roberto's persuasive speech on a question of policy

Chapter 15 Study Questions

74.         Of all the kinds of speechmaking, speaking is the most complex and the most challenging.

            * a.      persuasive

               b.     after-dinner

               c.      ceremonial

               d.     informative

               e.      commemorative

75.         Which of the following is an instance of persuasive speaking?

               a.      A coach reviewing the offensive plays for next week’s game.

               b.     A lawyer explaining the details of a plea bargaining agreement to her client.

            * c.      An architectural firm recommending adoption of its building plan.

               d.     A botanist reporting the discovery of a new species.

               e.      An activist honoring past leaders of the labor movement.

76.         Which of the following is an instance of persuasive speaking?

               a.      A president of a company presenting an award to an outstanding employee.

               b.     A marketing manager explaining a new product to the company’s sales force.

               c.      A personnel manager defining employee benefits at a meeting of workers.

            * d.     A union representative urging management to avoid a strike by raising wages.

               e.      A finance officer reporting sales figures to the board of directors.

77.         Which of the following is an instance of persuasive speaking?

               a.      A friend offering a humorous toast at a wedding

            * b.     A volunteer convincing a group of citizens to sign a petition.

               c.      An academic advisor explaining the study abroad process.

               d.     all of the above

               e.      a and c only

78.         Which of the following is an instance of persuasive speaking?

               a.      A United States President praising World War II veterans.

               b.     A history professor lecturing on the rise of industrialism.

               c.      A judge explaining the rules of evidence during a criminal trail.

            * d.     A developer urging the city council to build a new convention center.

               e.      A geneticist reporting her research to a professional meeting.

79.         According to your textbook, persuasion is a psychological process in which listeners engage in a with the speaker.

            * a.      mental dialogue

               b.     situational disagreement

               c.      cognitive restructuring

               d.     feedback loop

               e.      logical debate

80.         According to your textbook, you should think of your persuasive speech as

               a.      essentially the same as a commemorative speech.

            * b.     a kind of mental dialogue with the audience.

               c.      less challenging than speaking to inform.

               d.     all of the above.

               e.      b and c only.

81.         The is that portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade.

               a.      core audience

            * b.     target audience

               c.      projected audience

               d.     intended audience

               e.      focus audience

82.         That part of the audience a speaker most wants to persuade is called the

               a.      specific audience.

               b.     designated audience.

               c.      central audience.

               d.     special audience.

            * e.      target audience.

83.         Emily wanted to convince the technology department at her company to adopt a new database system. Some staff members supported the change, a few were opposed, and most were undecided. Emily realized that the undecided group was her , so she focused above all on persuading them.

               a.      majority audience

               b.     projected audience

               c.      focus audience

               d.     central audience

            * e.      target audience

84.         Marta circulated a questionnaire to gauge her classmates’ attitudes toward adopting a citywide ban on smoking in all public buildings. She discovered that 5 audience members already agreed there should be a ban, 6 were firmly opposed, and 10 were undecided. From these results, Marta decided that the 10 undecided class members were the for her speech.

               a.      projected audience

               b.     majority audience

85.         If you want to persuade a skeptical audience, which of the following is it most important for you to do in your speech?

               a.      Define unclear terms in the introduction.

               b.     Organize the speech in problem-solution order.

               c.      Focus the speech on questions of value.

            * d.     Answer the reasons for the audience’s skepticism.

               e.      Include a call for action in the conclusion.

86.         As your textbook explains, if you want to persuade a skeptical audience, you need to

               a.      Organize the speech in Monroe’s motivated sequence.

               b.     Urge the audience to take immediate action.

               c.      Circulate an audience-analysis questionnaire.

               e.      Focus your speech on questions of practicality.

87.         The three types of questions that give rise to persuasive speeches are questions of

               a.      opinion, fact, and policy.

               b.     problem, cause, and solution.

            * c.      fact, value, and policy.

               d.     opinion, attitude, and value.

               e.      need, plan, and practicality.

88.         A persuasive speech exploring the truth or falsity of an assertion is known as a speech on a question of

               a.      value.

               b.     opinion.

               c.      evidence.

               d.     policy.

            * e.      fact.

89.         “To persuade my audience that long-term exposure to electromagnetic fields can cause serious health problems” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

               c.      attitude.

90.         “To persuade my audience that the use of cell phones by car drivers has contributed to a growing number of automobile accidents” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

               a.      policy.

               b.     attitude.

            * c.      fact.

               d.     value.

               e.      opinion.

91.         “To persuade my audience that soccer will become the highest revenue-producing sport in the United States by 2015” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

               c.      value.

            * d.     fact.

               e.      attitude.

92.         According to your textbook, “To persuade my audience that birds evolved from dinosaurs” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

            * b.     fact.

               c.      opinion.

               d.     knowledge.

               e.      research.

93.         “To persuade my audience that another major earthquake will strike Los Angeles before the year 2020” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

            * a.      fact.

94.         “To persuade my audience that preemptive strikes against suspected terrorists is morally justifiable” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

               a.      fact.

               c.      strategy.

               d.     attitude.

            * e.      value.

95.         “To persuade my audience that it is unethical for politicians to accept trips paid for by lobbyists” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

            * a.      value.

               b.     policy.

               d.     opinion.

               e.      fact.

96.         According to your textbook, “To persuade my audience that downloading music from the Internet for personal use is ethically wrong” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

            * c.      value.

               d.     legality.

97.         According to your textbook, “To persuade my audience that doctor-assisted suicide is morally acceptable” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

               c.      judgment.

               d.     health.

98.         “To persuade my audience that Bill Clinton deserves to be rated as a great President” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

99.         “To persuade my audience that it is unethical for journalists to invade people’s private lives” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

100.       According to your textbook, “To persuade my audience that they should adopt a program of regular exercise” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

               a.      action.

            * b.     policy.

101.       According to your textbook, “To persuade my audience that they should practice abstinence as a way to protect themselves from sexually transmitted diseases” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

               c.      obligation.

               d.     judgment.

            * e.      policy.

102.       “To persuade my audience to take a class that will teach them CPR” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

            * d.     policy.

103.       “To persuade my audience that there should be tougher enforcement of laws to protect the victims of domestic abuse” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

            * c.      policy.

               e.      judgment.

104.       “To persuade my audience that local governments should have full power to regulate cable television companies” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

            * a.      policy.

               d.     fact.

               e.      value.

105.       “To persuade my audience that the United States National Park Service should reduce the number of camp sites in national parks by 50 percent” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

106.       At which of the following would you be most likely to hear a persuasive speech on a question of fact?

               a.      a graduation ceremony

            * b.     a jury trial

               c.      an awards ceremony

               d.     a political convention

               e.      a retirement banquet

107.       Persuasive speeches on questions of fact are usually organized in order.

            * a.      topical

               b.     problem-solution

               c.      comparative advantages

               d.     problem-cause-solution

               e.      descriptive

108.       As your textbook explains, persuasive speeches on questions of value are most often organized in order.

               b.     analytical

               c.      chronological

               d.     deductive

               e.      causal

109.       As your textbook explains, whenever you give a persuasive speech on a question of value, you need to

               a.      concentrate on convincing listeners who already share your view.

               b.     organize the speech according to Monroe’s motivated sequence.

               c.      conclude your speech by urging the audience to take immediate action.

               d.     deal with all three basic issues of need, plan, and practicality.

            * e.      justify your value judgment against a set of standards or criteria.

110.       The specific purpose for Scott’s persuasive speech is “To persuade my audience to replace their incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescents.” According to your textbook, Scott is speaking on a question of

               b.     research.

111.       The specific purpose for Yaoling’s persuasive speech is “To persuade my audience that humans have an ethical responsibility to prevent the extinction of animal species.” According to your textbook, Yaoling is speaking on a question of

               c.      knowledge.

               d.     research.

112.       According to your textbook, “To persuade my audience that cheating on schoolwork is never justified” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of

               c.      practicality.

               d.     standards.

               e.      policy.

113.       Persuasive speeches on questions of argue for or against particular courses of action.

               a.      need

               b.     value

            * c.      policy

               d.     fact

               e.      plan

114.       As your textbook explains, when you give a persuasive speech on a question of

               , you can seek either passive agreement or immediate action from your audience.

               a.      opinion

            * b.     policy

               c.      judgment

               d.     value

               e.      fact

115.       The is the obligation of a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary.

            * a.      burden of proof

               b.     strategic duty

               c.      deliberative responsibility

               d.     balance of practicality

               e.      causal imperative

116.       As your textbook explains, you must deal with three basic issues whenever you discuss a question of policy. Those issues are need, plan, and

               a.      efficiency.

            * b.     practicality.

               c.      productivity.

               d.     flexibility.

               e.      viability.

117.       Which of the following specific purpose statements is from a persuasive speech seeking passive agreement?

               a.      To persuade my audience to sign organ donor cards.

               b.     To persuade my audience to vote in the next local election.

               c.      To persuade my audience to boycott coffee from plantations that damage the rainforests.

            * d.     To persuade my audience that the campus library should be open 24 hours a day.

               e.      To persuade my audience to adopt a regular exercise program.

118.       Which of the following specific purpose statements is from a persuasive speech seeking immediate action?

               a.      To persuade my audience that the federal government should increase funding to provide computers for children in low-income housing.

               b.     To persuade my audience that the state must increase funding for wetland preservation.

               c.      To persuade my audience that federal campaign finance laws must be reformed to preserve the integrity of electoral process.

            * d.     To persuade my audience to decrease the amount of electricity they use during the summer in order to prevent blackouts.

               e.      To persuade my audience that the college administration should increase spending for intramural athletics on campus.

119.       Which of the following specific purpose statements is from a persuasive speech seeking passive agreement?

               a.      To persuade my audience to join a fraternity or sorority.

               b.     To persuade my audience to increase their consumption of fruits and vegetables.

            * c.      To persuade my audience that the college should adopt an honor code.

               d.     To persuade my audience to become more involved in campus government.

               e.      To persuade my audience to become organ donors.

120.       Which of the following specific purpose statements is from a persuasive speech seeking immediate action?

               a.      To persuade my audience that the federal government should establish a committee to study the regulation of genetically engineered food.

            * b.     To persuade my audience to write their U.S. senators and representatives in support of a bill to regulate genetically engineered food.

               c.      To persuade my audience that proposed legislation to regulate genetically engineered food will hurt farmers.

               d.     To persuade my audience that the federal government must take steps to regulate genetically engineered food.

               e.      To persuade my audience that genetically engineered food poses serious health dangers to consumers.

121.       Regardless of whether your aim is to encourage passive agreement or immediate action, you must deal with three basic issues whenever you discuss a question of policy. They are

               a.      cause, effect, and practicality.

               b.     evidence, practicality, and reasoning.

               c.      need, action, and reaction.

               d.     problem, plan, and solution.

            * e.      need, plan, and practicality.

122.       Which of the following specific purpose statements is from a persuasive speech seeking immediate action?

               a.      To persuade my audience that the state legislature should stiffen driver’s license requirements for persons over the age of 75.

            * b.     To persuade my audience to write their legislators in support of stiffening driver’s license requirements for persons over the age of 75.

               c.      To persuade my audience that the proposed bill to stiffen driver’s license requirements for persons over the age of 75 is just and reasonable.

               d.     To persuade my audience that the state legislature has no business stiffening driver’s license requirements for persons over the age of 75.

               e.      To persuade my audience that acting now to stiffen driver’s license requirements for people over the age of 75 will save lives.

123.       Which of the following statements is most clearly directed at the practicality issue in a persuasive speech on a question of policy?

               a.      My solution has three major steps.

               b.     We can no longer ignore the seriousness of the problem.

               c.      There are three ways to judge the morality of capital punishment.

            * d.     If my plan is adopted, it will be less expensive than the current system.

               e.      If the government knew what it was doing, we wouldn’t be in this mess.

124.       If you give a persuasive speech advocating a change in policy, your main points often will fall naturally into order.

            * a.      problem-solution

               b.     chronological

               c.      causal

               d.     comparative advantages

               e.      topical

125.       Nina’s persuasive speech contained the following statement:

The lack of a national law requiring seat belts on school buses is a serious problem in the United States. Last year alone, 437 children were killed and more than 5,000 injured in accidents involving school buses. Given all the advances in automobile safety in recent years, how can we continue to allow our children to ride in unsafe vehicles?

               Which of the three basic issues of persuasive speeches on questions of policy did Nina address in this excerpt?

               a.      practicality

            * b.     need

               c.      satisfaction

               d.     plan

               e.      visualization

126.       In a speech seeking to persuade his audience to donate blood, Ian explained how little time the donation process would take from their busy schedules. Which of the three basic issues of persuasive speeches on questions of policy did Ian address in this part of his speech?

               b.     action

               c.      motivation

            * d.     practicality

127.       While attempting to persuade her audience to volunteer for a community literacy program, Terri provided evidence that volunteering takes only two hours a week and that employers look for volunteer service on resumés from job applicants. Which of the three basic issues of persuasive speeches on questions of policy was Terri addressing in this section of her speech?

               b.     relevance

            * c.      practicality

               d.     clarification

               e.      solution

128.       In a speech seeking to persuade her audience to support the city’s ban on unlimited drink specials at local bars, Jasmine used examples and statistics to demonstrate the seriousness of binge drinking as a problem on college campuses. Which of the three basic issues of persuasive speeches on questions of policy did Jasmine address in this part of her speech?

            * a.      need

               b.     fact

               c.      action

129.       During his persuasive speech, Jon pointed to the success of communities where cameras have been installed to catch speeding drivers as evidence that such cameras would be effective in his community as well. Which of the three basic issues of persuasive speeches on questions of policy did Jon address in this portion of his speech?

            * b.     practicality

               d.     action

               e.      proof

130.       The specific purpose of Jessica’s persuasive speech was “To persuade my audience to sign up for a self-defense class.” At one point, she explained exactly where and how her classmates could register for a self-defense class. Which step of Monroe’s motivated sequence did Jessica address in this portion of her speech?

               b.     attention

               c.      visualization

            * d.     satisfaction

               e.      action

131.       Li’s persuasive speech contained the following statement:

To solve the problem of decreasing personal privacy due to electronic data-gathering by businesses, I propose more stringent privacy laws. These laws should impose strict controls on the collection of personal information by businesses. These laws should also include stiff penalties for anyone who uses personal information for unauthorized purposes.

               Which of the three basic issues of persuasive speeches on questions of policy did Li address in this excerpt?

               b.     practicality

               d.     problem

            * e.      plan

132.       The burden of always rests with the persuasive speaker who advocates change.

               a.      fact

               b.     opinion

               c.      refutation

               d.     strategy

            * e.      proof

133.       Heather gave her persuasive speech on the problem of teenage alcoholism. In her first main point, she showed how serious the problem is. In her second main point, she explained why the problem had reached its current proportions. In her third main point, she presented some ways of coping with the problem. What organizational pattern did Heather use in her speech?

               a.      need-plan-practicality

               b.     comparative advantages

               c.      Monroe’s motivated sequence

            * d.     problem-cause-solution

134.       Seth’s persuasive speech contained the following statement:

Will my policy work? Can we institute a law protecting individual privacy against electronic data-gathering by businesses? The answer is yes. A policy similar to mine has already been insti-tuted successfully in most of the countries of Western Europe.

               Which of the three basic issues of persuasive speeches on questions of policy did Seth address in this excerpt?

               b.     proposal

135.       Roberto’s persuasive speech on a question of policy contains the following transition between the first and second main points:

As we have seen, excessive caffeine consumption can create serious problems for your body’s nervous system and immune system. We’re now ready to look at ways you can start reducing your intake of caffeine.

               Roberto’s speech is organized according to which pattern of organization?

               a.      causal

            * b.     problem-solution

               d.     persuasive sequence

136.       The following set of main points for a persuasive speech on a question of policy follows which pattern of organization?

I.     Installing filtering software on computers in homes, schools, and public libraries is a more effective way of controlling children’s access to Internet pornography than is parental monitoring.

II.   Installing filtering software on computers in homes, schools, and public libraries is a more effective way of controlling children’s access to Internet pornography than are government regulations.

               b.     Monroe’s motivated sequence

               c.      problem-cause-solution

            * d.     comparative advantages

137.       The following set of main points for a persuasive speech on a question of policy follows which pattern of organization?

I.     The shortage of nurses has become a serious national problem.

II.   The problem can be solved by offering nurses better salaries and better working conditions.

               a.      deliberative

               d.     need-plan-practicality

138.       The following set of main points for a persuasive speech on a question of policy follows which pattern of organization?

I.     Bacterial meningitis is a deadly disease that can spread easily on college campuses.

II.   Every college student should be required to get vaccinated against bacterial meningitis.

               b.     deliberative

               c.      need-plan-practicality

            * e.      problem-solution

139.       According to your textbook, which pattern of organization is used in the following set of main points for a persuasive speech urging the audience to donate time to famine-relief organizations?

I.     Donating time to famine-relief organizations is more effective than donating money because it reduces a country’s depend-ence on foreign aid.

II.   Donating time to famine-relief organizations is more effective than donating money because it creates a personal connection to the people you are helping.

               a.      analysis of benefits

               b.     need-plan-practicality

               e.      problem-solution

140.       The following set of main points for a persuasive speech on a question of policy follows which pattern of organization?

I.     Childhood obesity is a serious health crisis in the United States.

II.   Childhood obesity is caused by a range of factors from poor nutrition to lack of exercise.

III. Childhood obesity can be reduced by action from parents, schools, and the fast-food industry.

               a.      comparative advantages

            * b.     problem-cause-solution

141.       As your textbook explains, order is a way to structure a persuasive speech on a question of policy when the audience already agrees that a problem exists but needs to be persuaded that your plan provides the best solution to the problem.

               a.      problem-solution

            * b.     comparative advantages

               d.     Monroe’s motivated sequence

               e.      need-plan-practicality

142.       Alex’s persuasive speech on a question of policy includes the following connective between the second and third main points:

First we saw that health complications from obesity are a growing problem among young adults. Then we looked at some of the major factors leading to this problem. Now let’s look at the steps we can take to eliminate the problem.

               Alex’s speech is organized according to which pattern of organization?

            * c.      problem-cause-solution

               e.      none of the above

143.       Because it follows the process of human thinking, is particularly useful for organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action.

               a.      Mitchell’s strategic progression

               b.     comparative advantages order

            * c.      Monroe’s motivated sequence

               d.     problem-cause-solution order

               e.      Morgan’s psychological series

144.       Which organizational pattern is especially effective for persuasive speeches that seek immediate action by listeners?

               a.      comparative advantages order

            * b.     Monroe’s motivated sequence

               c.      problem-solution order

               d.     reflective-thinking sequence

               e.      psychological process order

145.       What organizational method for persuasive speeches is designed to take the audience through the five steps of attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action?

               a.      Maswell’s influence model

               b.     reflective-thinking sequence

               c.      Miller’s psychological process

               d.     target audience order

            * e.      Monroe’s motivated sequence

146.       The major reason Monroe’s motivated sequence is such an effective way of organizing persuasive speeches that seek action from listeners is because it

               a.      is limited to five steps.

               b.     can be easily adapted to standard outlining form.

            * c.      follows the process of human thinking.

               d.     is more detailed than problem-solution order.

               e.      is often used by advertisers.

147.       Using vivid imagery to help listeners see the benefits of the plan you are advocating is crucial to the step within Monroe’s motivated sequence.

               a.      attention

               b.     motivation

            * d.     visualization

148.       Which of the following is the first step in Monroe’s motivated sequence?

               b.     judgment

            * d.     attention

149.       Which of the following is the second step in Monroe’s motivated sequence?

               a.      plan

               b.     satisfaction

               c.      attention

            * e.      need

150.       Which of the following is the final step in Monroe’s motivated sequence?

            * a.      action

               d.     practicality

  _______

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10 Chapter 10: Persuasive Speaking

Amy Fara Edwards and Marcia Fulkerson, Oxnard College

Victoria Leonard, Lauren Rome, and Tammera Stokes Rice, College of the Canyons

Adapted by Jamie C. Votraw, Professor of Communication Studies, Florida SouthWestern State College

Figure 10.1: Abubaccar Tambadou 1

Introduction

The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) was founded on April 10, 1866. You may be familiar with their television commercials. They start with images of neglected and lonely-looking cats and dogs while the screen text says: “Every hour… an animal is beaten or abused. They suffer… alone and terrified…” Cue the sad song and the request for donations on the screen. This commercial causes audiences to run for the television remote because they can’t bear to see those images! Yet it is a very persuasive commercial and has proven to be very successful for this organization. According to the ASPCA website, they have raised $30 million since 2006, and their membership has grown to over 1.2 million people. The audience’s reaction to this commercial showcases how persuasion works! In this chapter, we will define persuasive speaking and examine the strategies used to create powerful persuasive speeches.

Figure 10.2: Caged Dogs 2

Defining Persuasive Speaking

Persuasion is the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people’s beliefs or actions. It is not manipulation, however! The speaker’s intention should be clear to the audience in an ethical way and accomplished through the ethical use of methods of persuasion. When speaking to persuade, the speaker works as an advocate. In contrast to informative speaking, persuasive speakers argue in support of a position and work to convince the audience to support or do something.

As you learned in chapter five on audience analysis, you must continue to consider the psychological characteristics of the audience. You will discover in this chapter the attitudes, beliefs, and values of the audience become particularly relevant in the persuasive speechmaking process. A key element of persuasion is the speaker’s intent. You must intend to create, reinforce, and/or change people’s beliefs or actions in an ethical way.

Types of Persuasive Speeches

There are three types of persuasive speech propositions. A proposition , or speech claim , is a statement you want your audience to support. To gain the support of our audience, we use evidence and reasoning to support our claims. Persuasive speech propositions fall into one of three categories, including questions of fact, questions of value, and questions of policy. Determining the type of persuasive propositions your speech deals with will help you determine what forms of argument and reasoning are necessary to effectively advocate for your position.

Questions of Fact

A question of fact determines whether something is true or untrue, does or does not exist, or did or did not happen. Questions of fact are based on research, and you may find research that supports competing sides of an argument! You may even find that you change your mind about a subject when researching. Ultimately, you will take a stance and rely on credible evidence to support your position, ethically.

Today there are many hotly contested propositions of fact: humans have walked on the moon, the Earth is flat, Earth’s climate is changing due to human action, we have encountered sentient alien life forms, life exists on Mars, and so on.

Here is an example of a question of fact:

Recreational marijuana does not lead to hard drug use.

Recreational marijuana does lead to hard drug use.

Questions of Value

A question of value determines whether something is good or bad, moral or immoral, just or unjust, fair or unfair. You will have to take a definitive stance on which side you’re arguing. For this proposition, your opinion alone is not enough; you must have evidence and reasoning. An ethical speaker will acknowledge all sides of the argument, and to better argue their point, the speaker will convince the audience why their position is the “best” position.

Here is an example of a question of value:

Recreational marijuana use is immoral .

Recreational marijuana use is moral .

Questions of Policy

A question of policy advances a specific course of action based on facts and values. You are telling the audience what you believe should be done and/or you are asking your audience to act in a particular way to make a change. Whether it is stated or implied, all policy speeches focus on values. To be the most persuasive and get your audience to act, you must determine their beliefs, which will help you organize and argue your proposition.

Persuasive speeches on questions of policy must address three elements: need, plan, and practicality . First, the speaker must demonstrate there is a need for change (i.e., there is a problem). Next, the speaker offers the audience a plan (i.e., the policy solution) to address the problem. Lastly, the speaker shows the audience that the solution is practical . This requires that the speaker demonstrate how their proposed plan will address the identified problem without creating new problems.

Consider the topic of car accidents. A persuasive speech on a question of policy might focus on reducing the number of car accidents on a Florida highway. First, the speaker could use evidence from their research to demonstrate there is a need for change (e.g., statistics showing a higher-than-average rate of accidents). Then, the speaker would offer their plan to address the problem. Imagine their proposed plan was to permanently shut down all Florida highways. Would this plan solve the problem and reduce the number of accidents on Florida highways? Well, yes. But is it practical? No. Will it create new problems? Yes – side roads will be congested, people will miss work, kids will miss school, emergency response teams will be slowed, and tourism will decrease. The speaker could not offer such a plan and demonstrate that it is practical. Alternatively, maybe the speaker advocates for a speed reduction in a particularly problematic stretch of highway or convinces the audience to support increasing the number of highway patrol cars.

Here is an example of a question of policy:

Recreational marijuana use should be legal in all 50 states.

Recreational marijuana use should not be legal in all 50 states.

Persuasive Speech Organizational Patterns

There are several methods of organizing persuasive speeches. Remember, you must use an organizational pattern to outline your speech (think back to chapter eight). Some professors will specify a specific pattern to use for your assignment. Otherwise, the organizational pattern you select should be based on your speech content. What pattern is most logical based on your main points and the goal of your speech? This section will explain five common formats of persuasive outlines: Problem-Solution, Problem-Cause-Solution, Comparative Advantages, Monroe’s Motivated Sequence, and Claim to Proof.

Problem-Solution Pattern

Sometimes it is necessary to share a problem and a solution with an audience. In cases like these, the problem-solution organizational pattern is an appropriate way to arrange the main points of a speech. It’s important to reflect on what is of interest to you, but also what is critical to engage your audience. This pattern is used intentionally because, for most problems in society, the audience is unaware of their severity. Problems can exist at a local, state, national, or global level.

For example, the nation has recently become much more aware of the problem of human sex trafficking. Although the US has been aware of this global issue for some time, many communities are finally learning this problem is occurring in their own backyards. Colleges and universities have become engaged in the fight. Student clubs and organizations are getting involved and bringing awareness to this problem. Everyday citizens are using social media to warn friends and followers of sex-trafficking tricks to look out for.

Let’s look at how you might organize a problem-solution speech centered on this topic. In the body of this speech, there would be two main points; a problem and a solution. This pattern is used for speeches on questions of policy.

Topic: Human Sex Trafficking

General Purpose: To persuade

Specific Purpose: To persuade the audience to support increased legal penalties for sex traffickers.

Thesis (Central Idea): Human sex trafficking is a global challenge with local implications, but it can be addressed through multi-pronged efforts from governments and non-profits.

Preview of Main Points: First, I will define and explain the extent of the problem of sex trafficking within our community while examining the effects this has on the victims. Then, I will offer possible solutions to take the predators off the streets and allow the victims to reclaim their lives and autonomy.

• The problem of human sex trafficking is best understood by looking at the severity of the problem, the methods by which traffickers kidnap or lure their victims, and its impact on the victim.
• The problem of human sex trafficking can be solved by working with local law enforcement, changing the laws currently in place for prosecuting the traffickers and pimps, and raising funds to help agencies rescue and restore victims.

Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

To review the problem-solution pattern, recall that the main points do not explain the cause of the problem, and in some cases, the cause is not necessary to explain. For example, in discussing the problem of teenage pregnancy, most audiences will not need to be informed about what causes someone to get pregnant. However, there are topics where discussing the cause is imperative to understanding the solution. The Problem-Cause-Solution organizational pattern adds a main point between the problem and solution by discussing the cause of the problem. In the body of the speech, there will be three main points: the problem, the cause, and finally, the solution. This pattern is also used for speeches dealing with questions of policy. One of the reasons you might consider this pattern is when an audience is not familiar with the cause. For example, if gang activity is on the rise in the community you live in, you might need to explain what causes an individual to join a gang in the first place. By explaining the causes of a problem, an audience might be more likely to accept the solution(s) you’ve proposed. Let’s look at an example of a speech on gangs.

Topic: The Rise of Gangs in Miami-Dade County

Specific Purpose: To persuade the audience to urge their school boards to include gang education in the curriculum.

Thesis (Central Idea): The uptick in gang affiliation and gang violence in Miami-Dade County is problematic, but if we explore the causes of the problem, we can make headway toward solutions.

Preview of Main Points:  First, I will explain the growing problem of gang affiliation and violence in Miami-Dade County. Then, I will discuss what causes an individual to join a gang. Finally, I will offer possible solutions to curtail this problem and get gangs off the streets of our community.

• The problem of gang affiliation and violence is growing rapidly, leading to tragic consequences for both gang members and their families.
• The causes of the proliferation of gangs can be best explained by feeling disconnected from others, a need to fit in, and a lack of supervision after school hours.
• The problem of the rise in gangs can be solved, or minimized, by offering after-school programs for youth, education about the consequences of joining a gang, and parent education programs offered at all secondary education levels.

Let’s revisit the human sex trafficking topic from above. Instead of using only a problem-solution pattern, the example that follows adds “cause” to their main points.

Preview of Main Points: First, I will define and explain the extent of the problem of sex trafficking within our community while examining the effects this has on the victims. Second, I will discuss the main causes of the problem. Finally, I will offer possible solutions to take the predators off the streets and allow the victims to reclaim their lives.

• The cause of the problem can be recognized by the monetary value of sex slavery.
• The problem of human sex trafficking can be solved by working with local law enforcement, changing the current laws for prosecuting traffickers, and raising funds to help agencies rescue and restore victims.

Comparative Advantages

Sometimes your speech will showcase a problem, but there are multiple potential solutions for the audience to consider. In cases like these, the comparative advantages organizational pattern is an appropriate way to structure the speech. This pattern is commonly used when there is a problem, but the audience (or the public) cannot agree on the best solution. When your goal is to convince the audience that your solution is the best among the options, this organizational pattern should be used.

Consider the hot topic of student loan debt cancellation. There is a rather large divide among the public about whether or not student loans should be canceled or forgiven by the federal government. Once again, audience factors come into play as attitudes and values on the topic vary greatly across various political ideologies, age demographics, socioeconomic statuses, educational levels, and more.

Let’s look at how you might organize a speech on this topic. In the body of this speech, one main point is the problem, and the other main points will depend on the number of possible solutions.

Topic: Federal Student Loan Debt Cancellation

Specific Purpose: To persuade the audience to support the government cancellation of $10,000 in federal student loan debt.

Thesis (Central Idea):  Student loans are the largest financial hurdle faced by multiple generations, and debt cancellation could provide needed relief to struggling individuals and families.

Preview of Main Points: First, I will define and explain the extent of the student loan debt problem in the United States. Then, I will offer possible solutions and convince you that the best solution is a debt cancellation of $10,000.

• Student loan debt is the second greatest source of financial debt in the United States and several solutions have been proposed to address the problem created by unusually high levels of educational debt.
• The first proposed solution is no debt cancellation. This policy solution would not address the problem.
• The second proposed solution is $10,000 of debt cancellation. This is a moderate cancellation that would alleviate some of the financial burden faced by low-income and middle-class citizens without creating vast government setbacks.
• The third proposed solution is full debt cancellation. While this would help many individuals, the financial setback for the nation would be too grave.
• As you can see, there are many options for addressing the student loan debt problem. However, the best solution is the cancellation of $10,000.

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Format

Alan H. Monroe, a Purdue University professor, used the psychology of persuasion to develop an outline for making speeches that will deliver results and wrote about it in his book Monroe’s Principles of Speech (1951). It is now known as Monroe’s Motivated Sequence . This is a well-used and time-proven method to organize persuasive speeches for maximum impact. It is most often used for speeches dealing with questions of policy. You can use it for various situations to create and arrange the components of any persuasive message. The five steps are explained below and should be followed explicitly and in order to have the greatest impact on the audience.

Step One: Attention

In this step, you must get the attention of the audience. The speaker brings attention to the importance of the topic as well as their own credibility and connection to the topic. This step of the sequence should be completed in your introduction like in other speeches you have delivered in class. Review chapter 9 for some commonly used attention-grabber strategies.

Step Two: Need

In this step, you will establish the need; you must define the problem and build a case for its importance. Later in this chapter, you will find that audiences seek logic in their arguments, so the speaker should address the underlying causes and the external effects of a problem. It is important to make the audience see the severity of the problem, and how it affects them, their families, and/or their community. The harm , or problem that needs changing, can be physical, financial, psychological, legal, emotional, educational, social, or a combination thereof. It must be supported by evidence. Ultimately, in this step, you outline and showcase that there is a true problem that needs the audience’s immediate attention. For example, it is not enough to say “pollution is a problem in Florida,” you must demonstrate it with evidence that showcases that pollution is a problem. For example, agricultural runoff is said to cause dangerous algal blooms on Florida’s beaches. You could show this to your audience with research reports, pictures, expert testimony, etc.

Step Three: Satisfaction

In this step, the need must be “satisfied” with a solution. As the speaker, this is when you present the solution and describe it, but you must also defend that it works and will address the causes and symptoms of the problem. Do you recall “need, plan, and practicality”? This step involves the plan and practicality elements. This is not the section where you provide specific steps for the audience to follow. Rather, this is the section where you describe “the business” of the solution. For example, you might want to change the voting age in the United States. You would not explain how to do it here; you would explain the plan – what the new law would be – and its practicality – how that new law satisfies the problem of people not voting. Satisfy the need!

Step Four: Visualization

In this step, your arguments must look to the future either positively or negatively, or both. If positive, the benefits of enacting or choosing your proposed solution are explained. If negative, the disadvantages of not doing anything to solve the problem are explained. The purpose of visualization is to motivate the audience by revealing future benefits or using possible fear appeals by showing future harms if no changes are enacted. Ultimately, the audience must visualize a world where your solution solves the problem. What does this new world look like? If you can help the audience picture their role in this new world, you should be able to get them to act. Describe a future where they fail to act, and the problem persists or is exacerbated. Or, help them visualize a world where their adherence to the steps you outlined in your speech remediates the problem.

Step Five: Action

In the final step of Monroe’s Motivated Sequence, we tell the audience exactly what needs to be done by them . Not a general “we should lower the voting age” statement, but rather, the exact steps for the people sitting in front of you to take. If you really want to move the audience to action, this step should be a full main point within the body of the speech and should outline exactly what you need them to do. It isn’t enough to say “now, go vote!” You need to tell them where to click, who to write, how much to donate, and how to share the information with others in their orbit. In the action step, the goal is to give specific steps for the audience to take, as soon as possible, to move toward solving the problem. So, while the satisfaction step explains the solution overall, the action section gives concrete ways to begin making the solution happen. The more straightforward and concrete you can make the action step, the better. People are more likely to act if they know how accessible the action can be. For example, if you want your audience to be vaccinated against the hepatitis B virus (HBV), you can give them directions to a clinic where vaccinations are offered and the hours of that location. Do not leave anything to chance. Tell them what to do. If you have effectively convinced them of the need/problem, you will get them to act, which is your overall goal.

Claim-to-Proof Pattern

A claim-to-proof pattern provides the audience with reasons to accept your speech proposition (Mudd & Sillars, 1962). State your claim (your thesis) and then prove your point with reasons (main points). The proposition is presented at the beginning of the speech, and in the preview, tells the audience how many reasons will be provided for the claim. Do not reveal too much information until you get to that point in your speech. We all hear stories on the news about someone killed by a handgun, but it is not every day that it affects us directly, or that we know someone who is affected by it. One student told a story of a cousin who was killed in a drive-by shooting, and he was not even a member of a gang.

Here is how the setup for this speech would look:

Thesis and Policy Claim: Handgun ownership in America continues to be a controversial subject, and I believe that private ownership of handguns should have limitations.

Preview: I will provide three reasons why handgun ownership should be limited.

When presenting the reasons for accepting the claim, it is important to consider the use of primacy-recency . If the audience is against your claim, put your most important argument first. For this example, the audience believes in no background checks for gun ownership. As a result, this is how the main points may be written to try and capture the audience who disagrees with your position. We want to get their attention quickly and hold it throughout the speech. You will also need to support these main points. Here is an example:

• The first reason background checks should be mandatory is that when firearms are too easily accessed by criminals, more gun violence occurs.
• A second reason why background checks should be mandatory is that they would lower firearm trafficking.

Moving forward, the speaker would select one or two other reasons to bring into the speech and support them with evidence. The decision on how many main points to have will depend on how much time you have for this speech, and how much research you can find on the topic. If this is a pattern your instructor allows, speak with them about sample outlines. This pattern can be used for fact, value, or policy speeches.

Methods of Persuasion

The three methods of persuasion were first identified by Aristotle, a Greek philosopher in the time of Ancient Greece. In his teachings and book, Rhetoric, he advised that a speaker could persuade their audience using three different methods: Ethos (persuasion through credibility), Pathos (persuasion through emotion), and Logos (persuasion through logic). In fact, he said these are the three methods of persuasion a speaker must rely on.

Figure 10.3: Aristotle 3

By definition, ethos is the influence of a speaker’s credibility, which includes character, competence, and charisma. Remember in earlier chapters when we learned about credibility? Well, it plays a role here, too. The more credible or believable you are, the stronger your ethos. If you can make an audience see you believe in what you say and have knowledge about what you say, they are more likely to believe you and, therefore, be more persuaded by you. If your arguments are made based on credibility and expertise, then you may be able to change someone’s mind or move them to action. Let’s look at some examples.

If you are considering joining the U.S. Air Force, do you think someone in a military uniform would be more persuasive than someone who was not in uniform? Do you think a firefighter in uniform could get you to make your house more fire-safe than someone who was not in uniform? Their uniform contributes to their ethos. Remember, credibility comes from audience perceptions – how they perceive you as the speaker. You may automatically know they understand fire safety without even opening their mouths to speak. If their arguments are as strong as the uniform, you may have already started putting your fire emergency kit together! Ultimately, we tend to believe in people in powerful positions. We often obey authority figures because that’s what we have been taught to do. In this case, it works to help us persuade an audience.

Advertising campaigns also use ethos well. Think about how many celebrities sell you products. Whose faces do you regularly see? Taylor Swift, Kerry Washington, Kylie Jenner, Jennifer Aniston? Do they pick better cosmetics than the average woman, or are they using their celebrity influence to persuade you to buy? If you walk into a store to purchase makeup and remember which ones are Kylie Jenner’s favorite makeup, are you more likely to purchase it? Pop culture has power, which is why you see so many celebrities selling products on social media. Now, Kylie may not want to join you in class for your speech (sorry!), so you will have to be creative with ethos and incorporate experts through your research and evidence. For example, you need to cite sources if you want people to get a flu shot, using a doctor’s opinion or a nurse’s opinion is critical to get people to make an appointment to get the shot. You might notice that even your doctor shares data from research when discussing your healthcare. Similarly, y ou have to be credible. You need to become an authority on your topic, show them the evidence, and persuade them using your character and charisma.

Finally, ethos also relates to ethics. The audience needs to trust you and your speech needs to be truthful. Most importantly, this means ethical persuasion occurs through ethical methods – you should not trick your audience into agreeing with you. It also means your own personal involvement is important and the topic should be something you are either personally connected to or passionate about. For example, if you ask the audience to adopt a puppy from a rescue, will your ethos be strong if you bought your puppy from a pet store or breeder? How about asking your audience to donate to a charity; have you supported them yourself? Will the audience want to donate if you haven’t ever donated? How will you prove your support? Think about your own role in the speech while you are also thinking about the evidence you provide.

The second appeal you should include in your speech is pathos , an emotional appeal . By definition, pathos appeals evoke strong feelings or emotions like anger, joy, desire, and love. The goal of pathos is to get people to feel something and, therefore, be moved to change their minds or to act. You want your arguments to arouse empathy, sympathy, and/or compassion. So, for persuasive speeches, you can use emotional visual aids or thoughtful stories to get the audience’s attention and hook them in. If you want someone to donate to a local women’s shelter organization to help the women further their education at the local community college, you might share a real story of a woman you met who stayed at the local shelter before earning her degree with the help of the organization. We see a lot of advertisement campaigns rely on this. They show injured military veterans to get you to donate to the Wounded Warriors Project , or they show you injured animals to get you to donate to animal shelters. Are you thinking about how your own topic is emotional yet? We hope so!

In addition, we all know that emotions are complex. So, you can’t just tell a sad story or yell out a bad word to shock them and think they will be persuaded. You must ensure the emotions you engage relate directly to the speech and the audience. Be aware that negative emotions can backfire, so make sure you understand the audience, so you will know what will work best. Don’t just yell at people that they need to brush their teeth for two minutes or show a picture of gross teeth; make them see the benefits of brushing for two minutes by showing beautiful teeth too.

Emotional appeals also need to be ethical and incorporated responsibly. Consider a persuasive speech on distracted driving. If your audience is high school or college students, they may be mature enough to see an emotional video or photo depicting the devastating consequences of distracted driving. If you’re teaching an elementary school class about car safety (e.g., keeping your seatbelt on, not throwing toys, etc.), it would be highly inappropriate to scare them into compliance by showing a devastating video of a car accident. As an ethical public speaker, it is your job to use emotional appeals responsibly.

One way to do this is to connect to the theory by Abraham Maslow, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, which states that our actions are motivated by basic (physiological and safety), psychological (belongingness, love, and esteem), and self-fulfillment needs (self-actualization). To persuade, we have to connect what we say to the audience’s real lives. Here is a visual of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Pyramid:

Figure 10.4: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 4

Notice the pyramid is largest at the base because our basic needs are the first that must be met. Ever been so hungry you can’t think of anything except when and what you will eat? (Hangry anyone?) Well, you can’t easily persuade people if they are only thinking about food. It doesn’t mean you need to bring snacks to your speech class on the day of your speech (albeit, this might be relevant to a food demonstration speech). Can you think about other ways pathos connects to this pyramid? How about safety and security needs, the second level on the hierarchy? Maybe your speech is about persuading people to purchase more car insurance. You might argue they need more insurance so they can feel safer on the road. Or maybe your family should put in a camera doorbell to make sure the home is safe. Are you seeing how we can use arguments that connect to emotions and needs simultaneously?

The third level in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, love and belongingness, is about the need to feel connected to others. This need level is related to the groups of people we spend time with like friends and family. This also relates to the feeling of being “left out” or isolated from others. If we can use arguments that connect us to other humans, emotionally or physically, we will appeal to more of the audience. If your topic is about becoming more involved in the church or temple, you might highlight the social groups one may join if they connect to the church or temple. If your topic is on trying to persuade people to do a walk for charity, you might showcase how doing the event with your friends and family becomes a way of raising money for the charity and carving out time with, or supporting, the people you love. For this need, your pathos will be focused on connection. You want your audience to feel like they belong in order for them to be persuaded. People are more likely to follow through on their commitments if their friends and family do it. We know that if our friends go to the party, we are more likely to go, so we don’t have FOMO (fear of missing out). The same is true for donating money; if your friends have donated to a charity, you might want to be “in” the group, so you would donate also.

Finally, we will end this pathos section with an example that connects Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to pathos. Maybe your speech is to convince people to remove the Instagram app from their phones, so they are less distracted from their life. You could argue staying away from social media means you won’t be threatened online (safety), you will spend more real-time with your friends (belongingness), and you will devote more time to writing your speech outlines (esteem and achievement). Therefore, you can use Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs as a roadmap for finding key needs that relate to your proposition which helps you incorporate emotional appeals.

The third and final appeal Aristotle described is logos , which, by definition, is the use of logical and organized arguments that stem from credible evidence supporting your proposition. When the arguments in your speech are based on logic, you are utilizing logos. You need experts in your corner to persuade; you need to provide true, raw evidence for someone to be convinced. You can’t just tell them something is good or bad for them, you have to show it through logic. You might like to buy that product, but how much does it cost? When you provide the dollar amount, you provide some logos for someone to decide if they can and want to purchase that product. How much should I donate to that charity? Provide a dollar amount reasonable for the given audience, and you will more likely persuade them. If you asked a room full of students to donate $500.00 to a charity, it isn’t logical. If you asked them to donate $10.00 instead of buying lattes for two days, you might actually persuade them.

So, it is obvious that sources are a part of logos, but so is your own honest involvement with the topics. If you want people to vote, you need to prove voting matters and make logical appeals to vote. We all know many people say, “my vote doesn’t count.” Your speech needs to logically prove that all votes count, and you need to showcase that you always vote in the local and national elections. In this example, we bring together your ethos and your pathos to sell us on the logos. All three appeals together help you make your case. Audiences are not only persuaded by experts, or by emotions, they want it all to make sense! Don’t make up a story to “make it fit”. Instead, find a real story that is truthful, emotional, and one your audience can relate to make your speech logical from beginning to end and, therefore, persuasive.

Reasoning and Fallacies in Your Speech

In this chapter, we have provided you with several important concepts in the persuasive speech process, including patterns of organization and methods of persuasion. Now, we want to make sure your speech content is clear and includes strong and appropriate arguments. You have done extensive research to support the claims you will make in your speech, but we want to help you ensure that your arguments aren’t flawed. Thus, we will now look at different forms of reasoning and fallacies (or errors) to avoid in your logic.

Thus far, you have read how Aristotle’s proofs can and should be used in a persuasive speech. But, you might wonder how that influences the approach you take in writing your speech outline. You already know your research needs to be credible, and one way to do this is through research. Let’s now put this all together by explaining how reasoning is used in a speech, as well as the fallacies, or errors in reasoning, that often occur when speechwriting.

You may have seen graduation requirements include the category of critical thinking, which is the ability to think about what information you are given and make sense of it to draw conclusions. Today, colleges, universities, and employers are seeking individuals who have these critical thinking skills. Critical thinking can include abilities like problem-solving or decision-making. How did you decide on which college to start your higher educational journey? Was it a decision based on finances, being close to home, or work? This decision involved critical thinking. Even if you had an emotional investment in this decision (pathos), you still needed to use logic, or logos, in your thought process. Reasoning is the process of constructing arguments in a logical way. The use of evidence, also known as data , is what we use to prove our claims. We have two basic and important approaches for how we come to believe something is true. These are known as induction and deduction. Let us explain.

Inductive Reasoning

You have probably used inductive reasoning in your life without even knowing it! Inductive reasoning is a type of reasoning in which examples or specific instances are used to provide strong evidence for (though not absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion (Garcia, 2022). In other words, you are led to a conclusion through your “proof”. With inductive reasoning, we are exposed to several different examples of a situation, and from those examples, we conclude a general truth because there is no theory to test. Think of it this way: you first make an observation, then, observe a pattern, and finally, develop a theory or general conclusion.

For instance, you visit your local grocery store daily to pick up necessary items. You notice that on Sunday, two weeks ago, all the clerks in the store were wearing football jerseys. Again, last Sunday, the clerks wore their football jerseys. Today, also a Sunday, they’re wearing them again. From just these three observations, you may conclude that on Sundays, these supermarket employees wear football jerseys to support their favorite teams. Can you conclude that this pattern holds indefinitely? Perhaps not; the phenomenon may only take place during football season. Hypotheses typically need much testing before confirmation. However, it seems likely that if you return next Sunday wearing a football jersey, you will fit right in.

In another example, imagine you ate an avocado, and soon afterward, the inside of your mouth swelled. Now imagine a few weeks later you ate another avocado and again the inside of your mouth swelled. The following month, you ate yet another avocado, and you had the same reaction as the last two times. You are aware that swelling on the inside of your mouth can be a sign of an allergy to avocados. Using induction, you conclude, more likely than not, you are allergic to avocados.

Data (evidence): After I ate an avocado, the inside of my mouth was swollen (1st time).

Data (evidence): After I ate an avocado, the inside of my mouth was swollen (2nd time).

Data (evidence): I ate an avocado, and the inside of my mouth was swollen (3rd time).

Additional Information: Swollen lips can be a sign of a food allergy.

Conclusion: Likely, I am allergic to avocados.

Inductive reasoning can never lead to absolute certainty. Instead, induction allows you to say, given the examples provided for support, the conclusion is most likely true. Because of the limitations of inductive reasoning, a conclusion will be more credible if multiple lines of reasoning are presented in its support. This is how inductive reasoning works. Now, let’s examine four common methods of inductive reasoning to help you think critically about your persuasive speech.

An analogy allows you to draw conclusions about an object or phenomenon based on similarities to something else (Garcia, 2022). Sometimes the easiest way to understand reasoning is to start with a simple analogy. An avid DIY enthusiast may love to paint -walls, furniture, and objects. To paint well, you need to think about what materials you will need, a knowledge of the specific steps to paint, and the knowledge of how to use an approach to painting so that your paint doesn’t run and your project comes out perfectly! Let’s examine how this example works as an analogy.

Analogies can be figurative or literal. A figurative analogy compares two things that share a common feature, but are still different in many ways. For example, we could say that painting is like baking; they both involve making sure that you have the correct supplies and follow a specific procedure. There are similarities in these features, but there are profound differences. However, a literal analogy is where the two things under comparison have sufficient or significant similarities to be compared fairly (Garcia, 2022). A literal analogy might compare different modalities at the school where your authors teach. If we claim that you should choose Florida SouthWestern State College’s face-to-face courses rather than enrolling in online courses , we could make literal comparisons of the courses offered, available student services, or the classroom atmosphere, for instance.

If we use the more literal analogy of where you choose to go to college, we are using an analogy of two similar “things,” and hopefully, this makes your analogy carry more weight. What this form of reasoning does is lead your audience to a conclusion.  When we address fallacies later in this chapter, you will see that comparing two things that are not similar enough could lead you might make an error, or what we call a false analogy fallacy.

Generalization

Another effective form of reasoning is through the use of generalizations. Generalization is a form of inductive reasoning that draws conclusions based on recurring patterns or repeated observations (Garcia, 2022), observing multiple examples and looking for commonalities in those examples to make a broad statement about them. For example, if I tried four different types of keto bread (the new craze), and found that each of them tasted like Styrofoam , I could generalize and say all keto bread is NOT tasty! Or, if in your college experience, you had two professors that you perceived as “bad professors,” you might take a big leap and say that all professors at your campus are “bad.” As you will see later in the discussion on fallacies, this type of reasoning can get us into trouble if we draw a conclusion without sufficient evidence, also known as a hasty generalization.  Have you ever drawn a conclusion about a person or group of people after only one or two experiences with them? Have you ever decided you disliked a pizza place because you didn’t like the pizza the first time you tried it? Sometimes, we even do this in our real lives.

Causal Reasoning

Causal reasoning is a form of inductive reasoning that seeks to make cause-effect connections (Garcia, 2022). We don’t typically give this a lot of thought. In the city where one of your authors lives, there are periodic street closures with cones up or signs to redirect drivers. The past several times this has happened, it has been because there was a community 5K run. It is easy to understand why each time I see cones I assume there is a 5K event. However, there could be a completely different cause that I didn’t even think about. The cones could be there due to a major accident or road work.

Reasoning from Sign

Reasoning from sign is a form of inductive reasoning in which conclusions are drawn about phenomena based on events that precede or co-exist with (but do not cause) a subsequent event (Garcia, 2022). In Southern California, a part of the country with some of the worst droughts, one may successfully predict when summer is coming. The lawn begins to die, and the beautiful gardens go limp. All of this occurs before the temperature reaches 113 degrees and before the calendar changes from spring to summer. Based on this observation, there are signs that summer has arrived.

Like many forms of reasoning, it is easy to confuse “reasoning from sign” with “causal reasoning.” Remember, that for this form of reasoning, we looked at an event that preceded another, or co-existed, not an event that occurred later. IF the weather turned to 113 degrees, and then the grass and flowers began to die, then it could be causal.

Deductive Reasoning

The second type of reasoning is known as deductive reasoning , or deduction, which is a conclusion based on the combination of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true (Garcia, 2022). Whereas with inductive reasoning, we were led to a conclusion, deductive reasoning starts with the overall statement and then identifies examples that support it to reach the conclusion.

Deductive reasoning is built on two statements whose logical relationship should lead to a third statement that is an unquestionably correct conclusion, as in the following example:

Grocery store employees wear football jerseys on Sundays.

Today is Sunday.

Grocery store employees will be wearing football jerseys today.

Suppose the first statement is true (Grocery store employees wear football jerseys on Sundays) and the second statement is true (Today is Sunday). In that case, the conclusion (Grocery store employees will be wearing football jerseys today) is reasonably expected. If a group must have a certain quality, and an individual is a member of that group, then the individual must have that quality.

Unlike inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning allows for certainty as long as certain rules are followed.

Fallacies in Reasoning

As you might recall from our discussion, we alluded to several fallacies. Fallacies are errors in reasoning logic or making a mistake when constructing an inductive or deductive argument. There are dozens of fallacies we could discuss here, but we will highlight those we find to be the most common. Our goal is to help you think through the process of writing your persuasive speech so that it is based on sound reasoning with no fallacies in your arguments.

Table 10.1 describes fifteen fallacies that can be avoided once you understand how to identify them.

Table 10.1: Fallacies

In this chapter, you can feel confident that you have learned what you need to know to complete an effective persuasive speech. We have defined persuasion, explained speech propositions and patterns, and offered strategies to persuade, including ways to use logic. We also helped you learn more about inductive and deductive reasoning, and all of the various ways these methods help you construct your speeches. Finally, we provided you with the most common fallacies that could trip you up if you aren’t careful. The goal is to be clear, logical, and persuasive! Motivate your audience. Hey, have you been persuaded to start your speech outline yet? We hope so!

Reflection Questions

• What is the difference between propositions of fact, value, and policy?
• How will you determine which pattern of organization to use for your persuasive speech?
• How might you use ethos, pathos, and logos effectively in your speech? How can you write these three proofs into your content?
• What form(s) of reasoning will you use in your speech? How can you ensure you are not using any fallacies?

Appeal to Novelty

Appeal to Tradition

Circular Reasoning

Claim-to-Proof

Critical Thinking

Emotional Appeal

False Analogy

False Cause

Figurative Analogy

Hasty Generalization

Literal Analogy

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

Non-Sequitur

Primacy-recency

Problem-Cause-Solution

Problem-Solution

Proposition

Question of Fact

Question of Policy

Question of Value

Red Herring

Slippery Slope

Sweeping Generalization

Two Wrongs Make a Right

Garcia, A. R. (2022). Inductive and Deductive Reasoning. Retrieved May 5, 2022, from https://englishcomposition.org/advanced-writing/inductive-and-deductive-reasoning/.

Monroe, A. H. (1949). Principles and types of speech . Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Mudd, C. S. & Sillars, M.O. (1962), Speech; content and communication. San Francisco, CA: Chandler Publishing Company.

Introduction to Public Speaking Copyright © by Jamie C. Votraw, M.A.; Katharine O'Connor, Ph.D.; and William F. Kelvin, Ph.D.. All Rights Reserved.

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Module 10: Persuasive Speaking

Types of persuasive speeches.

Persuasive speeches revolve around propositions that can be defended through the use of data and reasoning. Persuasive propositions respond to one of three types of questions: questions of fact, questions of value, and questions of policy. These questions can help the speaker determine what forms of argument and reasoning are necessary to support a specific purpose statement.

Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact. Everything we see is a perspective, not the truth. – Marcus Aurelius

Propositions of Fact

Questions of fact ask whether something “can potentially be verified as either true or false.” [1] These questions can seem very straightforward—something is or it is not—but in reality, the search for truth is a complex endeavor. Questions of fact rarely address simple issues such as, “is the sky blue?” They tend to deal with deep-seated controversies such as the existence of global warming, the cause of a major disaster, or someone’s guilt or innocence in a court of law. To answer these questions, a proposition of fact may focus on whether or not something exists. For example, in the U.S. there is a debate over the prevalence of racial profiling, the practice of law enforcement officers targeting people for investigation and arrest based on skin color. On one hand, the American Civil Liberties Union advances the proposition: “Racial profiling continues to be a prevalent and egregious form of discrimination in the United States.” [2] They verify this claim using data from government studies, crime statistics, and personal narratives. However, journalist Heather MacDonald proposes that studies confirming racial profiling are often based in “junk science”; in fact she says, “there’s no credible evidence that racial profiling exists.” [3] To substantiate her proposition, MacDonald relies on a study of traffic stops on the New Jersey turnpike along with personal narratives, policy analysis, and testimony from a criminologist. The claim that racial profiling exists is either true or false, but there is evidence for and against both propositions; therefore no consensus exists.

While some propositions of fact deal with the existence of a particular phenomenon or the accuracy of a theory, others focus on causality. For example, the U.S. government appointed a commission to evaluate the causes of the nation’s recent economic crisis. In their report the commission concluded by proposing that recklessness in the financial industry and failures on the part of government regulators caused the economic crisis. However, Congressman Paul Ryan has proposed that Medicare is to blame, and the chief investment officer at JP Morgan has proposed that U.S. housing policy is the root cause of the problem. [4] Each of these three propositions of fact is backed by its own set of historical and economic analysis.

“Interstate 10 looking east from Crenshaw Boulevard” by Downtowngal. CC-BY-SA .

Propositions of fact may also be used to make predictions concerning what will happen in the future. In the summer of 2011, ten miles of a popular Southern California freeway were closed for an entire weekend. Motorists, news outlets, and government officials called the closure “Carmageddon” because they proposed there would be an “inevitable and likely epic traffic tie-up.” [5] As a result of the predictions motorists stayed off the roads and made alternative plans that weekend resulting in much lighter traffic than expected. The proposition may have been true, but the prediction was not fulfilled because people were persuaded to stay off the freeway.

When advancing propositions of fact, you should focus on the evidence you can offer in support of your proposition. First, make sure that your speech contains sufficient evidence to back up your proposition. Next, take the time to interpret that evidence so that it makes sense to your audience. Last, emphasize the relationship between your evidence and your proposition as well as its relevance to the audience. [6]

Bitter experience has taught us how fundamental our values are and how great the mission they represent. – Jan Peter Balkenende

Propositions of Value

Persuasive speakers may also be called to address questions of value, which call for a proposition judging the (relative) worth of something. These propositions make an evaluative claim regarding morality, aesthetics, wisdom, or desirability. For example, some vegetarians propose that eating meat is immoral because of the way that animals are slaughtered. Vegetarians may base this claim in a philosophy of utilitarianism or animal rights. [7]

“McLarenF1” by Jagvar. Public domain.

Sometimes a proposition of value compares multiple options to determine which is best. Consumers call for these comparisons regularly to determine which products to buy. Car buyers may look to the most recent Car and Driver “10 Best Cars” list to determine their next purchase. In labeling a car one of the best on the market for a given year, Car and Driver says that the cars “don’t have to be the newest, and they don’t have to be expensive . . . They just have to meet our abundant needs while satisfying our every want.” [8]

Both the vegetarian and car examples offer standards for evaluating the proposition. Since propositions of value tend to be more subjective, speakers need to establish evaluation criteria by which the audience can judge and choose to align with their position. When advancing a proposition of value, offer a clear set of criteria, offer evidence for your evaluation, and apply the evidence to demonstrate that you have satisfied the evaluation criteria. [9]

An inner process stands in need of outward criteria. – Ludwig Wittgenstein

The 2005 disagreement between family members over removing a woman’s feeding tube after she had been in a coma for 15 years sparked a national debate over the value of life that highlights the importance of evaluation criteria. After years of failed medical treatments and rehabilitation attempts, Terri Schiavo’s husband petitioned the court to remove her feeding tube, initiating a legal battle with her parents that went all the way to the President of the United States. [10] Opposing sides in the debate both claimed to value life. To support his proposition that his wife had a right to die, Mr. Schaivo applied the evaluation criteria of quality of life and argued that she would not want to continue to live in a vegetative state. [11] Ms. Schiavo’s parents vehemently disagreed with his argument. They also claimed to value life and, with the support of religious groups, relied on the evaluation criteria of the sanctity of life to contend that she should be kept alive. [12] Both sides gained widespread support based on people’s agreement or disagreement with their evaluation criteria. Despite intervention on behalf of both state and federal legislators, the courts eventually ruled that Mr. Schiavo had the right to have his wife’s feeding tube removed and allow her to die.

A policy is a temporary creed liable to be changed, but while it holds good, it has got to be pursued with apostolic zeal. – Mahatma Gandhi

Propositions of Policy

Although the Schiavo case was rooted in a question of value, the debate resulted in a question of policy.  Questions of policy ask the speaker to advocate for an appropriate course of action. This form of persuasive speech is used every day in Congress to determine laws, but it is also used interpersonally to determine how we ought to behave. A proposition of policy may call for people to stop a particular behavior, or to start one. For example, some U.S. cities have started banning single use plastic bags in grocery stores. Long before official public policy on this issue was established, organizations such as The Surfrider Foundation and the Earth Resource Foundation advocated that people stop using these bags because of the damage plastic bags cause to marine life. In this case local governments and private organizations attempted to persuade people to stop engaging in a damaging behavior— shopping with single use plastic bags. However, the organizations also attempted to persuade people to start a new behavior—shopping with reusable bags.

When answering a question of policy, speakers will typically begin by describing the status quo. If you are arguing that a change must be made, you must first identify the problem inherent in the current behavior, and then demonstrate that the problem is significant enough to warrant immediate consideration. Once you have established that there is a problem which the audience ought to consider, you can then offer your proposal for a preferable course of action. [13] Then, it is up to you to demonstrate that your proposed policy will have more benefits than costs.

“USPS mailboxes” by EraserGirl. CC-BY .

In 2011 the U.S. Postal Service, the nation’s second-largest employer, told Congress it was facing an $8.3 billion budget shortfall. [14] To solve the problem, the Postal Service proposed that be permitted to end Saturday mail delivery and close some post offices. To make their argument, they first described the status quo saying that the demand for their service had dramatically decreased with the popularity of email and online bill-pay services. They explained that in preceding years they laid off workers and cut spending to help with the shortfall of revenue, but now another plan was necessary to avoid defaulting on their financial obligations. They offered evidence that people preferred ending Saturday mail to alternatives such as paying more for stamps or allocating more tax money to post offices. [15] Although they made a compelling case, the USPS still needed to overcome perceived disadvantages to their proposition such as the negative impact on businesses and rural towns. [16] [17] A full year later, the policy proposition passed the U.S. Senate but continues to await approval in the House. [18]

• Herrick, J.A. (2011). Argumentation: Understanding and Shaping Arguments . State College, PA: Strata Publishing. ↵
• American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). (2012). Racial Profiling. Retrieved from: http://www.aclu.org/racialjustice/racial-profiling ↵
• MacDonald, H. (2002, March 27). The racial profiling myth debunked. City Journal . Retrieved from: http://www.city-journal.org/html/eon_3_27_02hm.html ↵
• Angelides, P. (2011, June 28). The real causes of the economic crisis? They’re history. The Washington Post . Retrieved from: http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-real-causes-of-theeconomic-crisis-theyrehistory/2011/06/27/AG2nK4pH_story.html ↵
• Kandel, J. (2011, July 14). Los Angeles braces for weekend of “Carmageddon.” Reuters. Retrieved from: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/07/15/us-carmageddon-losangeles-idUSTRE76D2D720110715 ↵
• Herrick 2011 ↵
• DeGrazia, D. (2009). Moral vegetarianism from a very broad basis. Journal of Moral Philosophy , 6 . Retrieved from: https://philosophy.columbian.gwu.edu/sites/philosophy.columbian.gwu.edu/files/image/DeGraziaMoral.pdf   ↵
• Car and Driver (2011, December). 2012 10Best Cars. Car and Driver. Retrieved from: http://www.caranddriver.com/features/2012-10best-cars-feature ↵
• Cerminara, K. & Goodman, K. (2012). Schiavo Timeline. Retrieved from University of Miami Ethics Program: http://www.miami.edu/index.php/ethics/projects/schiavo/schiavo_timeline/ ↵
• Caplan, A. (2005). The time has come to let Terri Schiavo die: Politicians, courts must allow husband to make final decision. NBC News . Retrieved from: http://www.nbcnews.com/id/7231440/ns/health-health_care/t/time-has-come-let-terri-schiavo-die/ ↵
• Catholic Culture. (2005). The death of Terri Schiavo. Catholic World News . Retrieved from: https://www.catholicculture.org/news/features/index.cfm?recnum=37860 ↵
• Bingham, A. (2011, July 22). Postal Service pushes to end Saturday delivery. ABC News . Retrieved from: http://abcnewsradioonline.com/business-news/postal-service-pushes-to-end-saturday-delivery.html ↵
• Bingham 2011 ↵
• Stephenson, E. (2012, August 1). Senators blast House leaders over Postal Service default. Reuters . Retrieved from: http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/01/us-usa-postal-default-idUSBRE8701HO20120801 ↵
• Stephenson 2012 ↵
• Chapter 16 Types of Persuasive Speeches. Authored by : Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D. and Joshua Trey Barnett. Provided by : Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA and Indiana University, Bloomington, IN. Located at : http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html . Project : The Public Speaking Project. License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
• Interstate 10 looking east from Crenshaw Boulevard. Authored by : Downtowngal. Located at : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Interstate_10_looking_east_from_Crenshaw_Boulevard.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• USPS mailboxes. Authored by : EraserGirl. Located at : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USPS_mailboxes.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
• McLarenF1. Authored by : Jagvar. Located at : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MclarenF1.JPG . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

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Public Speaking Tips & Speech Topics

170 Good Policy Speech Topics

Jim Peterson has over 20 years experience on speech writing. He wrote over 300 free speech topic ideas and how-to guides for any kind of public speaking and speech writing assignments at My Speech Class.

A policy speech will essentially be a persuasive speech on some area of public policy . The subject can be an existing public policy, along with the speaker’s statements either supporting or opposing the policy. It may also be a proposed policy that the speaker believes is ineffective. Finally, the speech may concern a public problem and the speaker’s own ideas on how it could best be solved. This could be the speaker’s own ideas, or any combination of ideas already proposed by experts.

The speaker’s first challenge is to clearly describe the problem, and to persuade the audience to care about seeking a resolution . If the audience does not understand why the issue is important to society, and how it affects them personally, the rest of the speech is unlikely to be successful. The chosen problem may be a well-known controversial issue, or it may be a new concern that is unfamiliar to the audience. Regardless, the key to a successful speech is getting the audience to understand the problem, and to instill in them a desire to solve it.

The second part of the speech will present the policy in question . The speaker will share their opinion on the procedure, specifically whether or not they believe it will be effective. It is important to remember that this should be an educated opinion, not simply an emotional viewpoint. For example, a speaker should not argue an abortion topic from an emotional perspective, but rather with scientific facts and reliable researched data.

The speech’s topic should concern a problematic subject area that will elicit audience participation in solving it. It should also be a topic in which the speaker can become highly proficient, and there should be adequate research and data to back up any argument for or against the subject. At the end of the speech, the speaker’s goal may be to ask for passive agreement, or to call for the audience to take immediate action.

Please also see other topic ideas: list of persuasive topics , list of informative topics , and list of argumentative speech topics .

Writing research paper? See our list of 667 research paper topics .

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List of policy persuasive speech topics

• Adoptees Right-to-Know Law
• Affirmative Action
• Aggregate productivity
• Agricultural Policy
• Agricultural subsidies damage African nations
• Art Censorship
• Attendance Policies (School, Work, etc.)
• Ban car racing in mass pollution areas
• Break Periods
• Censorship of Music
• Change K- School Start Times
• Client Complaints Procedures
• Climate Change Policy
• Company policy on computer usage
• Controlling the transportation fairs
• Corruption and bribery run today’s economy
• Crime Prevention
• Defense budget priorities
• Defense budget reduction
• Do you think immigration laws need to be revised
• Domestic Violence Drug Policy
• Downsizing Schools/Classrooms
• Drug Testing In The Workplace
• Election reform
• Emergency Procedures
• Eminent Domain
• Environmental sciences
• Equal Employment Opportunities
• Expanding Oil and Gas Drilling
• Female Genital Mutilation
• Feminists should be terminated
• Financial Assistance for Students
• Flood victims’ reforms
• Foreign Policy
• Freedom of Expression / Freedom of Speech
• Gambling Age should be Lowered
• Global Warming Laws
• Harassment Precautions
• Health Care Policy
• Hygiene Standards
• Identification Protocols
• Immigration Policies
• Job Discrimination based on Hair Color/Style
• Language Policy
• Legalizing prostitution could avoid campus date rape incidents
• Legalizing the sale of human organs could help reduce the lack of organ donors
• Maintaining Discipline in the Campus
• Medical Examination
• Merit Pay for Teachers
• National Tobacco Settlement
• Obstruction of Justice Laws
• Our constitution should protect hate speech
• Our foreign agenda for the United Nations
• Parents should be held responsible for their children’s actions
• Parliamentary terms should be limited
• Pension reform
• Police Brutality
• Policy to avoid betting in sporting events
• Political organizations should be forbidden at campuses
• Pornography on the Internet
• Prisoners’ Reforms
• Privacy Codes
• Racism and Racial Slurs (1st Amendment)
• Recycling Rules
• Regulations on applying safety devices
• School physical education should be required
• School Uniforms
• Sensor policy on the use of internet
• Sex education should stay the responsibility of the parents
• Sexist images of women should be banned
• Should our prison system change
• should teacher be graded
• Skateboarding Policies
• Smokers should be treated as drug addicts
• Social Security Reform
• State and church should be combined
• Sticking to the scheduled work hours and no two hour lunches
• Taxes (i.e. “sin” taxes, car taxes, taxation of the super rich)
• Teachers and Tenure
• Technical Loopholes in Law
• Teen Dating Violence Laws Strengthened
• The morning-after pill should be freely prescribed in drugstores and pharmacies
• The Patriot Act
• There is nothing wrong with the contents of Ten Commandments
• Trying Children as Adults
• U.S. policy toward Cuba
• VA Demerit Point System (driving)
• Videotaping In The Workplace
• Visitation Rules at your University/College
• Voter registration and absentee ballot
• Voting System (electoral college)
• Welfare mothers should be treated as working mothers
• Welfare reform
• What should be the minimum age for the voter?
• Whistleblower Procedure
• Why meals in school should be free
• Why restaurants who fail the health inspection the first time should be closed down
• Women in the Military
• Work Hours Plans
• Good governance means openness, transparency and accountability.
• Involvement of animals in research should be minimized, there are alternatives.
• Warrantless search and seizure must be allowed in the war on drugs and narcotics.
• We must ensure greater protection for marine environment biodiversity trough international protocols.
• There is nothing wrong with Double Dipping in collecting retirement pensions and company paycheck at the same time.
• We should spend 0.7 % of our gross national income on projects of international development.
• Guarantee free personal care for people with highest needs and serious diseases.
• Why invading North Korea is a no go plan.
• Tax exemptions on church property should be used for charitable and community work only.
• Terrorists should be tried in military tribunals and not in the regular criminal justice system.
• Why cities should insist on having their own local economic development policy.
• It is an illusion that green jobs are contributing to the economy and environment.
• Regulations to encourage healthy weight conditions among our youth.
• Stop clothing and textiles sweatshops.
• Support scholarship programs for street kids and at-risk kids.
• Eliminate weapons-usable materials from stores and shops.
• Administrative divisions ought to provide meaningful opportunities for disabled persons to access.
• The Kyoto Protocol does not effectively address carbon emission.
• Sanctions on Myanmar are largely ineffective.
• Western politicians should do more for the people on the African continent.
• Provide everywhere in our town access for people with disabilities. Parking, sanitary and access to a building.
• All voters should be required to show a photo identification or a fingerprint.
• Limit the President’s power to impose political sanctions on foreign nations. Using the blocking of assets method and trade restrictions often are effective.
• Everyone should have free access to some health care services.
• Urban shelters could help the homeless survive.
• We should spend more money to improve highways and railroads.
• We should not allow that the poor sell their organs for money.
• Housing, hiring and education must be equal for all.
• The government should spend more money to explore space solar systems.
• Corporation should have an accountability policy.
• It should be more difficult to get a divorce.
• Garbage recycling should be required.
• Sex-segregating classes improve achievements.
• Media producers should not prosecute students for downloading music education.
• K-12 students should learn a foreign language.
• Improving the economic infrastructure is the key to Middle East stability.
• Why smokers deserve rights.
• Stop child slave labor.
• Prohibit airliners to charge extra carry-on luggage fees.
• Offer appropriate and affordable housing to all citizens, just like companies do with expat housing for their overseas workers.
• Initiate a self-regulatory policy for the media.
• Nationalize oil spilling companies and seize all oil resources.
• Form a military alliance with East Asian countries.
• Enact laws to fight corruption in Africa to ensure economic growth and prosperity.
• Abolish diplomatic immunity for criminal activities.
• Guarantee fundamental rights for victims of cybercrime.
• Discontinue medically drugs that are unnecessary.
• Shut down all domestic internet traffic for state security reasons.
• Punish severely pupils taking drugs.
• Promote world literacy by adopting a school in development nations.
• Implement bullying policies.
• Ensure that the foods served are nutritionally balanced.
• Enact harsh penalties against public offensive behavior.
• Provide safe alternatives to regular vehicular travel.
• No-fly lists of airliners do have a lack of accuracy.
• We need an international forestry agency.
• Water is a hot issue in the Middle East.
• An international certification system for diamond exploration prevents conflict-diamonds trade.
• Russia is a growing threat.
• Cut import taxes for tourists in towns that need more income revenues.
• Impose a second home ownership tax.
• The government should cooperate with China.
• Police and community should join efforts to prevent crime.
• Employers should have the right to know a co-worker has HIV.
• Why China’s one-child policy violated basic human rights.
• The European Union have a federal president.
• The use of drugs in sport should be legalized.
• Parents should have to obtain a license for having children.
• Recycling should be the cornerstone of the environment policy course of action.
• Should we outlaw modifying genes or should we allow biotech interventions?
• Every nation should accommodate asylum seekers who are entering the country with a legal visa?

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9 Speaking to Persuade/Advocacy

Gillian, Bonanno, M.A.

Learning Objectives

• Define persuasion and advocacy.
• Ethos , Pathos , and Logos
• Choose a topic.
• Conduct research.
• Structuring an outline.
• Use visual aids.
• Prepare for feedback.

Defining Persuasion and Advocacy

Persuasion is “the act of influencing someone to do something or to change their mind” (“Persuasion”). In a persuasive presentation, the goal is to provide the audience with information that will convince them to see your side on an issue.  According to Cialdini and Goldstein, “the six basic principles that govern how one person might influence another are: liking , reciprocation , consistency , scarcity , social validation , and authority ” (41).  First, an individual may be more likely to be persuaded by someone that they “ like ” which ranges from knowing someone personally to having an “instant bond” with a stranger (Cialdini and Goldstein, 41).  Reciprocation refers to the notion that there is an exchange of some kind, such as in business negotiations (Cialdini and Goldstein, 45).  Consistency encourages individuals to persuade others by recognizing “a fundamental human tendency to be and to appear consistent with one’s actions, statements, and beliefs” (Cialdini and Goldstein, 45).  Scarcity principle focuses on the idea that “items and opportunities that are in short supply or unavailable tend to be more desirable than those… that are plentiful and more accessible” (Cialdini and Goldstein, 46).  For example, think about a product that you may be interested in purchasing.  If the product is limited in production or availability, it might persuade you to be more interested in purchasing the item.  Social validation refers to the idea that individuals “look to others for cues,” and this will influence their decisions (Cialdini and Goldstein, 48).  Finally, authority suggests that individuals are persuaded by those they consider to have an expertise in a particular area (Cialdini and Goldstein, 49).

These six principles provide some examples of how an individual (or an audience) can be persuaded. There are certainly other methods and note that not all these principles need to be included in a persuasive presentation for it to be effective.

In addition to the principles listed above, you may consider choosing a basis, or claim,  for formulating an argument.  This chapter will address three types of persuasive speech claims: questions of fact, value, and policy.  In general:

• “ Claims of fact are quantifiable statements that focus on the accuracy, correctness or validity of such statements and can be verified using some objective evidence.
• Claims of value are qualitative statements that focus on judgments made about the environment and invite comparisons.
• Claims of policy are statements that focus on actions that should be taken to change the status quo” ( Types of Claims ).

Let’s explore each claim above in more detail, starting  with a discussion of statements of fact.  A claim of fact is “something quantifiable has existed, does exist, or will exist” (Types of Claims). This type of claim focuses on data that may not necessarily be refutable based on quantitative data used to present your side of an issue.  There are many examples of speeches that use statements of fact as a basis for an argument.  The claim may stem from something that you do every day (such as brushing your teeth or taking a walk), but you may want to persuade the audience that they should also do these things if they are not already doing so.  In these examples, you may state something specific and able to be verified such as, ‘Brushing your teeth teeth twice a day can decrease tooth decay’ or ‘Walking every day decreases risk of cardiovascular disease’ and then support these claims with clear statistics, charts, or data that will help them to embrace your claim.  (Please note that the claims above are simply examples, and data is not included to support or refute these claims in this chapter.)

You may also wish to consider a speech that addresses a question of value.  A claim of value “asserts qualitative judgments along a good-to-bad continuum relating to persons, events, and things in one’s environment” (Types of Claims).  This type of speech may include more qualitative data, such as open ended responses.  The claim of value may include words such as good, bad, better, best, or worse.  These are often considered to be subjective terms (one person may have a different idea of good/bad/better/best/worst) and it is the responsibility of the presenter to define these subjective terms and also provide evidence to support the claims.  Some examples might include ‘Car X is better than Car Y’ or ‘Coffee is the best morning beverage.’  (Note that these are simply examples, and support for these claims are not provided in this chapter.)

In a claim of policy , the word “should” helps to formulate your argument.  Using the word “should”  is important as it “implies that some action ought to be taken, but not that it must or will be taken” ( Types of Claims ).

You may use this type of claim to address issues of politics, policies, health, environment, safety, or other larger global concerns .  Your speech will describe the reason why you feel that a policy or issue should (or should not) be addressed in a specific way based on your research. In this type of speech, you are asking your audience to support your solution to an issue that you have presented to them.  Examples may include “Policy A should be changed to include (mention what should be included)” or “College students should have access to (mention what students should have access to).”  Presenters for this type of speech should clearly explain the policy and then share with the audience why it should be changed (or upheld) by using their research to support the position.

Advocacy , on the other hand, is “the act or process of supporting a cause or proposal” (“Advocacy”).  An advocate feels strongly about an issue and will work diligently to encourage others to support their cause.  An advocate should be able to speak about an issue in a concise, professional, and persuasive manner.   Enthusiasm for a cause will shine through if the advocate thoroughly embraces the role.  This can be accomplished by conducting research, exploring opposing views on the issue at hand, preparing effective visual aids, and practicing the delivery of the content before a presentation or event.  An advocate takes on many forms.  A lawyer advocates for clients.  A patient may advocate for rights to care.  A student may advocate for a higher grade from a professor.

An advocate can be described as:

1) One who pleads the cause of another, specifically one who pleads the cause of another before a tribunal or judicial court.

2) One who defends or maintains a cause or proposal.

3) One who supports or promotes the interest of a cause or group (“Advocate”)

Types of Advocacy

There are many types of advocacy. This chapter will address self- advocacy, peer advocacy, and citizen advocacy.

Self- advocacy addresses the need for an individual to advocate for oneself.  Examples might include negotiating with a boss for a raise, or perhaps used when applying for college or health insurance. According to an advocacy website, Advocacy: inclusion, empowerment and human rights, “The goal of self-advocacy is for people to decide what they want and to carry out plans to help them get it …. the individual self-assesses a situation or problem and then speaks for his or her own needs.”

Individuals who share experiences, values, or positions will join together in a group advocacy setting.  This type of advocacy includes sharing ideas with one another and speaking collectively about issues. The groups “aim to influence public opinion, policy and service provision” and are often part of committees with varying “size, influence, and motive.” (Advocacy: inclusion, empowerment and human rights.)  Examples might include groups interested in protecting the environment, rights to adequate health care, addressing issues of diversity, equity, and/or inclusion, or working together to save an endangered species.

A citizen advocate involves local community members who work together to have a platform to address issues that affect their lives.  An example might include community school boards or participation in town hall meetings. (Advocacy: inclusion, empowerment and human rights)

As you can see, persuasion and advocacy have been defined in different ways.  As the presenter, you have the opportunity to persuade your audience, and can use these definitions to help you decide what type of advocate or persuasive presentation that you would like to develop.

Before we begin developing our speeches, let us take a moment to address Aristotle’s appeals for persuasion: ethos, logos, and pathos.

Ethos, Logos, and Pathos

What is ethos ?

Ethos relates to the credibility of the speaker  (Ethos).  An audience member should feel as if they can trust the information provided by the speaker. When listening to a presenter, ask yourself:

• Does the speaker seem to have knowledge about the topic?
• Do you feel that this person is qualified to share information with you?

Using ethos as a tool for persuasion

As a presenter, you can let your audience experience your credibility in a few different ways. Using more than one of the methods below can certainly increase your credibility.

• Tell the audience directly.  For example, you may wish to convince your audience to drink tea for breakfast.  You can share something like, “My experience stems from a lifelong enjoyment of tea.  I drink one cup each day and have tried a variety of types, so I feel that I can share with you some of my favorite types to try based on my personal experience.”
• Share quality research.  For example, you may have visited the BMCC databases to gather information about types of tea, benefits of drinking tea, and information about individuals who drink tea.  You may have also done some individual research (surveying classmates about their morning beverage preferences). These types of data will help to support your claim and help the audience to agree with your perspective.
• Acknowledge the perspective(s) of others.  Perhaps your audience is full of individuals who prefer coffee, water, or nothing to drink in the morning,  Acknowledging these different perspectives lets the audience know that while you may be knowledgeable about your chosen topic, you also understand that others may have a different (and also valued) opinion that differs from your own.

What is pathos ?

Pathos relates to the emotional appeal given to the audience by the presenter.  This includes the language and presentation style of the presenter.  It ties to your organizational style, your choice of words, and your overall stage presence.  Some examples are: using vivid language to paint images in the minds of audience members, providing testimony (personal stories or stories relayed to you by others), and/or using figurative language such as metaphor, similes, and personification.  A presenter can also use various vocal tools such as vocal variety and repetition to appeal to the audience on an emotional level. (Pathos. 2020)

Using pathos as a tool for persuasion

When you are describing drinking tea to your classmates, you can use words or phrases to encourage them to try it.  You can tell them about its delicious aroma. You can also tell a story – perhaps having the audience members picture themselves getting up in the morning, making a nice cup of tea, holding it in their hands, and taking a moment enjoying the tea as they get ready to embrace the day!

An emotional appeal can also be used to gain sympathy from your audience.  Think about commercials or advertisements that you may have seen, perhaps ones that encourage you to donate to an organization or to adopt an animal.  These types of advertisements appeal to your emotions through their use of images, music, and/or detailed stories.

What is logos ?

Logos ties to both reasoning and logic of an argument. Speakers appeal to logos “by presenting factual, objective information that serves as reasons to support the argument; presenting a sufficient amount of relevant examples to support a proposition; deriving conclusions from known information; and using credible supporting material like expert testimony, definitions, statistics, and literal or historical analogies.” (Logos, 2020)

Using logos as a tool for persuasion

Logos relates to using the data collected to form a reasonable argument for why your audience members should agree with the speaker.  After you have collected your data, you must now create an argument that will potentially persuade your audience.  If we continue with our persuasive speech directed at drinking tea in the morning, you might find an article that relates to college students who drink tea.  Using valid reasoning is key!  Take some time to ensure that your argument is logical and well-organized.  A logical, well-structured argument will help to persuade your audience.

Now that we have learned some foundational concepts related to persuasion, let us move to a discussion of choosing a topic for a persuasive speech.

Choosing a Persuasive Speech Topic

Now that we have explored some definitions of persuasion and advocacy, let us move on to choosing the topic that you will be presenting to your audience.  When picking a topic, you may consider choosing something that you are passionate about and/or something that you want to know more about.  Take a moment to consider topics that we would like to share with your audience.  Individuals have different experiences and perspectives on varying issues.  Sharing your perspective on a topic is what can make your presentation unique and exciting to the audience.

When looking for a topic, cause, or issue to discuss, consider asking yourself the following questions (also located in worksheets):

•         What is important to me?
•         What excites me?
•         What makes me happy?
•         What makes me angry?
•         Do I have a good idea that others might embrace?
•         Is there an issue that ‘speaks’ to me?
•         Can I make a change?
•         Have I experienced something inspiring or life-changing that I can share with others?

Here are some additional ideas to consider when choosing a topic:

• Choose a topic that is (relatively) new to you!  You may consider taking some time to explore a topic that you do not yet know about and/or one that you want to learn more about.  Perhaps you recently read, saw, or experienced something that you would like to research and share with your audience.  Maybe you began your process with not knowing which side you support on an issue, and you take some time to research both sides of an issue and determine which you support.  You can use this presentation as an opportunity to learn more about that topic and can then talk about this process in your presentation.  Using the research that you have gathered will help you as you explain to the audience why they should share your perspective on the item at hand.
• Choose a topic that you already know about and feel strongly that your audience should share your views on this topic.  For this type of presentation, you will be taking your knowledge and expanding it.  You can search for items that support your side and also take some time to review the data provided by those that support the opposite side of the issue.

Conducting Research

Research can be fun!  In an earlier chapter you read about how to conduct research using the college library. Please reread that chapter again closely to help you conduct research to get data to build your persuasive speech. If you are able to accumulate data from a variety of sources, this will help you to persuade your audience members to share your passion about the topic at hand.

Some things may be easier than others to convince your audience to agree upon and others may be more challenging.  If, for example, you want to encourage your classmates to exercise, it is important to consider the current exercise levels of your classmates.  Ultimately, you would like each audience member to feel involved in your presentation, so you may wish to provide various suggestions.

For example, some members of the class may not currently exercise for a variety of reasons, so you may suggest that they try to incorporate 5-10 minutes of light activity 1-3 times a week.  For classmates who are exercising once a week or more, you may encourage them to increase their exercise by one extra day per week.  Finally, a group that may be currently exercising daily, you may wish to suggest adding a new type of exercise to their routine.

Structuring an Outline

There are many ways to structure a speech, and this chapter will offer one suggestion that may work well as you work to advocate for a cause or attempt to persuade your audience.  A blank sample outline is located in the worksheet section of this chapter/book that can be used when you are preparing your speech.  The length/time allotted for delivery of your presentation will be provided to you by your instructor, but let’s consider the speech in three general parts: Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. Between each section of the presentation, one should consider including a transition to let the audience member know that the speaker is moving on to the next segment of the presentation.  Transitional devices are “words or phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another…. transitional devices link sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas” (Purdue Writing Lab Transitional Devices // Purdue Writing Lab).

If the speech requirement is 4-6 minutes long, below is one way to consider timing the different sections of the presentation:  One minute for the introduction, one minute for each main point, and one minute for the conclusion.  This will be a roughly 5 minute speech, with a minute to spare for transitions.  Here is a diagram to provide a visual guide to the elements of your outline.  Start at the introduction and make your way clockwise around the image:

In the body of your presentation, you will formulate your argument in WHAT, WHY and HOW.  Each area is equally important, so let’s take a moment to discuss the details of each part.

Let’s start with WHAT.

What does the listener need to know about your topic? If you are passionate about a topic or cause, remember that your audience may have a range of knowledge about the topic.  Setting a strong foundation in the beginning of your speech will help the audience members to understand your speech.  Remember, the amount of information that you include here will depend on the amount of time allotted by the instructor.  You may wish to clarify by letting your audience members know that there are many things that you can tell them about the topic, but your presentation is going to focus on (insert your focus here).

Now, WHY does your audience need to feel the same way you do about this topic?

The first section of your presentation has provided the foundation for your listeners.  The second section will be your opportunity to tell your audience why they should share your perspective on the issue.  Provide them with details, including facts, images, stories, and/or statistics that will help them embrace your side of the issue.

Finally, HOW can the audience members act upon what you have told them?

Overall, for an individual to make a change, the person will need information and a way to use the information.  If the audience is provided with the tools needed to make a change, they may be more likely to make the change. Sounds simple, right?  It certainly can be, if you have conducted sound research and organized it in a way to reach your listeners. Refer to the sample speech outlines in the appendices of this book.

Visual Aids

Think about something that you saw recently that caught your eye.  It may have been an advertisement on the subway, something you saw on a social media page, or anything else that you remember.  Visual aids can certainly assist in connecting with your audience.

When you are designing your presentation, you may wish to consider including images, video clips, charts, and other visual media types to capture the attention of your audience.  Think about what you want the audience to gather from your image.  Where will you include the image?  What will you say about this image?  You may wish to discuss these images with your classmates and/or your professor to gain some feedback on the chosen visual aid(s).  This will help you in selecting items that work most effectively in your presentation.

Here are two of the prototypes:

Above, the author thought it might be visually appealing to put the pieces of the speech outline in this arrowed path format.  The feedback received was not positive, mostly “what is that?” “I don’t get it” and the like.

The point is: while all of your ideas and images may not be the final versions that you choose, it can be fun to experiment, and asking for feedback may help you to fine tune your work, or even spark an idea or image that you had not previously considered.  The author truly enjoyed designing these graphs, and at the end of the day chose the one that the author felt would be best suited for the chapter based on the feedback received.

Preparing for Feedback

Turning to feedback, now that you have completed your speech, it will now be time to interact with your audience.  Some audience members may respond to your presentation with questions.  If you have inspired your audience, they may want additional information, or may even want to talk further about your presentation.  Others may disagree with your speech and respond to your presentation with hostility or frustration.  Remember, you are in charge of addressing the audience members, and, as such, you must formulate a strategy for handling feedback. Your instructor may also set some guidelines for expectations for question and answer segment(s) for your presentation.

Here are some questions that you may wish to ask yourself as you prepare to address feedback:

• Have I addressed the other side of the issue discussed in my speech?
• What will I do if someone gets angry with me?
• What questions might my audience have for me?
• Have I used quality sources to prove my points?
• Can I explain any charts or graphs that I have presented?
• If the audience members want to know more about my cause, what information will I provide to them?

Ready to Begin: Inspiration

Now it is your turn to persuade your audience.  Be the advocate!  Share your knowledge and passion with your classmates.  Use this chapter, the worksheets, and your own talents to help you with the process of writing, researching, outlining, and presenting.  Take your time with each step and enjoy the process.  Below are some voices of advocates discussing what they do and why they do it.  Perhaps these stories will inspire you as you work!  Survey data collected via surveymonkey.com, and some names have been changed.

Melissa S., Cystic Fibrosis Advocate

What does the term “advocate” mean to you?

Sharing your story to educate and inspire in order to further your cause.

How did you become an advocate?

I was asked to formally advocate for an organization, but in truth, I advocate for myself or my family or issues I believe in.

What do you advocate for?

I advocate for the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation on behalf of families who endure life with Cystic Fibrosis (CF). I advocate for policy change that betters the lives of CF families with issues surrounding disability and bettering research methods, as well as funding (from various agencies) so that research can be conducted in the most efficient, expedited, and safe fashion.

Why is it so important to advocate for your cause?

It is important because I have Cystic Fibrosis and have also lost a brother to Cystic Fibrosis. I wasn’t to ensure that my family doesn’t suffer another loss that no family should suffer.

What advice can you give others who are looking to become an advocate?

It can seem intimidating to stand in front of a group of people to advocate for your cause, but the truth is that your story, and why you’re advocating is THE most important part of it. Don’t get bogged down or scared about memorizing facts and figures – the best thing someone can take away from talking with you is the visceral reaction they get from hearing how your issue affects you and your family.

In a few sentences, describe yourself.

I am (a) decidedly optimistic person who lives with a debilitating progressive disease (Cystic Fibrosis). While having CF occupies a lot of time in my daily life, I try not to let it define me and live my life with joy and purpose. I love my family and friends and will do anything in my power to protect them. I also love standing up for things I believe in. Becoming an advocate for CF has lifted my voice and given me the confidence to speak out. Now, I can’t stop! (updated 7/2021).

D. D., Registered Nurse

Advocate means to support or fight for a cause.

I became an advocate since working within the medical field and because I am a mother.

I am an advocate for my son. He is an alcoholic and drug addict. I am involved with helping addicts and families that are in need of support and guidance. I am a volunteer for (a) local YMCA to help bring a face to the disease of addiction. I am also an advocate for people with Cystic Fibrosis. I am a Registered Nurse who has been caring for patients and families affected by this disease. I am there for medical, emotional and fundraising support.

It is important for me to put a face to the families that are suffering from these diseases. To make it more personal.

Be strong and vigilant. Really believe in what you are supporting. Passion goes a long way.

I am a mom and an RN. I am a recent widow with 2 children who have had their struggles but are now doing well. I work full time as a Nurse Manager at NY hospital.

Is there anything else that you would like to share? A story, perhaps, about a time that you felt very strongly about something, and what you did to advocate for that person or cause?

Every day I feel like I advocate for addiction. Many people do not realize addiction affects everyone. I constantly have to remind people that I meet of this. It is difficult at times because most people have the most horrible things to say about addicts. I try to educate people about addiction as much as I can.

C. B., Breast Cancer Survivor

Supporter of something you are passionate about and believe in.

I became an advocate of breast cancer through my own experience.

I am an advocate for breast cancer! This disease generally affects women but in some cases men are also affected! It is a silent beast that can creep up on you at any time in your life… it has no discrimination and age is not a factor.

It is simple… it is the difference between life and death! So many women are so afraid they choose to ignore the signs.  It is so important to find your strength, face your fears and deal with this head on!!!

Speak your truth! Tell your story! You have no idea how much it can help someone else who is facing the very same fears!

I have always believed where there is a will, there is a way! I never take no for an answer when it is something really important that matters! It is one of my earliest mottos I have followed through life. I have always been determined to find my strength and face my fears even on my darkest day!!!

I feel it is so important to help women face their fears when it comes to breast cancer. It is for this reason so many do not examine themselves and/or go for mammograms. I can tell you first hand every moment counts!!!! I did one whole year of chemotherapy, lost my beautiful hair but fared through! Again I was LUCKY!! I can only hope that this will help others facing breast cancer!

Review Questions

• Define Ethos, Pathos and Logos.
• What are three types of persuasive claims listed in this chapter?
• What are the three types of advocacy listed in this chapter?

Works Cited

“Advocacy.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/advocacy . Accessed 2 Jul. 2021.

“Advocacy: Inclusion, Empowerment and Human Rights.” Social Care Institute for Excellence (SCIE), Updated Oct. 2020, www.scie.org.uk/care-act-2014/advocacy-services/commissioning-independent-advocacy/inclusion-empowerment-human-rights/types.asp .

“Advocate.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/advocate .

Bonanno, G. “What does it mean to be an advocate?” Survey . November 2016.

Cialdini, Robert B., and Noah J. Goldstein. “The Science and Practice of Persuasion.” The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly , vol. 43, no. 2, Elsevier Inc, 2002.

“Persuasion – Dictionary Definition.” Vocabulary.com , www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/persuasion .

Purdue Writing Lab. “Transitional Devices // Purdue Writing Lab.” Purdue Writing Lab , 2018, owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/transitions_and_transitional_devices/transitional_devices.html#:~:text=Transitional%20devices%20are%20words%20or,jumps%20or%20breaks%20between%20ideas .

Marteni, Jim. “Types of Claims.” Social Science LibreTexts . Los Angeles Valley College, 3 Dec. 2020, https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/67166.

Start Here, Speak Anywhere! Copyright © by Gillian, Bonanno, M.A. is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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11.1: Organizing Policy Speeches

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Learning Objectives

• Understand three common organizational patterns for persuasive speeches.
• Explain the parts of a Problem-Cause-Solution speech.
• Explain the parts of a Cause-Effect-Solution speech.
• Explain the steps utilized in Monroe’s Motivated Sequence.

Organizing Persuasive Speeches

Steven Lilley – Engaged – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Previously in this text we discussed general guidelines for organizing speeches. In this section, we are going to look at three organizational patterns ideally suited for persuasive speeches: Problem-Cause-Solution, Cause-Effect-Solution, and Monroe’s Motivated Sequence.

Problem-Cause-Solution

One format for organizing a persuasive speech is the Problem-Cause-Solution format. In this organizational pattern, you would provide evidence to show that a problem exists, explain what is causing the problem to persist, and then propose a solution with additional evidence or reasoning to justify the course of action. One main point should address the problem, one main point should address the cause of the problem, and one main point should address the solution. In the first main point addressing the  problem , you should clearly state what the problem is, make the significance of the problem clear by providing evidence and statistics, and finally document the harms of the problem. You should be able to explain to your audience the ultimate impact of the problem. In the second main point addressing the  cause , you should explain what is causing the problem, why it continues to exist, and why it hasn't already been solved. Note that you are explaining the  cause  of the problem not what the problem  causes . This section of your speech should get to the root of the problem. Finally, in the third main point addressing the  solution , you should state the solution, explain how the solution works, and explain the practicality and desirability of the problem. The solution should clearly connect to both the problem and the causes of the problem that you discussed earlier in your speech. 

Specific Purpose: To persuade my classroom peers that our campus should adopt a zero-tolerance policy for hate speech.

Main Points:

• Demonstrate that there is distrust among different groups on campus that has led to unnecessary confrontations and violence.
• Show that the confrontations and violence are a result of hate speech that occurred prior to the events.
• Explain how instituting a campus-wide zero-tolerance policy against hate speech could stop the unnecessary confrontations and violence.

In this speech, you want to persuade people to support a new campus-wide policy calling for zero-tolerance of hate speech. Once you have shown the problem, you then explain to your audience that the cause of the unnecessary confrontations and violence is prior incidents of hate speech. Lastly, you argue that a campus-wide zero-tolerance policy could help prevent future unnecessary confrontations and violence. Again, this method of organizing a speech is as simple as its name: problem-cause-solution.

Cause-Effect Solution

An alternate version of the Problem-Cause-Solution pattern is the  Cause-Effect-Solution  pattern. In this organizational pattern, you would start by explaining what is causing the problem, then describe the negative effects of the problem, and finally, propose a solution with additional evidence or reasoning to justify the course of action. Generally, one main point should address the cause of the problem, one main point should address the effects of the problem, and one main point should address the solution. The first main point should address the  cause  of the problem. Just as before, the main point addressing the cause should explain what is causing the problem, why it continues to exist, and why it hasn't already been solved. Remember that you are explaining the  cause  of the problem not what the problem  causes . In the second main point addressing the  effect  of the problem, you should describe the negative outcomes of the problem, elaborate on what will happen if the problem continues to exist, and describe the ultimate impact of the problem. You should be trying to describe the worst-case-scenario for your audience here and show them what will ultimately happen if this problem continues to go unsolved. There are several ways to use causes and effects to structure a speech. You could have more than one cause that leads to the same effect or a single cause that leads to multiple effects. Finally, in the third main point addressing the  solution , you should state the solution, explain how the solution works, and explain the practicality and desirability of the problem. The solution should clearly connect to the causes of the problem and solve for the effects of the problem that you discussed earlier in your speech.

• Demonstrate hate speech led to confrontations and violence on campus.
• Explore the impact of the confrontations and violence on the student body.

In this speech, you want to persuade people to support a new campus-wide policy calling for zero-tolerance of hate speech. Once you have explained that the cause of the problem is the hate speech used by various groups on campus, you then demonstrate to your audience the effects of the unnecessary confrontations and violence. Lastly, you argue that a campus-wide zero-tolerance policy could help prevent future unnecessary confrontations and violence. 

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

One of the most commonly cited and discussed organizational patterns for persuasive speeches is Alan H. Monroe’s motivated sequence. The purpose of Monroe’s Motivated Sequence is to help speakers “sequence supporting materials and motivational appeals to form a useful organizational pattern for speeches as a whole” (German et al., 2010).

While Monroe’s Motivated Sequence is commonly discussed in most public speaking textbooks, we do want to provide one minor caution. Thus far, almost no research has been conducted that has demonstrated that Monroe’s motivated sequence is any more persuasive than other structural patterns. In the only study conducted experimentally examining Monroe’s motivated sequence, the researchers did not find the method more persuasive, but did note that audience members found the pattern more organized than other methods (Micciche, Pryor, & Butler, 2000). We wanted to add this sidenote because we don’t want you to think that Monroe’s motivated sequence is a kind of magic persuasive bullet; the research simply doesn’t support this notion. At the same time, research does support that organized messages are perceived as more persuasive as a whole, so using Monroe’s motivated sequence to think through one’s persuasive argument could still be very beneficial.

Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) “Monroe’s Motivated Sequence” lists the basic steps of Monroe’s motivated sequence and the subsequent reaction a speaker desires from his or her audience.

Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

The first step in Monroe’s motivated sequence is the attention step , in which a speaker attempts to get the audience’s attention. To gain an audience’s attention, we recommend that you think through three specific parts of the attention step. First, you need to have a strong attention-getting device. As previously discussed in Chapter 9 “Introductions Matter: How to Begin a Speech Effectively”, a strong attention getter at the beginning of your speech is very important. Second, you need to make sure you introduce your topic clearly. If your audience doesn’t know what your topic is quickly, they are more likely to stop listening. Lastly, you need to explain to your audience why they should care about your topic.

In the need step of Monroe’s motivated sequence, the speaker establishes that there is a specific need or problem. In Monroe’s conceptualization of need, he talks about four specific parts of the need: statement, illustration, ramification, and pointing. First, a speaker needs to give a clear and concise statement of the problem. This part of a speech should be crystal clear for an audience. Second, the speaker needs to provide one or more examples to illustrate the need. The illustration is an attempt to make the problem concrete for the audience. Next, a speaker needs to provide some kind of evidence (e.g., statistics, examples, testimony) that shows the ramifications or consequences of the problem. Lastly, a speaker needs to point to the audience and show exactly how the problem relates to them personally.

Satisfaction

In the third step of Monroe’s motivated sequence, the satisfaction step , the speaker sets out to satisfy the need or solve the problem. Within this step, Monroe (1935) proposed a five-step plan for satisfying a need:

• Explanation
• Theoretical demonstration
• Reference to practical experience
• Meeting objections

First, you need to clearly state the attitude, value, belief, or action you want your audience to accept. The purpose of this statement is to clearly tell your audience what your ultimate goal is.

Second, you want to make sure that you clearly explain to your audience why they should accept the attitude, value, belief, or action you proposed. Just telling your audience they should do something isn’t strong enough to actually get them to change. Instead, you really need to provide a solid argument for why they should accept your proposed solution.

Third, you need to show how the solution you have proposed meets the need or problem. Monroe calls this link between your solution and the need a theoretical demonstration because you cannot prove that your solution will work. Instead, you theorize based on research and good judgment that your solution will meet the need or solve the problem.

Fourth, to help with this theoretical demonstration, you need to reference practical experience, which should include examples demonstrating that your proposal has worked elsewhere. Research, statistics, and expert testimony are all great ways of referencing practical experience.

Lastly, Monroe recommends that a speaker respond to possible objections. As a persuasive speaker, one of your jobs is to think through your speech and see what counterarguments could be made against your speech and then rebut those arguments within your speech. When you offer rebuttals for arguments against your speech, it shows your audience that you’ve done your homework and educated yourself about multiple sides of the issue.

Visualization

The next step of Monroe’s motivated sequence is the visualization step , in which you ask the audience to visualize a future where the need has been met or the problem solved. In essence, the visualization stage is where a speaker can show the audience why accepting a specific attitude, value, belief, or behavior can positively affect the future. When helping people to picture the future, the more concrete your visualization is, the easier it will be for your audience to see the possible future and be persuaded by it. You also need to make sure that you clearly show how accepting your solution will directly benefit your audience.

According to Monroe, visualization can be conducted in one of three ways: positive, negative, or contrast (Monroe, 1935). The positive method of visualization is where a speaker shows how adopting a proposal leads to a better future (e.g., recycle, and we’ll have a cleaner and safer planet). Conversely, the negative method of visualization is where a speaker shows how not adopting the proposal will lead to a worse future (e.g., don’t recycle, and our world will become polluted and uninhabitable). Monroe also acknowledged that visualization can include a combination of both positive and negative visualization. In essence, you show your audience both possible outcomes and have them decide which one they would rather have.

The final step in Monroe’s motivated sequence is the action step , in which a speaker asks an audience to approve the speaker’s proposal. For understanding purposes, we break action into two distinct parts: audience action and approval. Audience action refers to direct physical behaviors a speaker wants from an audience (e.g., flossing their teeth twice a day, signing a petition, wearing seat belts). Approval, on the other hand, involves an audience’s consent or agreement with a speaker’s proposed attitude, value, or belief.

When preparing an action step, it is important to make sure that the action, whether audience action or approval, is realistic for your audience. Asking your peers in a college classroom to donate one thousand dollars to charity isn’t realistic. Asking your peers to donate one dollar is considerably more realistic. In a persuasive speech based on Monroe’s motivated sequence, the action step will end with the speech’s concluding device. As discussed elsewhere in this text, you need to make sure that you conclude in a vivid way so that the speech ends on a high point and the audience has a sense of energy as well as a sense of closure.

Now that we’ve walked through Monroe’s motivated sequence, let’s look at how you could use Monroe’s motivated sequence to outline a persuasive speech:

Specific Purpose: To persuade my classroom peers that the United States should have stronger laws governing the use of for-profit medical experiments.

• Attention: Want to make nine thousand dollars for just three weeks of work lying around and not doing much? Then be a human guinea pig. Admittedly, you’ll have to have a tube down your throat most of those three weeks, but you’ll earn three thousand dollars a week.
• Need: Every day many uneducated and lower socioeconomic-status citizens are preyed on by medical and pharmaceutical companies for use in for-profit medical and drug experiments. Do you want one of your family members to fall prey to this evil scheme?
• Satisfaction: The United States should have stronger laws governing the use of for-profit medical experiments to ensure that uneducated and lower-socioeconomic-status citizens are protected.
• Visualization: If we enact tougher experiment oversight, we can ensure that medical and pharmaceutical research is conducted in a way that adheres to basic values of American decency. If we do not enact tougher experiment oversight, we could find ourselves in a world where the lines between research subject, guinea pig, and patient become increasingly blurred.
• Action: In order to prevent the atrocities associated with for-profit medical and pharmaceutical experiments, please sign this petition asking the US Department of Health and Human Services to pass stricter regulations on this preying industry that is out of control.

This example shows how you can take a basic speech topic and use Monroe’s motivated sequence to clearly and easily outline your speech efficiently and effectively.

Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) “Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Checklist” also contains a simple checklist to help you make sure you hit all the important components of Monroe’s motivated sequence.

Table \(\PageIndex{2}\)  Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Checklist

Key Takeaways

• There are three common patterns that persuaders can utilize to help organize their speeches effectively: Problem-Cause-Solution, Cause-Effect-Solution, and Monroe’s Motivated Sequence. Each of these patterns can effectively help a speaker think through his or her thoughts and organize them in a manner that will be more likely to persuade an audience.
• The Problem-Cause-Solution proposal is a three-pronged speech pattern. The speaker starts by explaining the problem the speaker sees. The speaker then explains what he or she sees as the underlying causes of the problem. Lastly, the speaker proposes a solution to the problem that corrects the underlying causes.
• The Cause-Effect-Solution proposal is a three-pronged speech pattern. The speaker starts by explaining what is causing the problem the speaker sees. The speaker then explains what they see as the ultimate impact of the problem. Lastly, the speaker proposes a solution to the problem that corrects the underlying causes.
• Alan H. Monroe’s (1935) motivated sequence is a commonly used speech format that is used by many people to effectively organize persuasive messages. The pattern consists of five basic stages: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action. In the first stage, a speaker gets an audience’s attention. In the second stage, the speaker shows an audience that a need exists. In the third stage, the speaker shows how they persuasive proposal could satisfy the need. The fourth stage shows how the future could be if the persuasive proposal is or is not adopted. Lastly, the speaker urges the audience to take some kind of action to help enact the speaker’s persuasive proposal.
• Create a speech using Monroe’s motivated sequence to persuade people to recycle.
• Create a speech using the problem-cause-solution method for a problem you see on your college or university campus.

German, K. M., Gronbeck, B. E., Ehninger, D., & Monroe, A. H. (2010). Principles of public speaking (17th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p. 236.

Micciche, T., Pryor, B., & Butler, J. (2000). A test of Monroe’s motivated sequence for its effects on ratings of message organization and attitude change. Psychological Reports, 86 , 1135–1138.

Monroe, A. H. (1935). Principles and types of speech . Chicago, IL: Scott Foresman.

Persuasive Speeches — Types, Topics, and Examples

What is a persuasive speech?

In a persuasive speech, the speaker aims to convince the audience to accept a particular perspective on a person, place, object, idea, etc. The speaker strives to cause the audience to accept the point of view presented in the speech.

The success of a persuasive speech often relies on the speaker’s use of ethos, pathos, and logos.

Ethos is the speaker’s credibility. Audiences are more likely to accept an argument if they find the speaker trustworthy. To establish credibility during a persuasive speech, speakers can do the following:

Use familiar language.

Select examples that connect to the specific audience.

Utilize credible and well-known sources.

Logically structure the speech in an audience-friendly way.

Use appropriate eye contact, volume, pacing, and inflection.

Pathos appeals to the audience’s emotions. Speakers who create an emotional bond with their audience are typically more convincing. Tapping into the audience’s emotions can be accomplished through the following:

Select evidence that can elicit an emotional response.

Use emotionally-charged words. (The city has a problem … vs. The city has a disease …)

Incorporate analogies and metaphors that connect to a specific emotion to draw a parallel between the reference and topic.

Utilize vivid imagery and sensory words, allowing the audience to visualize the information.

Employ an appropriate tone, inflection, and pace to reflect the emotion.

Logos appeals to the audience’s logic by offering supporting evidence. Speakers can improve their logical appeal in the following ways:

Use comprehensive evidence the audience can understand.

Confirm the evidence logically supports the argument’s claims and stems from credible sources.

Ensure that evidence is specific and avoid any vague or questionable information.

Types of persuasive speeches

The three main types of persuasive speeches are factual, value, and policy.

A factual persuasive speech focuses solely on factual information to prove the existence or absence of something through substantial proof. This is the only type of persuasive speech that exclusively uses objective information rather than subjective. As such, the argument does not rely on the speaker’s interpretation of the information. Essentially, a factual persuasive speech includes historical controversy, a question of current existence, or a prediction:

Historical controversy concerns whether an event happened or whether an object actually existed.

Questions of current existence involve the knowledge that something is currently happening.

Predictions incorporate the analysis of patterns to convince the audience that an event will happen again.

A value persuasive speech concerns the morality of a certain topic. Speakers incorporate facts within these speeches; however, the speaker’s interpretation of those facts creates the argument. These speeches are highly subjective, so the argument cannot be proven to be absolutely true or false.

A policy persuasive speech centers around the speaker’s support or rejection of a public policy, rule, or law. Much like a value speech, speakers provide evidence supporting their viewpoint; however, they provide subjective conclusions based on the facts they provide.

How to write a persuasive speech

Incorporate the following steps when writing a persuasive speech:

Step 1 – Identify the type of persuasive speech (factual, value, or policy) that will help accomplish the goal of the presentation.

Step 2 – Select a good persuasive speech topic to accomplish the goal and choose a position .

Step 3 – Locate credible and reliable sources and identify evidence in support of the topic/position. Revisit Step 2 if there is a lack of relevant resources.

Step 4 – Identify the audience and understand their baseline attitude about the topic.

Step 5 – When constructing an introduction , keep the following questions in mind:

What’s the topic of the speech?

What’s the occasion?

Who’s the audience?

What’s the purpose of the speech?

Step 6 – Utilize the evidence within the previously identified sources to construct the body of the speech. Keeping the audience in mind, determine which pieces of evidence can best help develop the argument. Discuss each point in detail, allowing the audience to understand how the facts support the perspective.

Step 7 – Addressing counterarguments can help speakers build their credibility, as it highlights their breadth of knowledge.

Step 8 – Conclude the speech with an overview of the central purpose and how the main ideas identified in the body support the overall argument.

Persuasive speech outline

One of the best ways to prepare a great persuasive speech is by using an outline. When structuring an outline, include an introduction, body, and conclusion:

Introduction

Attention Grabbers

Ask a question that allows the audience to respond in a non-verbal way; ask a rhetorical question that makes the audience think of the topic without requiring a response.

Incorporate a well-known quote that introduces the topic. Using the words of a celebrated individual gives credibility and authority to the information in the speech.

Offer a startling statement or information about the topic, typically done using data or statistics.

Provide a brief anecdote or story that relates to the topic.

Starting a speech with a humorous statement often makes the audience more comfortable with the speaker.

Provide information on how the selected topic may impact the audience .

Include any background information pertinent to the topic that the audience needs to know to understand the speech in its entirety.

Give the thesis statement in connection to the main topic and identify the main ideas that will help accomplish the central purpose.

Identify evidence

Summarize its meaning

Explain how it helps prove the support/main claim

Evidence 3 (Continue as needed)

Support 3 (Continue as needed)

Restate thesis

Review main supports

Concluding statement

Give the audience a call to action to do something specific.

Identify the overall importan ce of the topic and position.

Persuasive speech topics

The following table identifies some common or interesting persuasive speech topics for high school and college students:

Persuasive speech examples

The following list identifies some of history’s most famous persuasive speeches:

John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address: “Ask Not What Your Country Can Do for You”

Lyndon B. Johnson: “We Shall Overcome”

Marc Antony: “Friends, Romans, Countrymen…” in William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar

Ronald Reagan: “Tear Down this Wall”

Sojourner Truth: “Ain’t I a Woman?”

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Persuasive policy speech topics | example & outline, rachel r.n..

• September 8, 2022
• Essay Topics and Ideas

In a policy speech, the speaker sets out to persuade the audience on a particular issue. This could be something like convincing them to vote for a certain candidate or changing their opinion on current law. No matter what the topic is, the key to giving a successful policy speech is to be persuasive. In this article, we’ll give you some tips on how to choose persuasive policy speech topics that will help you get your message across loud and clear!

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List of Thirty Persuasive Policy Speech Topics

1. E-cigarettes should be banned in public places. 2. The drinking age should be lowered to 18. 3. Marijuana should be legalized nationwide. 4. School uniforms should be mandatory in all schools. 5. All students should be required to take a foreign language in high school. 6. The voting age should be lowered to 16. 7. The use of cell phones should be banned while driving. 8. The death penalty should be abolished. 9. Gun control laws should be stricter. 10. Animal testing should be banned. 11. Plastic bags should be banned from grocery stores. 12. The use of fossil fuels should be phased out. 13. Fracking should be banned. 14. GMOs should be labeled. 15. Factory farming should be banned. 16. Palm oil should be boycotted. 17. The use of single-use plastics should be reduced. 18. Recycling should be mandatory. 19. Public transportation should be free or heavily subsidized. 20. Car emissions standards should be stricter. 21. Nuclear power plants should be shut down. 22. Solar and wind energy should be incentivized and subsidized. 23.. Coal-fired power plants should be phased out.. 24.. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) should be banned.. 25.. lead pipesShould be replaced in all homes and public buildings.. 26.. All schoolsShould have gardens and teach students about gardening and healthy eating.. 27.. ThereShould be a nationwide ban on the use of pesticides.. 28.. The militaryShould focus on renewable energy sources.. 29ThereShould be a tax on carbon emissions.. 30The governmentShould invest in clean energy research and development

List of Thirty Persuasive Policy Speech Ideas

If you’re looking for some good persuasive policy speech ideas, then you’ve come to the right place. Below is a list of thirty persuasive policy speech topics that you can use as inspiration for your next presentation.

1. The need for stricter gun control laws in the United States 2. The benefits of free trade agreements 3. The importance of investing in renewable energy 4. The dangers of climate change and what we can do to prevent it 5. The merits of universal healthcare 6. The negative effects of tax cuts for the wealthy 7. The positives of implementing a nationwide minimum wage 8. Why we need to invest more in infrastructure projects 9. How to reduce the number of people living in poverty 10. Why immigration reform is necessary 11. What can be done to reduce crime rates 12. How to improve educational outcomes in underperforming schools 13. The benefits of early childhood education 14. Why environmental protection is important 15. What can be done to combat homelessness 16. How to reduce the number of teen pregnancies 17. Why drug legalization is a good idea 18. How to decrease the number of traffic fatalities 19. What measures can be taken to improveroad safety 20. Why public transportation is important 21. How to reduce air pollution 22. What can be done to conserve water 23. Why recycling is important 24. How to reduce the amount of waste produced 25. Why energy efficiency is important 26. What can be done to combat climate change 27. How to preserve endangered species 28. The importance of environmental education 29. What can be done to reduce littering and improve waste management 30. Why it is important to protect our natural resources

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Persuasive speeches on questions of value.

• Introduction
• Questions to Ask Yourself
• Creating a Persuasive Speech on Questions of Value

1. Introduction

There are three types of persuasive speeches:

• Persuasive speeches of fact
• Persuasive speeches of value
• Persuasive speeches of policy

In this unit, our focus will be on persuasive speeches of value. Here is where we argue something is right or wrong, moral or immoral, or better or worse than another thing. The appeals are made on value judgements .

Examples include speeches that attempt to persuade the audience that it is wrong to drive over the speed limit, that Pepsi is better than Coke, that it is better to live together before marriage, that swimming is the best form of exercise, or that bikes are the best form of transportation to get around town.

Persuasive speeches on questions of value imply certain actions, but they are not a call to action.

term to know Policy A principle of behavior, conduct, etc., thought to be desirable or necessary, especially as formally expressed by a government or other authoritative body.

2. Questions to Ask Yourself

When analyzing any type of persuasive speech, you should ask yourself the following questions:

• What is the speaker's goal?
• What are the main points?
• How does the structure of the speech help the speaker to make the argument?
• How does the speaker try to make you care?
• How does the speaker use evidence?
• What kinds of sources does the speaker use?

3. Creating a Persuasive Speech on Questions of Value

How should you go about creating such a speech?

1. Introduce appeals, information, and criteria.

2. Provide evidence that makes your audience arrive at your conclusion. (Your claims should agree with the current beliefs and feeling of your audience.)

3. Use facts to justify your claims.

4. Consider your audience's feeling and values.

summary Persuasive speeches on questions of value imply certain actions, but they are not a call to action. Persuasive speeches of value depend on a judgement that something is right or wrong, moral or immoral, or better or worse than another thing. The speech should include an appeal, criteria for judgement, and facts that support the appeal using the judgement criteria. When analyzing any type of persuasive speech, there are several questions you should ask yourself regarding the speaker's goal, main points, speech structure, and use of evidence.

Source: Boundless. "Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value." Boundless Communications Boundless, 23 Feb. 2017. Retrieved 22 May. 2017 from https://www.boundless.com/communications/textbooks/boundless-communications-textbook/persuasive-speaking-14/types-of-persuasive-speeches-73/persuasive-speeches-on-questions-of-value-288-1083/

A principle of behavior, conduct, etc., thought to be desirable or necessary, especially as formally expressed by a government or other authoritative body.

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