quantitative research title about agriculture and its contribution

Quantitative assessment for sustainable agriculture

Framework will help nations gauge progress and pitfalls.

For the first time, scientists have assembled a quantitative assessment for agriculture sustainability for countries around the world based not only on environmental impacts, but economic and social impacts, as well. The Sustainable Agriculture Matrix, or SAM, provides independent and transparent measurements of agricultural sustainability at a national level that can help governments and organizations to evaluate progress, encourage accountability, identify priorities for improvement, and inform national policies and actions towards sustainable agriculture around the globe.

"This Sustainable Agriculture Matrix is an effort to promote accountability for nations' commitments towards sustainable agriculture," said project leader Xin Zhang of the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science. "We hope this can serve as a tool to bring the stakeholders together. Agriculture production is not only about farmers. It's about everyone."

Agriculture is fundamental to sustainability. However, the definition of "sustainable agriculture" and the ability to measure it have been difficult to quantify. The project to create the Sustainable Agriculture Matrix began in 2017 by bringing together about 30 stakeholders and experts from around the world -- including Oxfam, the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, the International Food Policy Research Institute, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, as well as academic partners such as University College London, University of Queensland, University of California Berkeley and the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science -- to assess the impacts of agricultural production on a national scale around a diverse range of environmental, economic, and social dimensions of sustainability.

"Sustainable agriculture is a very complex concept and it means different things for different people, making it hard to assess," said Zhang. " To make the commitment to sustainable agriculture accountable, independent and transparent measurements of countries' sustainability are essential."

"The assessment of sustainability is not easy, especially given the dearth of social data across all countries. We hope with this matrix we can demonstrate the value of greater investment in social data to assess how agriculture affects and contributes to social equity as a critical dimension of agricultural sustainability," said co-author Kimberly Pfeifer from Oxfam America.

Globally, agriculture faces the challenge of increasing productivity to meet growing population demands for food, materials, and energy. Nations are tasked with developing a sustainable agriculture sector that is not only productive, but also nutritionally adequate, compatible with ecosystem health and biodiversity, and resilient. As a result, sustainable agriculture has been included as part of the Sustainable Development Goals ratified by all member countries of the United Nations in 2015.

The first edition of the matrix is composed of 18 indicators that measure the direct impacts of agricultural production on the environment and economy, and broader impacts on the whole society, recognizing that agriculture is deeply interconnected with other sectors. An emphasis in this first edition is on identifying trade-offs between performance indicators, such as between improved economic performance and reduced environmental performance, and also some less common examples of trade-offs such as increased agricultural subsidies did not necessarily improve human nutrition.

"There haven't been efforts that provide a comprehensive look at all three dimensions of agricultural impacts for countries around the world," said co-author Eric Davidson from the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science. "The underlying concept of this matrix is a recognition that the agricultural system may have multiple impacts on sustainability."

For instance, while agricultural production may provide vibrant economic benefits to the farming community and national economic development, it might also add stress on the environment in terms of water use, nutrient pollution, and biodiversity loss. How and if the national agricultural sector provides a healthy and sufficient diet for its own population may influence social equality.

"The comprehensive assessment for the sustainability of a country's agriculture provides a great opportunity to reveal the full range of potential tradeoffs, as well as synergies, among multiple sustainability goals, and allows informed choices in view of local or policy priorities," said co-author Amy Heyman of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.

"While most countries have demonstrated strong tradeoffs between environmental and economic dimensions of agricultural sustainability, there are countries, such as the United States, showing some promising signs of achieving synergies between enhancing agricultural productivity and reducing environmental impacts," said co-author Guolin Yao from the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science.

"I want to broaden the view of agricultural management. It's not only about what's going on farm but what's going on in the market, during policy debates, and on our plates. Day-to-day consumer choices have a fundamental impact on what's being produced, as well as where and how it's being produced," Zhang said.

"The green revolution made it possible for humanity to feed huge population growth in past decades, but this came at the price of large impacts to the environment and a neglect of human nutrition and overall well-being," said co-author Kyle Davis of the University of Delaware. "Our SAM approach provides a promising step beyond the shortcomings of the green revolution while trying to build on the past successes of global agriculture."

As a next step, the SAM consortium, a project funded by the Belmont Forum, is launching with six pilot countries and regions, including USA, Austria, Brazil, Turkey, South Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa. The consortium will use the first edition of SAM indicators as a starting point to engage conversations and coordination among stakeholders, and to co-develop country cases to identify strategies towards sustainable agriculture.

"Having the assessment is an important first step toward agricultural sustainability, especially in marginal production areas in Africa," said SAM consortium partner Tafadzwa Mabhaudhi from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

"This is a useful starting point for not only evaluating progress, but also identifying priorities for improvement, and informing national policies and actions towards sustainable agriculture," said co-author and SAM consortium partner Christian Folberth from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis.

Funding for the Sustainable Agriculture Matrix effort was provided by National Science Foundation and the National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center. More information about the SAM project is available here: http://research.al.umces.edu/sam/

Agriculture and Food
Food and Agriculture
Sustainability
Environmental Policy
Environmental Awareness
Land Management
World Development
Environmental Policies
Sustainable agriculture
Agroecology
Sustainable land management
Environmental impact assessment
Water resources
Agriculture
Slash and burn
Environmental effects of fishing

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Materials provided by University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

Xin Zhang, Guolin Yao, Srishti Vishwakarma, Carole Dalin, Adam M. Komarek, David R. Kanter, Kyle Frankel Davis, Kimberly Pfeifer, Jing Zhao, Tan Zou, Paolo D'Odorico, Christian Folberth, Fernando Galeana Rodriguez, Jessica Fanzo, Lorenzo Rosa, William Dennison, Mark Musumba, Amy Heyman, Eric A. Davidson. Quantitative assessment of agricultural sustainability reveals divergent priorities among nations . One Earth , 2021; 4 (9): 1262 DOI: 10.1016/j.oneear.2021.08.015

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Article Contents

1. introduction, 2. analytical framework, 3. literature search, 5. discussion, 6. conclusion, acknowledgement.

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Research impact assessment in agriculture—A review of approaches and impact areas

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Peter Weißhuhn, Katharina Helming, Johanna Ferretti, Research impact assessment in agriculture—A review of approaches and impact areas, Research Evaluation , Volume 27, Issue 1, January 2018, Pages 36–42, https://doi.org/10.1093/reseval/rvx034

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Research has a role to play in society’s endeavour for sustainable development. This is particularly true for agricultural research, since agriculture is at the nexus between numerous sustainable development goals. Yet, generally accepted methods for linking research outcomes to sustainability impacts are missing. We conducted a review of scientific literature to analyse how impacts of agricultural research were assessed and what types of impacts were covered. A total of 171 papers published between 2008 and 2016 were reviewed. Our analytical framework covered three categories: (1) the assessment level of research (policy, programme, organization, project, technology, or other); (2) the type of assessment method (conceptual, qualitative, or quantitative); and (3) the impact areas (economic, social, environmental, or sustainability). The analysis revealed that most papers (56%) addressed economic impacts, such as cost-effectiveness of research funding or macroeconomic effects. In total, 42% analysed social impacts, like food security or aspects of equity. Very few papers (2%) examined environmental impacts, such as climate effects or ecosystem change. Only one paper considered all three sustainability dimensions. We found a majority of papers assessing research impacts at the level of technologies, particularly for economic impacts. There was a tendency of preferring quantitative methods for economic impacts, and qualitative methods for social impacts. The most striking finding was the ‘blind eye’ towards environmental and sustainability implications in research impact assessments. Efforts have to be made to close this gap and to develop integrated research assessment approaches, such as those available for policy impact assessments.

Research has multiple impacts on society. In the light of the international discourse on grand societal challenges and sustainable development, the debate is reinforced about the role of research on economic growth, societal well-being, and environmental integrity ( 1 ). Research impact assessment (RIA) is a key instrument to exploring this role ( 2 ).

A number of countries have begun using RIA to base decisions for allocation of funding on it, and to justify the value of investments in research to taxpayers ( 3 ). The so-called scientometric assessments with a focus on bibliometric and exploitable results such as patents are the main basis for current RIA practices ( 4–6 ). However, neither academic values of science, based on the assumption of ‘knowledge as progress’, nor market values frameworks (‘profit as progress’) seem adequate for achieving and assessing broader public values ( 7 ). Those approaches do not explicitly acknowledge the contribution of research to solving societal challenges, although they are sufficient to measure scientific excellence ( 8 ) or academic impact.

RIA may however represent a vital element for designing socially responsible research processes with orientation towards responsibility for a sustainable development ( 9 , 10 ). In the past, RIAs occurred to focus on output indicators and on links between science and productivity while hardly exploring the wider societal impacts of science ( 11 ). RIA should entail the consideration of intended and non-intended, positive and negative, and long- and short-term impacts of research ( 12 ). Indeed, there has been a broadening of impact assessments to include, for example, cultural and social returns to society ( 13 ). RIA is conceptually and methodologically not yet sufficiently equipped to capture wider societal implications, though ( 14 ). This is due to the specific challenges associated with RIA, including inter alia unknown time lags between research processes and their impacts ( 15–17 ). Independent from their orientation, RIAs are likely to influence research policies for years to come ( 18 ).

Research on RIA and its potential to cover wider societal impacts has examined assessment methods and approaches in specific fields of research, and in specific research organizations. The European Science Foundation ( 19 ) and Guthrie et al. ( 20 ) provided overviews of a range of methods usable in assessment exercises. They discuss generic methods (e.g. economic analyses, surveys, and case studies) with view to their selection for RIAs. Methods need to fit the objectives of the assessment and the characteristics of the disciplines examined. Econometric methods consider the rate of return over investment ( 21 ), indicators for ‘productive interactions’ between the stakeholders try to capture the social impact of research ( 22 ), and case study-based approaches map the ‘public values’ of research programmes ( 8 , 23 ). No approach is generally favourable over another, while challenges exist in understanding which impact areas are relevant in what contexts. Penfield et al. ( 6 ) looked at the different methods and frameworks employed in assessment approaches worldwide, with a focus on the UK Research Excellence Framework. They argue that there is a need for RIA approaches based on types of impact rather than research discipline. They point to the need for tools and systems to assist in RIAs and highlight different types of information needed along the output-outcome-impact-chain to provide for a comprehensive assessment. In the field of public health research, a minority of RIAs exhibit a wider scope on impacts, and these studies highlight the relevance of case studies ( 24 ). However, case studies often rely on principal investigator interviews and/or peer review, not taking into account the views of end users. Evaluation practices in environment-related research organizations tend to focus on research uptake and management processes, but partially show a broader scope and longer-term outcomes. Establishing attribution of environmental research to different types of impacts was identified to be a key challenge ( 25 ). Other authors tested impact frameworks or impact patterns in disciplinary public research organizations. For example, Gaunand et al. ( 26 ) analysed an internal database of the French Agricultural research organization INRA with 1,048 entries to identify seven impact areas, with five going beyond traditional types of impacts (e.g. conservation of natural resources or scientific advice). Besides, for the case of agricultural research, no systematic review of RIA methods exists in the academic literature that would allow for an overview of available approaches covering different impact areas of research.

Against this background, the objective of this study was to review in how far RIAs of agricultural research capture wider societal implications. We understand agricultural research as being a prime example for the consideration of wider research impacts. This is because agriculture is a sector which has direct and severe implications for a range of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. It has a strong practice orientation and is just beginning to develop a common understanding of innovation processes ( 27 ).

The analysis of the identified literature on agricultural RIA (for details, see next section ‘Literature search’) built on a framework from a preliminary study presented at the ImpAR Conference 2015 ( 28 ). It was based on three categories to explore the impact areas that were addressed and the design of RIA. In particular, the analytical framework consisted of: ( 1 ) the assessment level of research; ( 2 ) the type of assessment method; and ( 3 ) the impact areas covered. On the side, we additionally explored the time dimension of RIA, i.e. whether the assessment was done ex ante or ex post (see Fig. 1 ).

Analytical framework for the review of non-scientometric impact assessment literature of agricultural research.

Agricultural research and the ramifications following from that refer to different levels of assessment (or levels of evaluation, ( 29 )). We defined six assessment levels that can be the subject of a RIA: policy, programme, organization, project, technology, and other. The assessment level of the RIA is a relevant category, since it shapes the approach to the RIA (e.g. the impact chain of a research project differs to that at policy level). The assessment level was clearly stated in all of the analysed papers and in no case more than one assessment level was addressed. Articles were assigned to the policy level, if a certain public technology policy ( 30 ) or science policy, implemented by governments to directly or indirectly affect the conduct of science, was considered. Exemplary topics are research funding, transfer of research results to application, or contribution to economic development. Research programmes were understood as instruments that are adopted by government departments, or other organizational entities to implement research policies and fund research activities in a specific research field (e.g. programmes to promote research on a certain crop or cultivation technique). Articles dealing with the organizational level assess the impact of research activities of a specific research organization. The term research organization comprises public or private research institutes, associations, networks, or partnerships (e.g. the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and its research centres). A research project is the level at which research is actually carried out, e.g. as part of a research programme. The assessment of a research project would consider the impacts of the whole project, from planning through implementation to evaluation instead of focusing on a specific project output, like a certain agricultural innovation. The technology level was considered to be complementary to the other assessment levels of research and comprises studies with a strong focus on specific agricultural machinery or other agricultural innovation such as new crops or crop rotations, fertilizer applications, pest control, or tillage practices, irrespective of the agricultural system (e.g. smallholder or high-technology farming, or organic, integrated, or conventional farming). The category ‘other’ included one article addressing RIA at the level of individual researchers (see ( 31 )).

We categorized the impact areas along the three dimensions of sustainable development by drawing upon the European Commission’s impact assessment guidelines (cf. ( 32 )). The guidelines entail a list of 7 environmental impacts, such as natural resource use, climate change, or aspects of nature conservation; 12 social impacts, such as employment and working conditions, security, education, or aspects of equity; and 10 economic impacts, including business competitiveness, increased trade, and several macroeconomic aspects. The European Commission’s impact assessment guidelines were used as a classification framework because it is one of the most advanced impact assessment frameworks established until to date ( 33 ). In addition, we opened a separate category for those articles exploring joint impacts on the three sustainability dimensions. Few articles addressed impacts in two sustainability dimensions which we assigned to the dominating impact area.

To categorize the type of RIA method, we distinguished between conceptual, qualitative, and quantitative. Conceptual analyses include the development of frameworks or concepts for measuring impacts of agricultural research (e.g. tracking of innovation pathways or the identification of barriers and supporting factors for impact generation). Qualitative and quantitative methods were identified by the use of qualitative data or quantitative data, respectively (cf. ( 34–36 )). Qualitative data can be scaled nominally or ordinally. It is generated by interviews, questionnaires, surveys or choice experiments to gauge stakeholder attitudes to new technologies, their willingness to pay, and their preference for adoption measures. The generation of quantitative data involves a numeric measurement in a standardized way. Such data are on a metric scale and are often used for modelling. The used categorization is rather simple. We assigned approaches which employed mixed-method approaches according to their dominant method. We preferred this over more sophisticated typologies to achieve a high level of abstraction and because the focus of our analysis was on impact areas rather than methods. However, to show consistencies with existing typologies of impact assessment methods ( 19 , 37 ), we provide an overview of the categorization chosen and give examples of the most relevant types of methods.

To additionally explore the approach of the assessment ( 38 ), the dimensions ex ante and ex post were identified. The two approaches are complementary: whereas ex ante impact assessments are usually conducted for strategic and planning purposes to set priorities, ex post impact assessments serve as accountability validation and control against a baseline. The studies in our sample that employed an ex ante approach to RIA usually made this explicit, while in the majority of ex post impact assessments, this was indicated rather implicitly.

This study was performed as a literature review based on Thomson Reuters Web of Science TM Core Collection, indexed in the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-Exp) and the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI). The motivation for restricting the analysis to articles from ISI-listed journals was to stay within the boundaries of internationally accepted scientific quality management and worldwide access. The advantages of a search based on Elsevier’s Scopus ® (more journals and alternative publications, and more articles from social and health science covered) would not apply for this literature review, with regard to the drawbacks of an index system based on abstracts instead of citation indexes, which is not as transparent as the Core Collection regarding the database definable by the user. We selected the years of 2008 to mid-2016 for the analysis (numbers last updated on 2 June 2016) . First, because most performance-based funding systems have been introduced since 2000, allowing sufficient time for the RIA approaches to evolve and literature to be published. Secondly, in 2008 two key publications on RIA of agricultural research triggered the topic: Kelley, et al. ( 38 ) published the lessons learned from the Standing Panel on Impact Assessment of CGIAR; Watts, et al. ( 39 ) summarized several central pitfalls of impact assessment concerning agricultural research. We took these publications as a starting point for the literature search. We searched in TOPIC and therefore, the terms had to appear in the title, abstract, author keywords, or keywords plus ® . The search query 1 filtered for agricultural research in relation to research impact. To cover similar expressions, we used science, ‘R&D’, and innovation interchangeably with research, and we searched for assessment, evaluation, criteria, benefit, adoption, or adaptation of research.

We combined the TOPIC search with a less strict search query 2 in TITLE using the same groups of terms, as these searches contained approximately two-thirds non-overlapping papers. Together they consisted of 315 papers. Of these, we reviewed 282 after excluding all document types other than articles and reviews (19 papers were not peer-reviewed journal articles) and all papers not written in English language (14 papers). After going through them, 171 proved to be topic-relevant and were included in the analysis.

Analysis matrix showing the number of reviewed articles, each categorized to an assessment level and an impact area (social, economic, environmental, or all three (sustainability)). Additionally, the type of analytical method (conceptual, quantitative, and qualitative) is itemized

In the agricultural RIA, the core assessment level of the reviewed articles was technology (39%), while the other levels were almost equally represented (with the exception of ‘other’). Generally, most papers (56%) addressed economic research impacts, closely followed by social research impacts (42%); however, only three papers (2%) addressed environmental research impacts and only 1 of 171 papers addressed all three dimensions of sustainable development. Assessments at the level of research policy slightly emphasized social impacts over economic impacts (18 papers, or 58%), whereas assessments at the level of technology clearly focused primarily on economic impacts (46 papers, or 68%).

The methods used for agricultural RIA showed no preference for one method type (see Table 1 ). Approximately 31% of the papers assessed research impacts quantitatively, whereas 37% used qualitative methods. Conceptual considerations on research impact were applied by 32% of the studies. A noticeable high number of qualitative studies were conducted to assess social impacts. At the evaluation level of research policy and research programmes, we found a focus on quantitative methods, if economic impacts were assessed.

Overview on type of methods used for agricultural RIA

a Mix of conceptual and qualitative methods.

b Mix of conceptual, qualitative, and quantitative methods.

Additionally, 37 ex ante studies, compared to 134 ex post studies, revealed that the latter clearly dominated, but no robust relation to any other investigated characteristic was found. Of the three environmental impact studies, none assessed ex ante , while the one study exploring sustainability impacts did. The share of ex ante assessments regarding social impacts was very similar to those regarding economic impacts. Within the assessment levels of research (excluding ‘others’ with only one paper), no notable difference between the shares of ex ante assessments occurred as they ranged between 13 and 28%.

The most relevant outcome of the review analysis was that only 3 of the 171 papers focus on the environmental impacts of agricultural research. This seems surprising because agriculture is dependent on an intact environment. However, this finding is supported by two recent reviews: one from Bennett, et al. ( 40 ) and one from Maredia and Raitzer ( 41 ). Both note that not only international agricultural research in general but also research on natural resource management shows a lack regarding large-scale assessments of environmental impacts. The CGIAR also recognized the necessity to deepen the understanding of the environmental impacts of its work because RIAs had largely ignored environmental benefits ( 42 ).

A few papers explicitly include environmental impacts of research in addition to their main focus. Raitzer and Maredia ( 43 ) address water depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, and landscape effects; however, their overall focus is on poverty reduction. Ajayi et al. ( 44 ) report the improvement of soil physical properties and soil biodiversity from introducing fertilizer trees but predominantly measure economic and social effects. Cavallo, et al. ( 45 ) investigate users’ attitudes towards the environmental impact of agricultural tractors (considered as technological innovation) but do not measure the environmental impact. Briones, et al. ( 46 ) configure an environmental ‘modification’ of economic surplus analysis, but they do not prioritize environmental impacts.

Of course, the environmental impacts of agricultural practices were the topic of many studies in recent decades, such as Kyllmar, et al. ( 47 ), Skinner, et al. ( 48 ), Van der Werf and Petit ( 49 ), among many others. However, we found very little evidence for the impact of agricultural research on the environment. A study on environmental management systems that examined technology adoption rates though not the environmental impacts is exemplarily for this ( 50 ). One possible explanation is based on the observation made by Morris, et al. ( 51 ) and Watts, et al. ( 39 ). They see impact assessments tending to accentuate the success stories because studies are often commissioned strategically as to demonstrate a certain outcome. This would mean to avoid carving out negative environmental impacts that conflict with, when indicated, the positive economic or societal impacts of the assessed research activity. In analogy to policy impact assessments, this points to the need of incentives to equally explore intended and unintended, expected and non-expected impacts from scratch ( 52 ). From those tasked with an RIA, this again requires an open attitude in ‘doing RIA’ and towards the findings of their RIA.

Another possible explanation was given by Bennett, et al. ( 40 ): a lack of skills in ecology or environmental economics to cope with the technically complex and data-intensive integration of environmental impacts. Although such a lack of skills or data could also apply to social and economic impacts, continuous monitoring of environmental data related to agricultural practices is particularly scarce. A third possible explanation is a conceptual oversight, as environmental impacts may be thought to be covered by the plenty of environmental impact assessments of agricultural activities itself.

The impression of a ‘blind eye’ on the environment in agricultural RIA may change when publications beyond Web of Science TM Core Collection are considered ( 53 ) or sources other than peer-reviewed journal articles are analysed (e.g. reports; conference proceedings). See, for example, Kelley, et al. ( 38 ), Maredia and Pingali ( 54 ), or FAO ( 55 ). Additionally, scientific publications of the highest quality standard (indicated by reviews and articles being listed in the Web of Science TM Core Collection) seem to not yet reflect experiences and advancements from assessment applications on research and innovation policy that usually include the environmental impact ( 56 ).

Since their beginnings, RIAs have begun to move away from narrow exercises concerned with economic impacts ( 11 ) and expanded their scope to social impacts. However, we only found one sustainability approach in our review that would cover all three impact areas of agricultural research (see ( 57 )). In contrast, progressive approaches to policy impact assessment largely attempt to cover the full range of environmental, social, and economic impacts of policy ( 33 , 58 ). RIAs may learn from them.

Additionally, the focus of agricultural research on technological innovation seems evident. Although the word innovation is sometimes still used for new technology (as in ‘diffusion of innovations’), it is increasingly used for the process of technical and institutional change at the farm level and higher levels of impact. Technology production increasingly is embedded in innovation systems ( 59 ).

The review revealed a diversity of methods (see Table 2 ) applied in impact assessments of agricultural research. In the early phases of RIA, the methods drawn from agricultural economics were considered as good standard for an impact assessment of international agricultural research ( 39 ). However, quantitative methods most often address economic impacts. In addition, the reliability of assessments based on econometric models is often disputed because of strong relationships between modelling assumptions and respective results.

Regarding environmental (or sustainability) impacts of agricultural research, the portfolio of assessment methods could be extended by learning from RIAs in other impact areas. In our literature sample, only review, framework development (e.g. key barrier typologies, environmental costing, or payments for ecosystem services), life-cycle assessment, and semi-structured interviews were used for environmental impacts of agricultural research.

In total, 42 of the 171 analysed papers assessed the impact of participatory research. A co-management of public research acknowledges the influence of the surrounding ecological, social, and political system and allows different types of stakeholder knowledge to shape innovation ( 60 ). Schut, et al. ( 36 ) conceptualize an agricultural innovation support system, which considers multi-stakeholder dynamics next to multilevel interactions within the agricultural system and multiple dimensions of the agricultural problem. Another type of participation in RIAs is the involvement of stakeholders to the evaluation process. A comparatively low number of six papers considered participatory evaluation of research impact, of them three in combination with impact assessment of participatory research.

Approximately 22% of the articles in our sample on agricultural research reported that they conducted their assessments ex ante , but most studies were ex post assessments. Watts, et al. ( 39 ) considered ex ante impact assessment to be more instructive than ex post assessment because it can directly guide the design of research towards maximizing beneficial impacts. This is particularly true when an ex ante assessment is conducted as a comparative assessment comprising a set of alternative options ( 61 ).

Many authors of the studies analysed were not explicit about the time frames considered in their ex post studies. The potential latency of impacts from research points to the need for ex post (and ex ante) studies to account for and analyse longer time periods, either considering ‘decades’ ( 62 , 63 ) or a lag distribution covering up to 50 years, with a peak approximately in the middle of the impact period ( 64 ). This finding is in line with the perspective of impact assessments as an ongoing process throughout a project’s life cycle and not as a one-off process at the end ( 51 ). Nevertheless, ex post assessments are an important component of a comprehensive evaluation package, which includes ex ante impact assessment, impact pathway analysis, programme peer reviews, performance monitoring and evaluation, and process evaluations, among others ( 38 ).

RIA is conceptually and methodologically not yet sufficiently equipped to capture wider societal implications, though ( 14 ). This is due to the specific challenges associated with RIA, including inter alia unknown time lags between research processes and their impacts ( 15–17 ). Independent from their orientation, RIAs are likely to influence research policies for years to come ( 18 ).

However, in the cases in which a RIA is carried out, an increase in the positive impacts (or avoidance of negative impacts) of agricultural research does not follow automatically. Lilja and Dixon ( 65 ) state the following methodological reasons for the missing impact of impact studies: no accountability with internal learning, no developed scaling out, the overlap of monitoring and evaluation and impact assessment, the intrinsic nature of functional and empowering farmer participation, the persistent lack of widespread attention to gender, and the operational and political complexity of multi-stakeholder impact assessment. In contrast, a desired impact of research could be reached or boosted by specific measures without making an impact assessment at all. Kristjanson, et al. ( 66 ), for example, proposed seven framework conditions for agricultural research to bridge the gap between scientific knowledge and action towards sustainable development. RIA should develop into process-oriented evaluations, in contrast to outcome-oriented evaluation ( 67 ), for addressing the intended kind of impacts, the scope of assessment, and for choosing the appropriate assessment method ( 19 ).

This review aimed at providing an overview of impact assessment activities reported in academic agricultural literature with regard to their coverage of impact areas and type of assessment method used. We found a remarkable body of non-scientometric RIA at all evaluation levels of agricultural research but a major interest in economic impacts of new agricultural technologies. These are closely followed by an interest in social impacts at multiple assessments levels that usually focus on food security and poverty reduction and rely slightly more on qualitative assessment methods. In contrast, the assessment of the environmental impacts of agricultural research or comprehensive sustainability assessments was exceptionally limited. They may have been systematically overlooked in the past, for the reason of expected negative results, thought to be covered by other impact studies or methodological challenges. RIA could learn from user-oriented policy impact assessments that usually include environmental impacts. Frameworks for RIA should avoid narrowing the assessment focus and instead considering intended and unintended impacts in several impact areas equally. It seems fruitful to invest in assessment teams’ environmental analytic skills and to expand several of the already developed methods for economic or social impact to the environmental impacts. Only then, the complex and comprehensive contribution of agricultural research to sustainable development can be revealed.

The authors would like to thank Jana Rumler and Claus Dalchow for their support in the Web of Science analysis and Melanie Gutschker for her support in the quantitative literature analysis.

This work was supported by the project LIAISE (Linking Impact Assessment to Sustainability Expertise, www.liaisenoe.eu ), which was funded by Framework Programme 7 of the European Commission and co-funded by the Leibniz-Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research. The research was further inspired and supported by funding from the ‘Guidelines for Sustainability Management’ project for non-university research institutes in Germany (‘Leitfaden Nachhaltigkeitsmanagement’, BMBF grant 311 number 13NKE003A).

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The exact TITLE query was: agricult* AND (research* OR *scien* OR "R&D" OR innovati*) AND (impact* OR assess* OR evaluat* OR criteria* OR benefit* OR adoption* OR adaptation*)

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September 17, 2021

First-of-its-kind quantitative assessment for sustainable agriculture

by University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science

"This Sustainable Agriculture Matrix is an effort to promote accountability for nations' commitments towards sustainable agriculture ," said project leader Xin Zhang of the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science. "We hope this can serve as a tool to bring the stakeholders together. Agriculture production is not only about farmers. It's about everyone."

Agriculture is fundamental to sustainability . However, the definition of "sustainable agriculture" and the ability to measure it have been difficult to quantify. The project to create the Sustainable Agriculture Matrix began in 2017 by bringing together about 30 stakeholders and experts from around the world—including Oxfam, the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, the International Food Policy Research Institute, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, as well as academic partners such as University College London, University of Queensland, University of California Berkeley and the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science—to assess the impacts of agricultural production on a national scale around a diverse range of environmental, economic, and social dimensions of sustainability.

"Sustainable agriculture is a very complex concept and it means different things for different people, making it hard to assess," said Zhang. "To make the commitment to sustainable agriculture accountable, independent and transparent measurements of countries' sustainability are essential."

"This is a useful starting point for not only evaluating progress, but also identifying priorities for improvement, and informing national policies and actions towards sustainable agriculture ," said co-author and SAM consortium partner Christian Folberth from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis.

Journal information: One Earth

Provided by University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science

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Research Topics in Agricultural and Applied Economics

Editor(s) : anthony n. rezitis.

DOI: 10.2174/97816080526391120301 eISBN: 978-1-60805-263-9, 2012 ISBN: 978-1-60805-699-6 ISSN: 2589-1472 (Print) ISSN: 1879-7415 (Online)

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For Books Anthony N. Rezitis , " Research Topics in Agricultural and Applied Economics ", Bentham Science Publishers (2012). https://doi.org/10.2174/97816080526391120301

Book Volume 3

Page: i-i (1) Author: Trevor Young DOI: 10.2174/97816080526391120301000i

Page: ii-iii (2) Author: Anthony N. Rezitis DOI: 10.2174/9781608052639112030100ii

List of Contributors

Page: iv-vi (3) Author: Anthony N. Rezitis DOI: 10.2174/9781608052639112030100iv

Full text available.

Milk Production Forecasting by a Neuro-Fuzzy Model

Page: 3-11 (9) Author: Atsalakis S. George, Parasyri G. Maria and Zopounidis D. Constantinos DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010003 PDF Price: $15

Many fields are increasingly applying Neuro-fuzzy techniques such as in model identification and forecasting of linear and non-linear systems. This chapter presents a neuro-fuzzy model for forecasting milk production of two producers. The model utilizes a time series of daily data. The milk forecasting model is based on Adaptive Neural Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). ANFIS uses a hybrid learning technique that combines the least-squares method and the back propagation gradient descent method to estimate the optimal milk forecast parameters. The results indicate the superiority of ANFIS model when compared with two conventional models: an Autoregressive (AR) and an Autoregressive Moving Average model (ARMA).

The Role of Production Contracts in the Coordination of Agri-Food Chain: Evidence and Future Issues for the Durum Wheat Chain in Italy

Page: 12-22 (11) Author: Davide Viaggi and Giacomo Zanni DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010012 PDF Price: $15

The economics of contracts has undergone major developments in the recent decades. At the same time, the issue of co-ordination among actors in the same product chain through contractual instruments has attracted significant attention. In addition, the recent volatility of agricultural prices has made the role of contracts in risk allocation more important across different stages of the production chain. The paper explores the role of production contracts in the co-ordination of agri-food chain, considering evidence from the particular case of the durum wheat chain in Italy. After a review of the literature and brief examination of the sector and institutional context of Italian wheat production, the paper considers the present and potential role of production contracts, through a Delphi exercise. Based on this, proposals for action priorities (policy) are discussed along with an agenda for future research. The outcome of the Delphi exercise confirms the perceived need of improving the use of contracts in the Italian wheat sector. It also confirms the difficulties in addressing this issue. Solutions and needs for further research are identified at two main levels: a) detailed contract design; and b) wider chain governance.

Effects of the European Union Farm Credit Programs on Efficiency and Productivity of the Greek Agricultural Sector: A Stochastic DEA Application

Page: 23-46 (24) Author: Anthony N. Rezitis, Kostas Tsiboukas and Stavros Tsoukalas DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010023 PDF Price: $15

This study examines technical efficiency and productivity growth of Greek farms participating in the 1994 European Union Farm Credit Programs (1994-EU-FCP), i.e. regulation 2328/91. In this paper, two farm-level economic data sets are used, i.e. the crop and the livestock data set, where each one consists of two different groups of farms: one group contains farms participating in the 1994-EU-FCP while the other one contains non-participating farms. The data sets are observed over the 1993 and 1997 years. The paper uses the approach developed by Simar and Wilson (1998a, b) to bootstrapping both DEA efficiency measures and Malmquist productivity indices. Furthermore, the present paper uses the Malmquist index decomposition proposed by Simar and Wilson (1998b) and Zofio and Lovell (1997) to investigate the sources of productivity change. The technical efficiency score results indicate that, in terms of the crop oriented farms, the program failed to increase the efficiency of the participated farms even though the most efficient farms entered the 1994-EU-FCP. In contrast, in terms of the livestock oriented farms, the program managed to increase the efficiency of the participated farms though less efficient farms entered the program. The total factor productivity growth results, in terms of crop-oriented farms, show statistically significant decline of productivity for the group of program farms but a statistically significant increase for the group of non-program farms. The total factor productivity growth results, in terms of livestock oriented farms, show a statistically significant increase of productivity for the group of program farms but no change for the group of non-program farms.

Institutional Innovations in the Common Agricultural Policy: A Theoretical Approach based on Legitimacy

Page: 47-56 (10) Author: Melania Salazar-Ordóñez and Gabriel Pérez-Alcalá DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010047 PDF Price: $15

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union (EU) has been highly political and social controversy, within the EU as well as at international level. However, the reforms on the institutional structure have not been frequently analysed. This paper, based on the Institutional Innovation Theory, examines the role of different exogenous and endogenous factors which have been boosted or slowed down, the five CAP reforms. According to these factors we analyse three key issues in the EU general political system, two topics in the EU domestic-economic system and the external pressures. Later, these factors are considered on a theoretical approach applying investment theory and expected utility maximization by means of the net present value model and dependency relations. The main results show that role played by the EU institutional structure is fundamental as a limited factor, and the external pressures and citizen’s acceptance of this policy are an important boost factor.

Agricultural Externalities and Environmental Regulation: The Case of Manure Management and Spreading Land Allocation

Page: 57-69 (13) Author: Isabelle Piot-Lepetit DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010057 PDF Price: $15

The aim of this paper is firstly to show how the measures introduced by the European regulation on manure management are incorporated into the theoretical analysis framework for studying the issue of nonpoint externality and especially, agricultural runoff. The model is extended because only some of the polluting emissions at the origin of diffuse pollution are regulated by the Nitrates Directive. More specifically, the model represents the standard that limits the spreading of organic manure to 170 kg/ha as a production right assigned to each farm. Secondly, this paper proposes an empirical model in which the theoretical assumption that productive abilities are fully exploited is relaxed. In order to describe the disparity that exists between individual situations, an empirical model represents the production technology by means of a directional distance function. Finally, the aggregation properties of the directional distance function are used to simulate the practice of looking for off-farm lands as a means of complying with the standard. We look at how land can be allocated among producers in such a way as to combine the disposal of manure in accordance with the limit of the Nitrates Directive with an improvement in the productive and environmental efficiency of all farms. Using a sample of French pig farms, results indicate only a low potential for a reduction in nitrogen pollution based on the reduction in productive inefficiencies and the allocation of spreading lands among farmers in a same area.

Energy Crops Situation in Castile and Leon: Incentives and Barriers to Success

Page: 70-93 (24) Author: Rita Robles and Luigi Vannini DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010070 PDF Price: $15

Over the last few years, a number of events have produced deep change in Spanish agriculture. The agreements ensuring from the negotiations within the World Trade Organization (WTO), the new exigencies of the demand for reducing the surpluses of certain food and feed crops (cereals, oil-seeds, sugar beet…) and the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) expenses, the reform of CAP and the different Common Markets Organizations (CMO’s), along with the vocation to produce (greatly influenced by geo-climatic factors), have led to a deep and long-lasting crisis of the sector in many important agricultural regions in Spain, as is the case in Castile and Leon. This crisis implies depopulation and alteration of the population structure and the rural environment, with subsequent environmental, socio-cultural and territorial consequences. Within this framework, energy crops are one of the scarce local productive orientations which could allow Castile and Leon farmers to produce an output demanded by the markets. This paper examines the current situation and the possibilities of development for this sector, using the Rural Rapid Appraisal (RRA) and Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats (SWOT) methods, in order to identify and assess the profitability of the main energy crops as well as the technical, socio-cultural, political and economic barriers for introducing these crops in the local productive farming sector. The study also provides an evaluation of the last energy and CAP measures and an outlook for future market developments and policy recommendations.

Governing of Agro-Ecosystem Services in Bulgaria

Page: 94-129 (36) Author: Hrabrin Bachev DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010094 PDF Price: $15

This paper incorporates interdisciplinary New Institutional and Transaction Costs Economics and analyzes the governance of agro-ecosystem services in Bulgaria. Firstly, it presents a comprehensive framework of analyses of environmental governance including: definition of agroecosystem services and governance; specification of governance needs and spectrum of governing modes (formal and informal institutions, market, private, public and hybrid forms); assessment of efficiency of different modes of governance in terms of their potential to protect diverse eco-rights and investments, assure a socially desirable level of agro-ecosystem services, minimize overall costs, coordinate and stimulate eco-activities, meet individual and social preferences and reconcile conflicts of related agents etc. Secondly, it identifies and assesses the governance of agro-ecosystem services in Bulgaria. It proves that post-communist transition and EU integration brought about significant changes in the state and the governance of agro-ecosystems services. Newly evolved market, private and public governance has led to a significant improvement of the part of agro-ecosystems services introducing modern eco-standards and public support, enhancing environmental stewardship, disintensifying production, recovering landscape and traditional productions, diversifying quality, products and services. At the same time, the novel governance is associated with new challenges such as unsustainable exploitation, lost biodiversity, land degradation, water and air contamination etc. Moreover, it demonstrates that implementation of the EU common policies would have no desired impact on agro-ecosystem services unless special measures are taken to improve management of public programs, extend public support to dominating small-scale and subsistence farms.

Ex Post Liability for Loss vs. Ex Ante Liability Insurance as Solutions to Reversal Risk in Carbon Offset Projects

Page: 130-144 (15) Author: Joshua Anyangah DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010130 PDF Price: $15

When included as part of a larger emissions rights trading system, carbon offset projects can automatically achieve a given reduction of emissions in a cost-effective manner. One major concern with this system, however, is the risk of emissions reversal-the deliberate or accidental release of carbon back to the atmosphere long after carbon credits have changed hands. This downside risk may adversely affect the market value of offset credits and undermine the integrity of the carbon trading system. To address this weakness, at least two financial responsibility rules have been proposed. One calls for the imposition of liability, ex post, upon project developers. The other alternative, an ex ante measure, requires that project developers have adequate liability insurance coverage prior to undertaking any offset projects. Taking the view that project developers can control the severity of financial losses arising from reversal and assuming a negligence rule of liability for harm, this paper employs the methods of mechanism design to examine the impact of ex-post liability rules and ex ante liability insurance requirements on incentives to reduce risk. We find that the relative ranking of these two rules crucially depends on the extent of uncertainty regarding the legal standard under liability rules: if uncertainty regarding the legal standard is sufficiently large, then incentives are more pronounced under insurance rules than under liability rules; if the uncertainty regarding the legal standard is sufficiently small, however, then the converse is true.

A Choice Experiments Application in Transport Infrastructure: A Case Study on Travel Time Savings, Accidents and Pollution Reduction

Page: 145-155 (11) Author: Phoebe Koundouri, Yiannis Kountouris and Mavra Stithou DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010145 PDF Price: $15

This paper presents the results of a Choice Experiment (CE) conducted to estimate the values derived from a highway construction project in Greece. To account for preference heterogeneity conditional logit with interactions and random parameter logit models are estimated. The results indicate that individuals have significant values for travel time savings, percentage decrease in traffic accidents, percentage decrease in traffic related emissions and landscape modifications. Models where the attributes are interacted with socioeconomic variables perform better and produce lower welfare estimates compared to models without interactions with important implications for cost benefit analysis.

Page: 156-157 (2) Author: Anthony N. Rezitis DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010156

Introduction

The aim of this e-book series is to publish high quality economic research in agricultural and applied economics. It particularly fosters quantitative studies which make original contribution on important economic issues, the results of which help to understand and solve real economic problems. This volume contains research papers focusing on the areas of agricultural policy, agricultural price volatility, agricultural finance and cooperatives, consumption economics, firm production and organization, human capital convergence, international economics and multinational business, investment decisions in organic agriculture, market structure and industry studies. The research papers of this volume make use of recent methodological approaches and provide conclusions which are useful to both private sector participants and policy-makers.

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Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education in the Field: A Proceedings (1991)

Chapter: introduction, introduction.

Charles M. Benbrook

These proceedings are based on a workshop that brought together scientists, farmer-innovators, policymakers, and interested members of the public for a progress report on sustainable agriculture research and education efforts across the United States. The workshop, which was held on April 3 and 4, 1990, in Washington, D.C., was sponsored by the Office of Science and Education of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Board on Agriculture of the National Research Council. The encouraging new science discussed there should convince nearly everyone of two facts.

First, the natural resource, economic, and food safety problems facing U.S. agriculture are diverse, dynamic, and often complex. Second, a common set of biological and ecological principles—when systematically embodied in cropping and livestock management systems—can bring improved economic and environmental performance within the reach of innovative farmers. Some people contend that this result is not a realistic expectation for U.S. agriculture. The evidence presented here does not support such a pessimistic assessment.

The report of the Board on Agriculture entitled Alternative Agriculture (National Research Council, 1989a) challenged everyone to rethink key components of conventional wisdom and contemporary scientific dogma. That report has provided encouragement and direction to those individuals and organizations striving toward more sustainable production systems, and it has provoked skeptics to articulate why they feel U.S. agriculture cannot—some even say should not—seriously contemplate the need for such change. The debate has been spirited and generally constructive.

Scholars, activists, professional critics, and analysts have participated in

this debate by writing papers and books, conducting research, and offering opinions about alternative and sustainable agriculture for over 10 years. Over the past decade, many terms and concepts have come and gone. Most people—and unfortunately, many farmers—have not gone very far beyond the confusion, frustration, and occasional demagoguery that swirls around the different definitions of alternative, low-input, organic, and sustainable agriculture.

Fortunately, though, beginning in late 1989, a broad cross-section of people has grown comfortable with the term sustainable agriculture. The May 21, 1990, issue of Time magazine, in an article on sustainable agriculture entitled “It's Ugly, But It Works” includes the following passage:

[A] growing corps of experts [are] urging farmers to adopt a new approach called sustainable agriculture. Once the term was synonymous with the dreaded O word—a farm-belt euphemism for trendy organic farming that uses no synthetic chemicals. But sustainable agriculture has blossomed into an effort to curb erosion by modifying plowing techniques and to protect water supplies by minimizing, if not eliminating, artificial fertilizers and pest controls.

Concern and ridicule in farm publications and during agribusiness meetings over the philosophical roots of low-input, sustainable, or organic farming have given way to more thoughtful appraisals of the ecological and biological foundations of practical, profitable, and sustainable farming systems. While consensus clearly does not yet exist on how to “fix” agriculture's contemporary problems, a constructive dialogue is now under way among a broad cross-section of individuals, both practitioners and technicians involved in a wide variety of specialties.

This new dialogue is powerful because of the people and ideas it is connecting. Change will come slowly, however. Critical comments in some farm magazines will persist, and research and on-farm experimentation will not always lead to the hoped for insights or breakthroughs. Some systems that now appear to be sustainable will encounter unexpected production problems. Nonetheless, progress will be made.

The Board on Agriculture believes that over the next several decades significant progress can and will be made toward more profitable, resource-conserving, and environmentally prudent farming systems. Rural areas of the United States could become safer, more diverse, and aesthetically pleasing places to live. Farming could, as a result, become a more rewarding profession, both economically and through stewardship of the nation's soil and water resources. Change will be made possible; and it will be driven by new scientific knowledge, novel on-farm management tools and approaches, and economic necessity. The policy reforms adopted in the 1990 farm bill, and ongoing efforts to incorporate environmental objectives

into farm policy, may also in time make a significant difference in reshaping the economic environment in which on-farm management decisions are made.

This volume presents an array of new knowledge and insight about the functioning of agricultural systems that will provide the managerial and technological foundations for improved farming practices and systems. Examples of the research projects under way around the country are described. Through exploration of the practical experiences, recent findings, and insights of these researchers, the papers and discussions presented in this volume should demonstrate the value of field- and farm-level systems-based research that is designed and conducted with ongoing input from farmer-innovators.

Some discussion of the basic concepts that guide sustainable agriculture research and education activities may be useful. Definitions of key terms, such as sustainable agriculture, alternative agriculture, and low-input sustainable agriculture, are drawn from Alternative Agriculture and a recent paper (Benbrook and Cook, 1990).

BASIC CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

Basic concepts.

Sustainable agriculture, which is a goal rather than a distinct set of practices, is a system of food and fiber production that

improves the underlying productivity of natural resources and cropping systems so that farmers can meet increasing levels of demand in concert with population and economic growth;

produces food that is safe, wholesome, and nutritious and that promotes human well-being;

ensures an adequate net farm income to support an acceptable standard of living for farmers while also underwriting the annual investments needed to improve progressively the productivity of soil, water, and other resources; and

complies with community norms and meets social expectations.

Other similar definitions could be cited, but there is now a general consensus regarding the essential elements of sustainable agriculture. Various definitions place differing degrees of emphasis on certain aspects, but a common set of core features is now found in nearly all definitions.

While sustainable agriculture is an inherently dynamic concept, alternative agriculture is the process of on-farm innovation that strives toward the goal of sustainable agriculture. Alternative agriculture encompasses efforts by farmers to develop more efficient production systems, as well as

efforts by researchers to explore the biological and ecological foundations of agricultural productivity.

The challenges inherent in striving toward sustainability are clearly dynamic. The production of adequate food on a sustainable basis will become more difficult if demographers are correct in their estimates that the global population will not stabilize before it reaches 11 billion or 12 billion in the middle of the twenty-first century. The sustainability challenge and what must be done to meet it range in nature from a single farm field, to the scale of an individual farm as an enterprise, to the food and fiber needs of a region or country, and finally to the world as a whole.

A comprehensive definition of sustainability must include physical, biological, and socioeconomic components. The continued viability of a farming system can be threatened by problems that arise within any one of these components. Farmers are often confronted with choices and sacrifices because of seemingly unavoidable trade-offs—an investment in a conservation system may improve soil and water quality but may sacrifice near-term economic performance. Diversification may increase the efficiency of resource use and bring within reach certain biological benefits, yet it may require additional machinery and a more stable and versatile labor supply. Indeed, agricultural researchers and those who design and administer farm policy must seek ways to alleviate seemingly unwelcome trade-offs by developing new knowledge and technology and, when warranted, new policies.

Operational Definitions

Sustainable agriculture is the production of food and fiber using a system that increases the inherent productive capacity of natural and biological resources in step with demand. At the same time, it must allow farmers to earn adequate profits, provide consumers with wholesome, safe food, and minimize adverse impacts on the environment.

As defined in our report, alternative agriculture is any system of food or fiber production that systematically pursues the following goals (National Research Council, 1989a):

more thorough incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, and beneficial pest-predator relationships into the agricultural production process;

reduction in the use of off-farm inputs with the greatest potential to harm the environment or the health of farmers and consumers;

productive use of the biological and genetic potential of plant and animal species;

improvement in the match between cropping patterns and the productive potential and physical limitations of agricultural lands; and

profitable and efficient production with emphasis on improved farm management, prevention of animal disease, optimal integration of livestock and cropping enterprises, and conservation of soil, water, energy, and biological resources.

Conventional agriculture is the predominant farming practices, methods, and systems used in a region. Conventional agriculture varies over time and according to soil, climatic, and other environmental factors. Moreover, many conventional practices and methods are fully sustainable when pursued or applied properly and will continue to play integral roles in future farming systems.

Low-input sustainable agriculture (LISA) systems strive to achieve sustainability by incorporating biologically based practices that indirectly result in lessened reliance on purchased agrichemical inputs. The goal of LISA systems is improved profitability and environmental performance through systems that reduce pest pressure, efficiently manage nutrients, and comprehensively conserve resources.

Successful LISA systems are founded on practices that enhance the efficiency of resource use and limit pest pressures in a sustainable way. The operational goal of LISA should not, as a matter of first principles, be viewed as a reduction in the use of pesticides and fertilizers. Higher yields, lower per unit production costs, and lessened reliance on agrichemicals in intensive agricultural systems are, however, often among the positive outcomes of the successful adoption of LISA systems. But in much of the Third World an increased level of certain agrichemical and fertilizer inputs will be very helpful if not essential to achieve sustainability. For example, the phosphorous-starved pastures in the humid tropics will continue to suffer severe erosion and degradation in soil physical properties until soil fertility levels are restored and more vigorous plant growth provides protection from rain and sun.

Farmers are continuously modifying farming systems whenever opportunities arise for increasing productivity or profits. Management decisions are not made just in the context of one goal or concern but in the context of the overall performance of the farm and take into account many variables: prices, policy, available resources, climatic conditions, and implications for risk and uncertainty.

A necessary step in carrying out comparative assessments of conventional and alternative farming systems is to understand the differences between farming practices, farming methods, and farming systems. It is somewhat easier, then, to determine what a conventional practice, method, or system is and how an alternative or sustainable practice, method, or system might or should differ from a conventional one. The following definitions are drawn from the Glossary of Alternative Agriculture (National Research Council, 1989a).

A farming practice is a way of carrying out a discrete farming task such as a tillage operation, particular pesticide application technology, or single conservation practice. Most important farming operations—preparing a seedbed, controlling weeds and erosion, or maintaining soil fertility, for example—require a combination of practices, or a method. Most farming operations can be carried out by different methods, each of which can be accomplished by several unique combinations of different practices. The manner in which a practice is carried out—the speed and depth of a tillage operation, for example—can markedly alter its consequences.

A farming method is a systematic way to accomplish a specific farming objective by integrating a number of practices. A discrete method is needed for each essential farming task, such as preparing a seedbed and planting a crop, sustaining soil fertility, managing irrigation, collecting and disposing of manure, controlling pests, and preventing animal diseases.

A farming system is the overall approach used in crop or livestock production, often derived from a farmer's goals, values, knowledge, available technologies, and economic opportunities. A farming system influences, and is in turn defined by, the choice of methods and practices used to produce a crop or care for animals.

In practice, farmers are constantly adjusting cropping systems in an effort to improve a farm's performance. Changes in management practices generally lead to a complex set of results—some positive, others negative—all of which occur over different time scales.

The transition to more sustainable agriculture systems may, for many farmers, require some short-term sacrifices in economic performance in order to prepare the physical resource and biological ecosystem base needed for long-term improvement in both economic and environmental performance. As a result, some say that practices essential to progress toward sustainable agriculture are not economically viable and are unlikely to take hold on the farm (Marten, 1989). Their contention may prove correct, given current farm policies and the contemporary inclination to accept contemporary, short-term economic challenges as inviolate. Nonetheless, one question lingers: What is the alternative to sustainable agriculture?

PUBLIC POLICY AND RESEARCH IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Farmers, conservationists, consumers, and political leaders share an intense interest in the sustainability of agricultural production systems. This interest is heightened by growing recognition of the successes achieved by innovative farmers across the country who are discovering alternative agriculture practices and methods that improve a farm's economic and environmental performance. Ongoing experimental efforts on the farm, by no

means universally successful, are being subjected to rigorous scientific investigation. New insights should help farmers become even more effective stewards of natural resources and produce food that is consistently free of man-made or natural contaminants that may pose health risks.

The major challenge for U.S. agriculture in the 1990s will be to strike a balance between near-term economic performance and long-term ecological and food safety imperatives. As recommended in Alternative Agriculture (National Research Council, 1989a), public policies in the 1990s should, at a minimum, no longer penalize farmers who are committed to resource protection or those who are trying to make progress toward sustainability. Sustainability will always remain a goal to strive toward, and alternative agriculture systems will continuously evolve as a means to this end. Policy can and must play an integral role in this process.

If sustainability emerges as a principal farm and environmental policy goal, the design and assessment of agricultural policies will become more complex. Trade-offs, and hence choices, will become more explicit between near-term economic performance and enhancement of the long-term biological and physical factors that can contribute to soil and water resource productivity.

Drawing on expertise in several disciplines, policy analysts will be compelled to assess more insightfully the complex interactions that link a farm's economic, ecological, and environmental performance. It is hoped that political leaders will, as a result, recognize the importance of unraveling conflicts among policy goals and more aggressively seizing opportunities to advance the productivity and sustainability of U.S. agriculture.

A few examples may help clarify how adopting the concept of sustainability as a policy goal complicates the identification of cause-and-effect relationships and, hence, the design of remedial policies.

When a farmer is pushed toward bankruptcy by falling crop prices, a farm operation can become financially unsustainable. When crop losses mount because of pest pressure or a lack of soil nutrients, however, the farming system still becomes unsustainable financially, but for a different reason. In the former example, economic forces beyond any individual farmer's control are the clear cause; in the latter case the underlying cause is rooted in the biological management and performance of the farming system.

The biological and economic performance of a farming system can, in turn, unravel for several different reasons. Consider an example involving a particular farm that is enrolled each year in the U.S. Department of Agriculture's commodity price support programs. To maintain eligibility for government subsidies on a continuing basis, the farmer understands the importance of growing a certain minimum (base) acreage of the same crop each year. Hence, the cropping pattern on this farm is likely to lead to a

buildup in soilborne pathogens that attack plant roots and reduce yields. As a result, the farmer might resort to the use of a fumigant to control the pathogens, but the pesticide might become ineffective because of steadily worsening microbial degradation of the fumigant, or a pesticide-resistant pathogen may emerge.

A solution to these new problems might be to speed up the registration of another pesticide that could be used, or relax regulatory standards so more new products can get registered, or both. Consider another possibility. A regulatory agency may cancel use of a fumigant a farmer has been relying upon because of food safety, water quality, or concerns about it effect on wildlife. The farmer might then seek a change in grading standards or an increase in commodity prices or program benefits if alternative pesticides are more costly.

Each of these problems is distinctive when viewed in isolation and could be attacked through a number of changes in policy. The most cost-effective solution, however, will prove elusive unless the biology of the whole system is perceptively evaluated. For this reason, in the policy arena, just as on the farm, it is critical to know what the problem is that warrants intervention and what the root causes of the problem really are.

Research Challenges

In thinking through agricultural research priorities, it should be acknowledged that the crossroads where the sciences of agriculture and ecology meet remain largely undefined, yet clearly promising. There is too little information to specify in detail the features of a truly sustainable agriculture system, yet there is enough information to recognize the merit in striving toward sustainability in a more systematic way.

The capacity of current research programs and institutions to carry out such work is suspect (see Investing in Research [National Research Council, 1989b]). It also remains uncertain whether current policies and programs that were designed in the 1930s or earlier to serve a different set of farmer needs can effectively bring about the types of changes needed to improve ecological management on the modern farm.

In the 1980s, the research community reached consensus on the diagnosis of many of agriculture's contemporary ills; it may take most of the 1990s to agree on cures, and it will take at least another decade to get them into place. Those who are eager for a quick fix or who are just impatient are bound to be chronically frustrated by the slow rate of change.

Another important caution deserves emphasis. The “silver bullet” approach to solving agricultural production problems offers little promise for providing an understanding of the ecological and biological bases of sustainable agriculture. The one-on-one syndrome seeks to discover a new

pesticide for each pest, a new plant variety when a new strain of rust evolves, or a new nitrogen management method when nitrate contamination of drinking water becomes a pressing social concern. This reductionist approach reflects the inclination in the past to focus scientific and technological attention on products and outcomes rather than processes and on overcoming symptoms rather than eliminating causes. This must be changed if research aimed at making agriculture more sustainable is to move ahead at the rate possible given the new tools available to agricultural scientists.

One area of research in particular—biotechnology—will benefit from a shift in focus toward understanding the biology and ecology underlying agricultural systems. Biotechnology research tools make possible powerful new approaches in unraveling biological interactions and other natural processes at the molecular and cellular levels, thus shedding vital new light on ecological interactions with a degree of precision previously unimagined in the biological sciences. However, rather than using these new tools to advance knowledge about the functioning of systems as a first order of priority, emphasis is increasingly placed on discovering products to solve specific production problems or elucidating the mode of action of specific products.

This is regrettable for several reasons. A chance to decipher the physiological basis of sustainable agriculture systems is being put off. The payoff from focusing on products is also likely to be disappointing. The current widespread pattern of failure and consolidation within the agricultural biotechnology industry suggests that biotechnology is not yet mature enough as a science to reliably discover, refine, and commercialize product-based technologies. Products from biotechnology are inevitable, but a necessary first step must be to generate more in-depth understanding of biological processes, cycles, and interactions.

Perhaps the greatest potential of biotechnology lies in the design and on-farm application of more efficient, stable, and profitable cropping and livestock management systems. For farmers to use such systems successfully, they will need access to a range of new information and diagnostic and analytical techniques that can be used on a real-time basis to make agronomic and animal husbandry judgments about how to optimize the efficiencies of the processes and interactions that underlie plant and animal growth.

Knowledge, in combination with both conventional and novel inputs, will be deployed much more systematically to avoid soil nutrient or animal nutrition-related limits on growth; to ensure that diseases and pests do not become serious enough to warrant the excessive use of costly or hazardous pesticides; to increase the realistically attainable annual level of energy flows independent of purchased inputs within agroecosystems; and to maximize a range of functional symbiotic relationships between soil micro-

and macrofauna, plants, and animals. Discrete goals will include pathogen-suppressive soils, enhanced rotation effects, pest suppression by populations of plant-associated microorganisms, nutrient cycling and renewal, the optimization of general resistance mechanisms in plants by cultural practices, and much more effective soil and water conservation systems that benefit from changes in the stability of soil aggregates and the capacity of soils to absorb and hold moisture.

Because of the profound changes needed to create and instill this new knowledge and skills on the farm, the recommendations in Alternative Agriculture (National Research Council, 1989a) emphasize the need to expand systems-based applied research, on-farm experimentation utilizing farmers as research collaborators, and novel extension education strategies—the very goals of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's LISA program.

Future research efforts—and not just those funded through LISA—should place a premium on the application of ecological principles in the multidisciplinary study of farming system performance. A diversity of approaches in researching and designing innovative farming systems will ensure broad-based progress, particularly if farmers are actively engaged in the research enterprise.

Benbrook, C., and J. Cook. 1990. Striving toward sustainability: A framework to guide on-farm innovation, research, and policy analysis. Speech presented at the 1990 Pacific Northwest Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture, March 2.

Marten, J. 1989. Commentary: Will low-input rotations sustain your income? Farm Journal, Dec. 6.

National Research Council. 1989a. Alternative Agriculture. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

National Research Council. 1989b. Investing in Research: A Proposal to Strengthen the Agricultural, Food, and Environmental System. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Interest is growing in sustainable agriculture, which involves the use of productive and profitable farming practices that take advantage of natural biological processes to conserve resources, reduce inputs, protect the environment, and enhance public health. Continuing research is helping to demonstrate the ways that many factors—economics, biology, policy, and tradition—interact in sustainable agriculture systems.

This book contains the proceedings of a workshop on the findings of a broad range of research projects funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The areas of study, such as integrated pest management, alternative cropping and tillage systems, and comparisons with more conventional approaches, are essential to developing and adopting profitable and sustainable farming systems.

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186 Agriculture Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples

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Globalization Impact on Sustainable Agriculture
Agriculture and Its Role in Economic Development
Food Safety Issues in Modern Agriculture
Commercial Agriculture, Its Role and Definition
Agricultural Biotechnology and Its Pros and Cons
Agriculture: Personal Field Visit
In Support of Robotics Use in Agriculture
Improving Stress Resistance in Agricultural Crops The essay suggests that stress-resistant crops are needed to ensure yield stability under stress conditions and to minimize the environmental impacts of crop production.
Agricultural Influences on the Developing Civil Society Agriculture had a significant influence on developing societies, ranging from creating trade to bringing industrialization, education, and social classes.
Agriculture and Food in Ancient Greece The paper states that agricultural practices and goods from Greece extended to neighboring countries in the Mediterranean as the dominance increased.
Food and Agriculture of Ancient Greece The concepts of agriculture and cuisine both have a deep connection to Greek history, culture, development, and social trends.
Population Growth and Agriculture in the Future The current industrial agriculture needs to be advanced and developed in combination with sustainable agricultural practices.
Agricultural Role in African Development Diao et al. attempt to determine the role of agriculture in overcoming the challenge of poverty in rural areas of Africa compared to alternative theories of economic growth.
Food Safety: A Policy Issue in Agriculture Today Food safety constitutes proper preparation, storage and preservation of all foods. Markets are increasingly calling for improvement in the quality and safety standards of food crops.
Soil: The Essential Aspect of Agriculture Soil is an integral part of human life as it determines one’s quality of life. The health of the soil is reduced by erosion and degradation due to human activities.
Industry and Agriculture: Use of Technology Industry and agriculture are among the areas that have experienced a vast rise in effectiveness and performance quality due to the integration of new types of technology into them.
Repeasantization: Impact on Agriculture The repeasantization led to fundamental changes that created a new system of agriculture that is still relevant today.
Agriculture Development and Related Theories There are two main domestication models used to describe the development of agriculture: unconscious and conscious.
The Neolithic Era: Architecture and Agriculture The improvements to agriculture, society, architecture, and culture made during the Neolithic period had an undeniable impact on aspects of the world.
Agricultural Technology Implementation by Medieval Europeans and West Africans The paper examines how West Africans and Medieval Europeans were affected by their corresponding climates and why their methods were unique to their respective locations.
Agricultural Traditions of Canadians In Canada there is a very good agricultural education, so young people can get higher education in agriculture and use it on their own farms.
Agriculture: Application of Information Technology IT application in agriculture has contributed to food security in most modern communities. Farming has become easier than before as new inventions are made.
Sharecropping. History of Racial Agriculture Sharecropping became a variation of racialized agriculture, that which has negative impact on the capabilities of the black population to generate and pass down wealth.
Agriculture the Backbone of Ancient Egypt’s Economy In pre-industrial societies, agriculture was the backbone of most economies. This is true in ancient times and very much evident in ancient Egypt.
Hunting and Gathering Versus Agricultural Society The hunting and gathering society is considered the most equitable of all seven types, while the agricultural community gives rise to the development of civilization.
The Agriculture Industry’s Digital Transformation This study seeks to explore the dynamics of digital technology in agriculture over the past two decades, focusing on the perspectives and perceptions of the farmers.
Colonialism and Economic Development of Africa Through Agriculture The colonial period is characterized by the exploitation of the agricultural sector in Africa to make a profit and provide Western countries with raw materials.
The Big History of Civilizations – Origins of Agriculture: Video Analysis This paper aims to analyze the origins of agriculture – what was a foraging economy and way of life like, as well as compare foragers and farmers.
History of Agricultural Technology Development Agricultural technologies were majorly developed during the Medieval period to ensure sufficient product yields for growing populations around the world.
Impacts of Genetic Engineering of Agricultural Crops In present days the importance of genetic engineering grew due to the innovations in biotechnologies and Sciences.
Agriculture in Honduras: Existing Challenges and Possible Solutions This paper tackles the issue of existing challenges and possible solutions to the problems of agriculture in Honduras.
Virtual Water Savings and Trade in Agriculture The idea of virtual water was initially created as a method for assessing how water-rare nations could offer food, clothing, and other water-intensive products to their residents.
Market Revolution: Agriculture and Global Trade In the era of traders, the vast land area and rich natural resources created many economic opportunities. Most people lived in rural areas and were engaged in agriculture.
Agriculture and Food Production in the Old Kingdom
Agriculture and the Transition to the Market in Asia
Agrarian Reform and Subsistence Agriculture in Russia
Agriculture, Nutrition, and the Green Revolution in Bangladesh
Agriculture Business and Management
Agriculture, Horticulture, and Ancient Egypt
Agriculture and Food Production in the Old Kingdom of Egypt
Administrative and Transaction-Related Costs of Subsidising Agriculture
Agriculture and Economic Growth in Argentina, 1913-84
Agriculture and Economic Development in Brazil, 1960-1995
Agriculture and Greenhouse Gas Cap-And-Trade
Croatian Agriculture Towards World Market Liberalization
Adapting Credit Risk Models to Agriculture
Agriculture and European Union Enlargement
Agriculture and Food Security in Pakistan
Cash Flows and Financing in Texas Agriculture
Current Problems With Indian Agriculture
Agriculture and Its Drain on California
Agriculture and the Economic Life of India
Agriculture and Global Climate Stabilization
Achieving Regional Growth Dynamics in African Agriculture
Agriculture and Non-agricultural Liberalization in the Millennium Round
Corporate Agriculture and Modern Times
Agriculture and Rural Employment Agricultural in Bolivia
Climatic Fluctuations and the DI¤Usion of Agriculture
Agriculture Global Market Briefing
Agriculture and the Industrial Revolution of the Late 1700s
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in Ecuador
Biofuels, Agriculture, and Climate Change
Aggregate Technical Efficiency and Water Use in U.S. Agriculture
Agriculture, Water, and Food Security in Tanzania This paper evaluates the strategies applicable to the development and further maintenance of agriculture, water, and food security in Tanzania.
The Australian Agriculture Company’s Financial Analysis The Australian Agriculture Company shows a positive sign for investment due to its financial analysis indicating company resilience and strong prospects of growth.
Governmental Price Control in Agricultural Sector The consequences of real-life governmental price control are the evolutionary nature of transformations in the agricultural sector.
Aspects of Pesticide Use in Agriculture This paper investigates socio-environmental factors connected with pesticide use in agriculture and food production. It has a destructive impact on the environment
Agriculture-Led Food Crops and Cash Crops in Tanzania This paper aims to explore the contributions of the agriculture sector in Tanzania to the country’s industrialization process by using recent data about its food and cash crops.
The Impact of Pesticides’ Use on Agriculture Pesticides are mostly known for their adverse effects and, therefore, have a mostly negative connotation when discussed among general audiences.
Cuisine and Agriculture of Ancient Greece There are many reasons for modern students to investigate the development of cuisine and agriculture in Ancient Greece.
Agriculture and Food Safety in the United States Agriculture in the United States has grown progressively centralized. The shortcomings in the 2018 U.S. farm legislation resulted in multiple challenges in the food system.
Sustainable Agriculture and Future Perspectives Sustainable agriculture is essential to the earth’s environment. When farmers take care of their land and crops, they are taking care of environmental sustainability.
Agricultural Adaptation to Changing Environments The paper discusses the impact of climate change on agriculture in Canada. This phenomenon is real and has affected the industry over at least the last three decades.
Trade Peculiarities in Food and Agriculture Food trading is a peculiar area, as food is the basis for surviving the population. The one who controls food production and trading routes, also controls all populations.
Multinational Agricultural Manufacturing Companies’ Standardization & Adaptation The most popular approaches that multinational companies use to serve their customers from various countries are standardization and adaptation.
Sustainable Agriculture Against Food Insecurity The paper argues sustainable agriculture is one way to reduce food insecurity without harming the planet because the number of resources is currently decreasing.
Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food This paper will examine four aspects of climate change: variation in the rainfall pattern, water levels, drought, temperature, and heatwaves.
Canadian Laws Regarding Agricultural Sector The unions in Canada are the concept over which there has been an excessive dispute involving court proceedings and questioning the constitutional rights of citizens.
Food Additives Use in Agriculture in the United States Food additives in agriculture become a debatable issue because their benefits do not always prevail over such shortages like health issues and environmental concerns.
Radio-Frequency Identification in Healthcare and Agriculture Specifically, radio-frequency identification (RFID) has gained traction due to its ability to transmit data over distance.
Mechanism of US Agricultural Market The fact that lower interest rates increased the number of potential customers for real estate in the 2000s shows that housing prices should have increased.
A Biological Terror Attack in Agriculture The United States is highly vulnerable to terror attacks of biological nature in agriculture yet such an occurrence can cripple the economy.
The Economics of Race, Agriculture and Environment This research paper is going to answer the question; do public policies reduce or enhance racial inequality in agricultural and environmental affairs?
Impact of Bioterrorism on the U.S Agriculture System The paper describes that the term bioterrorism has several definitions depending upon the origin of the attack but in general terms, it refers to any form of terrorist attack.
The Effects of Genetic Modification of Agricultural Products Discussion of the threat to the health of the global population of genetically modified food in the works of Such authors as Jane Brody and David Ehrenfeld.
Climate Change and Its Potential Impact on Agriculture and Food Supply The global food supply chain has been greatly affected by the impact of global climate change. There are, however, benefits as well as drawbacks to crop production.
Agriculture and Mayan Society Resilience The Yucatan peninsula had a vast landscape which was good for agriculture thus making agriculture to be the main economic base for the Mayans.
Climate Changes Impact on Agriculture and Livestock The project evaluates the influences of climate changes on agriculture and livestock in different areas in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Homeland Security in Agriculture and Health Sectors Lack of attention to the security and protection of the agricultural sector in the U.S. economy can create a serious threat to the health and safety of the population.
Water Savings and Virtual Trade in Agriculture Water trade in agriculture is not a practice that is unique to the modern generation. The practice was common long before the emergence of the Egyptian Empire.
Virtual Water Trade and Savings in Agriculture This essay discusses the savings associated with virtual water trade in agriculture and touches on the effects of a shift to local agricultural production on global water savings.
Virtual Water Trade of Agricultural Products Virtual water trade is a concept associated with globalization and the global economy. Its rise was motivated by growing water scarcity in arid areas around the world.
European Invasion and Agriculture in the Caribbean The early invasion of the Europeans in the Caribbean did not prompt the employment of the slave trade in the agricultural activities until the development of the sugar plantations.
Freedom in American Countryside and Agriculture This paper portrays how freedom has been eliminated in the countryside by the state agriculture department, and whether the farmer has a moral right to do his farming practices.
Agricultural Problems in Venezuela Agriculture has been greatly underdeveloped in Venezuela, yet it is a country that has vital minerals and resources required for the global economy.
America’s Agriculture in the Period of 1865-1938 This paper analyzes America’s contribution in prevention of natural calamities, decline of soil quality, promotion of production outlay and provision of sufficient food.
Capital Taxes and Agriculture
Canadian Trade With the Chinese Agriculture Market
Agriculture and Its Impact on Economic Development
Bacteriocins From the Rhizosphere Microbiome From an Agriculture Perspective
Agriculture and Its Impact on Financial Institutions
Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food in the Irish Economy
Adoption and Economic Impact of Site-Specific Technologies in U.S. Agriculture
Cash Rents and Land Values in U.S. Agriculture
Crises and Structural Change in Australian Agriculture
Biotechnology and Its Application in Agriculture
Alternative Policies for Agriculture in Europe
Agriculture and Food Security in Asia by 2030
Agriculture and Coping Climate Change in Nepal
Agriculture and Ethiopia’s Economic Transformation
Culture: Agriculture and Egalitarian Social
Adaptation, Climate Change, Agriculture, and Water
Agriculture and the Literati in Colonial Bengal, 1870 to 1940
Agriculture and Barley Farming Taro
Agriculture and Agricultural Inputs Markets
Agriculture and Environmental Challenges
Challenges for Sustainable Agriculture in India
Agriculture and German Reunification
Agriculture and Tourism Relationship in Malaysia Tourism
21st Century Rural America: New Horizons for U.S. Agriculture
Canadian Agriculture and the Canadian Agricultural Industry
California Agriculture Dimensions and Issues
Advancements and the Development of Agriculture in Ancient Greece and Rome
Agriculture and Early Industrial Revolution
Aztec: Agriculture and Habersham County
Agriculture and Current Deforestation Practices
How Has Agriculture Changed From Early Egypt, Greece, and Rome to the Present?
What Are the Advantages of Using Pesticides on Agriculture?
Are Digital Technologies for the Future of Agriculture?
How Did Agriculture Change Our Society?
Does Agriculture Help Poverty and Inequality Reduction?
Can Agriculture Prosper Without Increased Social Capital?
Are Mega-Farms the Future of Global Agriculture?
How Can African Agriculture Adapt to Climate Change?
Does Agriculture Really Matter for Economic Growth in Developing Countries?
Can Conservation Agriculture Save Tropical Forests?
How Can Sustainable Agriculture Be Better for Americans?
Are U.S. and European Union Agriculture Policies Becoming More Similar?
Should Pollution Reductions Count as Productivity Gains for Agriculture?
Can Market Access Help African Agriculture?
How Does Genetic Engineering Affect Agriculture?
Does Individualization Help Productivity of Transition Agriculture?
Can Spot and Contract Markets Co-Exist in Agriculture?
How Has Biotechnology Changed Agriculture Throughout the Years?
Does Trade Policy Impact Food and Agriculture Global Value Chain Participation of Sub-Saharan African Countries?
Can Sustainable Agriculture Feed Africa?
How Can Multifunctional Agriculture Support a Transition to a Green Economy in Africa?
Does Urban Agriculture Enhance Dietary Diversity?
How Did Government Policy, Technology, and Economic Conditions Affect Agriculture?
Can the Small Dairy Farm Remain Competitive in US Agriculture?
What Are the Main Changes in French Agriculture Since 1945 and What Challenges Does It Face Today?
How Can Marketing Theory Be Applied to Policy Design to Deliver Sustainable Agriculture in England?
Will African Agriculture Survive Climate Change?
How Has Agriculture Changed Civilizations?
Does Urban Agriculture Improve Food Security?
Can US and Great Plains Agriculture Compete in the World Market?
The effect of climate change on crop yields and food security.
Sustainable agricultural practices for soil health.
Precision agriculture techniques and applications.
The impact of genetically engineered organisms on crop yields and safety.
The benefits of agroforestry systems for the environment.
Current challenges in water management in agriculture.
The environmental impact of organic farming.
The potential of urban agriculture to address food insecurity.
Food waste in the agricultural supply chain.
Comparing the effectiveness of aquaponic and hydroponic systems.
Organic vs. conventional farming.
Can regenerative agriculture combat climate change?
Agricultural subsidies: pros and cons.
Should harmful pesticides be banned to protect pollinators?
Should arable land be used for biofuels or food production?
Do patent protections of seeds hinder agricultural innovation?
Agricultural robots: increased efficiency or displaced rural labor?
Should GMO labeling be mandatory?
Do the benefits of pesticides outweigh their potential health harms?
Is it unsustainable to grow water-intensive crops in arid regions?
The economics of organic farming.
The need for climate-adaptive crops.
The role of bees in agriculture and threats to their survival.
Smart agriculture: transforming farming with data and connectivity.
The journey of food in modern agricultural supply chains.
The role of agri-tech startups in agricultural innovation.
Youth in agriculture: inspiring the next generation of farmers.
Why should we shift to plant-based meat alternatives?
The importance of preserving indigenous agricultural practices.
Smart irrigation systems: optimizing water use in agriculture.

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StudyCorgi . "186 Agriculture Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples." March 1, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/agriculture-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "186 Agriculture Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples." March 1, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/agriculture-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Agriculture were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

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A Study on Academic Attainment of Agriculture Students and its Correlates: A Dummy Regression Approach

Published: 26 May 2020
Volume 10 , pages 129–152, ( 2023 )

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Herojit Singh ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4430-886X 1 ,
Abhijnan Das 1 ,
Soumik Dey 1 ,
Lakshmi Narsimhaiah 1 ,
Pramit Pandit 1 ,
Kanchan Sinha 2 ,
P. K. Sahu 1 &
P. Mishra 3

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Education is a Nation’s strength. Association analysis of academic performance and its influential factors has remained research interest for all education researchers all over the world. India being an agriculture dominated country, for its development in agricultural front it requires ahuge numberof efficient technocrats having strong academic background. In this study an attempt has been made to examine the associationship of academic performance of the agriculture graduates, as measured through overall grade point average (OGPA) with the factors supposed to influence the academic performance. Special emphasis has been given to visualize the performance in presence of the influences of nominal factors. Students at masters level were surveyed for their social, economic, demographic and family and educational background through a designed questionnaire and tested accordingly. Statistical tools, starting from frequency, percentage, Chi-square test, test for normality, Cramer’s V test, multiple regression analysis with the inclusion of dummy variables were employed. Dependency of OGPA with gender, caste and expenditure on education is recorded. The dependency of educational expenditure on OGPA is quite obvious. But the dependency of OGPA with those of gender and caste is most probably not a good sign for a healthy higher education system. This study will help the education planners to take group oriented action plan for improving the education standard in higher education institutions.

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Department of Agricultural Statistics, Bidhan Chandra KrishiViswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, India

Herojit Singh, Abhijnan Das, Soumik Dey, Lakshmi Narsimhaiah, Pramit Pandit & P. K. Sahu

ICAR- Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (IASRI), New Delhi, India

Kanchan Sinha

College of Agriculture, JNKVV, Powarkheda, Madhya Pradesh, India

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Singh, H., Das, A., Dey, S. et al. A Study on Academic Attainment of Agriculture Students and its Correlates: A Dummy Regression Approach. Ann. Data. Sci. 10 , 129–152 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40745-020-00275-z

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Received : 09 February 2020

Revised : 15 April 2020

Accepted : 24 April 2020

Published : 26 May 2020

Issue Date : February 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40745-020-00275-z

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