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An Introduction to Qualitative Research

Student resources, part 1 (chapters 1 – 5): foundations of qualitative research.

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Chapter 3: Theory in qualitative research

Tess Tsindos

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Define theory.
• Describe foundational qualitative theories.
• Examine theories for qualitative research.
• Explain why theories are used in qualitative research.
• Identify various theories used in qualitative research.

What is a theory?

In essence, ‘a theory is a big idea that organises many other ideas with a high degree of explanatory power’. 1(p2) Theory has also been defined as ‘an organised, coherent, and systematic articulation of a set of issues that are communicated as a meaningful whole’. 2(p633) Consider the various theories in you may have encountered. These might include scientific theories, philosophical theories, systems theories, psychological theories, conspiracy theories and many more. Each one of these theories enables the person who embodies that theory to ‘explain’ their worldview. Qualitative theories are no different, in that the theory that is adopted in qualitative research enables the researcher to organise their ideas and explain their results. Qualitative theories are usually concerned with explaining the ‘why’ of the complex social world. This is noticeable when examining the locus of control theory, which informs the research question(s), data collection and interpretation. Results from researchers who adhere to this theory are presented within this meaningful whole that revolves around having control over the outcomes of one’s life in some form.

Qualitative t heories

This chapter investigates the foundational theories that have come to be associated with qualitative research methods. In Chapter 2, paradigms and, in particular, the interpretivist/constructivist paradigm, were discussed. The interpretivist paradigm is a worldview that uses participants’ perceptions and experiences of the phenomenon that is being investigated to be analysed. It also acknowledges the researcher’s own experiences and background, in terms of how these influence their interpretations and meanings of data.

Reeves and colleagues 2 discuss how theory can be used to describe how societies work, how organisations operate and why people interact in certain ways. They state that ‘theories give researchers different ‘lenses’ through which to look at complicated problems and social issues, focusing their attention on different aspects of the data and providing a framework within which to conduct their analysis’. 2(p631) Below we describe

There are three levels of theory.

• Grand theories are broad universal and societal level theories that include many different domains and concepts. 3 There are many grand theories and many theorists. Examples include Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Max Weber, Emily Durkheim and Michel Foucault. Sylvia IV applied Foucault’s theory of biopolitics to analyse how governments managed populations via technology to enforce social distancing measures to prevent the spread of COVID-19. 4
• Middle-range theories are narrower in scope when compared to grand theories, have fewer concepts and are applied at a local level. 3 In healthcare improvement, two examples of middle-range theories include diffusions of innovation, 5 how an idea or product gains momentum and spreads through a system, and normalisation process theory, how a practice or program becomes embedded within a context. 3,6 McEvoy and colleagues applied normalisation process theory to analyse the ‘le vers and barriers to the implementation of community participation in primary health care in Ireland.’ 7(para10)  They conducted an instrumental case study (read more about case studies in Chapter 8) which consisted of two qualitative studies incorporating semi-structured interviews (n=44), focus groups (total number of participants across focus groups was 27) and document analysis (17 documents). 7  
• Micro-level theories are at the individual level and look at relationships and interactions. 2 Phenomenology is an example of a micro-level theory as the focus is on the individual lifeworld (see Chapter 5). For example, symbolic interactionism explores how social groups and social interactions explain larger social meanings and norms. 8 The social care article by Basic (2022) 9(p1) applies symbolic interactionism in their study which aims ‘t o identify and analyse power relations that contribute to the shaping of young people’s identities and repertoires of action via stigmatisations and social comparisons with different reference groups’ . The research demonstrates that ‘narratives about war, escaping war, and post-war life in Sweden, constructing and reconstructing an image of a series of interactive rituals that are both influenced by and influence the power dynamic between the actors’. 9(p1)

Below, three different theories are applied to a qualitative research topic to provide an example of how these different theories can inform the exploration of experiences in qualitative research.

Exploring loneliness and health status of Chinese and Anglo-Australian Manningham Seniors 10 through three different theor ies

Phenomenology A researcher using a phenomenological approach would study older persons’ perceptions of loneliness by exploring how individuals make sense of their personal and health experiences. The researcher would seek to understand, describe and interpret human behaviour and the meanings the older persons make of their experiences. The approach would be to understand what is being experienced and how it was experienced. This would be done by examining participants’ own statements in the interviews. For example, what is the experience of loneliness and the impact of that experience on an older person’s health? And, what does it mean for older persons to be lonely? The goal is to understand the meanings that the older persons attached to their experiences of loneliness and health.

Interactionism A researcher using interactionist theory would approach the study of older persons’ perceptions of loneliness and health by seeking to understand how the meanings that daily interactions produced. The goal would be to identify and explore the different interactions that contributed to the understanding of loneliness and health in older persons’ daily lives. Thus, the researcher might examine the differences between participants’ experiences (interactions) with family and with friends. Is there a difference and how is that difference manifested?

Critical theory A researcher using critical theory would approach the study of older persons’ interactions by examining power and its relationship to the older persons’ characteristics, such as cultural background or gender identity. For example, critical race theory 11 states that institutions such as health systems have laws or procedures that are inherently racist because they lead to different outcomes based on racial factors. The researcher would proceed along the specific critical theoretical lens selected to help them understand how social conceptions of race and ethnicity operate through older persons’ interactions with the health system. Is there a difference between how Chinese and Anglo-Australian seniors are treated within health systems and are these differences due to factors such as ageism or cultural background?

Many theories inform qualitative research, and those presented in this chapter are limited examples. Theories have been developed and modified over many years and have influenced each other’s changes over time. The theories mentioned in this chapter are those that you are likely to encounter in the health domain. Other important theories in the social sciences and humanities, are also used in health-related research, and include (but are not limited to) Marxism and its descendants, feminism, hermeneutics and the post-modernist family of theories.

Willis and colleagues explore theories in their paper The essential role of social theory in qualitative public health research . 8 They posit that social theory assists researchers to generalise results beyond their particular research group, and that ‘theories provide structured interpretations or models for investigating and understanding a problem’. 8(p439)   Table 1: Types of social theory 8(p439) provides excellent examples of theorists such as Marx, Durkheim, Foucault and de Beauvoir, along with their key concepts. To provide clarity around the types of social theories, we have included links below to examples of readings that use the social theory type discussed in Willis’ table.

Conflict theory – Campbell B. Social justice and sociological theory . Society . 2021:58:355-364. doi:10.1007/s12115-021-00625-4 12

Structural functionalism – Adhikari SR. Manu Smriti as the protection of female in Hindu philosophy: in the dimension of structural-functionalism . Philosophy Study . 2020;10(11):706-712. doi:10.17265/2159-5313/2020.11.005 13

Symbolic interactionism – Basic G. Symbolic interaction, power, and war: narratives of unaccompanied young refugees with war experiences in institutional care in Sweden . Societies . 2022;12(3):90. doi: 10.3390/soc12030090 9

Sociology of knowledge – Messina CB. 2022. Breaking the silence on femicide: how women challenge epistemic injustice and male violence . Br J Sociol . 2022;73(4):859-884. doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12968 15

Feminist theory – Lazarus S, Button M, Kapend R. Exploring the value of feminist theory in understanding digital crimes: gender and cybercrime types . The Howard Journal of Crime and Justice . 2022; 61(3) 381-398. doi:10.1111/hojo.12485 16

This chapter has presented examples of studies using phenomenology, interactionism and critical theory. However, there are many other theories used in qualitative research in health, including queer, intersectionality and colonialism theories. Dr Brene Brown is a grounded theory researcher (more about grounded theory in chapter 10) who writes and presents about how she engages with theory in her work. In the video entitled The anatomy of trust she talks about how her research starts from personal experience with a story about trust, then she investigates the research data she has collected for ideas about trust and engages with theory from John Gottman, who has worked on trust and betrayal. This process is described from about minutes 7–20. The entire presentation illustrates the interplay between research data and theory.

It is important to remember that qualitative research is not an absolute science and that there is no right or wrong theory or framework to guide research. Every researcher has a different worldview and a different perspective to explore; however, all research needs to be guided by a paradigm, theory and/or framework, to ensure full exploration of the experiences of participants.

• Collins CS, Stockton CM. The central role of theory in qualitative research. Int J Qual  Methods . 2018;17:1-10. doi: 10.1177/1609406918797475
• Reeves S, Albert M, Kuper A, Hodges BD. Why use theories in qualitative research? BMJ . 2008;337(7670):631-634. doi:10.1136/bmj.a949
• Davidoff F, Dixon-Woods M, Leviton L, Michie S. Demystifying theory and its use in improvement. BMJ Qual Saf . Mar 2015;24(3):228-238. doi:10.1136/bmjqs-2014-003627
• Sylvia JJI. The Biopolitics of Social Distancing. Soc Media Soc . 2020;6(3):2056305120947661. doi:10.1177/2056305120947661
• Dearing JW. Applying Diffusion of Innovation Theory to Intervention Development. Res Soc Work Pract . 2009;19(5):503-518. doi:10.1177/1049731509335569
• May CR, Cummings A, Girling M, et al. Using Normalization Process Theory in feasibility studies and process evaluations of complex healthcare interventions: a systematic review. Implement Sci . 2018;13(1):80. doi:10.1186/s13012-018-0758-1
• McEvoy R, Tierney E, MacFarlane A. ‘Participation is integral’: understanding the levers and barriers to the implementation of community participation in primary healthcare: a qualitative study using normalisation process theory. BMC Health Serv Res . 2019;19(1):515. doi:10.1186/s12913-019-4331-7
• Willis K, Daly J, Kealy M, et al. The essential role of social theory in qualitative public health research. Aust N Z J Public Health . 2007;31(5):438-443. doi:10.1111/j.1753-6405.2007.00115.x
• Basic G. Symbolic interaction, power, and war: narratives of unaccompanied young refugees with war experiences in institutional care in Sweden. Societies . 2022;12(3):90. doi: 10.3390/soc12030090
• Tsindos T. Loneliness and Health Status of Chinese and Anglo-Australian Manningham Seniors . Dissertation (PhD). Monash University; 2014.
• Ansell A. Critical race theory. In: Schaefer R, ed. Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society Volume 1 . SAGE Publications Inc.; 2008:344-346.
• Campbell B. Social justice and sociological theory. Society . 2021:58:355-364. doi:10.1007/s12115-021-00625-4
• Adhikari SR. Manu Smriti as the protection of female in Hindu philosophy: in the dimension of structural-functionalism. Philosophy Study . 2020;10(11):706-712. doi:10.17265/2159-5313/2020.11.005
• Messina CB. 2022. Breaking the silence on femicide: how women challenge epistemic injustice and male violence. Br J Sociol . 2022;73(4):859-884. doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12968
• Lazarus S, Button M, Kapend R. Exploring the value of feminist theory in understanding digital crimes: gender and cybercrime types. The Howard Journal of Crime and Justice . 2022; 61(3) 381-398. doi:10.1111/hojo.12485

Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Tess Tsindos is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Chapter 3: Home
• Developing the Quantitative Research Design
• Qualitative Descriptive Design
• Qualitative Narrative Inquiry Research

What is a Qualitative Narrative Inquiry Design?

Tips for using narrative inquiry in a dissertation, summary of the elements of a qualitative narrative inquiry design, sampling and data collection, resource videos.

• SAGE Research Methods
• Alignment of Dissertation Components for DIS-9902ABC
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Narrative inquiry is relatively new among the qualitative research designs compared to qualitative case study, phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory. What distinguishes narrative inquiry is it beings with the biographical aspect of C. Wright Mills’ trilogy of ‘biography, history, and society’(O’Tolle, 2018). The primary purpose for a narrative inquiry study is participants provide the researcher with their life experiences through thick rich stories. Narrative inquiry was first used by Connelly and Calandinin as a research design to explore the perceptions and personal stories of teachers (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). As the seminal authors, Connelly & Clandinin (1990), posited:

Although narrative inquiry has a long intellectual history both in and out of education, it is increasingly used in studies of educational experience. One theory in educational research holds that humans are storytelling organisms who, individually and socially, lead storied lives. Thus, the study of narrative is the study of the ways humans experience the world. This general concept is refined into the view that education and educational research is the construction and reconstruction of personal and social stories; learners, teachers, and researchers are storytellers and characters in their own and other's stories. In this paper we briefly survey forms of narrative inquiry in educational studies and outline certain criteria, methods, and writing forms, which we describe in terms of beginning the story, living the story, and selecting stories to construct and reconstruct narrative plots. 

Attribution: Reprint Policy for Educational Researcher: No written or oral permission is necessary to reproduce a tale, a figure, or an excerpt fewer that 500 words from this journal, or to make photocopies for classroom use. Copyright (1990) by the American Educational Research Association; reproduced with permission from the publisher. 

The popularity of narrative inquiry in education is increasing as a circular and pedagogical strategy that lends itself to the practical application of research (Kim, 2016). Keep in mind that by and large practical and professional benefits that arise from a narrative inquiry study revolve around exploring the lived experiences of educators, education administrators, students, and parents or guardians. According to Dunne (2003), 

Research into teaching is best served by narrative modes of inquiry since to understand the teacher’s practice (on his or her own part or on the part of an observer) is to find an illuminating story (or stories) to tell of what they have been involved with their student” (p. 367).

• Temporality – the time of the experiences and how the experiences could influence the future;
• Sociality – cultural and personal influences of the experiences; and;
• Spatiality – the environmental surroundings during the experiences and their influence on the experiences. 

From Haydon and van der Riet (2017)

• Narrative researchers collect stories from individuals retelling of their life experiences to a particular phenomenon. 
• Narrative stories may explore personal characteristics or identities of individuals and how they view themselves in a personal or larger context.
• Chronology is often important in narrative studies, as it allows participants to recall specific places, situations, or changes within their life history.

Sampling and Sample Size

• Purposive sampling is the most often used in narrative inquiry studies. Participants must meet a form of requirement that fits the purpose, problem, and objective of the study
• There is no rule for the sample size for narrative inquiry study. For a dissertation the normal sample size is between 6-10 participants. The reason for this is sampling should be terminated when no new information is forthcoming, which is a common strategy in qualitative studies known as sampling to the point of redundancy.

Data Collection (Methodology)

• Participant and researcher collaborate through the research process to ensure the story told and the story align.
• Extensive “time in the field” (can use Zoom) is spent with participant(s) to gather stories through multiple types of information including, field notes, observations, photos, artifacts, etc.
• Field Test is strongly recommended. The purpose of a field study is to have a panel of experts in the profession of the study review the research protocol and interview questions to ensure they align to the purpose statement and research questions.
• Member Checking is recommended. The trustworthiness of results is the bedrock of high-quality qualitative research. Member checking, also known as participant or respondent validation, is a technique for exploring the credibility of results. Data or results are returned to participants to check for accuracy and resonance with their experiences. Member checking is often mentioned as one in a list of validation techniques (Birt, et al., 2016).

Narrative Data Collection Essentials

• Restorying is the process of gathering stories, analyzing themes for key elements (e.g., time, place, plot, and environment) and then rewriting the stories to place them within a chronological sequence (Ollerenshaw & Creswell, 2002).
• Narrative thinking is critical in a narrative inquiry study. According to Kim (2016), the premise of narrative thinking comprises of three components, the storyteller’s narrative schema, his or her prior knowledge and experience, and cognitive strategies-yields a story that facilitates an understanding of the others and oneself in relation to others.

Instrumentation

• In qualitative research the researcher is the primary instrument.
• In-depth, semi-structured interviews are the norm. Because of the rigor that is required for a narrative inquiry study, it is recommended that two interviews with the same participant be conducted. The primary interview and a follow-up interview to address any additional questions that may arise from the interview transcriptions and/or member checking.

Birt, L., Scott, S., Cavers, D., Campbell, C., & Walter, F. (2016). Member checking: A tool to enhance trustworthiness or merely a nod to validation? Qualitative Health Research, 26 (13), 1802-1811. http://dx.doi.org./10.1177/1049732316654870

Cline, J. M. (2020). Collaborative learning for students with learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms: A qualitative narrative inquiry study (Order No. 28263106). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2503473076). 

Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19 (5), 2–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2018.1465839

Dunne, J. (2003). Arguing for teaching as a practice: A reply to Alasdair Macintyre. Journal of Philosophy of Education . https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.00331 

Haydon, G., & der Riet, P. van. (2017). Narrative inquiry: A relational research methodology suitable to explore narratives of health and illness. Nordic Journal of Nursing Research , 37(2), 85–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/2057158516675217

Kim, J. H. (2016). Understanding Narrative Inquiry: The crafting and analysis of stories as research. Sage Publications. 

Kim J. H. (2017). Jeong-Hee Kim discusses narrative methods [Video]. SAGE Research Methods Video https://www-doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.4135/9781473985179

O’ Toole, J. (2018). Institutional storytelling and personal narratives: reflecting on the value of narrative inquiry. Institutional Educational Studies, 37 (2), 175-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2018.1465839

Ollerenshaw, J. A., & Creswell, J. W. (2002). Narrative research: A comparison of two restorying data analysis approaches. Qualitative Inquiry, 8 (3), 329–347. 

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Qualitative Research Bridging the Conceptual, Theoretical, and Methodological

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CHAPTER 3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

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4.3 Qualitative Research Methodologies

Phenomenology is a research approach that seeks to understand the essence of a particular phenomenon through a detailed exploration of individual experiences. It is especially beneficial for exploring personal experiences such as emotions, perceptions, and awareness. As a budding qualitative researcher, it is imperative that you understand the different qualitative methods to enable you to choose the appropriate methods for your research question. In this chapter, we aim to discuss the most common qualitative methodologies which include descriptive, phenomenology, narrative inquiry, case study, ethnography, action research and grounded theory (Figure 4.2).

Descriptive:  A descriptive qualitative study attempts to systematically describe a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme. It focuses on discovering the who, what, and where of events or experiences and gaining insights from informants regarding a poorly understood phenomenon. 12 It is also used when more information is required to aid the development and refinement of questionnaires in research projects aiming to gain firsthand knowledge of patients’, relatives’ or professionals’ experiences with a particular topic. 13 This is a good choice for beginner qualitative researchers doing exploratory studies. It uses purposive or convenience sampling, with in-depth interviews as the most common data collection method. 14 Data analysis for this type of qualitative research focuses on a rich descriptive summary of the characteristics (themes) of the phenomena with some interpretation. 14 An example is the study by Cao et al. 2022 that explored the state of education regarding end-of-life care from the perspectives of undergraduate nurses. The findings showed that the undergraduate curriculum related to end-of-life care was disjointed and cultural attitudes toward disease and death impede the undergraduate nurses’ learning and knowledge translation of end-of-life care. 15

Phenomenology is also commonly used in qualitative research, and it is a research approach that seeks to understand the essence of a particular phenomenon through a detailed exploration of individual experiences. It is especially beneficial for exploring personal experiences such as emotions, perceptions, and awareness.that is especially beneficial for exploring personal experiences such as emotions, perceptions, and awareness. 16 It involves in-depth conversations on a specific topic, captures the relationships between people, things, events and situations and describes and explains phenomena from the perspective of those who have experienced it. 17 It explores the dimensions of participants’ experiences. 18 It seeks to understand problems, ideas, and situations in terms of shared understandings and experiences rather than differences. 19 Phenomenological research often employs in-depth, unstructured or semi-structured interviews as a means of data collection. 20 Data analysis typically involves identifying the essential structure or meaning of the experience being studied and then describing it in a way that is understandable to others. The researcher uses a process called the transcendental-phenomenological reduction to bracket off or set aside any preconceived notions of the phenomenon being studied. 21 In this method, researchers use theme analysis to focus on the attributed meaning of participants’ lived experiences rather than influencing findings with their own beliefs. 21 This process allows the researcher to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon’s essence as it is lived and experienced by participants. 21 For example, Liao et al. 2021 conducted a study exploring what medical learners experience through narrative medicine and the meanings they ascribe to narrative-based learning. The study identified six themes: feeling hesitation, seeking guidance, shifting roles in narratives, questioning relationships, experiencing transformation, and requesting a safe learning environment. 22

Narrative inquiry: Narrative inquiry is qualitative research that seeks to understand how individuals make meaning of their lives and the world around them through studying their stories and experiences. 23 This qualitative research focuses on marginalised populations, usually individuals or small groups and aims to give voice to their perspective. 24 This approach helps people learn more about the participants’ culture, historical experiences, identity, and lifestyle and is often recorded as a biography, life history, artifacts or traditional story. 25 It captures a wealth of story data, including emotions, beliefs, images, and insights about time. It also considers the relationship between personal experience and the wider social and cultural context. 24 Importantly, it also involves joint investigation and joint meaning-building between participants and researchers. 26 A major benefit of narrative inquiry is that it involves storytelling, and because humans are natural storytellers, the approach makes it easy to elicit stories. 24 Additionally, it facilitates the creation and construction of data through narratives of lived experience and fosters meaning formation, thus providing valuable insight into the complexities of human life, culture, and behavior. 11 This makes it possible to gather in-depth meaning as participants usually reveal themselves in their stories. 27 Narrative inquiry entails collecting data in the form of stories or narratives through interviews, written or visual materials, or other kinds of self-expression. 24 Data analysis in narrative inquiry involves identifying the themes, patterns, and meaning of the stories under consideration and understanding how the stories are formed and related to the individual’s experiences and perspective. 24 An example is the study by Gordon et al. 2015 which explored medical trainees’ experiences of leadership and followership in the interprofessional healthcare workplace. 28 The findings showed that participants most often narrated experiences from the position of follower. 28 Their narratives illustrated many factors that facilitate or inhibit the development of leadership identities. 28 Traditional medical and interprofessional hierarchies persist within the healthcare workplace, and wider healthcare systems can act as barriers to distributed leadership practices. 28

Case Study aids holistic exploration of a phenomenon. It provides powerful stories within social contexts through various data sources. It undertakes the exploration through various lenses to capture continuity and change and reveal multiple facets of the phenomenon. 29 It is an explanatory, descriptive or exploratory analysis of a single case example of a phenomenon. Case study aids researchers in giving a holistic, detailed account of a single case (or more) as it occurs in its real-life context. 30 The purpose of a case study is to understand complex phenomena and to explore new research questions in a real-world setting. 29 There are three main types of qualitative case study design: intrinsic case study, instrumental case study and collective case study. 31 An intrinsic case study is often conducted to learn about a one-of-a-kind phenomenon. 31 This type of case study focuses on a single case or a small number of cases and explores a specific phenomenon or issue in depth. 30,31 The researcher needs to define the phenomenon’s distinctiveness, which separates it from all others. In contrast, the instrumental case study employs a specific instance (some of which may be superior to others) to acquire a more extensive understanding of an issue or phenomenon. 30,31 An instrumental case study uses a single case or a small number of cases to explore a broader research question or problem. 31 The collective case study researches numerous instances concurrently or sequentially to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of a specific subject. 30,31 This type of case study analyses multiple cases to understand a phenomenon or issue from different perspectives. 31 The data collection techniques used in a case study include interviews, observations, or written or visual materials. Data can be collected from various sources, including the case, documents or records, and other relevant individuals. In a case study, data analysis is often inductive, which means that the researcher begins with the data and generates themes, patterns, or insights from it. To examine the data, the researcher may employ a range of approaches, such as coding, memoing, or content analysis. An example of a case study is the study by Lemmen et al. 2021 , which aimed to provide insight into how adopting positive health (PH) in a general practice affects primary care professionals’ (PCP) job satisfaction. 32 The findings of the study identified three themes regarding PCPs’ adoption of PH and job satisfaction, namely adopting and adapting Positive Health, giving substance to Positive Health in practice, and changing financial and organisational structures. 32 Thus, the PCPs adopted PH, which supported PCPs to express, legitimise, and promote their distinctive approach to care work and its value. 32 PH also enabled PCPs to change their financial and organisational structures, freeing time to spend on patients and their own well-being. The changes made by the practice increased the job satisfaction of the PCPs. 32

Ethnography is the study of culture and entails the observation of details of everyday life as they naturally unfold in the real world. It is commonly used in anthropological research focusing on the community 33 . It generally involves researchers directly observing a participant’s natural environment over time. 33 A key feature of ethnography is the fact that natural settings, unadapted for the researchers’ interests, are used. In ethnography, the natural setting or environment is as important as the participants, and such methods have the advantage of explicitly acknowledging that, in the real world, environmental constraints and context influence behaviours and outcomes. 34 Ethnography focuses on the lived culture of a group of people, that is, the knowledge they use to generate and interpret social behaviour. 35 Ethnography often involves a small number of cases or a community, ethnic or social groups. The researcher enters the lived experience of participants in the field and spends considerable time with them to understand their way of life. This research approach increases the strength of the data. 35 An example of ethnographic research is the study by Hinder and Greenhalgh, 2012 . The study sought to produce a richer understanding of how people live with diabetes and why self-management is challenging for some. The study revealed that self-management involved both practical and cognitive tasks (e.g. self-monitoring, menu planning, medication adjustment) and socio-emotional ones (e.g. coping with illness, managing relatives’ input, negotiating access to services or resources). 36 Self-management was hard work and was enabled or constrained by economic, material and socio-cultural conditions within the family, workplace and community. 36 Although this study is old, it provides insight into some of the challenges associated with diabetes. 36 While more devices have helped with diabetes in recent years, some of these challenges may still exist.

Action Research involves a cyclical process of planning, action, observation, and reflection to improve practice or address a problem. It attempts to understand and improve the world via change. 37 The goal of action research is to generate new knowledge and understanding about a specific issue while at the same time taking action to improve the situation. 37 Action research is guided by the desire to take action, so it is not a design. A type of action research is participatory action research. 38 At its core, this is a collaborative, self-reflective enquiry undertaken by researchers and participants to understand and improve upon the practices in which they participate and the situations in which they find themselves. 38 The goal is for the participant to be an equal partner with the researcher. 39 The reflective process is inextricably tied to action, impacted by knowledge of history, culture, and the local context, and is rooted in social connections. 38 It is an inquiry process used to understand and improve complex social systems, such as organisations, communities, or classrooms. 40 Participatory action research draws on qualitative methods such as interviews and observation to inquire about ways to improve the quality of practice. 41 The study by Doherty and O’Brien, 2021 explored midwives’ understandings of burnout, professionally and personally, in the context of contemporary maternity care in Ireland. 42 Multiple factors influenced midwives’ views and understandings of burnout. PAR provided a platform for midwives to examine their ideas and views on burnout with the collaborative support of their midwifery colleagues, via cycles of action and reflection, which is necessary to develop and maintain change. Midwives characterised burnout as continuous stress and tiredness, with an accompanying decline in their coping capacities, motivation, empathy, and/or efficacy. Burnout is unique to the person and is primarily induced and irrevocably tied to excessive workload in midwifery. 42

Grounded theory first described by Glaser and Strauss in 1967, is a framework for qualitative research that suggests that theory must derive from data, unlike other forms of research, which suggest that data should be used to test theory. 43 It is a qualitative research process that entails developing theories based on evidence that has been collected from the participants. 43 Grounded theory may be particularly valuable when little or nothing is known or understood about a problem, situation, or context. 44 The main purpose is to develop a theory that explains patterns and correlations in data and may be utilised to understand and predict the phenomenon under investigation. This method often entails gathering data through interviews, focus groups, questionnaires, surveys, transcripts, letters, government reports, papers, grey literature, music, artefacts, videos, blogs and memos, then analysing it to identify patterns and relationships. 45 Data is analysed via inductive analysis; the researcher starts with observations and data and then builds hypotheses and insights based on the data. In addition, a continual comparison technique is employed, which entails comparing data repeatedly to identify patterns and themes. 46 Furthermore, open, axial and selective coding is used. Open coding divides data into smaller chunks and classifies them based on their qualities and relationships. 47 In axial coding, links between categories and their subcategories are examined with respect to data. 47 Through “selective coding,” all categories are brought together around a “core” category, and categories requiring further explanation include descriptive information. This type of coding is more likely to occur in the final stages of study. 47 An example is the study by Malau-Aduli et al., 2020 ; the study had two main aims – (1) to identify the factors that influence an International Medical Graduate’s (IMG) decision to remain working in regional, rural, and remote areas; (2) to develop a theory, grounded in the data, to explain how these factors are prioritised, evaluated and used to inform a decision to remain working in RRR areas. 48   The findings revealed that the IMG decision-making process involved a complex, dynamic, and iterative process of balancing life goals based on life stage. Many factors were considered when assessing the balance of three primary life goals: satisfaction with work, family, and lifestyle. Another example is the study by Akosah-Twumasi et al. 2020 which explored the perceived role of sub-Saharan African migrant parents living in Australia in the career decision-making processes of their adolescent children. 49 The study showed that the majority of SSA immigrant parents continued to parent in the same manner as they did back home. 49 Interestingly, some parents modified their parenting approaches due to their perceptions of the host nation. 49 However, due to their apparent lack of educational capacity to educate their children, other parents who would otherwise be authoritative turned into trustworthy figures. 49

An Introduction to Research Methods for Undergraduate Health Profession Students Copyright © 2023 by Faith Alele and Bunmi Malau-Aduli is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.