything into account”. Example: “All things considered, it seems reasonable to assume that…”

How many of these words and phrases will you get into your next essay? And are any of your favourite essay terms missing from our list? Let us know in the comments below, or get in touch here to find out more about courses that can help you with your essays.

At Oxford Royale Academy, we offer a number of  summer school courses for young people who are keen to improve their essay writing skills. Click here to apply for one of our courses today, including law , business , medicine  and engineering .

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Words to Use in an Essay: 300 Essay Words

Hannah Yang

Table of Contents

Words to use in the essay introduction, words to use in the body of the essay, words to use in your essay conclusion, how to improve your essay writing vocabulary.

It’s not easy to write an academic essay .

Many students struggle to word their arguments in a logical and concise way.

To make matters worse, academic essays need to adhere to a certain level of formality, so we can’t always use the same word choices in essay writing that we would use in daily life.

If you’re struggling to choose the right words for your essay, don’t worry—you’ve come to the right place!

In this article, we’ve compiled a list of over 300 words and phrases to use in the introduction, body, and conclusion of your essay.

The introduction is one of the hardest parts of an essay to write.

You have only one chance to make a first impression, and you want to hook your reader. If the introduction isn’t effective, the reader might not even bother to read the rest of the essay.

That’s why it’s important to be thoughtful and deliberate with the words you choose at the beginning of your essay.

Many students use a quote in the introductory paragraph to establish credibility and set the tone for the rest of the essay.

When you’re referencing another author or speaker, try using some of these phrases:

To use the words of X

According to X

As X states

Example: To use the words of Hillary Clinton, “You cannot have maternal health without reproductive health.”

Near the end of the introduction, you should state the thesis to explain the central point of your paper.

If you’re not sure how to introduce your thesis, try using some of these phrases:

In this essay, I will…

The purpose of this essay…

This essay discusses…

In this paper, I put forward the claim that…

There are three main arguments for…

Example: In this essay, I will explain why dress codes in public schools are detrimental to students.

After you’ve stated your thesis, it’s time to start presenting the arguments you’ll use to back up that central idea.

When you’re introducing the first of a series of arguments, you can use the following words:

First and foremost

First of all

To begin with

Example: First , consider the effects that this new social security policy would have on low-income taxpayers.

All these words and phrases will help you create a more successful introduction and convince your audience to read on.

The body of your essay is where you’ll explain your core arguments and present your evidence.

It’s important to choose words and phrases for the body of your essay that will help the reader understand your position and convince them you’ve done your research.

Let’s look at some different types of words and phrases that you can use in the body of your essay, as well as some examples of what these words look like in a sentence.

Transition Words and Phrases

Transitioning from one argument to another is crucial for a good essay.

It’s important to guide your reader from one idea to the next so they don’t get lost or feel like you’re jumping around at random.

Transition phrases and linking words show your reader you’re about to move from one argument to the next, smoothing out their reading experience. They also make your writing look more professional.

The simplest transition involves moving from one idea to a separate one that supports the same overall argument. Try using these phrases when you want to introduce a second correlating idea:

Additionally

In addition

Furthermore

Another key thing to remember

In the same way

Correspondingly

Example: Additionally , public parks increase property value because home buyers prefer houses that are located close to green, open spaces.

Another type of transition involves restating. It’s often useful to restate complex ideas in simpler terms to help the reader digest them. When you’re restating an idea, you can use the following words:

In other words

To put it another way

That is to say

To put it more simply

Example: “The research showed that 53% of students surveyed expressed a mild or strong preference for more on-campus housing. In other words , over half the students wanted more dormitory options.”

Often, you’ll need to provide examples to illustrate your point more clearly for the reader. When you’re about to give an example of something you just said, you can use the following words:

For instance

To give an illustration of

To exemplify

To demonstrate

As evidence

Example: Humans have long tried to exert control over our natural environment. For instance , engineers reversed the Chicago River in 1900, causing it to permanently flow backward.

Sometimes, you’ll need to explain the impact or consequence of something you’ve just said.

When you’re drawing a conclusion from evidence you’ve presented, try using the following words:

As a result

Accordingly

As you can see

This suggests that

It follows that

It can be seen that

For this reason

For all of those reasons

Consequently

Example: “There wasn’t enough government funding to support the rest of the physics experiment. Thus , the team was forced to shut down their experiment in 1996.”

When introducing an idea that bolsters one you’ve already stated, or adds another important aspect to that same argument, you can use the following words:

What’s more

Not only…but also

Not to mention

To say nothing of

Another key point

Example: The volcanic eruption disrupted hundreds of thousands of people. Moreover , it impacted the local flora and fauna as well, causing nearly a hundred species to go extinct.

Often, you'll want to present two sides of the same argument. When you need to compare and contrast ideas, you can use the following words:

On the one hand / on the other hand

Alternatively

In contrast to

On the contrary

By contrast

In comparison

Example: On the one hand , the Black Death was undoubtedly a tragedy because it killed millions of Europeans. On the other hand , it created better living conditions for the peasants who survived.

Finally, when you’re introducing a new angle that contradicts your previous idea, you can use the following phrases:

Having said that

Differing from

In spite of

With this in mind

Provided that

Nevertheless

Nonetheless

Notwithstanding

Example: Shakespearean plays are classic works of literature that have stood the test of time. Having said that , I would argue that Shakespeare isn’t the most accessible form of literature to teach students in the twenty-first century.

Good essays include multiple types of logic. You can use a combination of the transitions above to create a strong, clear structure throughout the body of your essay.

Strong Verbs for Academic Writing

Verbs are especially important for writing clear essays. Often, you can convey a nuanced meaning simply by choosing the right verb.

You should use strong verbs that are precise and dynamic. Whenever possible, you should use an unambiguous verb, rather than a generic verb.

For example, alter and fluctuate are stronger verbs than change , because they give the reader more descriptive detail.

Here are some useful verbs that will help make your essay shine.

Verbs that show change:

Accommodate

Verbs that relate to causing or impacting something:

Verbs that show increase:

Verbs that show decrease:

Deteriorate

Verbs that relate to parts of a whole:

Comprises of

Is composed of

Constitutes

Encompasses

Incorporates

Verbs that show a negative stance:

Misconstrue

Verbs that show a positive stance:

Substantiate

Verbs that relate to drawing conclusions from evidence:

Corroborate

Demonstrate

Verbs that relate to thinking and analysis:

Contemplate

Hypothesize

Investigate

Verbs that relate to showing information in a visual format:

Useful Adjectives and Adverbs for Academic Essays

You should use adjectives and adverbs more sparingly than verbs when writing essays, since they sometimes add unnecessary fluff to sentences.

However, choosing the right adjectives and adverbs can help add detail and sophistication to your essay.

Sometimes you'll need to use an adjective to show that a finding or argument is useful and should be taken seriously. Here are some adjectives that create positive emphasis:

Significant

Other times, you'll need to use an adjective to show that a finding or argument is harmful or ineffective. Here are some adjectives that create a negative emphasis:

Controversial

Insignificant

Questionable

Unnecessary

Unrealistic

Finally, you might need to use an adverb to lend nuance to a sentence, or to express a specific degree of certainty. Here are some examples of adverbs that are often used in essays:

Comprehensively

Exhaustively

Extensively

Respectively

Surprisingly

Using these words will help you successfully convey the key points you want to express. Once you’ve nailed the body of your essay, it’s time to move on to the conclusion.

The conclusion of your paper is important for synthesizing the arguments you’ve laid out and restating your thesis.

In your concluding paragraph, try using some of these essay words:

In conclusion

To summarize

In a nutshell

Given the above

As described

All things considered

Example: In conclusion , it’s imperative that we take action to address climate change before we lose our coral reefs forever.

In addition to simply summarizing the key points from the body of your essay, you should also add some final takeaways. Give the reader your final opinion and a bit of a food for thought.

To place emphasis on a certain point or a key fact, use these essay words:

Unquestionably

Undoubtedly

Particularly

Importantly

Conclusively

It should be noted

On the whole

Example: Ada Lovelace is unquestionably a powerful role model for young girls around the world, and more of our public school curricula should include her as a historical figure.

These concluding phrases will help you finish writing your essay in a strong, confident way.

There are many useful essay words out there that we didn't include in this article, because they are specific to certain topics.

If you're writing about biology, for example, you will need to use different terminology than if you're writing about literature.

So how do you improve your vocabulary skills?

The vocabulary you use in your academic writing is a toolkit you can build up over time, as long as you take the time to learn new words.

One way to increase your vocabulary is by looking up words you don’t know when you’re reading.

Try reading more books and academic articles in the field you’re writing about and jotting down all the new words you find. You can use these words to bolster your own essays.

You can also consult a dictionary or a thesaurus. When you’re using a word you’re not confident about, researching its meaning and common synonyms can help you make sure it belongs in your essay.

Don't be afraid of using simpler words. Good essay writing boils down to choosing the best word to convey what you need to say, not the fanciest word possible.

Finally, you can use ProWritingAid’s synonym tool or essay checker to find more precise and sophisticated vocabulary. Click on weak words in your essay to find stronger alternatives.

There you have it: our compilation of the best words and phrases to use in your next essay . Good luck!

Good writing = better grades

ProWritingAid will help you improve the style, strength, and clarity of all your assignments.

Hannah Yang is a speculative fiction writer who writes about all things strange and surreal. Her work has appeared in Analog Science Fiction, Apex Magazine, The Dark, and elsewhere, and two of her stories have been finalists for the Locus Award. Her favorite hobbies include watercolor painting, playing guitar, and rock climbing. You can follow her work on hannahyang.com, or subscribe to her newsletter for publication updates.

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Academic Phrasebank – The Largest Collection of Academic Phrases

• Importance of topic
• About research domain or topic
• Active research area
• Well studied issue or topic
• Considerable interest in community
• New or Emerging techniques
• Recent advancements
• Future expectations and predictions
• Rise to prominence
• Generally accepted findings and facts
• Importance of understanding
• Conventional approach
• Problem definition
• Known problems or issues
• Problems cited in literature
• Solving a problem
• Possible solutions
• Current solutions
• Your solution
• Partial solution
• Unconventional approach or solution
• Problem review
• Complexity of the problem
• Efforts in the research community
• Research difficulties
• Difficulties and challenges
• Difficulty peforming an action
• Difficulty in making decision
• Limiting factors or issues
• Intro to literature review
• Well studied topic in literature
• Many studies in literature
• Methods and solutions in literature
• Drawbacks of previous studies
• Recent literature
• Seminal or pioneering work
• Similar works in literature
• Comparative studies
• Derivative work
• Agreements and Disagreements in literature
• Debated or controversial issues
• Questionable studies
• Referencing literature
• Drawing inspiraton from literature
• Summary of previous literature
• More information on the topic
• Evidence from previous studies
• Evidence from previous clinical studies
• Evidence from literature review
• Supporting evidence in literature
• Strong evidence in literature
• Mixed evidence
• Limited or lack of evidence
• Disputed evidence
• Evidence of association
• Evidence of risk factor
• Evidence of prevalance
• Limited previous studies
• Unexplored research area
• Research questions
• Lack of solution
• Need for research
• Need for a better method
• Need for a better understanding
• Need for more studies
• Aims and objectives
• Specific objectives or focus
• Secondary objectives
• Developing a new approach or method
• Breakdown of your work
• Study design
• Motivation of your work
• Benefits of your research
• Extending previous work
• Previous findings by you
• Scope and remit of work
• Overview of current methods
• Intro to methods section
• Paper or section breakdown
• Scope of discussion
• Summary of section
• Referring to other sections
• Further details
• About the method
• Method implementation
• Experimental setup
• Simple method
• Fast method
• Standard method
• Popular method
• Alternative methods
• Controversial method
• Comparing methods
• Lack of methods
• Combining methods
• Origins of the method
• Adapting or extending a method
• Uniqueness of your method
• Many methods available
• Advantages and features of methods
• Advantages and disadvantages of methods
• Drawback and limitations of methods
• Using previously published methods
• Previous usage of the method
• Pilot or preliminary studies
• Lack of validation
• Validation of the methods
• Testing and evaluation
• Measurement procedure
• Multiple measurements
• Consistency in measurements
• Difficulty performing measurements
• Using previously published data
• Reason for choice
• Inappropriate choice
• Adequate for the experiment
• Inadequate for the experiment
• Conditions, constraints and criteria
• Assumptions and approximations
• No assumptions
• Incorrect assumptions
• Validity of assumption
• Starting point
• Initialization
• Simplification
• Prerequisites
• Requirements
• Neglected or ignored aspects
• Important aspects
• Taking things into account
• Careful consideration
• Drawing attention
• Prior knowledge
• Practical issues
• Improving accuracy or performance
• Making modifications or improvements
• Lack of information
• Steps and Stages
• Special cases
• Guidance and recommendations
• Lessons from previous studies
• Raising concerns
• Data source
• Data collection methods
• About the study population
• About the study group
• Confidentality
• Ethical approval
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Participants characteristics
• Participants behavior
• Participant recruitment
• Leaflets and information sheets
• Questionnaire
• Focus groups
• Effect or influence
• Increase or decrease
• Influencing factors
• Comparisions
• Over and under estimation
• Range and limits
• Association or relationship
• Variations or change
• Observations and behaviour
• Trend or pattern
• Reporting data
• Statistical tests
• Statistical significance
• Significance level
• Data distribution
• Correlations
• Making statistical adjustments
• Source of errors
• Small discrepancies or errors
• Large discrepancies or errors
• Reducing errors
• Error trend
• Results intro
• Analysis methods
• Analysis software
• General findings
• Positive findings
• Negative findings
• Neutral findings
• Key findings
• Interesting findings
• Expected findings
• Unexpected findings
• Inconclusive results
• Difficulty in analysis
• Additional analysis
• Comparing results with previous work
• Results in good aggreement with previous work
• Results in disaggreement with previous work
• Interpret with caution
• Generalising findings
• Future improvements
• Future work
• Further studies
• Applications
• Follow-up studies
• Implications of your findings
• Limitations of your study
• Inadequate or limited data
• Strengths of your work
• Lesson for future studies
• Novelty of your work
• Contributions
• Conclusions
• Reason or cause
• Speculations and doubts
• No explanation
• Reasons cited in literature
• Classifications
• Optimization
• Properties and characteristics
• Incidence or prevalance
• Risk factors
• Action - reasons
• Action - consequences
• Disadvantages or drawbacks
• Limitations
• Implications
• Thanking people
• Thank supervisor
• Thank colleagues
• Thank reviewers
• Financial support
• Declaration
• Partnership
• Clarifications
• Time consuming
• Reducing computation time
• Cost effective
• Publications

Phrase Templates

REF-N-WRITE is proud to announce the launch of the academic phrasebank. The phrasebank is now available as part of the Word AddIn. New buttons and options have been added to the AddIn for the users to access the academic phrasebank and search through academic phrases. A selection of academic phrases from the phrasebank has been made available above for demonstration purposes. The search results are limited to five academic phrases in the demo version.

1. Academic Phrasebank

Academic phrasebank refers to a library containing a collection of English phrases that can be readily used in scientific papers and academic reports. The REF-N-WRITE team has painstakingly created a phrasebank of 20,000 academic writing phrases for use by students and researchers writing research papers. These academic phrases were extracted from high-quality scientific journal articles by a team of academic experts. Only very small chunks of generic text were extracted from previous papers, and hence the use of these academic phrases in new papers will not constitute plagiarism. The academic phrases in the phrasebank are organized in the order in which you will be required to use in a scientific paper. The academic phrases can be accessed by simply clicking on each category.

The academic writing phrases are organized into following sections (1) Introduction; (2) Problem, Solution & Difficulties; (3) Literature Review; (4) Previous Evidence and Findings; (5) Research Gap; (6) Your Work; (7) Section Intro and Scope; (8) Materials and Methods; (9) Measurements and Calculations; (10) Technical Statements; (11) Data Collection and Processing; (12) Data Analysis & Presentation; (13) Statistics; (14) Errors and Discrepancies; (15) Results; (16) Discussion and (17) Acknowledgements. In addition to this, there are some general categories of academic phrases which include: (1) Reasons, Causes & Explanations; (2) Figures, Plots and Tables; (3) Explain or Describe; (4) General Statements and (5) Others.

The various categories available within the academic phrasebank is illustrated below in the following figure.

2. Getting Writing Ideas

You can search the academic phrasebank for writing themes and ideas by simply selecting a piece of text in MS Word and then clicking the ‘Writing Ideas’ button. The tool will perform an analysis on the selected text and bring up relevant categories from the academic phrasebank. Then the academic phrases belonging to the categories can be accessed by simply clicking on the category name. The screenshot below demonstrates how you can search for categories relevant to your writing in the academic phrasebank.

3. Getting Paraphrasing Ideas

REF-N-WRITE AddIn comes with a paraphrasing tool that allows users to search for rephrasing ideas from the academic phrasebank. The user has to select a sentence in MS Word document that they would like to rephrase or reword and click the ‘Paraphrasing Tool’ button in the REF-N-WRITE button panel. The tool will search through the academic phrases and bring up phrase templates relevant to the selected text. The user can use this collection of phrases to get paraphrasing ideas for the text. Furthermore, the user can bring up more similar phrases by clicking on the more button(…) that is shown next to each phrase template in the search results panel. The figure below illustrates how to get paraphrasing ideas from the academic phrasebank.

4. Ref-N-Write Phrasebank vs. Manchester Phrasebank

The Manchester academic phrasebank is the most popular resource of academic writing phrases and was put together by Dr John Morley at The University of Manchester. The academic phrase bank is available in different forms, it is accessible through their website and is also available to purchase as an e-book . One of the motivations behind REF-N-WRITE Phrasebank is to create a fully searchable library of academic phrases that students and researchers can search on-the-fly while writing their papers. The REF-N-WRITE phrase bank is available as a part of the REF-N-WRITE Word AddIn, it means that the users can search through the library and lookup for academic writing phrase ideas within Microsoft Word.

By combining both REF-N-WRITE and Manchester phrasebanks together it is possible to generate high-quality scientific articles. REF-N-WRITE offers import facility which allows users to import documents in PDF and word formats into MS Word and then search through them during the writing process. Since Manchester Phrasebank is available in PDF version, the user using REF-N-WRITE can import the Manchester Phrasebank PDF into REF-N-WRITE and access the phrases from both Manchester Phrasebank and REF-N-WRITE Phrasebank simultaneously. The figure below illustrates phrases from the Manchester phrasebank being accessed within REF-N-WRITE Word AddIn.

5. Importance of using Academic phrases and Scientific words in Research Papers

Academic writing is different from normal every day writing in the sense that most words and terms used in general writing will be considered colloquial if used in research papers. One of the requirements of academic writing is that it requires the use of formal language in writing. We define formal language as the use of well-accepted scientific terms and phrases widely used by your peers in your subject area. In other words, the language you use in your academic essay or paper should be broadly in line with the one used by your academic or research community.

Such a skill is not easy to acquire, it takes time. Typically, your academic supervisor will provide guidance in this regard. When you are writing a research paper, your academic supervisor will review the paper first and provide you with suggestions to improve the language. The benefit of using a good academic phrasebank is that you can start perfecting the writing right from the start as you will be able to lookup for academic phrases and scientific words as you write your first draft. This will reduce the need for multiple revisions as your first version will be in a state that is academically acceptable.

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Academic Phrasebank Enhanced Version

Navigable PDF – 2023 Edition

The Academic Phrasebank is an essential writing resource for researchers, academics, and students. You can download the enhanced version of the Academic Phrasebank as a 158 page navigable PDF file here:

You can view sample pages of the enhanced PDF version by clicking on the icon below:

Enhanced PDF includes:

Hundreds more phrases, additional sections on:, writing abstracts, indicating shared knowledge, writing acknowledgements, written academic style, using gender-neutral language, british and us spelling, punctuation, sentence structure, paragraph structure, commonly confused words, phrases used to connect ideas, commonly used verbs.

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Useful Academic Expressions & Phrases For Essay Writing

These useful academic expressions , words, vocabulary and phrases will help you to write a top-notch essay. Writing an essay can be a challenging task. However it becomes simpler if it is divided into manageable pieces. There are three main parts in an essay: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. You can easily overcome your essay writing task with these academic phrases and vocabulary for essay writing.

Phrases to Finish an Introduction Paragraph

In this essay, I will look at some of the arguments for This essay will discuss different ways of … This essay outline some of the reasons why… Let us examine both views before reaching a concrete decision. The following essay takes a look at both sides of the argument.

Vocabulary for Opinion Essay 

In my opinion, I strongly agree with the idea that … I strongly disagree with the idea that … I strongly opine that… I strongly believe that… In my view… As far as I am concerned… It seems to me that… However, I strongly believe that… I oppose the view and my reasons will be explained in the following paragraphs. I will support this view with arguments in the following paragraphs. I personally believe that… Thus the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages…

Useful Expressions For Listing Your Ideas

First… First of all… Firstly… First and foremost… Initially… To begin with… To start with… In the first place…

On the one hand… Second(ly)… (do not use ‘Second of all’) Third(ly)… Then… Next… After that… And… Again… Also… Besides… Likewise… In addition… Consequently… What’s more… Furthermore… Moreover… Apart from that…

Finally… Last but not the least…

Check Also: Vocabulary for Starting Your Essay How to Write The Best Essay Ever!

Phrases to Show a Comparison in Your Essay

In the same way… Likewise… Similarly… Like the previous point… Similar to… Also… At the same time… Just as…

Useful Vocabulary and Phrases to Show Contrast

On the other hand… On the contrary… However… Nevertheless…/ Nonetheless… But… Nonetheless/ Nevertheless… Oppositely… Alternatively… Unlike… While… Whilst… Although… Though… Even though… Despite… / In spite of… In spite of the fact that… Alternatively… In contrast to this… Then again… On the other hand… Despite the fact that… Even so… Yet… Meanwhile…

Vocabulary For Expressing Condition

If… Provided that… Because of that… For this reason… Unless… Providing that… So that… In case… Whether…

Phrases for Expressing Certainty in Your Essay

Certainly… Definitely… No doubt… Of course… Doubtlessly… Without any doubt… Undoubtedly…

Vocabulary for Adding Further Information

In addition… And… Moreover… Similarly… Furthermore… Also… As well as… Besides… Even… Too… What’s more… Again… In a similar fashion… Likewise…

Expressions for Agreement & Disagreement in Your Essay

While writing your essay, as a writer you are required to show whether you agree & disagree or partially agree with a given statement or opinion.

Vocabulary for Expressing Agreement

I strongly agree… I completely agree that… I totally agree with the given idea that… I agree with the opinion that… I am quite inclined to the opinion that… I accept that… I accept the fact that… I am in agreement… I consent that…

Vocabulary for Expressing Disagreement

I disagree with the opinion that… I strongly disagree… I completely disagree with… I totally disagree with the given idea that… I disagree with the statement… I quite oppose the opinion that… I disapprove that… I totally do not accept the fact that… My own opinion contradicts… I disagree with the group of people… However, my opinion is different from…

Vocabulary for Expressing Partial Agreement

To some extent… In a way… I agree with the given statement to some extent… Up to a point, I agree… More or less… So to speak…

Essay Writing Expressions PDF

  Essay Expression PDF – (download)

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Powerful words and Phrases to use in Essays

Although many might consider essay writing an easy task, it is not always the case with most students. Writing academic papers (essays, term papers, research papers, dissertations, theses, proposals, reports, and other assignments) requires students to hone and practice continuously. Thus, mastering writing at the academic level takes time and much practice, after which most students begin to be confident writing essays. For some, this confidence comes towards the end of the undergraduate course, while some master the art a few months or a week into their undergrad level studies.

This might sound like you, and you do not have to feel sorry about it. We have a list of academic writing power words that you can use when writing academic assignments. These words and phrases to use in your essay and other papers will help you avoid the dead words that probably deny you the top grade. Together with our team of experts in best essay writing, we have listed essential academic words that you can use in your introduction, body, and conclusion for all your essays and research papers .

Although you might have arguments and ideas that might attract the best grade, using the words we have listed could help you articulate, expound, and present the ideas effectively. Consequently, you will end up with a standard academic paper that any professional can grade, or that attracts your reader's attention and keeps them glued to the end.

After all, academic writing is a formal practice that disdains cliches or dead words such as colloquial expressions, controversial phrases, or casual words/slang. This means that the words you use when texting your friends, such as LOL, OMG, TIA, and the rest, should only end in the messages and not on the PDF or Word document you are typing your essay. As we have mentioned, formal academic writing is very delicate; it requires in-depth skills.

We hope that as you plan, write, and polish your essay, you will consider using the words we have listed here for inspiration and to hone your professional writing skills.

Words to Spice up your Introduction

Crafting a perfect introduction is arguably the most challenging part of academic writing. Whether you write the introduction first or last, it is always the invitation point for your readers to enjoy what is in the body. So, naturally, with adequate planning and structuring, you need to ensure that the introduction counts.

To begin an essay, you need to mind that your reader is uninformed about your arguments and topic, which means that the very first sentence has to summarize the central argument and the topic.

Although there is no preserved set of words to use in your essay introduction, you use the following words and phrases to explain what your essay is discussing (its scope) without losing the formality of your academic writing.

• For decades
• Over the years
• Challenging
• Significance
• Complex problem
• To begin with
• As far as is proven in the literature
• From the statistics presented by studies
• The main objective
• This topic resonates

This list of phrases is not complete; you can use the other phrases and words we will cover in the following sections of this guide. As long as you have a good reason to use a phrase, do not feel limited : use it for the glory of excellent grades.

General Explanations

When providing general explanations, both in the body, introduction, and conclusion of your essays, either for complex or easy points, you can use these phrases:

• In order to
• In other words
• To that end
• In another way
• That is to say

We will see (in the course of this guideline) how else you can use the exact phrases in your essay.

Giving Examples in your essay

Any standard piece of academic writing must include examples. For instance, when presenting an argument in an argumentative or persuasive essay, you must illustrate your essay with examples to make the arguments stand out. Examples help clarify explanations, which makes it easy for the reader to connect the dots. Besides, they create an ideal picture in the mind of the reader. Instead of repeating for example when introducing illustrations in your essay, here are other phrases, transitions, and words that you can use in their place.

• To illustrate
• As evidence
• To elucidate
• To exemplify
• On this occasion
• As in the case of
• Take the case of
• In this sense
• In this situation
• In another case
• In this case
• As a demonstration
• As a testament
• To demonstrate
• As an example,
• For instance
• For example
• To give an illustration

Academic essays that receive top scores always have well-kit paragraphs that entail the topic sentence, arguments, examples (illustration), and closing sentences with the relevant transition words. These academic phrases are helpful when introducing examples. You can ideally use them in any academic piece, including theses, proposals, and dissertations. They help you avoid repeating similar phrases, which facilities readability and smooth flow in your essays.

Showing importance of arguments in an essay

When writing academic essays, it is vital to demonstrate that a given argument or point is fundamental. You can highlight this in your essay writing by using the following phrases:

• In particular
• Specifically
• Importantly
• Significantly
• Fundamentally

These words can comfortably be used interchangeably when demonstrating significant ideas that are critical to understanding a topic.

Arguing based on facts from other authors

You can use phrases that acknowledge what others have said concerning a topic at the beginning of your essay. When you begin your essay with such phrases, you are posing your argument based on the authors' findings or a general interest/concern in your area of research. You can use such phrases when the evidence supports or refutes your arguments. Here are the essay phrases to use when acknowledging authors:

• Considering
• In light of
• Taking into consideration
• On account of
• All things considered
• On the whole
• Insomuch as
• Inasmuch as
• Forasmuch as

Introducing the views of an author who is an authority in your area of interest or topic is critical in academic essay writing. For example, when you include a quote but do not want to use parenthetical citation or the exact words, you can use academic phrases such as:

• According to X
• X contends that
• Referring to the views of
• Drawing from X
• As argued by Y
• Findings by Y
• As hypothesized by X
• As proposed/shown/demonstrated/suggested by X
• Studies by X
• A recent study by X

Although you are referencing a quote here, it is not always advisable to use direct quotes at the start of your essay unless directed by your instructor. This means that using the above phrases can help spice up your essay introduction.

Laying Emphasis

When writing an essay, whether it be an English class essay or any essay, you must emphasize the main argument. The idea behind this is to create coherence within your essay. You can use the transition words below to emphasize your paragraphs. This list of academic essay words can be used in the introduction, body, and even conclusion.

• In any case
• Some other words include unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically,

Showing some sequence

When describing ideas or presenting arguments in sequence within an essay, here are the proven phrases and words that can earn you the best grades in school.

• First, second, third
• First, secondly, thirdly
• Following this
• At this point
• Before this
• Consequently
• Subsequently
• At this time

It would help if you were extra careful when introducing ideas because each paragraph only has one idea. They are also ideal when giving a list of examples.

You can also show the order of events using the phrases below:

• Furthermore
• In the meantime
• Simultaneously
• In the first place
• First of all
• For the time being
• With this in mind

These phrases come in handy when writing about a linear event or a sequential occurrence of facts. They further help to maintain a good flow, clarity, and coherence.

Creating Flow and providing further information

Essays, even the short ones, should be as informative as possible. Knowing how to present arguments, points, and facts concisely and helps you avoid bluff in the essay. As the flow of your essay matters to the reader and for your grades, we recommend that you use these phrases or words that denote more information or flow. These words will help you to chronologically and structurally present your arguments and ideas

• In addition
• What's more
• Additionally

These are academic phrases that help you expand your argument; add a point you have made without interrupting the flow of your essay. You can also use them when beginning new paragraphs.

The next set of essay words are a great choice when you want to add a piece of information that corroborates the argument or point you just mentioned. When writing academic essays and papers, it is critical to concur with your arguments. Doing so not only helps you to keep your readers glued but also helps you to contextualize your research.  They also help you avoid repeating also many times. Repetitions are a sure way to score poor grades in your essay : they make your writing predictive and boring. Here are some words to save you grades and embracement.

• Another key thing to remember
• Not only but also ( use this when establishing similarity in your arguments- it makes the argument stand out)
• Coupled with
• Firstly, secondly, thirdly

You can also use the essay phrases below when stating your claim or introducing your claim. When your essay requires you to prove how you will achieve a goal- as is with a problem-solution essay or proposal argument essay , you can use these sentences to expand your points.

• To this end

You can also use the academic phrases below to improve continuity in your essay write-up. These essay phrases explain a point that you already made but differently. Avoid repetition when elaborating specific points or arguments in your essay by using the phrases below

• To put it in another way
• To put it more simply

The phrases above can also be used when rounding up a point that came before the sentence that you begin.

An Example: He was already abusive to both the mother and the kids. In other words, it was a long-term domestic violence case.

Comparing and Contrasting Points

In academic essays, there are instances when you are required to include information that proves or refutes a point. For instance, when writing an argumentative essay, you have to include a counterargument. To show the views of the researchers that disagree with your main argument or point of view, you can use these words to introduce alternative arguments:

• Nevertheless
• On the contrary
• On the other hand
• Even though

These phrases are a seamless way to include an alternative perspective.

An Example: While 35% of the population appears to be living below the poverty line, the remaining 65% seem to be doing well.

You can also use phrases that show contrast, present uncertainty, and compare facts associated with your significant arguments. Here are some of the phrases:

• By contrast
• In comparison

The phrases above demonstrate expertise in your topic, authority in writing and help you convince your readers.

When you intend to demonstrate a positive aspect of your subject matter, you can use these phrases in your academic piece:

• Despite this
• Provided that
• Nonetheless

Example : Provided that there is a red flag in a relationship, it is only safe that the victim acts or seeks help.

To add contrast, you can also highlight the relevance of an opinion, argument, point, or fact as regards your research. Here are some academic words that can help you introduce paragraphs or sentences that have big ideas in your essay:

• Another key point

Perfect words to conclude your essay

An essay conclusion carries as much weight as the introduction. Therefore, you must ensure that you have concluding words for your essay good enough to wrap up your arguments. In addition, considering that your conclusion should have a summary of the main ideas, your final statement and road plan to the conclusion must be evident. Here is a list of categorized phrases to use to conclude an essay effectively:

• In conclusion
• To summarize
• In the final analysis
• On close analysis
• As can be seen from the argument above
• The most compelling finding
• The outstanding idea
• The most persuasive point
• This suggests that
• It can be seen that
• The consequence is
• Subsequent to
• Most significantly
• It should be noted
• It is worth noting

These are essay phrases that you use when articulating your reasons in the essay. Some of them summarize the relevant ideas or arguments, while others emphasize the relevant arguments.

Parting Shot

We have explored the list of useful phrases for writing great essays. When coupled with the correct vocabulary words, an essay easily scores the top grade in a rubric. When you use the words above, you automatically sound smart.

Whether you are writing a narrative, argumentative, or descriptive essay, these are words that you can use to convince your readers. They help you maintain a good flow, play around with other vocabularies, present authors' views, and finalize your essay in a bang.

We hope that these words will transform your essays from better to best. So, stay confident while articulating points, arguments, and ideas in your essays.

If writing an essay is not your thing, and these academic words and phrases sound Greek to you, you can hire an essay writer. Sourcing essay writing help from Gradecrest guarantees you a sample academic essay that is well-formatted. In addition, we have writers who specialize in writing different essays and can deliver within the shortest turnaround time.

Gradecrest is a professional writing service that provides original model papers. We offer personalized services along with research materials for assistance purposes only. All the materials from our website should be used with proper references. See our Terms of Use Page for proper details.

100+ Useful Words and Phrases to Write a Great Essay

By: Author Sophia

Posted on Last updated: October 25, 2023

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How to Write a Great Essay in English! This lesson provides 100+ useful words, transition words and expressions used in writing an essay. Let’s take a look!

The secret to a successful essay doesn’t just lie in the clever things you talk about and the way you structure your points.

Useful Words and Phrases to Write a Great Essay

Overview of an essay.

Useful Phrases for Proficiency Essays

Developing the argument

• The first aspect to point out is that…
• Let us start by considering the facts.
• The novel portrays, deals with, revolves around…
• Central to the novel is…
• The character of xxx embodies/ epitomizes…

The other side of the argument

• It would also be interesting to see…
• One should, nevertheless, consider the problem from another angle.
• Equally relevant to the issue are the questions of…
• The arguments we have presented… suggest that…/ prove that…/ would indicate that…
• From these arguments one must…/ could…/ might… conclude that…
• All of this points to the conclusion that…
• To conclude…

Ordering elements

• Firstly,…/ Secondly,…/ Finally,… (note the comma after all these introductory words.)
• As a final point…
• On the one hand, …. on the other hand…
• If on the one hand it can be said that… the same is not true for…
• The first argument suggests that… whilst the second suggests that…
• There are at least xxx points to highlight.

Adding elements

• Furthermore, one should not forget that…
• In addition to…
• Moreover…
• It is important to add that…

Accepting other points of view

• Nevertheless, one should accept that…
• However, we also agree that…

Personal opinion

• We/I personally believe that…
• Our/My own point of view is that…
• It is my contention that…
• I am convinced that…
• My own opinion is…

Others’ opinions

• According to some critics… Critics:
• believe that
• suggest that
• are convinced that
• point out that
• emphasize that
• contend that
• go as far as to say that
• argue for this

Introducing examples

• For example…
• For instance…
• To illustrate this point…

Introducing facts

• It is… true that…/ clear that…/ noticeable that…
• One should note here that…

Saying what you think is true

• This leads us to believe that…
• It is very possible that…
• In view of these facts, it is quite likely that…
• Doubtless,…
• One cannot deny that…
• It is (very) clear from these observations that…
• All the same, it is possible that…
• It is difficult to believe that…

Accepting other points to a certain degree

• One can agree up to a certain point with…
• Certainly,… However,…
• It cannot be denied that…

Emphasizing particular points

• The last example highlights the fact that…
• Not only… but also…
• We would even go so far as to say that…

Moderating, agreeing, disagreeing

• By and large…
• Perhaps we should also point out the fact that…
• It would be unfair not to mention the fact that…
• One must admit that…
• We cannot ignore the fact that…
• One cannot possibly accept the fact that…

Consequences

• From these facts, one may conclude that…
• That is why, in our opinion, …
• Which seems to confirm the idea that…
• Thus,…/ Therefore,…
• Some critics suggest…, whereas others…
• Compared to…
• On the one hand, there is the firm belief that… On the other hand, many people are convinced that…

How to Write a Great Essay | Image 1

How to Write a Great Essay | Image 2

Phrases For Balanced Arguments

Introduction

• It is often said that…
• It is undeniable that…
• It is a well-known fact that…
• One of the most striking features of this text is…
• The first thing that needs to be said is…
• First of all, let us try to analyze…
• One argument in support of…
• We must distinguish carefully between…
• The second reason for…
• An important aspect of the text is…
• It is worth stating at this point that…
• On the other hand, we can observe that…
• The other side of the coin is, however, that…
• Another way of looking at this question is to…
• What conclusions can be drawn from all this?
• The most satisfactory conclusion that we can come to is…
• To sum up… we are convinced that…/ …we believe that…/ …we have to accept that…

How to Write a Great Essay | Image 3

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Academic Phrasebank

Introducing work.

• GENERAL LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
• Being cautious
• Being critical
• Classifying and listing
• Compare and contrast
• Defining terms
• Describing trends
• Describing quantities
• Explaining causality
• Giving examples
• Signalling transition
• Writing about the past

There are many ways to introduce an academic essay or short paper. Most academic writers, however, appear to do one or more of the following in their introductions:

• establish the context, background and/or importance of the topic
• present an issue, problem, or controversy in the field of study
• define the topic and/or key terms used in the paper
• state the purpose of the essay or short paper
• provide an overview of the coverage and/or structure of the writing

Slightly less complex introductions may simply inform the reader: what the topic is, why it is important, and how the writing is organised. In very short assignments, it is not uncommon for a writer to commence simply by stating the purpose of their writing.

Introductions to research dissertations and theses tend to be relatively short compared to the other sections of the text but quite complex in terms of their functional elements. Some of the more common elements include:

• establishing the context, background and/or importance of the topic
• giving a brief review of the relevant academic literature
• identifying a problem, controversy or a knowledge gap in the field of study
• stating the aim(s) of the research and the research questions or hypotheses
• providing a synopsis of the research design and method(s)
• explaining the significance or value of the study
• defining certain key terms
• providing an overview of the dissertation or report structure

Examples of phrases which are commonly employed to realise these functions can be seen by clicking on the headings listed below. Note that there may be a certain amount of overlap between some of the categories under which the phrases are listed. Also, the order in which the different categories of phrases are shown reflects a typical order but this is far from fixed or rigid, and not all the elements are present in all introductions.

A number of analysts have identified common patterns in the introductions of research articles. One of the best known patterns is the CARS model (create a research space) first described by John Swales (1990). This model, which utilises an ecological metaphor, has, in its simplest form, three elements or moves:

• Establishing the territory (establishing importance of the topic, reviewing previous work)
• Identifying a niche (indicating a gap in knowledge)
• Occupying the niche (listing purpose of new research, listing questions, stating the value of the work, indicating the structure of the writing)

Establishing the importance of the topic for the world or society

X is a major contributor to … X plays a critical role in the maintenance of … Xs have emerged as powerful platforms for … X is essential for a wide range of technologies. X can play an important role in addressing the issue of … There is evidence that X plays a pivotal role in regulating … In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for … Evidence suggests that X is among the most important factors for … Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and … There is a growing body of literature that recognises the importance of … X is an important component in the climate system, and plays a key role in Y. Xs are one of the most widely used groups of Y and have been extensively used for …

Establishing the importance of the topic for the discipline

X is of interest because … X is a classic problem in … X is an important aspect of … X is a fundamental property of … X is an increasingly important area in … The concepts of X and Y are central to … X is at the heart of our understanding of … Investigating X is a continuing concern within … X is a major area of interest within the field of … X has been an object of research since the 1960s. X has been the subject of many classic studies in … X has been instrumental in our understanding of … The theory of X provides a useful account of how … Central to the entire discipline of X is the concept of … The issue of X has received considerable critical attention. X has long been a question of great interest in a wide range of fields.

Establishing the importance of the topic (time frame given)

Recently, there has been renewed interest in … Traditionally, Xs have subscribed to the belief that … One of the most important events of the 1970s was … In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in … Recent developments in X have heightened the need for … The last two decades have seen a growing trend towards … Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in … Recent trends in X have led to a proliferation of studies that … Over the past century, there has been a dramatic increase in … The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many … Since it was reported in 2015, X has been attracting considerable interest. Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in … The past thirty years have seen increasingly rapid advances in the field of …

Establishing the importance of the topic as a problem to be addressed

X is a major problem in … Of particular concern is … One of the main obstacles … One of the greatest challenges … A key issue is the safe disposal of … The main disadvantage of X is that … X impacts negatively upon a range of … It is now well established that X can impair … X has led to the decline in the population of … The main challenge faced by many researchers is the … Lack of X has existed as a health problem for many years. Xs are one of the most rapidly declining groups of insects in … Exposure to X has been shown to be related to adverse effects in … There is an urgent need to address the safety problems caused by …

Referring to previous work to establish what is already known

Recent evidence suggests that … Extensive research has shown that … Studies of X show the importance of … It has previously been observed that … Several attempts have been made to … Previous research has established that … Data from several studies suggest that … Recent research comparing X and Y has found … The existing body of research on X suggests that … There is a growing body of literature that recognises … Several theories on the origin of X have been proposed. Existing research recognises the critical role played by … It is now well established from a variety of studies, that … Recently investigators have examined the effects of X on Y. Surveys such as that conducted by Smith (2015) have shown that … Factors found to be influencing X have been explored in several studies. A number of cross-sectional studies suggest an association between X and Y… Studies over the past two decades have provided important information on …

Identifying a controversy within the field of study

A much debated question is whether … One major issue in early X research concerned … To date there has been little agreement on what … The issue has grown in importance in light of recent … One of the most significant current discussions in X is … In the literature on X, the relative importance of Y is debated. One observer has already drawn attention to the paradox in … Questions have been raised about the use of animal subjects in … In many Xs, a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning … Debate continues about the best strategies for the management of … This concept has recently been challenged by X studies demonstrating … The debate about X has gained fresh prominence with many arguing that … Scholars have long debated the impact of X on the creation and diffusion of … More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about … One major theoretical issue that has dominated the field for many years concerns … The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged unabated for over a century. The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of … The causes of X have been the subject of intense debate within the scientific community. In the literature on X, the relative importance of Y has been subject to considerable discussion.

Explaining the inadequacies of previous studies

Previous studies of X have not dealt with … Researchers have not treated X in much detail. Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they … Most studies in the field of X have only focused on … Such approaches, however, have failed to address … Previous published studies are limited to local surveys. Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether … The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y. Previously published studies on the effect of X are not consistent. Smith’s analysis does not take account of …, nor does she examine … The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas.

However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature … The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic. Research on the subject has been mostly restricted to limited comparisons of … However, few writers have been able to draw on any systematic research into … Short-term studies such as these do not necessarily show subtle changes over time … Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which … However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear if … The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about …

Identifying the paucity or lack of previous research

There is little published data on … No previous study has investigated X. The use of X has not been investigated. Data about the efficacy and safety of X are limited. Up to now, far too little attention has been paid to … A search of the literature revealed few studies which … The impact of X on Y is understudied, particularly for … Few studies have investigated X in any systematic way … In addition, no research has been found that surveyed … So far, very little attention has been paid to the role of X. Surprisingly, the effects of X have not been closely examined. In contrast to X, there is much less information about effects of … A systematic understanding of how X contributes to Y is still lacking. Despite the importance of X, there remains a paucity of evidence on … To date, the problem has received scant attention in the research literature.

Identifying a knowledge gap in the field of study

It is still not known whether … … much less is known about X. The nature of X remains unclear. Currently, there are no data on … What is less clear is the nature of … Very little is currently known about X in … Research to date has not yet determined … What is not yet clear is the impact of X on … There is still uncertainty, however, whether … The response of X to Y is not fully understood. Causal factors leading to X remain speculative. The neurobiological basis of X is poorly understood. Little is known about X and it is not clear what factors … To date, only a limited number of Xs have been identified. The mechanisms that underpin X are not fully understood. Much uncertainty still exists about the relationship between … This indicates a need to understand the various perceptions of X that exist among … It is now well established that … However, the influence of X on Y has remained unclear.

Stating the focus, aim, or argument of a short paper

In this paper, I argue that … This paper attempts to show that … The central thesis of this paper is that … In the pages that follow, it will be argued that … In this essay, I attempt to defend the view that … The aim of this essay is to explore the relationship between … The purpose of this paper is to review recent research into the …

Stating the purpose of the current research

The specific objective of this study was to … An objective of this study was to investigate … This thesis will examine the way in which the … This study set out to investigate the usefulness of … This dissertation seeks to explain the development of … This case study seeks to examine the changing nature of … The objectives of this research are to determine whether … This prospective study was designed to investigate the use of … This research examines the emerging role of X in the context of … This study systematically reviews the data for…, aiming to provide … Drawing upon two strands of research into X, this study attempts to … This thesis intends to determine the extent to which … and whether … This dissertation aims to unravel some of the mysteries surrounding … This study therefore set out to assess the effect of X …, and the effect of … The main aim of this study is to investigate the differences between X and Y. Part of the aim of this project is to develop software that is compatible with … There are two primary aims of this study: 1. To investigate … 2. To ascertain … This study seeks to obtain data which will help to address these research gaps. One purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which these factors were … The purpose of this investigation is to explore the relationship between X and Y.

Describing the research design and the methods used

Data for this study were collected using … Five works will be examined, all of which … This investigation takes the form of a case-study of the … This study was exploratory and interpretative in nature. This study uses a qualitative case study approach to investigate … The research data in this thesis is drawn from four main sources: … The approach to empirical research adopted for this study was one of … This dissertation follows a case-study design, with in-depth analysis of … By employing qualitative modes of enquiry, I attempt to illuminate the … Qualitative and quantitative research designs were adopted to provide … Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this investigation. A holistic approach is utilised, integrating X, Y and Z material to establish … The study was conducted in the form of a survey, with data being gathered via … The methodological approach taken in this study is a mixed methodology based on … A combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches was used in the data analysis.

Explaining the significance of the current study

This is the first study to … This study provides new insights into … This work will generate fresh insight into … The study offers some important insights into … Understanding the link between X and Y will help … This is the first study to undertake a longitudinal analysis of … The present research explores, for the first time, the effects of … The importance and originality of this study are that it explores … The findings should make an important contribution to the field of …. Characterisation of X is important for our increased understanding of … It is hoped that this research will contribute to a deeper understanding of … This study aims to contribute to this growing area of research by exploring … This project provided an important opportunity to advance the understanding of … Therefore, this study makes a major contribution to research on X by demonstrating … There are several important areas where this study makes an original contribution to … The experimental work presented here provides one of the first investigations into how …

Describing the limitations of the current study

The thesis does not engage with … It is not the task of this paper to examine … This study is unable to encompass the entire … Establishing X is beyond the scope of this study. It is beyond the scope of this study to examine the … The analysis of X presented here is based solely on … A full discussion of X lies beyond the scope of this study. The reader should bear in mind that the study is based on … Another potential problem is that the scope of my thesis may be too broad. Due to practical constraints, this paper cannot provide a comprehensive review of…

Giving reasons for personal interest in the research*

I became interested in Xs after reading … My interest in this area developed while I was … I have worked closely with X for many years and … My personal experience of X has prompted this research. My main reason for choosing this topic is personal interest. It is my experience of working with X that has driven this research. This project was conceived during my time working for X. As a medical advisor, I witnessed …

* sometimes found in the humanities, and the applied human sciences

Outlining the structure of the paper or dissertation

The first section of this paper will examine… This paper begins by … It will then go on to … My thesis is composed of four themed chapters. The essay has been organised in the following way. The remaining part of the paper proceeds as follows: … The main issues addressed in this paper are: a), b) and c). This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X. This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with … The third chapter is concerned with the methodology used for this study. The overall structure of the study takes the form of six chapters, including … Chapter Four analyses the results of interviews and focus group discussions undertaken during … Chapter Two begins by laying out the theoretical dimensions of the research, and looks at how … The fourth section presents the findings of the research, focusing on the three key themes that …

Explaining key terms used in the current work

(also refer to  Defining terms )

Throughout this paper, the term ‘X’ will refer to … The term ‘X’ will be used in this thesis to refer to … Historically, the term ‘X’ has been used to describe … It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by … The phrase ‘X’ will be used in this study to describe the … According to Smith (2002), X can be defined as follows: ‘ … ’ In this article, the abbreviation XYZ will be used to refer to … Throughout this dissertation, the term ‘X’ will be used to refer to … The term ‘X’ is a relatively new name for …, commonly referred to as … In this essay, the term ‘X’ will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all … In this dissertation, the terms ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are used interchangeably to mean … While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as …

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26 powerful academic phrases to write your introduction (+ real examples)

If you struggle with writing an introduction and finding the right wording, academic key phrases can help! Here is a list of 26 useful academic phrases to write the introduction of a research paper or thesis. Furthermore, examples from published academic papers across various disciplines are provided to demonstrate how the academic phrases can be applied effectively.

Disclosure: This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may earn a small commission if you make a purchase using the links below at no additional cost to you . I only recommend products or services that I truly believe can benefit my audience. As always, my opinions are my own.

Academic key phrases presenting the research aim or objective in an introduction

Academic key phrases linking the research to existing publications in an introduction, academic key phrases pointing out research gaps in an introduction, academic key phrases highlighting the research contribution in an introduction, academic key phrases previewing findings in the introduction, the aim of this study is….

Example: “ The aim of this study is the investigation of different molten copper alloys regarding their efficiency as catalytic media for the pyrolysis of methane in an inductively heated bubble column reactor. ” ( Scheiblehner et al. 2023, p. 6233 )

In this study, we investigate…

Example: “ In this study, we investigate the spatial shoot organization of the salt marsh grass Spartina anglica (common cordgrass) in small (0.5–1.5 m), establishing patches across a wide range of wave exposure and sediment conditions along the European coast. ” ( Van de Ven, 2022 et al., p. 1340 )

Our primary objective was to assess…

Example: “ Our primary objective was to assess subpopulation status through estimation of survival rates and abundance, particularly in comparison with the relative stability from 2007 to 2010 reported by Bromaghin et al. (2015) .” ( Bromaghin et al., 2021, p. 14252 )

This study aims to answer the following research question:

Example: “ This study aims to answer the following research question: how is the resilience of firms defined in the business and management field? ” ( Conz and Magnani, 2020, p. 400 )

The goal of this paper is to…

Example: “The goal of this paper is to delineate whether, why, and how human-AI interaction is distinctly difficult to design and innovate.” ( Yang et al., 2020, p. 174 )

You may also like: How to write a fantastic thesis introduction (+15 examples)

The topic gained considerable attention in the academic literature in…

Example:  “ The relationship between BITs and FDI gained considerable attention in the academic literature in the last two decades .” ( Amendolagine and Prota, 2021, p. 173 )

Prior research has hypothesized that…

Example: “Prior research has hypothesized that racial and ethnic disparities may be mitigated if the patient and provider share the same race due to improved communication and increased trust” ( Otte, 2022, p. 1 )

Existing research frequently attributes…

Example: “Existing research frequently attributes these challenges to AI’s technical complexity, demand for data, and unpredictable interactions.” ( Yang et al., 2020, p. 174 )

Interestingly, all the arguments refer to…

Example: “Interestingly, all the arguments above refer to daily role transitions—more specifically: role transitions on teleworking days—as an important explanatory mechanism for both the possible conflict-reducing effect and the potential conflict enhancing effects of telework.”  ( Delanoeije et al., 2019, p. 1845 )

Prior studies have found that…

Example: “ Prior studies have found that court-referred individuals are more likely to complete relationship violence intervention programs (RVIP) than self-referred individuals. ” ( Evans et al. 2022, p. 1 )

If you are looking to elevate your writing and editing skills, I highly recommend enrolling in the course “ Good with Words: Writing and Editing Specialization “, which is a 4 course series offered by the University of Michigan. This comprehensive program is conveniently available as an online course on Coursera, allowing you to learn at your own pace. Plus, upon successful completion, you’ll have the opportunity to earn a valuable certificate to showcase your newfound expertise!

Yet, it remains unknown how…

Example: “Yet, it remains unknown how findings from aeolian landscapes translate to aquatic systems and how young clonally expanding plants in hydrodynamically exposed conditions overcome these establishment thresholds by optimizing shoot placement.” ( Van de Ven, 2022 et al., p. 1339 )

There is, however, still little research on…

Example: “There is, however, still little research on what integrated STEM approaches require from schools and teachers, and on the potential obstacles that may prevent teachers from running this kind of teaching.” ( Bungum and Mogstad, 2022, p. 2 )

Scholars working on the topic are still dealing with unanswered questions.

Example: “This implies that scholars working on the resilience of firms are still dealing with unanswered questions such as ‘Which definition of resilience do I have to adopt? What am I looking at?”   ( Conz and Magnani, 2020, p. 400 )

Existing studies have failed to address…

Example:  “ University–industry relations (UIR) are usually analysed by the knowledge transfer channels, but existing studies have failed to address what knowledge content is being transferred – impacting the technology output aimed by the partnership.”  ( Dalmarco et al. 2019, p. 1314 )

The topic is under-researched

Example: “‘Third places’ – public and commercial sites that are neither home nor work – are often overlooked by policymakers, health officials, and researchers alike (Glover & Parry, 2009). Yet they can serve vital and life-saving roles in our communities. Their relevance to public health and quality of life is understated and under-researched, particularly among socioeconomically marginalized, vulnerable, and isolated individuals. ” ( Finlay et al., 2020, p. 1 )

This paper contributes to the field…

Example: “ This paper contributes to the field by investigating how teachers perceive gains and challenges in an extensive teaching project called Project Weather Station, where lower secondary students design, build and program their own weather station by use of digital sensos and microcontrollers. ” ( Bungum and Mogstad, 2022, p.2 )

In light of these considerations, we think it is interesting to analyze…

Example: “ In the light of these considerations, we think it is interesting to analyse the impact of BITs on the propensity of foreign investors to generate linkages to local suppliers from both a political and an academic point of view. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that addresses this issue .” ( Amendolagine and Prota, 2021, p. 174 )

The contributions of this study are twofold/threefold/…

Example: “ The contributions of this study are threefold. First, by examining daily role transitions as mediators in the relationship between telework and work-to-home and home-to-work conflict, our study helps to understand through which mechanisms telework affects thework-home interface… ” ( Delanoeije et al., 2019, p. 1845 )

Moving a step further, in this article, …

Example: “ Moving a step further, in this article, a comprehensive SDM is presented that establishes and quantifies interlinkages among resources and Nexus components by mapping data and incorporating outputs from well-established models, thus producing a modeling platform that can incorporate various data sets and modeling outputs in order to run scenarios and produce forecasted trends for future decades. ” ( Laspidou et al., 2020, p. 3 )

Therefore, it is essential to review…

Example: “ Considering the lack of HPAI management policies in the SSA in general, and South Africa in particular, the One Health program led by the WHO to fight zoonosis is harder to be achieved. Therefore, it is essential to review the status of the AIVs before and during COVID‐19 in South Africa and assess the challenges and efforts essential to mitigate the additional burden of bird flu in this nation. ” ( Uwishema et al., 2021, p. 5677 )

This study contributes to the literature in several ways. First, …

Example: “ This study contributes to the literature in several ways. First, we simultaneously accounted for possible positive and potential negative effects of telework on employees’ work-home conflict… ” ( Delanoeije et al., 2019, p. 1862 )

The analysis showcases that…

Example: “ The analysis showcases that to move from a general nexus thinking to an operational nexus concept, it is important to focus on data availability and scale. ” ( Laspidou et al., 2020, p. 1 )

Our results are in line with the literature and confirm…

Example: “ Looking at other control variables, our results are generally in line with the literature and confirm the importance of foreign investors’ characteristics as mediating factors on the extent of local sourcing. ” ( Amendolagine and Prota, 2021, p. 180 )

Contrary to our expectations, the results…

Example: “ Contrary to our expectations, the results from our European survey show that clustering of shoots by establishing S. anglica patches was universally observed across sites, despite widely varying environmental conditions. ” ( Van de Ven, 2022 et al., p. 1345 )

The findings support the use of…

Example: “The findings support the use of legal referral pathways that can limit the negative impacts of carceral system involvement while highlighting the need for better strategies to engage and retain RVIP clients who have no court involvement.” ( Evans et al. 2022, p. 1 )

The results of the conducted experiments show…

Example: “The results of the conducted experiments show that the products of methane pyrolysis can be strongly influenced by a change in the used catalyst. ” ( Scheiblehner et al. 2023, p. 6241 )

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24 popular academic phrases to write your abstract (+ real examples)

17 strong academic phrases to write your literature review (+ real examples), related articles.

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Transitional Words and Phrases

One of your primary goals as a writer is to present ideas in a clear and understandable way. To help readers move through your complex ideas, you want to be intentional about how you structure your paper as a whole as well as how you form the individual paragraphs that comprise it. In order to think through the challenges of presenting your ideas articulately, logically, and in ways that seem natural to your readers, check out some of these resources: Developing a Thesis Statement , Paragraphing , and Developing Strategic Transitions: Writing that Establishes Relationships and Connections Between Ideas.

While clear writing is mostly achieved through the deliberate sequencing of your ideas across your entire paper, you can guide readers through the connections you’re making by using transitional words in individual sentences. Transitional words and phrases can create powerful links between your ideas and can help your reader understand your paper’s logic.

In what follows, we’ve included a list of frequently used transitional words and phrases that can help you establish how your various ideas relate to each other. We’ve divided these words and phrases into categories based on the common kinds of relationships writers establish between ideas.

Two recommendations: Use these transitions strategically by making sure that the word or phrase you’re choosing matches the logic of the relationship you’re emphasizing or the connection you’re making. All of these words and phrases have different meanings, nuances, and connotations, so before using a particular transitional word in your paper, be sure you understand its meaning and usage completely, and be sure that it’s the right match for your paper’s logic. Use these transitional words and phrases sparingly because if you use too many of them, your readers might feel like you are overexplaining connections that are already clear.

Categories of Transition Words and Phrases

Causation Chronology Combinations Contrast Example

Importance Location Similarity Clarification Concession

Conclusion Intensification Purpose Summary

Transitions to help establish some of the most common kinds of relationships

Causation– Connecting instigator(s) to consequence(s).

accordingly as a result and so because

consequently for that reason hence on account of

since therefore thus

Chronology– Connecting what issues in regard to when they occur.

after afterwards always at length during earlier following immediately in the meantime

later never next now once simultaneously so far sometimes

soon subsequently then this time until now when whenever while

Combinations Lists– Connecting numerous events. Part/Whole– Connecting numerous elements that make up something bigger.

additionally again also and, or, not as a result besides even more

finally first, firstly further furthermore in addition in the first place in the second place

last, lastly moreover next second, secondly, etc. too

Contrast– Connecting two things by focusing on their differences.

after all although and yet at the same time but

despite however in contrast nevertheless nonetheless notwithstanding

on the contrary on the other hand otherwise though yet

Example– Connecting a general idea to a particular instance of this idea.

as an illustration e.g., (from a Latin abbreviation for “for example”)

for example for instance specifically that is

to demonstrate to illustrate

Importance– Connecting what is critical to what is more inconsequential.

chiefly critically

foundationally most importantly

of less importance primarily

Location– Connecting elements according to where they are placed in relationship to each other.

above adjacent to below beyond

centrally here nearby neighboring on

opposite to peripherally there wherever

Similarity– Connecting to things by suggesting that they are in some way alike.

by the same token in like manner

in similar fashion here in the same way

likewise wherever

Other kinds of transitional words and phrases Clarification

i.e., (from a Latin abbreviation for “that is”) in other words

that is that is to say to clarify to explain

to put it another way to rephrase it

granted it is true

naturally of course

finally lastly

in conclusion in the end

to conclude

Intensification

in fact indeed no

of course surely to repeat

undoubtedly without doubt yes

for this purpose in order that

so that to that end

to this end

in brief in sum

in summary in short

to sum up to summarize

Improving Your Writing Style

This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels.

Clear, Concise Sentences

Use the active voice

Put the action in the verb

Tidy up wordy phrases

Reduce wordy verbs

Reduce prepositional phrases

Reduce expletive constructions

Avoid using vague nouns

Avoid unneccessarily inflated words

Avoid noun strings

Connecting Ideas Through Transitions

Using Transitional Words and Phrases

The writer of the academic essay aims to persuade readers of an idea based on evidence. The beginning of the essay is a crucial first step in this process. In order to engage readers and establish your authority, the beginning of your essay has to accomplish certain business. Your beginning should introduce the essay, focus it, and orient readers.

Introduce the Essay.  The beginning lets your readers know what the essay is about, the  topic . The essay's topic does not exist in a vacuum, however; part of letting readers know what your essay is about means establishing the essay's  context , the frame within which you will approach your topic. For instance, in an essay about the First Amendment guarantee of freedom of speech, the context may be a particular legal theory about the speech right; it may be historical information concerning the writing of the amendment; it may be a contemporary dispute over flag burning; or it may be a question raised by the text itself. The point here is that, in establishing the essay's context, you are also limiting your topic. That is, you are framing an approach to your topic that necessarily eliminates other approaches. Thus, when you determine your context, you simultaneously narrow your topic and take a big step toward focusing your essay. Here's an example.

The paragraph goes on. But as you can see, Chopin's novel (the topic) is introduced in the context of the critical and moral controversy its publication engendered.

Focus the Essay.  Beyond introducing your topic, your beginning must also let readers know what the central issue is. What question or problem will you be thinking about? You can pose a question that will lead to your idea (in which case, your idea will be the answer to your question), or you can make a thesis statement. Or you can do both: you can ask a question and immediately suggest the answer that your essay will argue. Here's an example from an essay about Memorial Hall.

The fullness of your idea will not emerge until your conclusion, but your beginning must clearly indicate the direction your idea will take, must set your essay on that road. And whether you focus your essay by posing a question, stating a thesis, or combining these approaches, by the end of your beginning, readers should know what you're writing about, and  why —and why they might want to read on.

Orient Readers.  Orienting readers, locating them in your discussion, means providing information and explanations wherever necessary for your readers' understanding. Orienting is important throughout your essay, but it is crucial in the beginning. Readers who don't have the information they need to follow your discussion will get lost and quit reading. (Your teachers, of course, will trudge on.) Supplying the necessary information to orient your readers may be as simple as answering the journalist's questions of who, what, where, when, how, and why. It may mean providing a brief overview of events or a summary of the text you'll be analyzing. If the source text is brief, such as the First Amendment, you might just quote it. If the text is well known, your summary, for most audiences, won't need to be more than an identifying phrase or two:

Often, however, you will want to summarize your source more fully so that readers can follow your analysis of it.

Questions of Length and Order.  How long should the beginning be? The length should be proportionate to the length and complexity of the whole essay. For instance, if you're writing a five-page essay analyzing a single text, your beginning should be brief, no more than one or two paragraphs. On the other hand, it may take a couple of pages to set up a ten-page essay.

Does the business of the beginning have to be addressed in a particular order? No, but the order should be logical. Usually, for instance, the question or statement that focuses the essay comes at the end of the beginning, where it serves as the jumping-off point for the middle, or main body, of the essay. Topic and context are often intertwined, but the context may be established before the particular topic is introduced. In other words, the order in which you accomplish the business of the beginning is flexible and should be determined by your purpose.

Opening Strategies.  There is still the further question of how to start. What makes a good opening? You can start with specific facts and information, a keynote quotation, a question, an anecdote, or an image. But whatever sort of opening you choose, it should be directly related to your focus. A snappy quotation that doesn't help establish the context for your essay or that later plays no part in your thinking will only mislead readers and blur your focus. Be as direct and specific as you can be. This means you should avoid two types of openings:

• The history-of-the-world (or long-distance) opening, which aims to establish a context for the essay by getting a long running start: "Ever since the dawn of civilized life, societies have struggled to reconcile the need for change with the need for order." What are we talking about here, political revolution or a new brand of soft drink? Get to it.
• The funnel opening (a variation on the same theme), which starts with something broad and general and "funnels" its way down to a specific topic. If your essay is an argument about state-mandated prayer in public schools, don't start by generalizing about religion; start with the specific topic at hand.

Remember.  After working your way through the whole draft, testing your thinking against the evidence, perhaps changing direction or modifying the idea you started with, go back to your beginning and make sure it still provides a clear focus for the essay. Then clarify and sharpen your focus as needed. Clear, direct beginnings rarely present themselves ready-made; they must be written, and rewritten, into the sort of sharp-eyed clarity that engages readers and establishes your authority.

Copyright 1999, Patricia Kain, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

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In the campus protests over the war in Gaza, language and rhetoric are—as they have always been when it comes to Israel and Palestine—weapons of mass destruction.

By Zadie Smith

A philosophy without a politics is common enough. Aesthetes, ethicists, novelists—all may be easily critiqued and found wanting on this basis. But there is also the danger of a politics without a philosophy. A politics unmoored, unprincipled, which holds as its most fundamental commitment its own perpetuation. A Realpolitik that believes itself too subtle—or too pragmatic—to deal with such ethical platitudes as thou shalt not kill. Or: rape is a crime, everywhere and always. But sometimes ethical philosophy reënters the arena, as is happening right now on college campuses all over America. I understand the ethics underpinning the protests to be based on two widely recognized principles:

There is an ethical duty to express solidarity with the weak in any situation that involves oppressive power.

If the machinery of oppressive power is to be trained on the weak, then there is a duty to stop the gears by any means necessary.

The first principle sometimes takes the “weak” to mean “whoever has the least power,” and sometimes “whoever suffers most,” but most often a combination of both. The second principle, meanwhile, may be used to defend revolutionary violence, although this interpretation has just as often been repudiated by pacifistic radicals, among whom two of the most famous are, of course, Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr . In the pacifist’s interpretation, the body that we must place between the gears is not that of our enemy but our own. In doing this, we may pay the ultimate price with our actual bodies, in the non-metaphorical sense. More usually, the risk is to our livelihoods, our reputations, our futures. Before these most recent campus protests began, we had an example of this kind of action in the climate movement. For several years now, many people have been protesting the economic and political machinery that perpetuates climate change, by blocking roads, throwing paint, interrupting plays, and committing many other arrestable offenses that can appear ridiculous to skeptics (or, at the very least, performative), but which in truth represent a level of personal sacrifice unimaginable to many of us.

I experienced this not long ago while participating in an XR climate rally in London. When it came to the point in the proceedings where I was asked by my fellow-protesters whether I’d be willing to commit an arrestable offense—one that would likely lead to a conviction and thus make travelling to the United States difficult or even impossible—I’m ashamed to say that I declined that offer. Turns out, I could not give up my relationship with New York City for the future of the planet. I’d just about managed to stop buying plastic bottles (except when very thirsty) and was trying to fly less. But never to see New York again? What pitiful ethical creatures we are (I am)! Falling at the first hurdle! Anyone who finds themselves rolling their eyes at any young person willing to put their own future into jeopardy for an ethical principle should ask themselves where the limits of their own commitments lie—also whether they’ve bought a plastic bottle or booked a flight recently. A humbling inquiry.

It is difficult to look at the recent Columbia University protests in particular without being reminded of the campus protests of the nineteen-sixties and seventies, some of which happened on the very same lawns. At that time, a cynical political class was forced to observe the spectacle of its own privileged youth standing in solidarity with the weakest historical actors of the moment, a group that included, but was not restricted to, African Americans and the Vietnamese. By placing such people within their ethical zone of interest, young Americans risked both their own academic and personal futures and—in the infamous case of Kent State—their lives. I imagine that the students at Columbia—and protesters on other campuses—fully intend this echo, and, in their unequivocal demand for both a ceasefire and financial divestment from this terrible war, to a certain extent they have achieved it.

But, when I open newspapers and see students dismissing the idea that some of their fellow-students feel, at this particular moment, unsafe on campus, or arguing that such a feeling is simply not worth attending to, given the magnitude of what is occurring in Gaza, I find such sentiments cynical and unworthy of this movement. For it may well be—within the ethical zone of interest that is a campus, which was not so long ago defined as a safe space, delineated by the boundary of a generation’s ethical ideas— it may well be that a Jewish student walking past the tents, who finds herself referred to as a Zionist, and then is warned to keep her distance, is, in that moment, the weakest participant in the zone. If the concept of safety is foundational to these students’ ethical philosophy (as I take it to be), and, if the protests are committed to reinserting ethical principles into a cynical and corrupt politics, it is not right to divest from these same ethics at the very moment they come into conflict with other imperatives. The point of a foundational ethics is that it is not contingent but foundational. That is precisely its challenge to a corrupt politics.

Practicing our ethics in the real world involves a constant testing of them, a recognition that our zones of ethical interest have no fixed boundaries and may need to widen and shrink moment by moment as the situation demands. (Those brave students who—in supporting the ethical necessity of a ceasefire—find themselves at painful odds with family, friends, faith, or community have already made this calculation.) This flexibility can also have the positive long-term political effect of allowing us to comprehend that, although our duty to the weakest is permanent, the role of “the weakest” is not an existential matter independent of time and space but, rather, a contingent situation, continually subject to change. By contrast, there is a dangerous rigidity to be found in the idea that concern for the dreadful situation of the hostages is somehow in opposition to, or incompatible with, the demand for a ceasefire. Surely a ceasefire—as well as being an ethical necessity—is also in the immediate absolute interest of the hostages, a fact that cannot be erased by tearing their posters off walls.

Part of the significance of a student protest is the ways in which it gives young people the opportunity to insist upon an ethical principle while still being, comparatively speaking, a more rational force than the supposed adults in the room, against whose crazed magical thinking they have been forced to define themselves. The equality of all human life was never a self-evident truth in racially segregated America. There was no way to “win” in Vietnam. Hamas will not be “eliminated.” The more than seven million Jewish human beings who live in the gap between the river and the sea will not simply vanish because you think that they should. All of that is just rhetoric. Words. Cathartic to chant, perhaps, but essentially meaningless. A ceasefire, meanwhile, is both a potential reality and an ethical necessity. The monstrous and brutal mass murder of more than eleven hundred people, the majority of them civilians, dozens of them children, on October 7th, has been followed by the monstrous and brutal mass murder (at the time of writing) of a reported fourteen thousand five hundred children. And many more human beings besides, but it’s impossible not to notice that the sort of people who take at face value phrases like “surgical strikes” and “controlled military operation” sometimes need to look at and/or think about dead children specifically in order to refocus their minds on reality.

To send the police in to arrest young people peacefully insisting upon a ceasefire represents a moral injury to us all. To do it with violence is a scandal. How could they do less than protest, in this moment? They are putting their own bodies into the machine. They deserve our support and praise. As to which postwar political arrangement any of these students may favor, and on what basis they favor it—that is all an argument for the day after a ceasefire. One state, two states, river to the sea—in my view, their views have no real weight in this particular moment, or very little weight next to the significance of their collective action, which (if I understand it correctly) is focussed on stopping the flow of money that is funding bloody murder, and calling for a ceasefire, the political euphemism that we use to mark the end of bloody murder. After a ceasefire, the criminal events of the past seven months should be tried and judged, and the infinitely difficult business of creating just, humane, and habitable political structures in the region must begin anew. Right now: ceasefire. And, as we make this demand, we might remind ourselves that a ceasefire is not, primarily, a political demand. Primarily, it is an ethical one.

But it is in the nature of the political that we cannot even attend to such ethical imperatives unless we first know the political position of whoever is speaking. (“Where do you stand on Israel/Palestine?”) In these constructed narratives, there are always a series of shibboleths, that is, phrases that can’t be said, or, conversely, phrases that must be said. Once these words or phrases have been spoken ( river to the sea, existential threat, right to defend, one state, two states, Zionist, colonialist, imperialist, terrorist ) and one’s positionality established, then and only then will the ethics of the question be attended to (or absolutely ignored). The objection may be raised at this point that I am behaving like a novelist, expressing a philosophy without a politics, or making some rarefied point about language and rhetoric while people commit bloody murder. This would normally be my own view, but, in the case of Israel/Palestine, language and rhetoric are and always have been weapons of mass destruction.

It is in fact perhaps the most acute example in the world of the use of words to justify bloody murder, to flatten and erase unbelievably labyrinthine histories, and to deliver the atavistic pleasure of violent simplicity to the many people who seem to believe that merely by saying something they make it so. It is no doubt a great relief to say the word “Hamas” as if it purely and solely described a terrorist entity. A great relief to say “There is no such thing as the Palestinian people” as they stand in front of you. A great relief to say “Zionist colonialist state” and accept those three words as a full and unimpeachable definition of the state of Israel, not only under the disastrous leadership of Benjamin Netanyahu but at every stage of its long and complex history, and also to hear them as a perfectly sufficient description of every man, woman, and child who has ever lived in Israel or happened to find themselves born within it. It is perhaps because we know these simplifications to be impossible that we insist upon them so passionately. They are shibboleths; they describe a people, by defining them against other people—but the people being described are ourselves. The person who says “We must eliminate Hamas” says this not necessarily because she thinks this is a possible outcome on this earth but because this sentence is the shibboleth that marks her membership in the community that says that. The person who uses the word “Zionist” as if that word were an unchanged and unchangeable monolith, meaning exactly the same thing in 2024 and 1948 as it meant in 1890 or 1901 or 1920—that person does not so much bring definitive clarity to the entangled history of Jews and Palestinians as they successfully and soothingly draw a line to mark their own zone of interest and where it ends. And while we all talk, carefully curating our shibboleths, presenting them to others and waiting for them to reveal themselves as with us or against us—while we do all that, bloody murder.

And now here we are, almost at the end of this little stream of words. We’ve arrived at the point at which I must state clearly “where I stand on the issue,” that is, which particular political settlement should, in my own, personal view, occur on the other side of a ceasefire. This is the point wherein—by my stating of a position—you are at once liberated into the simple pleasure of placing me firmly on one side or the other, putting me over there with those who lisp or those who don’t, with the Ephraimites, or with the people of Gilead. Yes, this is the point at which I stake my rhetorical flag in that fantastical, linguistical, conceptual, unreal place—built with words—where rapes are minimized as needs be, and the definition of genocide quibbled over, where the killing of babies is denied, and the precision of drones glorified, where histories are reconsidered or rewritten or analogized or simply ignored, and “Jew” and “colonialist” are synonymous, and “Palestinian” and “terrorist” are synonymous, and language is your accomplice and alibi in all of it. Language euphemized, instrumentalized, and abused, put to work for your cause and only for your cause, so that it does exactly and only what you want it to do. Let me make it easy for you. Put me wherever you want: misguided socialist, toothless humanist, naïve novelist, useful idiot, apologist, denier, ally, contrarian, collaborator, traitor, inexcusable coward. It is my view that my personal views have no more weight than an ear of corn in this particular essay. The only thing that has any weight in this particular essay is the dead. ♦

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