qualitative research in daily life

1. Overview of qualitative inquiry and general texts on this topic
A School Story of Qualitative Inquiry
An Analysis of the Story
Qualitative Inquiry Process
The Reality about the Process
Organization of this Book
2. Assumptions we make in doing qualitative inquiry
Some Common Assumptions
An Analysis of Assumptions
Common Questions about Qualitative Inquiry
Some Additional Beliefs and Assumptions Regarding Human Inquiry
3. Keeping a record, writing fieldnotes
An Analysis
Kinds of Fieldnotes
Some Ideas about Record Keeping
Mechanics of Fieldnotes
4. Relationship building to enhance inquiry
An Article-Based Story
The Process
Results and Conclusion
An Analysis of KL's Experience
5. Standards and quality in qualitative inquiry
A Self-Critique Story
Credibility
Transferability
Dependability
Confirmability
Other Criteria
A Checklist
Audit Trail
6. Focusing the inquiry
A School's Superintendent's Story
7. Data collection
Gathering Through Observations, Interviews and Documents
An Assistant Principal's Story
General Lessons
Observing Lessons
Interviewing Lessons
Document Review Lessons
8. Data interpretation
A Graduate Student Story
Story Reading Through Analysis, Synthesis and Interpretation
Spradley's Approach to Interpretation
Domain Analysis
9. Sharing and reporting
Sharing through Story Telling
Revisiting Three Stories
An Analysis of Three Stories
10. Appendices
Appendix A.1 - A Sample Study from BYU-Public School Partnership
Appendix A.2 - What Have We Learned?
Appendix A.3 - Patterns of Experience
Appendix B.1 - Allowing Space for Not-Knowing: What My Journal Teaches Me, Part 1
Appendix B.2 - Allowing Space for Not-Knowing: What My Journal Teaches Me, Part 2
Appendix B.3 - Allowing Space for Not-Knowing: What My Journal Teaches Me, Part 3
Appendix B.4 - Allowing Space for Not-Knowing: What My Journal Teaches Me, Part 4
Appendix B.5 - Marne's critique of her own study
Appendix C - An Elementary School Example: My Observations of Jimmy
Appendix D - Reflecting on Reflection
Appendix E - A Study of Educational Change in Alberta
Appendix F - Moving Ahead: A Naturalistic Study of Retention Reversal of Five Elementary School Children
Appendix G.1 - An Examination of Teacher Reflection
Appendix G.2 - Themes of Reflection
Appendix H - Spradley's theme synthesis and report writing
Appendix I - Index of Topics
Endorsements
Front Matter

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Qualitative Inquiry in Daily Life

This book is meant to teach researchers, evaluators, and practitioners such as educators how to use qualitative inquiry in daily life. Although this book may make the most sense if it is read in sequence, feel free to navigate to any chapter or appendix at any time.

BYU Open Learning Network

CC BY : This work is released under a CC BY license, which means that you are free to do with it as you please as long as you properly attribute it.

The publisher BYU Open Learning Network does not have a physical location, but its primary support staff operate out of Provo, UT, USA.

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URL: https://open.byu.edu/qualitativeinquiry

Brigham Young University

David Dwayne Williams has conducted more than seventy evaluation studies throughout many countries. He also conducts qualitative research on people’s personal and professional evaluation lives, including how they use evaluation to enhance learning in various settings. He has published more than forty articles and books and made more than one hundred professional presentations examining interactions among stakeholders as they use their values to shape criteria and standards for evaluating learning environments and experiences. Dr. Williams is an emeritus professor from IPT at Brigham Young University .

Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

Also see Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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What is qualitative research?

The most fundamental characteristic of qualitative research is its express commitment to viewing events, action, norms, values, etc. from the perspective of the people who experience them in everyday life. (Bryman, 2004: p. 61)

The term “qualitative research” refers to an umbrella concept that encompasses many different forms of inquiry and methodological practices. It engages a variety of theoretical lenses, strategies, and techniques. Different from quantitative research, which is based on probability and measurement ( quantity ), qualitative research is based on the quality of the data generated to explain a phenomenon (e.g., why older adults would resist using some kinds of mobility devices) (Gardner, 2014). Traditionally, in the health sciences, qualitative research has been defined in opposition to quantitative research. A stereotypical view of qualitative research is that it is defined by its data generation methods, such as interviews and observations. These techniques are in fact shared with quantitative research; for example in psychological studies, observation is a commonly used strategy for quantification of behaviours (Green & Thorogood, 2004). We caution against these simplistic generalizations. As illustrated in this chapter, all qualitative health methodologies and methods are centred around the notion of knowledge production grounded in the quality (the explanatory potential) of the information generated about a phenomenon.

Qualitative research is best defined by its aims: it asks different questions and has a different focus than quantitative research. It is concerned with questions of how, why, and what (Green & Thorogood, 2004). Qualitative research is rooted in the social sciences and is concerned with people and their social realities (Bryman, 2004), with how the social world is understood, experienced, interpreted, and constituted; with individual and collective meanings, interpretations, practices/behaviours, and social processes. Its perspective is emic; it focuses on the subjectivity of human experiences (de la Cuesta, 2015). In the health sciences, qualitative research is the ideal approach for studying the meanings people give to their experiences and how they make sense of their social worlds (e.g., patients’ perceptions of self-care education or reasons for adherence, or not, to prescribed medication). Health care and health promotion are largely shaped by people’s perceptions, social norms, and organizational standards and practices; all these issues are social in nature and hence can be studied qualitatively.

Qualitative research is also based on a naturalistic approach to data generation. This means that people, situations, and events are studied where they happen, in their “natural settings,” and thus all qualitative data are contextual, connected to the people, places, times, events, and the everyday social interactions – or “social and cultural contexts” – in which the data are generated. Context is also essential for understanding social behaviours and for making sense of or analyzing data produced. Context includes considerations such as who, when, where, why, class, race/ethnicity/gender, age, and circumstances (Holstein & Gubrium, 2004; Korstjens & Moser, 2017).

Qualitative research has also been described in terms of its broad purposes or goals: exploratory, where researchers investigate phenomena about which little is known; explanatory, where relationships, events, behaviours, or beliefs related to a group are explained; descriptive, where experiences or events are documented; and emancipatory, where the goal is to create opportunities for people to engage in social action (Agee, 2009). While these objectives can be helpful in situating a study, they are artificial distinctions because qualitative researchers often combine more than one goal in their study design. For example, answering a question such as “what are the processes that shape the ability of patients with diabetes to follow a prescribed diet?” requires both description and explanation.

Additionally, qualitative research traditions vary according to the uses researchers in distinct disciplines make of them. Within health sciences, for example, there is a particular way to think about “types” of qualitative research. Eakin (2016) refers to the dominance of post-positivist qualitative research (PPQR) in the health sciences, where qualitative data is viewed through a positivist lens: for instance, data are “real” and speak for themselves; findings “emerge” from the data independently of the researcher, who assumes a veneer of neutrality; and “findings” are reported mainly in implicitly quantitative terms (“some,” “most”). In PPQR, qualitative research is conceived of as purely a “method or technique, a ‘toolbox’ of procedures divorced from their philosophical undercarriage” (Eakin, 2016: p.111). Eakin concludes that this type of qualitative research has “limited value either as positivist or interpretive enterprise [because] it cannot satisfy the criteria for adequate positivist design (objective standardized procedure, statistical generalizability) or for adequate interpretive design (researcher as instrument, conceptual generalizability)” (p. 111).

As we are interested in doing the most we can when we use qualitative research to improve health care delivery and to challenge the ways we think about health issues broadly (e.g., social discourses, policies, programs), we engage with an interpretive, rather than a post-positivist, form of qualitative research. This is also called “interpretive research” (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow, 2012). Interpretive qualitative research is rooted in the assumption that meaning is discerned by the researcher. Through language use, human interaction, and meaning-making, the researcher and participant create the conditions for an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon (e.g., the stigma associated with TB treatment).

This type of interpretive qualitative research strives for what Eakin (2016) calls “value-added” analysis. It is an approach that refuses a mere cataloguing of pre-conceived or common-sense ideas, maximizes the “creative presence” of the researcher, and deploys theoretical abstraction as a key methodological strategy for reconceptualizing phenomena and creating generalizable knowledge, through the process of theorization (Eakin, 2016). Here the researcher goes beyond mere description of an experience or a phenomenon to question, for instance, commonly held notions and assumptions, or the everyday experiences that are taken for granted. The researcher does not take data as given but works hard to interpret it, considers the story behind the story, questions common-sense and received understandings, and asks questions about the nature of the phenomenon under study (Eakin, 2016). (see also Ward, Hoare & Gott, 2015).

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Qualitative Inquiry in Everyday Life Working with Everyday Life Materials

Svend Brinkmann - Aalborg University, Denmark
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Brinkmann's text works out of the well-established tradition of everyday life studies and the critical narrative framework developed by Steinar Kvale. It is clearly written, it is accessible, it has good examples and it systematically works through the use and study of self-observations, conversations, media, cinema, and literature Norman Denzin University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Overall, Brinkmann adds a welcome and informative contribution to the existing body of research methods literature. He presents and explains the varying theoretical and practical aspects of carrying out a relatively new and unexplored type of qualitative inquiry-everyday life research. Brinkmann’s arguments are clearly articulated, and where appropriate, often supplemented by commentary on his own personal research experiences, breakdowns of key terms and concepts, and practical exercises/points for reflection. With the exception of a few areas, in which Brinkmann might have expanded the range of issues discussed (relating to ethics), or made some points clearer (on approaches involved in self-observation studies), this book could be considered very readable, accessible, and would make a useful point of reference for students, academics and researchers alike.

Emma Smith Book reviews, Methodspace

The book could be used interdisciplinary, in different scientific areas - by sociologists, psychologists, philosophers, experts in literature, even the ordinary reader who is interested in a more scientific approach to everyday life events and experiences.

Stanislava Stoyanova Methodspace

Brinkmann immediately won my interest in his book with his less is more argument... In each chapter, he provides a deeply theoretical analysis of the source and methods of studying it, lightened by an extended illustrative example exploring some aspect of the new experience or expression of guilt and shame... Throughout this book, Brinkmann is drawing on his extensive knowledge of philosophical, psychological and literary sources to argue for and exemplify a style of research that draws on points of breakdown, when everyday expectations aren't met. This book is not for the faint hearted... This is a book for the serious researcher, one from which, if you are prepared to put in the work to read, study, and apply, you will reap stimulating ideas and rich intellectual rewards.

Pat Bazeley Books Reviews, Methodspace

Brinkmann successfully achieves ‘conceptual audacity’ in his text. It comes across as multilayered, rich in description, and analysis, while at the same time providing a valuable stock of qualitative theory, and useful examples. This is an inspiring textbook, which would be useful to novice and experienced qualitative researchers alike.

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An Overview of Qualitative Research Methods

Direct Observation, Interviews, Participation, Immersion, Focus Groups

Research, Samples, and Statistics
Key Concepts
Major Sociologists
News & Issues
Recommended Reading
Archaeology

Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and works with non-numerical data and that seeks to interpret meaning from these data that help understand social life through the study of targeted populations or places.

People often frame it in opposition to quantitative research , which uses numerical data to identify large-scale trends and employs statistical operations to determine causal and correlative relationships between variables.

Within sociology, qualitative research is typically focused on the micro-level of social interaction that composes everyday life, whereas quantitative research typically focuses on macro-level trends and phenomena.

Key Takeaways

Methods of qualitative research include:

observation and immersion
open-ended surveys
focus groups
content analysis of visual and textual materials
oral history

Qualitative research has a long history in sociology and has been used within it for as long as the field has existed.

This type of research has long appealed to social scientists because it allows the researchers to investigate the meanings people attribute to their behavior, actions, and interactions with others.

While quantitative research is useful for identifying relationships between variables, like, for example, the connection between poverty and racial hate, it is qualitative research that can illuminate why this connection exists by going directly to the source—the people themselves.

Qualitative research is designed to reveal the meaning that informs the action or outcomes that are typically measured by quantitative research. So qualitative researchers investigate meanings, interpretations, symbols, and the processes and relations of social life.

What this type of research produces is descriptive data that the researcher must then interpret using rigorous and systematic methods of transcribing, coding, and analysis of trends and themes.

Because its focus is everyday life and people's experiences, qualitative research lends itself well to creating new theories using the inductive method , which can then be tested with further research.

Qualitative researchers use their own eyes, ears, and intelligence to collect in-depth perceptions and descriptions of targeted populations, places, and events.

Their findings are collected through a variety of methods, and often a researcher will use at least two or several of the following while conducting a qualitative study:

Direct observation : With direct observation, a researcher studies people as they go about their daily lives without participating or interfering. This type of research is often unknown to those under study, and as such, must be conducted in public settings where people do not have a reasonable expectation of privacy. For example, a researcher might observe the ways in which strangers interact in public as they gather to watch a street performer.
Open-ended surveys : While many surveys are designed to generate quantitative data, many are also designed with open-ended questions that allow for the generation and analysis of qualitative data. For example, a survey might be used to investigate not just which political candidates voters chose, but why they chose them, in their own words.
Focus group : In a focus group, a researcher engages a small group of participants in a conversation designed to generate data relevant to the research question. Focus groups can contain anywhere from 5 to 15 participants. Social scientists often use them in studies that examine an event or trend that occurs within a specific community. They are common in market research, too.
In-depth interviews : Researchers conduct in-depth interviews by speaking with participants in a one-on-one setting. Sometimes a researcher approaches the interview with a predetermined list of questions or topics for discussion but allows the conversation to evolve based on how the participant responds. Other times, the researcher has identified certain topics of interest but does not have a formal guide for the conversation, but allows the participant to guide it.
Oral history : The oral history method is used to create a historical account of an event, group, or community, and typically involves a series of in-depth interviews conducted with one or multiple participants over an extended period.
Participant observation : This method is similar to observation, however with this one, the researcher also participates in the action or events to not only observe others but to gain the first-hand experience in the setting.
Ethnographic observation : Ethnographic observation is the most intensive and in-depth observational method. Originating in anthropology, with this method, a researcher fully immerses themselves into the research setting and lives among the participants as one of them for anywhere from months to years. By doing this, the researcher attempts to experience day-to-day existence from the viewpoints of those studied to develop in-depth and long-term accounts of the community, events, or trends under observation.
Content analysis : This method is used by sociologists to analyze social life by interpreting words and images from documents, film, art, music, and other cultural products and media. The researchers look at how the words and images are used, and the context in which they are used to draw inferences about the underlying culture. Content analysis of digital material, especially that generated by social media users, has become a popular technique within the social sciences.

While much of the data generated by qualitative research is coded and analyzed using just the researcher's eyes and brain, the use of computer software to do these processes is increasingly popular within the social sciences.

Such software analysis works well when the data is too large for humans to handle, though the lack of a human interpreter is a common criticism of the use of computer software.

Qualitative Sociology as Everyday Life

Barry Glassner - University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles
Rosanna Hertz - Wellesley College, USA
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Qualitative Inquiry in Everyday Life: Working with Everyday Life Materials

2012, Qualitative Inquiry in Everyday Life: Working with Everyday Life Materials

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Importance of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a form of social investigation that primarily focuses on the different types of the way people make sense of their knowledge in the world they live in. It also involves the interpretation of their experiences in their daily life. We live in a world where the different races of human beings exist side by side without any problem. We might ask what are the attributes, differences or similarities to make this comparison. In this scenario, qualitative research plays a major role in answering all of our doubts.

According to a study by Coghan in 2014, there is an involvement of personal experiences in each stage of qualitative research. Quantitative research is defined as an act of investigation or inquiry of real-life proceedings.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Various characteristics of qualitative research are as follows.

Helps in interpretation and understanding of human behavior through data analysis
The powerful and active method of data collection by asking questions through interviews, surveys, and questionnaires
Some multiple methods and approaches allow the researcher to plan for the study. It is a multiple method research study
Several specific ideas that lead to the conclusion or generalization of the data
Contextualization of the situation in the life of an individual
Collection of diversified data in natural and real-life settings
Representation of view of the people in a video, drawing, picture or graphs
Proper examination of the data yielded due to internal attributes of the subject

Advantages of the Qualitative Research

Now let us check in detail the advantages of qualitative research in real life. They are described below.

Quantitative research implements an approach that is completely natural to the subject matter.
The framework for research is based on available and incoming data. Also, the subject materials are evaluated in greater detail along with discussions.
The collected data in qualitative research includes a predictive quality in it. It mainly operates within the fluid structures.
The complexities of the data in qualitative research can be incorporated into the generated conclusions.
Promotes a detailed understanding of the human personality and behavior traits in their natural surroundings.
It is very efficient in bringing positive changes in society
The qualitative research maintains respect for the individuality of different people.
The research is the most effective way to interpret and understand the interactions in society.
Enhances the interest of the researcher on a particular subject.
Qualitative research offers multiple and innovative ways of examining and acquiring data about a study.
Qualitative research unveils the feelings, perceptions, and attitudes of a particular topic.
It also stimulates the interpersonal and interdependence of the relationships among human beings.
All the information is reliable and precise, as qualitative research promotes the collaboration of the researchers as well.
It also provides an in-depth and detailed idea about a subject by analyzing the ranks and counts of the feelings, attitudes, and behavior.
It also can explain why a particular response was given against the questions in an interview.

How can Qualitative Research Help Mankind?

Qualitative data can help mankind in many different ways. Let us have a brief look at it below:

Development of hypothesis for the development of a quantitative questionnaire and further testing processes.
Identification of the needs of the consumers
Making perceptions of the communication and marketing messages
Generation of the ideas for the extension or improvement of the products, services or brands
Understanding the people’s perspective on marketing or a communication piece
Understanding of the values, perceptions, and feelings that influences and underlie in the behavior
Capturing the languages of the imagery clients to relate or describe to a service, product or brand
Understanding of the better meaning of the data obtained through quantitative research
Unhidden the direction of the potential strategies for the communication or branding programs
Designing of parameters like responses range of relevant questions for the study of quantitative research

Implementation of Qualitative research in Real Life Situations

Below are some of the real-life circumstances where qualitative research is often used. They are:

Investigation of the potential or current products services or position of a brand through the marketing strategies.
Understanding the dynamics of the purchasing decision.
Exploring market sections like a specific group of people, demographics, age and many more.
Accessing the website usability or various other interactive services or products.
Determining the language of the customer as the most important step to create a quantitative survey.
Development and generation of an idea of a new product.
Weaknesses and strengths of the brands or products
Studying the attitudes and emotions of the public and social affair related issues
Complete understanding of the company’s perception of a specific brand, product, or category

The Pros of the Qualitative Research

With experts from WriteMyPaperHub you will write your research paper – but let us take a quick sneak peek into the pros of qualitative research. They are the following

The approach of qualitative research is not bounded by quantitative methods. If the responses do not fit the expectations of the researchers, then qualitative research might explain something that numbers itself cannot explain alone.
Qualitative research allows the researchers to be more speculative about which segments they need and how to investigate. It allows prompt data capture according to the instinctive or gut feelings of the researcher where good information can be revealed.
Qualitative research captures the evolving attitudes of the target group like service or product for the consumers, or attitudes of the employees in the office.
Qualitative research offers an approach that is more flexible in nature. If the insights are not useful, then the researchers can adapt questions to change the settings or variables and improve the responses.
Qualitative research is more targeted and covers different areas of organizations. It includes the entire process, parts, and participants that are needed to be accounted for.
Qualitative research speeds up the procedure for data capturing and keeping the costs of the data collection low.

Any type of research be it qualitative or quantitative, both the approaches have pros and cons. In the case of qualitative research, its value is undeniably linked to the numbers of quantitative data. Thus we can conclude that qualitative research is far more focused, experimental and concentrated in capturing the views and feelings of the participants.

About The Author

Practical Research 1 Module: Qualitative Research and Its Importance in Daily Life

This Senior High School Practical Research 1 Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our dear learners, can continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities, questions, directions, exercises, and discussions are carefully stated for you to understand each lesson.

Conducting qualitative research is as significant as the necessities of human existence. It paves way to understanding the current issues and natural phenomena that greatly contribute to the lives of the people.

As a researcher, it is imperative to realize the importance of qualitative research in everyday life for this will serve as sustenance to finish the course of the study. Further, this will truly inspire anyone to pursue the fulfillment of research in the context of providing answers to questions and set a trend to the rest of the researchers.

This lesson will brace you with knowledge on kinds, characteristics, uses, strengths, and weaknesses of qualitative research. These topics are necessary as you get closer to choosing the field of research you will focus on.

Every day of our lives is a challenge. We face so many questions that sometimes cannot be answered by merely asking our neighbors or even the experts we know. As a result, we attempt to investigate about these problems ourselves. In this scenario, our knowledge in research is very important.

Among the steps we take is asking ourselves, “Why do I need to pursue the answers to these questions? Well, for that matter, you must realize that research plays a big role in the lives of the people-your family, friends, and neighbors.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Learning Objectives:

After studying this module, you are expected to:

describe the characteristics, strengths and weaknesses of qualitative research (CS_RS11-IIIb-1) ;
identify the kinds of qualitative research (CS_RS11-IIIb-1) ;
familiarize the qualitative research in different fields (CS_RS11-IIIb-2) ; and
determine the importance of qualitative research in different fields (CS_RS11-IIIb 2) .

Senior High School Quarter 1 Self-Learning Module Practical Research 2 – Qualitative Research and Its Importance in Daily Life

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Qualitative Methods in Health Care Research

Vishnu renjith.

School of Nursing and Midwifery, Royal College of Surgeons Ireland - Bahrain (RCSI Bahrain), Al Sayh Muharraq Governorate, Bahrain

Renjulal Yesodharan

1 Department of Mental Health Nursing, Manipal College of Nursing Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India

Judith A. Noronha

2 Department of OBG Nursing, Manipal College of Nursing Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India

Elissa Ladd

3 School of Nursing, MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston, USA

Anice George

4 Department of Child Health Nursing, Manipal College of Nursing Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India

Healthcare research is a systematic inquiry intended to generate robust evidence about important issues in the fields of medicine and healthcare. Qualitative research has ample possibilities within the arena of healthcare research. This article aims to inform healthcare professionals regarding qualitative research, its significance, and applicability in the field of healthcare. A wide variety of phenomena that cannot be explained using the quantitative approach can be explored and conveyed using a qualitative method. The major types of qualitative research designs are narrative research, phenomenological research, grounded theory research, ethnographic research, historical research, and case study research. The greatest strength of the qualitative research approach lies in the richness and depth of the healthcare exploration and description it makes. In health research, these methods are considered as the most humanistic and person-centered way of discovering and uncovering thoughts and actions of human beings.

Introduction

Healthcare research is a systematic inquiry intended to generate trustworthy evidence about issues in the field of medicine and healthcare. The three principal approaches to health research are the quantitative, the qualitative, and the mixed methods approach. The quantitative research method uses data, which are measures of values and counts and are often described using statistical methods which in turn aids the researcher to draw inferences. Qualitative research incorporates the recording, interpreting, and analyzing of non-numeric data with an attempt to uncover the deeper meanings of human experiences and behaviors. Mixed methods research, the third methodological approach, involves collection and analysis of both qualitative and quantitative information with an objective to solve different but related questions, or at times the same questions.[ 1 , 2 ]

In healthcare, qualitative research is widely used to understand patterns of health behaviors, describe lived experiences, develop behavioral theories, explore healthcare needs, and design interventions.[ 1 , 2 , 3 ] Because of its ample applications in healthcare, there has been a tremendous increase in the number of health research studies undertaken using qualitative methodology.[ 4 , 5 ] This article discusses qualitative research methods, their significance, and applicability in the arena of healthcare.

Qualitative Research

Diverse academic and non-academic disciplines utilize qualitative research as a method of inquiry to understand human behavior and experiences.[ 6 , 7 ] According to Munhall, “Qualitative research involves broadly stated questions about human experiences and realities, studied through sustained contact with the individual in their natural environments and producing rich, descriptive data that will help us to understand those individual's experiences.”[ 8 ]

Significance of Qualitative Research

The qualitative method of inquiry examines the 'how' and 'why' of decision making, rather than the 'when,' 'what,' and 'where.'[ 7 ] Unlike quantitative methods, the objective of qualitative inquiry is to explore, narrate, and explain the phenomena and make sense of the complex reality. Health interventions, explanatory health models, and medical-social theories could be developed as an outcome of qualitative research.[ 9 ] Understanding the richness and complexity of human behavior is the crux of qualitative research.

Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

The quantitative and qualitative forms of inquiry vary based on their underlying objectives. They are in no way opposed to each other; instead, these two methods are like two sides of a coin. The critical differences between quantitative and qualitative research are summarized in Table 1 .[ 1 , 10 , 11 ]

Differences between quantitative and qualitative research

Qualitative Research Questions and Purpose Statements

Qualitative questions are exploratory and are open-ended. A well-formulated study question forms the basis for developing a protocol, guides the selection of design, and data collection methods. Qualitative research questions generally involve two parts, a central question and related subquestions. The central question is directed towards the primary phenomenon under study, whereas the subquestions explore the subareas of focus. It is advised not to have more than five to seven subquestions. A commonly used framework for designing a qualitative research question is the 'PCO framework' wherein, P stands for the population under study, C stands for the context of exploration, and O stands for the outcome/s of interest.[ 12 ] The PCO framework guides researchers in crafting a focused study question.

Example: In the question, “What are the experiences of mothers on parenting children with Thalassemia?”, the population is “mothers of children with Thalassemia,” the context is “parenting children with Thalassemia,” and the outcome of interest is “experiences.”

The purpose statement specifies the broad focus of the study, identifies the approach, and provides direction for the overall goal of the study. The major components of a purpose statement include the central phenomenon under investigation, the study design and the population of interest. Qualitative research does not require a-priori hypothesis.[ 13 , 14 , 15 ]

Example: Borimnejad et al . undertook a qualitative research on the lived experiences of women suffering from vitiligo. The purpose of this study was, “to explore lived experiences of women suffering from vitiligo using a hermeneutic phenomenological approach.” [ 16 ]

Review of the Literature

In quantitative research, the researchers do an extensive review of scientific literature prior to the commencement of the study. However, in qualitative research, only a minimal literature search is conducted at the beginning of the study. This is to ensure that the researcher is not influenced by the existing understanding of the phenomenon under the study. The minimal literature review will help the researchers to avoid the conceptual pollution of the phenomenon being studied. Nonetheless, an extensive review of the literature is conducted after data collection and analysis.[ 15 ]

Reflexivity

Reflexivity refers to critical self-appraisal about one's own biases, values, preferences, and preconceptions about the phenomenon under investigation. Maintaining a reflexive diary/journal is a widely recognized way to foster reflexivity. According to Creswell, “Reflexivity increases the credibility of the study by enhancing more neutral interpretations.”[ 7 ]

Types of Qualitative Research Designs

The qualitative research approach encompasses a wide array of research designs. The words such as types, traditions, designs, strategies of inquiry, varieties, and methods are used interchangeably. The major types of qualitative research designs are narrative research, phenomenological research, grounded theory research, ethnographic research, historical research, and case study research.[ 1 , 7 , 10 ]

Narrative research

Narrative research focuses on exploring the life of an individual and is ideally suited to tell the stories of individual experiences.[ 17 ] The purpose of narrative research is to utilize 'story telling' as a method in communicating an individual's experience to a larger audience.[ 18 ] The roots of narrative inquiry extend to humanities including anthropology, literature, psychology, education, history, and sociology. Narrative research encompasses the study of individual experiences and learning the significance of those experiences. The data collection procedures include mainly interviews, field notes, letters, photographs, diaries, and documents collected from one or more individuals. Data analysis involves the analysis of the stories or experiences through “re-storying of stories” and developing themes usually in chronological order of events. Rolls and Payne argued that narrative research is a valuable approach in health care research, to gain deeper insight into patient's experiences.[ 19 ]

Example: Karlsson et al . undertook a narrative inquiry to “explore how people with Alzheimer's disease present their life story.” Data were collected from nine participants. They were asked to describe about their life experiences from childhood to adulthood, then to current life and their views about the future life. [ 20 ]

Phenomenological research

Phenomenology is a philosophical tradition developed by German philosopher Edmond Husserl. His student Martin Heidegger did further developments in this methodology. It defines the 'essence' of individual's experiences regarding a certain phenomenon.[ 1 ] The methodology has its origin from philosophy, psychology, and education. The purpose of qualitative research is to understand the people's everyday life experiences and reduce it into the central meaning or the 'essence of the experience'.[ 21 , 22 ] The unit of analysis of phenomenology is the individuals who have had similar experiences of the phenomenon. Interviews with individuals are mainly considered for the data collection, though, documents and observations are also useful. Data analysis includes identification of significant meaning elements, textural description (what was experienced), structural description (how was it experienced), and description of 'essence' of experience.[ 1 , 7 , 21 ] The phenomenological approach is further divided into descriptive and interpretive phenomenology. Descriptive phenomenology focuses on the understanding of the essence of experiences and is best suited in situations that need to describe the lived phenomenon. Hermeneutic phenomenology or Interpretive phenomenology moves beyond the description to uncover the meanings that are not explicitly evident. The researcher tries to interpret the phenomenon, based on their judgment rather than just describing it.[ 7 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]

Example: A phenomenological study conducted by Cornelio et al . aimed at describing the lived experiences of mothers in parenting children with leukemia. Data from ten mothers were collected using in-depth semi-structured interviews and were analyzed using Husserl's method of phenomenology. Themes such as “pivotal moment in life”, “the experience of being with a seriously ill child”, “having to keep distance with the relatives”, “overcoming the financial and social commitments”, “responding to challenges”, “experience of faith as being key to survival”, “health concerns of the present and future”, and “optimism” were derived. The researchers reported the essence of the study as “chronic illness such as leukemia in children results in a negative impact on the child and on the mother.” [ 25 ]

Grounded Theory Research

Grounded theory has its base in sociology and propagated by two sociologists, Barney Glaser, and Anselm Strauss.[ 26 ] The primary purpose of grounded theory is to discover or generate theory in the context of the social process being studied. The major difference between grounded theory and other approaches lies in its emphasis on theory generation and development. The name grounded theory comes from its ability to induce a theory grounded in the reality of study participants.[ 7 , 27 ] Data collection in grounded theory research involves recording interviews from many individuals until data saturation. Constant comparative analysis, theoretical sampling, theoretical coding, and theoretical saturation are unique features of grounded theory research.[ 26 , 27 , 28 ] Data analysis includes analyzing data through 'open coding,' 'axial coding,' and 'selective coding.'[ 1 , 7 ] Open coding is the first level of abstraction, and it refers to the creation of a broad initial range of categories, axial coding is the procedure of understanding connections between the open codes, whereas selective coding relates to the process of connecting the axial codes to formulate a theory.[ 1 , 7 ] Results of the grounded theory analysis are supplemented with a visual representation of major constructs usually in the form of flow charts or framework diagrams. Quotations from the participants are used in a supportive capacity to substantiate the findings. Strauss and Corbin highlights that “the value of the grounded theory lies not only in its ability to generate a theory but also to ground that theory in the data.”[ 27 ]

Example: Williams et al . conducted a grounded theory research to explore the nature of relationship between the sense of self and the eating disorders. Data were collected form 11 women with a lifetime history of Anorexia Nervosa and were analyzed using the grounded theory methodology. Analysis led to the development of a theoretical framework on the nature of the relationship between the self and Anorexia Nervosa. [ 29 ]

Ethnographic research

Ethnography has its base in anthropology, where the anthropologists used it for understanding the culture-specific knowledge and behaviors. In health sciences research, ethnography focuses on narrating and interpreting the health behaviors of a culture-sharing group. 'Culture-sharing group' in an ethnography represents any 'group of people who share common meanings, customs or experiences.' In health research, it could be a group of physicians working in rural care, a group of medical students, or it could be a group of patients who receive home-based rehabilitation. To understand the cultural patterns, researchers primarily observe the individuals or group of individuals for a prolonged period of time.[ 1 , 7 , 30 ] The scope of ethnography can be broad or narrow depending on the aim. The study of more general cultural groups is termed as macro-ethnography, whereas micro-ethnography focuses on more narrowly defined cultures. Ethnography is usually conducted in a single setting. Ethnographers collect data using a variety of methods such as observation, interviews, audio-video records, and document reviews. A written report includes a detailed description of the culture sharing group with emic and etic perspectives. When the researcher reports the views of the participants it is called emic perspectives and when the researcher reports his or her views about the culture, the term is called etic.[ 7 ]

Example: The aim of the ethnographic study by LeBaron et al . was to explore the barriers to opioid availability and cancer pain management in India. The researchers collected data from fifty-nine participants using in-depth semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and document review. The researchers identified significant barriers by open coding and thematic analysis of the formal interview. [ 31 ]

Historical research

Historical research is the “systematic collection, critical evaluation, and interpretation of historical evidence”.[ 1 ] The purpose of historical research is to gain insights from the past and involves interpreting past events in the light of the present. The data for historical research are usually collected from primary and secondary sources. The primary source mainly includes diaries, first hand information, and writings. The secondary sources are textbooks, newspapers, second or third-hand accounts of historical events and medical/legal documents. The data gathered from these various sources are synthesized and reported as biographical narratives or developmental perspectives in chronological order. The ideas are interpreted in terms of the historical context and significance. The written report describes 'what happened', 'how it happened', 'why it happened', and its significance and implications to current clinical practice.[ 1 , 10 ]

Example: Lubold (2019) analyzed the breastfeeding trends in three countries (Sweden, Ireland, and the United States) using a historical qualitative method. Through analysis of historical data, the researcher found that strong family policies, adherence to international recommendations and adoption of baby-friendly hospital initiative could greatly enhance the breastfeeding rates. [ 32 ]

Case study research

Case study research focuses on the description and in-depth analysis of the case(s) or issues illustrated by the case(s). The design has its origin from psychology, law, and medicine. Case studies are best suited for the understanding of case(s), thus reducing the unit of analysis into studying an event, a program, an activity or an illness. Observations, one to one interviews, artifacts, and documents are used for collecting the data, and the analysis is done through the description of the case. From this, themes and cross-case themes are derived. A written case study report includes a detailed description of one or more cases.[ 7 , 10 ]

Example: Perceptions of poststroke sexuality in a woman of childbearing age was explored using a qualitative case study approach by Beal and Millenbrunch. Semi structured interview was conducted with a 36- year mother of two children with a history of Acute ischemic stroke. The data were analyzed using an inductive approach. The authors concluded that “stroke during childbearing years may affect a woman's perception of herself as a sexual being and her ability to carry out gender roles”. [ 33 ]

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Qualitative researchers widely use non-probability sampling techniques such as purposive sampling, convenience sampling, quota sampling, snowball sampling, homogeneous sampling, maximum variation sampling, extreme (deviant) case sampling, typical case sampling, and intensity sampling. The selection of a sampling technique depends on the nature and needs of the study.[ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ] The four widely used sampling techniques are convenience sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and intensity sampling.

Convenience sampling

It is otherwise called accidental sampling, where the researchers collect data from the subjects who are selected based on accessibility, geographical proximity, ease, speed, and or low cost.[ 34 ] Convenience sampling offers a significant benefit of convenience but often accompanies the issues of sample representation.

Purposive sampling

Purposive or purposeful sampling is a widely used sampling technique.[ 35 ] It involves identifying a population based on already established sampling criteria and then selecting subjects who fulfill that criteria to increase the credibility. However, choosing information-rich cases is the key to determine the power and logic of purposive sampling in a qualitative study.[ 1 ]

Snowball sampling

The method is also known as 'chain referral sampling' or 'network sampling.' The sampling starts by having a few initial participants, and the researcher relies on these early participants to identify additional study participants. It is best adopted when the researcher wishes to study the stigmatized group, or in cases, where findings of participants are likely to be difficult by ordinary means. Respondent ridden sampling is an improvised version of snowball sampling used to find out the participant from a hard-to-find or hard-to-study population.[ 37 , 38 ]

Intensity sampling

The process of identifying information-rich cases that manifest the phenomenon of interest is referred to as intensity sampling. It requires prior information, and considerable judgment about the phenomenon of interest and the researcher should do some preliminary investigations to determine the nature of the variation. Intensity sampling will be done once the researcher identifies the variation across the cases (extreme, average and intense) and picks the intense cases from them.[ 40 ]

Deciding the Sample Size

A-priori sample size calculation is not undertaken in the case of qualitative research. Researchers collect the data from as many participants as possible until they reach the point of data saturation. Data saturation or the point of redundancy is the stage where the researcher no longer sees or hears any new information. Data saturation gives the idea that the researcher has captured all possible information about the phenomenon of interest. Since no further information is being uncovered as redundancy is achieved, at this point the data collection can be stopped. The objective here is to get an overall picture of the chronicle of the phenomenon under the study rather than generalization.[ 1 , 7 , 41 ]

Data Collection in Qualitative Research

The various strategies used for data collection in qualitative research includes in-depth interviews (individual or group), focus group discussions (FGDs), participant observation, narrative life history, document analysis, audio materials, videos or video footage, text analysis, and simple observation. Among all these, the three popular methods are the FGDs, one to one in-depth interviews and the participant observation.

FGDs are useful in eliciting data from a group of individuals. They are normally built around a specific topic and are considered as the best approach to gather data on an entire range of responses to a topic.[ 42 Group size in an FGD ranges from 6 to 12. Depending upon the nature of participants, FGDs could be homogeneous or heterogeneous.[ 1 , 14 ] One to one in-depth interviews are best suited to obtain individuals' life histories, lived experiences, perceptions, and views, particularly while exporting topics of sensitive nature. In-depth interviews can be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured. However, semi-structured interviews are widely used in qualitative research. Participant observations are suitable for gathering data regarding naturally occurring behaviors.[ 1 ]

Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

Various strategies are employed by researchers to analyze data in qualitative research. Data analytic strategies differ according to the type of inquiry. A general content analysis approach is described herewith. Data analysis begins by transcription of the interview data. The researcher carefully reads data and gets a sense of the whole. Once the researcher is familiarized with the data, the researcher strives to identify small meaning units called the 'codes.' The codes are then grouped based on their shared concepts to form the primary categories. Based on the relationship between the primary categories, they are then clustered into secondary categories. The next step involves the identification of themes and interpretation to make meaning out of data. In the results section of the manuscript, the researcher describes the key findings/themes that emerged. The themes can be supported by participants' quotes. The analytical framework used should be explained in sufficient detail, and the analytic framework must be well referenced. The study findings are usually represented in a schematic form for better conceptualization.[ 1 , 7 ] Even though the overall analytical process remains the same across different qualitative designs, each design such as phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory has design specific analytical procedures, the details of which are out of the scope of this article.

Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)

Until recently, qualitative analysis was done either manually or with the help of a spreadsheet application. Currently, there are various software programs available which aid researchers to manage qualitative data. CAQDAS is basically data management tools and cannot analyze the qualitative data as it lacks the ability to think, reflect, and conceptualize. Nonetheless, CAQDAS helps researchers to manage, shape, and make sense of unstructured information. Open Code, MAXQDA, NVivo, Atlas.ti, and Hyper Research are some of the widely used qualitative data analysis software.[ 14 , 43 ]

Reporting Guidelines

Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) is the widely used reporting guideline for qualitative research. This 32-item checklist assists researchers in reporting all the major aspects related to the study. The three major domains of COREQ are the 'research team and reflexivity', 'study design', and 'analysis and findings'.[ 44 , 45 ]

Critical Appraisal of Qualitative Research

Various scales are available to critical appraisal of qualitative research. The widely used one is the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) Qualitative Checklist developed by CASP network, UK. This 10-item checklist evaluates the quality of the study under areas such as aims, methodology, research design, ethical considerations, data collection, data analysis, and findings.[ 46 ]

Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research

A qualitative study must be undertaken by grounding it in the principles of bioethics such as beneficence, non-maleficence, autonomy, and justice. Protecting the participants is of utmost importance, and the greatest care has to be taken while collecting data from a vulnerable research population. The researcher must respect individuals, families, and communities and must make sure that the participants are not identifiable by their quotations that the researchers include when publishing the data. Consent for audio/video recordings must be obtained. Approval to be in FGDs must be obtained from the participants. Researchers must ensure the confidentiality and anonymity of the transcripts/audio-video records/photographs/other data collected as a part of the study. The researchers must confirm their role as advocates and proceed in the best interest of all participants.[ 42 , 47 , 48 ]

Rigor in Qualitative Research

The demonstration of rigor or quality in the conduct of the study is essential for every research method. However, the criteria used to evaluate the rigor of quantitative studies are not be appropriate for qualitative methods. Lincoln and Guba (1985) first outlined the criteria for evaluating the qualitative research often referred to as “standards of trustworthiness of qualitative research”.[ 49 ] The four components of the criteria are credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

Credibility refers to confidence in the 'truth value' of the data and its interpretation. It is used to establish that the findings are true, credible and believable. Credibility is similar to the internal validity in quantitative research.[ 1 , 50 , 51 ] The second criterion to establish the trustworthiness of the qualitative research is transferability, Transferability refers to the degree to which the qualitative results are applicability to other settings, population or contexts. This is analogous to the external validity in quantitative research.[ 1 , 50 , 51 ] Lincoln and Guba recommend authors provide enough details so that the users will be able to evaluate the applicability of data in other contexts.[ 49 ] The criterion of dependability refers to the assumption of repeatability or replicability of the study findings and is similar to that of reliability in quantitative research. The dependability question is 'Whether the study findings be repeated of the study is replicated with the same (similar) cohort of participants, data coders, and context?'[ 1 , 50 , 51 ] Confirmability, the fourth criteria is analogous to the objectivity of the study and refers the degree to which the study findings could be confirmed or corroborated by others. To ensure confirmability the data should directly reflect the participants' experiences and not the bias, motivations, or imaginations of the inquirer.[ 1 , 50 , 51 ] Qualitative researchers should ensure that the study is conducted with enough rigor and should report the measures undertaken to enhance the trustworthiness of the study.

Conclusions

Qualitative research studies are being widely acknowledged and recognized in health care practice. This overview illustrates various qualitative methods and shows how these methods can be used to generate evidence that informs clinical practice. Qualitative research helps to understand the patterns of health behaviors, describe illness experiences, design health interventions, and develop healthcare theories. The ultimate strength of the qualitative research approach lies in the richness of the data and the descriptions and depth of exploration it makes. Hence, qualitative methods are considered as the most humanistic and person-centered way of discovering and uncovering thoughts and actions of human beings.

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Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

1. Overview of qualitative inquiry and general texts on this topic
A School Story of Qualitative Inquiry
An Analysis of the Story
Qualitative Inquiry Process
The Reality about the Process
Organization of this Book
2. Assumptions we make in doing qualitative inquiry
Some Common Assumptions
An Analysis of Assumptions
Common Questions about Qualitative Inquiry
Some Additional Beliefs and Assumptions Regarding Human Inquiry
3. Keeping a record, writing fieldnotes
An Analysis
Kinds of Fieldnotes
Some Ideas about Record Keeping
Mechanics of Fieldnotes
4. Relationship building to enhance inquiry
An Article-Based Story
The Process
Results and Conclusion
An Analysis of KL's Experience
5. Standards and quality in qualitative inquiry
A Self-Critique Story
Credibility
Transferability
Dependability
Confirmability
Other Criteria
A Checklist
Audit Trail
6. Focusing the inquiry
A School's Superintendent's Story
7. Data collection
Gathering Through Observations, Interviews and Documents
An Assistant Principal's Story
General Lessons
Observing Lessons
Interviewing Lessons
Document Review Lessons
8. Data interpretation
A Graduate Student Story
Story Reading Through Analysis, Synthesis and Interpretation
Spradley's Approach to Interpretation
Domain Analysis
9. Sharing and reporting
Sharing through Story Telling
Revisiting Three Stories
An Analysis of Three Stories
10. Appendices
Appendix A.1 - A Sample Study from BYU-Public School Partnership
Appendix A.2 - What Have We Learned?
Appendix A.3 - Patterns of Experience
Appendix B.1 - Allowing Space for Not-Knowing: What My Journal Teaches Me, Part 1
Appendix B.2 - Allowing Space for Not-Knowing: What My Journal Teaches Me, Part 2
Appendix B.3 - Allowing Space for Not-Knowing: What My Journal Teaches Me, Part 3
Appendix B.4 - Allowing Space for Not-Knowing: What My Journal Teaches Me, Part 4
Appendix B.5 - Marne's critique of her own study
Appendix C - An Elementary School Example: My Observations of Jimmy
Appendix D - Reflecting on Reflection
Appendix E - A Study of Educational Change in Alberta
Appendix F - Moving Ahead: A Naturalistic Study of Retention Reversal of Five Elementary School Children
Appendix G.1 - An Examination of Teacher Reflection
Appendix G.2 - Themes of Reflection
Appendix H - Spradley's theme synthesis and report writing
Appendix I - Index of Topics
Endorsements
Front Matter

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Qualitative Inquiry in Daily Life

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Brigham Young University

Parenting Emerging Adults with Multiple Sclerosis: A Qualitative Analysis of the Parents’ Perspective

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Published: 15 May 2024

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Federica Graziano ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9370-6050 1 , 2 ,
Martina Borghi 2 , 3 ,
Silvia Bonino 1 &
Emanuela Calandri 1

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Parents of emerging adults are requested to adjust their level of support and control according to their child’s developmental age and to foster their autonomy. This developmental task may be more difficult when emerging adults are suffering from a chronic illness. Parenting emerging adults with a chronic illness is an under-investigated topic, especially with reference to multiple sclerosis (MS), a chronic neurological disease usually diagnosed in emerging adulthood. The study aims to qualitatively explore the characteristics of the relationship that parents report having with their emerging adult children (18–29 years) with MS. Specifically, we investigated how the dimensions of support and control emerge from the parents’ perspective, whether overparenting (characterized by both oversupport and overcontrol) emerges, and its characteristics. Eleven semi-structured interviews were conducted with parents of emerging adults with MS, and a qualitative content analysis was performed through Atlas.ti 6.0 software, combining a deductive and an inductive approach in relation to the study aims. A system of 13 codes was defined and a total of 141 quotations were codified. Overparenting appears to be the most frequent relational mode among the parents interviewed. Most quotations referred to oversupport (in particular, parents report anticipatory anxiety about child’s well-being and show excessive indulgence and permissiveness) and overcontrol (in particular, parents report a vicarious management of daily life and medical therapies). The study gives indications for psychological interventions helping parents to adequately support their children while encouraging their autonomous management of daily life and illness-related difficulties.

Most of the parents interviewed report overparenting their emerging adult children with MS.

Oversupport is characterized primarily by parental anticipatory anxiety, excessive permissiveness and infantilization.

Overcontrol is characterized primarily by vicarious parental management of both daily life and medical therapies.

For some of the parents interviewed, adaptive parenting may coexist with overparenting.

Some of the parents interviewed manage to balance support and control, even when relationship difficulties arise due to MS.

Children and adolescents adjustment to parental multiple sclerosis: a systematic review

Sensemaking Process of Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Identification of Specific Clusters of “Sense of Grip”

Parents’ Descriptions of How Their Psychosis Affects Parenting

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Emerging Adults and Chronic Illness

Developmental psychology has long emphasized that individual development takes place across the entire lifespan (Baltes, 1997 ; Elder & Shanahan, 2006 ; Magnusson & Stattin, 2006 ) and is promoted by challenges or crisis; when people are successful in facing a challenge and their resources are transformed and increased, development has occurred (Hendry & Kloep, 2002 ). These challenges are mainly linked to typical and normative developmental tasks of each period of the lifespan (Elder & Shanahan, 2006 ). For example, the developmental tasks of emerging adulthood (18–29 years of age) are related to gaining independence from parents and making choices about study and future career paths, as well as about committed relationships and parenthood (Arnett, 2000 ; Arnett et al., 2014 ; Smorti et al., 2020 ). Challenges can also be related to non-normative transitions; specifically, the diagnosis of a chronic illness during emerging adulthood is an unexpected event for this period of the lifespan and represents a great challenge for the individual.

Chronic illnesses usually diagnosed in emerging adulthood include multiple sclerosis (MS), a degenerative neurological disease that affects women three times more than men in Italy as in the rest of the world (ATLAS of MS, 2020 ). Young people diagnosed with MS have to face a double challenge, linked to the developmental tasks typical of emerging adulthood combined with the life-long event represented by illness (Bonino, 2021 ). Multiple sclerosis is characterized by various symptoms (fatigue, pain, motor and sensory disorders, bladder problems, sexual disturbances, and cognitive impairment) and usually has an unpredictable and fluctuating course with relapses and periods of symptom remission (relapsing–remitting MS [RR-MS]). The main fear of people with MS is that they will suffer a severe motor disability that will force them to use a wheelchair, although this condition only affects a minority of individuals. Like for most chronic illnesses, pharmacological therapies are not resolutive, but they treat attacks and slow down the progression of the disease (Lublin et al., 2014 ). The presence of multiple and fluctuating symptoms and the unpredictable course have a huge psychological impact on individuals. Although emerging adults diagnosed with MS usually have moderate physical disability (Solari et al., 2008 ), depressive symptoms, anxiety, and reduced quality of life are generally reported (Buchanan et al., 2010 ; Rainone et al., 2016 ). MS can be defined as an unexpected break in the process of identity redefinition (Calandri et al., 2020 ; Charmaz, 1983 ) which deeply affects emerging adults’ future life projects. While there are studies on the experience of emerging adults with MS, the parents’ perceptions about an emerging adult child with MS are still largely unexplored.

Parenting Emerging Adults with a Chronic Illness

Development tasks throughout the lifespan concern not only individuals but also the family in which they live. Specifically, the main developmental task of the family with emerging adult children is to promote their need for increasing independence and autonomy and to redefine family relationships (Scabini et al., 2006 ). Parental support and parental control are the central dimensions of the four parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful, and indulgent) described by Baumrind ( 1971 , 2012 ). Support and control are relevant not only during childhood and adolescence, but also during emerging adulthood. They must be developmentally appropriate to promote offspring autonomy and independence (Soenens et al., 2007 ). On the contrary, parental overprotection and excessive control toward emerging adult children have proved to be related to difficulties in the process of identity definition and autonomy acquisition (Inguglia et al., 2016 ; Luyckz et al., 2007 ; Manzeske & Stright, 2009 ). The construct of overparenting (or helicopter parenting ) has been introduced in developmental studies to define a parenting style toward emerging adult children characterized by high support, combined with high parental control and low autonomy-granting (Padilla-Walker & Nelson, 2012 ; Segrin et al., 2012 , 2013 ). Specifically, overparenting is characterized by a control not consistent with the age of the child, an intrusiveness in the children’s choices, a provision of substantial support (i.e., financial, emotional), and an anticipatory problem-solving which limits emerging adult autonomy (Manzeske & Stright, 2009 ; Reed et al. 2016 ; Schiffrin et al., 2014 ; Winner & Nicholson, 2018 ). This dependence is especially detrimental in emerging adulthood, when the main developmental task of young people should be to increase independence from parents and reach greater self-reliance (Arnett, 2000 ). Although the links between overparenting and offspring adjustment are complex, it has proved to have negative consequences on youth development (Miano & Palumbo, 2021 ; Nelson et al., 2021 ). Specifically, overparenting was related to decreased self-confidence and maladaptive coping strategies (Givertz & Segrin, 2014 ; Odenweller et al., 2014 ), emotion dysregulation (Love et al., 2022 ), poorer academic functioning (Love et al., 2020 ; Luebbe et al., 2018 ), increased depression and anxiety and lower life satisfaction (Cook, 2020 ; Reed et al., 2016 ; Schiffrin et al., 2014 , 2019 ).

The challenges faced by the family system with emerging adult children may be increased when they suffer from a chronic illness. According to family systems theory, when illness enters a family, it deeply affects relationships and makes it necessary to redefine family roles according to the illness characteristics and the specific moment of family lifespan (Olson, 2000 ; Walsh, 2016 ). The family system is likely to become overprotective when a member experiences illness: family members tend to focus on intrafamily relationships, showing excessive emotional closeness and often limiting the individual space. This greater cohesion might be adaptive to manage the crisis but can have negative consequences in the long term for the process of adjustment to the illness as well as for family well-being (Walsh, 2015 ). An adaptive family functioning should in fact balance cohesion (i.e., the emotional bonding among family members and the amount of individual autonomy) and flexibility (i.e., the ability of the family to adapt rules to deal with stressors) (Olson, 2000 ).

Existing studies have largely focused on parenting young children and adolescents diagnosed with various chronic illnesses (the most frequently investigated are type 1 diabetes, cancer, asthma, and inflammatory bowel disease), whereas parenting a chronically ill emerging adult is still an under-investigated topic. Overparenting seems to be the normative parenting when having ill children and adolescents (Baudino et al., 2022 ; Haegele et al., 2022 ; Hullmann et al., 2010 ; Trojanowski et al., 2021 ). It has proved to be related to higher affective well-being among children with chronic illness, but it becomes increasingly negative as children move toward adolescence and emerging adulthood and need increasing autonomy (Gagnon et al., 2020 ). To our knowledge, only two studies have investigated parenting emerging adults with a chronic illness. The study of Sherman ( 2015 ) described overparenting toward people aged 18–30 who were diagnosed with cancer during childhood. Parents showed overprotection, characterized by infantilization and excessive preoccupations, and overcontrol, characterized by intrusiveness, as well as problem-solving, decision-making, and therapies management on the behalf of offspring. Overparenting was related to increased levels of anxiety and depression in children through the mediating effect of ineffective coping strategies (Sherman, 2015 ). Another study explored the links between parenting and identity among people between the ages of 18 and 25 with type 1 diabetes: emerging adults who reported parental overprotection showed greater difficulties in the process of integrating the illness into their identity. The authors claimed that overinvolved and intrusive parents were likely to decrease offspring self-efficacy in managing illness and this in turn negatively affected the process of identity definition (Raymaekers et al., 2020 ). Parenting emerging adults with chronic illness seem therefore characterized by the same overprotection and overcontrol identified among some parents of healthy youth and this overparenting has negative consequences for the adjustment to the illness as well.

The Present Study

There is a lack of research on parenting emerging adults with a chronic illness and to our knowledge no previous study has investigated the relationships between parents and emerging adult children diagnosed with MS. This situation is specific and only partially comparable to that described in the above-mentioned studies. The diagnosis of MS during emerging adulthood introduces itself into a normative individual and family history unexpectedly, bringing with it huge change. This is profoundly different from having a disease which started in childhood/adolescence and then experience the transition to emerging adulthood with the illness (Raymaekers et al., 2020 ; Sherman, 2015 ). Moreover, MS is not life-threatening, but it is a life-long condition characterized by great unpredictability. The role of parents as caregivers of emerging adults with MS is peculiar: due to the characteristics of MS (multiple symptoms, unpredictable and fluctuating course) parents experience a state of psychological uncertainty and different preoccupations about the future (Calandri et al., 2022 ; Strickland et al., 2015 ). These parents should normally adjust their level of involvement and control according to their child’s developmental level and MS adds a further and unexpected challenge. That is why it is crucial to investigate the characteristics of parenting, and whether it involves characteristics of overparenting. This knowledge can have clinical implications for health professionals to support parents who experience difficulties during this developmental transition.

The socio-cultural background of this study refers to the Italian situation, where most emerging adults live with their parents and leave home at around the age of 30, later than in other European countries (EUROSTAT, 2022 ). In Italy young people finish high school at 19, the average age at graduation is 25, and the entry in the job market is often difficult and temporary, with higher rates of unemployment than in other European countries (STATISTA, 2023 ). Young people in general postpone adult choices like involving themselves in a committed relationship and having children (Crocetti et al., 2012 ; ISTAT, 2021 ). Moreover, family relationships are usually characterized by strong bonding and conservative family values, like in other Mediterranean countries (Carrà et al., 2014 ). This long transition toward adulthood (Crocetti & Meeus, 2014 ) and prolonged cohabitation with parents have consequences on family relationships. Specifically, higher levels of overparenting are reported among Italian healthy youth when compared to other countries (Pistella et al., 2022 ). It is therefore important to deepen our knowledge about parenting emerging adult children with MS in this cultural situation. Interviews with parents make it possible to further explore their perceptions about parenting an emerging adult child with MS and the qualitative analysis makes it possible to gain knowledge on a still under-investigated topic.

To sum up, the present study had the following aims:

To explore the characteristics of the relationship that parents report having with their emerging adult children (18–29 years) with MS; in particular, to investigate how the dimensions of support and control emerge from the parents’ perspective.

To explore whether situations of overparenting (characterized by both oversupport and overcontrol) emerge and how they manifest themselves.

The COREQ checklist (Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research) (Tong et al., 2007 ) was followed to ensure a comprehensive and rigorous report of our qualitative study.

Research Team

The research team consists of SB, emeritus professor, expert in developmental psychology and psychological aspects of MS; EC, Ph.D, associate professor, expert in developmental and family psychology and in qualitative research; MB, psychologist and psychotherapist working in the MS Clinical Center were participants were recruited and trained in qualitative research; FG, psychologist, Ph.D, working at the Psychology Department of the local University and trained in qualitative research.

Participants and Procedure

Parents were recruited at a regional MS clinic center located in a large urban area [blinded for review]. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) having a child aged 18–29 with a diagnosis of MS; (2) that the child had a mild to moderate level of disability (Expanded Disability Status Scale [EDSS] score ≤ 5). The EDSS score (Kurtzke, 1983 ) is the most widely used measure of disability in MS and is evaluated by a neurologist (range 0–10). Patients scoring <5 are autonomous, ambulatory, sometimes needing rest or aid when walking long distances, with mild neurological deficits that impair full daily activities or require minimal assistance; (3) that the child has not had any cognitive deficit or psychiatric problems. Clinical information was obtained from the patients’ case sheets compiled by the neurologist. Eligible participants were contacted via telephone by a psychologist from the research team (MB) who gave detailed information about the research goals. Of the 17 parents initially contacted, 5 declined to participate due to family or work commitments. After the first interview, slight modifications were made to the wording of the questions, and this pilot interview was not included in the study. Therefore, a group of 11 parents participated in the study and their characteristics are reported in Table 1 . There were three couples (mother and father agreed to participate in the study and were interviewed separately). The interviews refer to 8 MS patients (3 females, 5 males), with a mean age of 23 years (SD = 3.1; range 19–28). All emerging adults lived with their parents. All were diagnosed with RR-MS, and the mean disease duration was 3.9 years (SD = 2.9; range 1–10 years). Interview abbreviations for each parent and characteristics of children are reported in Table 2 . Parents arranged date, time, and place (Hospital or University) for the interview with the psychologist who conducted the interview (FG and MB). Before the interview, participants were given an anonymous questionnaire to fill in to obtain sociodemographic information and evaluation of some psychological variables for descriptive purposes (Italian validated scales were used and measures are reported in Appendix 1 ). As for the HADS (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Zigmond & Snaith, 1983 ), depression scores were under the cut-off for the presence of significant symptoms (<7), whereas anxiety mean scores were between normal (<7) and borderline levels (8–10) indicating the presence of significant anxiety symptoms in some participants. The study was approved by the Hospital Ethics Committee (protocol no. 0013772) and all participants gave written informed consent before the interview. No benefit was given to participants for taking part in the research.

The Interview

Semi-structured interviews were based on a predetermined topic guide developed by the entire research team and investigating the following areas: (a) feelings and thoughts experienced when the child was diagnosed with MS and at present; (b) the relationship with the child, difficulties, and strategies in dealing with them; and (c) representation of the future of the child and future plans as a parent. Flexible and open-ended questions allowed participants to introduce topics important to them and made it possible for the interviewer to explore their responses in depth (the interview guide is reported in Appendix 2 ). Interviews were conducted by two members of the research team (FG and MB). Both psychologists had experience in conducting interviews and were trained in the use of qualitative methodology. They had no relationships with participants prior to the study. Participation of parents in the study was voluntary and independent of whether the children were receiving psychological support in the MS Center. These aspects allowed us to control for potential bias in the research.

During the interview, no one else was present besides the parent and the interviewer. On average, each interview lasted 50 min (range 30–70 min). The interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim by reconstructing the nonverbal and contextual aspects also thanks to the field notes written by the interviewer. Data saturation was reached after 11 interviews therefore no other participants were recruited. It was not possible to conduct a second meeting with participants to return them the transcripts and to get feedback on the results.

The study was conducted in Italy and interviews were conducted in Italian. The quotes in the article were translated into English by a professional native speaker translator in a process of constant discussion with the research team to verify that the content remained true to the original after translation.

Data Analysis

Interview transcripts were considered a single text corpus and underwent qualitative content analysis through Atlas.ti 6.0 software. Content analysis is a research method based on a systematic process of coding textual data (APA, Dictionary of Psychology). In relation to the study aims, a directed approach to content analysis was used (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005 ). According to this approach, theory on parenting practices deductively guided the definition of the initial codes, then new codes were inductively generated starting from the textual material (Mayring, 2014 ; Schreier, 2014 ). The analysis was carried out through the following steps: (1) transcripts were read several times by two team researchers (FG and MB) to achieve familiarization with data; (2) following a deductive approach and starting from the theoretical constructs of support and control (Baumrind, 1971 , 2012 ) and overparenting (Segrin, 2012 , 2013 ), four categories were defined after discussion within the research team: balanced support, balanced control, oversupport, and overcontrol; (3) two researchers (FG and MB) independently identified the excerpts that corresponded to these categories and regularly met to discuss the ongoing analysis; (4) starting from elements emerging from the textual material, the initial categorization was refined following an inductive approach with an iterative process involving the entire research team. Three categories (balanced control, oversupport, and overcontrol) were split into subcategories with specific codes to capture more nuanced aspects, and a new category was added (i.e., enmeshment) to codify an aspect that was not anticipated in the initial categories. The final system of 13 codes was discussed and approved by the research team and it is reported in Table 3 ; (5) after this final procedure, the two researchers then coded all the transcripts independently again. The inter-rater agreement was high (Cohen’s kappa = 0.79; p < 0.001) (Cohen, 1960 ; McHugh, 2012 ); (6) discrepancies were resolved through discussion with a third judge (EC) until a consensus was reached on each uncertain use of codes.

Results of the qualitative content analysis are summarized in Table 4 . Using the code system previously described (13 codes), we codified 141 quotations.

Some parents spoke very little about parenting; in particular, 4 quotations were codified in the interviews P2 and P9, and 5 quotations in the interview P5. On the contrary, other parents addressed this issue to a greater extent; in particular, more than 20 quotations were codified in interviews P8 and P10. Three types of interviews can be identified: (1) interviews where codes referring to adaptive parenting prevail (interviews P1, P2, and P5); (2) interviews where codes referring to adaptive parenting and to overparenting are present in equal measure (interviews P3, P7, and P9); (3) interviews where codes referring to overparenting prevail (interviews P4, P6, P8, P10, and P11). For the sake of clarity, we have reported below results obtained following these three types of interviews, citing some of the most representative quotations.

Adaptive Parenting

The adaptive parenting is based on parental support and proximity appropriate to the child’s age and recognition of their need for autonomy. The following sentences well illustrate these aspects:

The relationship is good…as far as dialogue is concerned; he tells me a lot, and I feel very comfortable with him, … he’s 21…we’ve planted the seeds we needed to plant…you can repeat them to him, remind him about them…but we can’t spend the rest of our lives saying no… (P5)

We’re talking about a person who’s 28, so you need to adjust your behavior in such a way as to not be meddlesome, because she’s got his own life (P2)

Concerning the illness, parents highlight the need to support their children through the difficulties caused by MS and to foster the autonomous management of treatment. Some parents speak of a slow process of change in their relationship with their children, toward more and more respect for their decision-making autonomy. For example, two mothers say:

My biggest preoccupation is to support her as much as I can, so that she doesn’t live / experience these inadequacies the illness gives her as an obstacle to what she can do (P2)

Now I’m pretty calm about it and if he has a relapse, I let him deal with it the way he wants to … if he doesn’t call the doctors, that’s his business, I don’t do it for him …I try to respect his choices now (P1)

These quotations suggest how parents showing an adaptive parenting try to develop a progressive awareness about their child’s situation and implement a gradual distancing. This is a process that takes time and needs to be continually redefined.

Adaptive Parenting and Overparenting

The words of some parents reveal how aspects of adaptive parenting and overparenting are present in equal measure, showing a parental ambivalence. For one mother, the relationship with her daughter is difficult, but the illness led to greater support and proximity. This aspect is acknowledged as positive because it enriched their relationship. She said:

(The relationship) between mother and daughter was difficult before and remained difficult, but not because of the illness … because I’m not saying that the illness got us closer (…) but we did spend a lot of time together, which is maybe something we hadn’t done for a while …. And, from this, we learned to say I love you to each other a bit more (P3)

However, the balance between adequate support and oversupport is very delicate: the parent’s anxiety sometimes leads to oversupport. The parent realizes this and recognizes the need to relax control over the child. The same mother said:

I’ve always been worried about what could happen, then the illness came and at times I can be a bit obsessive…I have this idea that I’ve always got to have everything under control…but I’ve got to start thinking that it won’t always be like that (P3)

These words highlight how important it is for parents to gradually develop awareness of their own attitudes to change them so as not to be intrusive in their relationship with their children.

The ambivalence of some parents is manifested in relation to the dimension of control. A father acknowledges that his son is autonomous in the management of daily life and therapy. However, during the interview, the same father reports controlling behavior toward his son that sometimes leads to conflict. He said:

I’ve got to say he knows how to organize himself … he’s good…when he’s got to study, he doesn’t go out…he always gives himself his little shot in the legs every Sunday evening (P9)

At times I tell him to cover up because it’s cold, to not come home too late …and he always comes home late …you fight over little things (P9)

The links between overcontrol and oversupport also emerge from this father’s words: overcontrol seems to be justified by the need to support the son, but in a way that is not age appropriate. Even the use of the word “little shot”, in addition to minimizing the difficulties related to therapy, seems to be more appropriate for a relationship with a child than with an emerging adult.

Another father recognizes that his child is an adult and therefore an age-appropriate relationship is necessary. He said:

We get on well, but mom and dad always act like they’ve got a child at home, but you’ve got to realize that you’ve got a twenty-five-year-old adult …I’d like to talk to him…but I also don’t want to force these conversations on him, it’s his life, he deserves respect (P7)

In particular, he recognizes that one should not be overprotective and indulgent, for example, by avoiding certain speeches or behavior just because the child is ill.

If I have to tell him off, I don’t think: poor kid! He’s got problems! Because I think that’s the wrong way to go about it, i.e., I don’t want to keep him in a protective bubble (P7)

As mentioned earlier, parents who adopt an adaptive parenting try to avoid attitudes that are not age appropriate because they are dealing with an adult and no longer with a young child. However, the balance between balanced control and overcontrol is very difficult. For example, when it comes to obtaining medical information, aspects of overcontrol in the management of the disease emerge. In particular, the ambivalence emerges when this father justifies his desire to have in-depth information from medical professionals so he can be of help to his son.

my son asks me questions about the therapy, I’ve got to be prepared…I’d like to talk over in private with the neurologist…I get the law on privacy, I understand the need for respect, but we’re not disregarding the need for respect…I’m completely informed about what’s going on with my son and I need to be able to answer his questions (P7)

The examples given thus highlight parents’ awareness of how important it is to implement an age-appropriate parenting for their children, but also how difficult this is when they have a chronic illness.

Overparenting

Overparenting seems to be the most frequent relational mode among the parents interviewed, especially among mothers, and it includes both aspects of oversupport and overcontrol. For a mother, oversupport is mainly manifested through infantilization. She said:

(My son) was diagnosed when he was really young [note: at 16], as a child he was unable to give himself shots. He was afraid of needles, so he was forced to grow up…having to inject the drug into himself every day…his first shots were group shots, i.e., they had to be administered in front of the whole family (P4)

Infantilization is intertwined with vicarious medical management, and it is often facilitated by the need for self-administered medical therapies at home. In the case of hospital therapy, parents are more forced to recognize the need for autonomy, because children relate to other patients and staff. Infantilization seems to be slowly giving way to recognition of greater autonomy on behalf of the child. The same mother quoted above said:

he’s a bit of a sickly child… at first, when he was younger, we always brought him to the hospital to undergo therapy every month, then he got his license and wanted to go on his own (…) I don’t want him to drive after therapy because he comes out of there he’s wiped out, so we worked out a compromise…he goes and eats something and rests, so he lets some time go by, and then he comes back on his own (P4)

For another mother, oversupport is manifested through a strong anticipatory anxiety for her daughter’s well-being and this situation worsened with the disease. She said:

I just can’t be detached … this was probably true even before, then increased with the illness…if she’s got a boyfriend problem, it’s like I were living through it too, that’s my problem (P8)

The illness has led this mother to feeling as if she had an excessive burden to deal with, and the situation worsens every time the daughter must have a routine medical check-up.

what happened was that every time she would call me, a wave of anxiety swept over me, My God! Something’s wrong! So I was in a constant state of incredible anxiety…even now, I feel like I’m much more apprehensive and stressed… I feel like I should do something about it…so, this stuff weighs me down; any time there’s an MRI or a check-up, it’s an ordeal…I start getting worked up six months ahead of time (P8)

During the interview, a strong identification and enmeshment of this mother with her daughter emerges; she goes so far as to say that she herself feels ill and would like to take her daughter’s place even at medical check-ups:

what I feel as a parent…is a bit like I myself were sick…you feel sick too…that is, compared to before, I feel sick…sometimes I say: “I’ll take the MRI in your place” (P8)

In our interviews, excessive anxiety often emerges as an aspect related to oversupport, although only rarely does it reach a lack of distancing and enmeshment.

In an interview with another mother, a relationship with the child based on indulgence emerges. The parent provides too much help to the child because of the illness, tends to justify him for some of his behavior and to concede more than necessary to avoid conflict.

The illness led us to pretty much always let him get his way…we’ve always tried to…give him a bit more than he deserved, we got him a motorcycle, then a car…to help him out as much as possible…which is what I think any parent would do (P10)

When he gets really angry, I’m always afraid it will make things worse…so, maybe to avoid any agitation, you try and pave the way a bit…. (P10)

In this parental couple, the father also acknowledges that he has behaved this way since his son was diagnosed with MS. He said:

It’s probably my fault too, since I’ve been keeping him under a glass dome… he was pretty much always given his way…let’s say it was easier to get things… we didn’t make him responsible in his daily life, even if he’s sick, he takes everything for granted (P11)

Sometimes the child is given goods to help compensate for the difficulties of the illness, without being asked, but to anticipate the solution to problems. This kind of overcontrol emerges from both the mother and the father interviewed:

When he needed an automatic car, we got it for him right away (P10) .

He wanted to be self-sufficient at home…to help him out and not see him climb up the stairs, we got a stairlift, but we didn’t tell him… he used it once and then never used it again, he’s sooner drag himself up the stairs… (P11)

These examples well highlight how much overcontrol reflects a self-centeredness of the parent, who does not put himself from the point of view of the sick child.

The overcontrol also emerges as maternal intrusiveness in the son’s daily life management justified with the excuse of needing to take care of him. Specifically, this mother takes care of preparing healthy meals for the child and does household chores for him. She said:

For almost a year now, every day for lunch I’ve been preparing home-grown vegetables for him, eggs from our own hens, and get milk from the farm because, if we do everything we can to keep his organism healthy, the medicine does a bit less damage. Now I also pay someone to come clean and iron for him (P10)

This type of relationship risks having negative psychological effects both on the child and on family dynamics. This mother’s words induce guilt in the child for what the parent does “for his own good” and the risk of conflictual situations arising in the family is reported.

because he’s got to realize that the sacrifices we’ve made over the years have been for his own good, not out of meanness (P10)

I’ve been paying for his groceries, but his brother pays for all his own expenses and rightfully so, points out that he shouldn’t be handed everything on a silver platter just because he’s sick (P10)

In an interview with another mother, the aspects of overcontrol over decisions concerning work and illness disclosure emerge. According to the mother, the son should communicate the illness to the future employer to have work benefits and submit the documents to obtain a disability certificate, while the son disagrees. She said:

Arguments always come up when we talk about work because I tell him that when he goes to work (…) he has to tell them he has multiple sclerosis because they ask for health records and a bunch of things (…) because it’s right that they know, because he needs treatment, personal days, etc… (P6)

We’re insisting that he …fill out the forms…for disability…he’s got to understand that if he doesn’t fill out the application for invalidity…maybe so he can be put on some special list …he’s going to find it really tough, that’ what I’m afraid of… (P6)

These examples also highlight parents’ inability to put themselves from their child’s point of view; this self-centeredness in our interviews is often accompanied by overcontrol.

During the interview, aspects of overcontrol over decisions concerning the illness also emerge; in particular, this mother feels that her son should face and compare himself with other young people with multiple sclerosis, for example within psychological support groups.

For example, I wouldn’t mind if he went some meetings once in a while to talk with other kids …his doctor should be the one to tell him to go to a psychologist…that way he might think about doing it (P6)

What emerges from this mother’s words is her difficulty to respect her son’s decisions (e.g., regarding the disclosure of the illness) and the impact this has on the family relationship in terms of dialogue and conflict.

he doesn’t want us to talk [about the illness], I’d like to talk about it, I wouldn’t have any problem with it, in fact, it would be liberating for me…. he doesn’t want to talk about it, I respect that, [even if] I can’t understand why …he says he doesn’t want any pity (P6)

However, this mother acknowledges in the interview that changes have occurred over time. She said:

We talk about it a bit more than we did at first, when it was absolutely tabu, we couldn’t bring it up because he’d leave, slamming the door, it was really difficult for the family to deal with (…) now life is a bit calmer, more composed, more serene than before (P6) .

The latter example shows well how parents have to go through a long, slow journey of accepting the child’s wishes, in which the parent tries to provide adequate support and implement an adaptive relationship.

The present study examined parental perceptions of their relationship with an emerging adult child diagnosed with MS. In particular, the interviews with parents explored dimensions of parental support and control and the presence of overparenting practices characterized by both oversupport and overcontrol. From the interviews with parents, it appears that support and control are core elements of their relationship with their adult children and are closely intertwined. This is consistent with the developmental psychology literature, which suggests that both support and control shape parenting from infancy through emerging adulthood (Baumrind, 1971 , 2012 ; Soenens et al., 2007 ). These two dimensions must be developmentally appropriate to promote children’s autonomy and independence, and this is particularly important in parenting emerging adult children, whose most important developmental task is to acquire independence from the family (Arnett, 2000 ; Scabini et al., 2006 ). The diagnosis of a chronic illness such as MS presents an additional challenge to the family system, which is already engaged in this redefinition of family relationships. Our findings suggest that parents respond differently in the face of this challenge: some practice adaptive parenting with balanced support and control, others are ambivalent, and adaptive parenting practices appear to coexist with overparenting, yet others exhibit overparenting practices characterized by both oversupport and overcontrol.

Parents who succeed in balancing support and control often report that they have always tried to implement these parenting practices, even as their children grew and moved toward adulthood. These parents have tried to maintain and adapt these practices, even in the face of changes brought on by the illness. For some parents, supportive relationships within the family have deepened since diagnosis, and affective closeness goes hand in hand with respect for children’s autonomy in managing care and making decisions in a process of change that is not easy and is still ongoing. The individual and contextual resources of these parents are likely to enable them to successfully manage the challenge of the relationship with an emerging adult child with a chronic illness and transform it into an opportunity for development (Hendry & Kloep, 2002 ).

Other interviews suggest that the boundaries between adaptive parenting and overparenting are blurred. Some parents appear to oscillate between adaptive parenting and overparenting, reflecting ambivalence and difficulties in maintaining developmentally appropriate control and support. In particular, some interviews suggest that affective closeness risks turning into overprotection in the presence of excessive parental anxiety. This finding is consistent with studies showing that high levels of parental anxiety are often associated with overparenting (Gagnon & Garst, 2019 ; Jiao & Segrin, 2022 ; Segrin et al., 2013 ). The presence of significant anxiety symptoms in the parents in our sample is also confirmed by the scores reported on the anxiety self-assessment questionnaire. Similarly, the need to provide effective support to children sometimes leads parents to justify the need to control them in daily life as well as in coping with illness in ways that are developmentally inappropriate. This finding has been found in the literature on overparenting toward healthy emerging adults (Schiffrin et al., 2014 ; Winner & Nicholson, 2018 ) and also appears to apply to the relationship between parents and emerging adult children with MS. The coexistence of adaptive and non-adaptive parenting practices underscores that the process of adaptation to chronic illness is complex and continuous for the family system (Calandri et al., 2022 , 2022 ; de Ceuninck van Capelle et al., 2016 ; Messmer Uccelli, 2014 ).

Most of the parents interviewed reported overparenting practices that are indicative of the difficulties brought on by the illness, which disturbs the often already delicate balance in the relationship between parents and children. Oversupport and overcontrol are closely related and often originate in parental anticipatory anxiety about their child’s health. Parental anxiety is mainly due to the uncertainty of MS and causes some parents to overprotect their emerging adult children by overindulging or infantilizing them. Previous studies have shown that both indulgence and infantilization, even when well-intentioned and motivated by concern for children’s health, do not promote children’s decision-making autonomy and return them to a state of dependence on their parents (Raymaekers et al., 2020 ; Sherman, 2015 ). Our findings shed light on the specificity of this situation when parenting an emerging adult with MS.

Indulgent parents show excessive tolerance or find solutions to their children’s daily or work problems or offer solutions to cope with illness difficulties. Through indulgence, parents often do not put themselves in the child’s shoes and propose solutions that are not desired and ultimately not accepted. As described in the literature, parental indulgence can reinforce the child’s perception of being ill and the belief that he or she cannot cope with difficult situations independently but must rely on others for help (Sherman, 2015 ).

Other parents show infantilization of their children; they treat them as if they were younger and believe they need their help, reverting to a situation of parental care when they were a child. Infantilization is common when children’s illnesses begin in childhood and parents continue to assume a caring role even when children are adults and they are expected to gradually learn to self-manage their chronic illness (Lerch & Thrane, 2019 ; Sherman, 2015 ). The situation is different for MS because the disease has a sudden onset in emerging adulthood. This transition may result in parents reassuming a caring role, altering a parent–child relationship that may have already been redefined in terms of increasing independence. Although emerging adults with MS may need adequate psychological support from parents to cope with the illness, most do not have debilitating physical disabilities that require parental assistance. Therefore, excessive parental care is often motivated not by an actual need of the children but by anticipation of future difficulties due to the unpredictability and fluctuating course of MS. This creates a vicious cycle that reinforces parental anxiety.

Overprotective parents tend to be overly controlling of their children, especially through vicarious management of their daily lives and medical treatments. Parental intrusiveness may manifest itself not only through behavioral control (e.g., preparing meals for the children, participating in medical examinations) but also through psychological control (e.g., creating feelings of guilt in the children for what the parents do for them, pressuring the children to make a decision, not respecting their decisions). Overcontrol often originates from a parental self-centeredness that results in an inability to place oneself from the child’s point of view. All these parental behaviors limit children’s acquisition of independence and autonomous coping with daily life problems and illness-related difficulties (Givertz & Segrin, 2014 ; Sherman, 2015 ). Moreover, excessive control can lead to difficulties in family relationships and negatively affect parental well-being; indeed, some parents recognize and express concern about the presence of conflict and lack of communication with children. This finding is consistent with studies that emphasize the negative consequences of overparenting practices not only for the child but also for the quality of the parent–child relationship (Segrin et al., 2012 ) and for parental adjustment when children have a chronic illness (Baudino et al., 2022 ). As suggested by Walsh ( 2015 ), overparenting may initially be adaptive to manage change when illness enters the family system but has long-term negative consequences for family well-being.

A separate discussion must be made regarding enmeshment. Some parents show a relationship in which the boundaries between parents and children are lost, leading to parental identification with the children’s feelings and needs. Specifically, one interview revealed that a mother feels as ill as her daughter and wants to represent her in doctor visits and treatments. As outlined in the parenting literature, enmeshment is a psychological construct that is conceptually distinct from family cohesion (Barber & Buehler, 1996 ; Manzi et al., 2006 ). According to the relational-symbolic paradigm (Cigoli & Scabini, 2006 ), cohesion is characterized by the provision of support and emotional closeness among family members without compromising their autonomy; in contrast, enmeshment is a family pattern characterized by psychological fusion among family members that inhibits the individuation process and the development of children’s psychosocial maturity. According to this paradigm, enmeshment cannot be conceptualized as extreme cohesion (Manzi et al., 2006 ). For this reason, in our study, enmeshment was defined as a separate category from oversupport, although it is associated with overparenting practices. As described in the literature, enmeshment is generally associated with internalized symptoms and low psychological well-being in children (Barber & Buehler, 1996 ; Yahav, 2002 ). Similarly, for emerging adults with MS, family relationships characterized by enmeshment are likely to have negative consequences not only for autonomous coping but also for a successful separation-individuation process.

As for gender differences in parenting practices, the qualitative nature of our study does not allow us to draw generalizable conclusions. However, in the group of parents interviewed, it appears that it is mainly mothers who engage in overparenting practices, particularly in the forms of infantilization, enmeshment, and vicarious daily life management. Another interesting aspect related to gender differences in parenting is the consistency of parenting practices between mother and father. For example, one of the couples interviewed appeared to follow the same parenting practices based on indulgence, while two couples appeared to differ, with fathers reporting adaptive parenting and mothers reporting overprotection and overcontrol. Differences between parents have been noted in the literature on parenting, although they generally refer to healthy children and adolescents: Yaffe’s ( 2020 ) review showed that mothers tend to be more accepting and supportive, but also more demanding and autonomy-giving than fathers. Their parenting style is generally authoritative, while fathers tend to exhibit more authoritarian parenting patterns. Differences between parents were also found in parenting a child with a health problem (Pelchat et al., 2007 ). Mothers tend to deal with stress through emotional strategies and seeking social support (e.g., from family, friends, and other parents who are in the same situation), while fathers use both cognitive problem-solving strategies and are more action-oriented, although they are less likely to ask for help. All these differences are deeply rooted in differences in the socialization of men and women and are influenced by cultural variables (Pelchat et al., 2007 ). In the current landscape, where most studies focus on parenting ill children and adolescents, our preliminary descriptive findings provide interesting suggestions for developing future research on gender differences in parenting emerging adults with a chronic illness.

Our results should be considered in the light of the Italian socio-cultural context, where the transition to adulthood is often delayed and emerging adult children live with their parents for a long time. In Italy, the family represents the main source of economic support for its members, especially because of the difficulties for young people to find a job and become financially independent (STATISTA, 2023 ). Moreover, intergenerational support is often needed to compensate for the lack of adequate welfare services (Floridi, 2020 ) and the functions of care and support are mainly fulfilled by mothers (Carrà & Marta, 1995 ). As Scabini et al. ( 2006 ) pointed out, in Italy the transition to adulthood usually takes place within the family, so there are more difficulties in finding a balance in the relationship between parents and children. Italian family context with emerging adult children is often characterized by an “autonomous relatedness” (Manzi et al., 2012 ): autonomy and independence are encouraged by parents along with the maintenance of strong emotional bonding and relatedness with their offspring (Liga et al., 2017 ). This cultural model may make it difficult for parents to implement balanced support and control and previous studies on Italian healthy emerging adults showed that overparenting is more prevalent than in other countries (Pistella et al., 2022 ). Not only overparenting might reinforce offspring dependence, but also emerging adults’ attitudes might contribute to the maintenance of dependence. Most Italian emerging adults consider the emotional independence from parents as the least important criterion for adulthood (Crocetti & Tagliabue, 2016 ). Parental overinvolvement is often perceived as a form of warmth and they are often over-reliant on their parents for things that they should be doing themselves (Kaniušonytė et al., 2022 ; Smorti et al., 2022 ). Therefore, in families where boundaries between closeness and dependence are already blurred, the diagnosis of a chronic illness, like MS, can lead to even more complex family dynamics. Specifically, the disease often forces the family system to exert excessive control, which is often facilitated by cohabitation, and to provide excessive support that is not always motivated by an actual need of the young person. Emerging adults are also at risk of relying too heavily on parents for disease-related aspects that they could handle on their own. Dependence dynamics are thus reinforced and the transition to adulthood is made more difficult.

The study has some limitations. Because this was a qualitative and exploratory study with parent volunteers, a participant selection effect must be considered. Moreover, the qualitative approach purposefully used in this study limits the generalizability of our results, as in any qualitative studies. Moving from suggestion of the present study, future quantitative research should examine gender differences (both on the parents’ and children’s side), as well as inconsistencies in maternal and paternal parenting practices for the effects they may have on family dynamics. Finally, we have only examined the parents’ perspective. It would be useful to interview both parents and children to compare their views of parenting practices. Examining the views of both parents and children would provide practical guidance to help both cope with the illness diagnosis and make the family relationship adaptive.

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to examine parental behavior toward emerging adults diagnosed with MS. Our findings contribute to the still scarce literature on parenting emerging adults with chronic illnesses with a deep insight into parental perceptions and have clinical implications for health professionals.

Some findings of the study can be extended to the parenting of emerging adults with other chronic illnesses. Relational dynamics between parents and sick emerging adult children, and in particular the delicate balance between autonomy and dependence, are key aspects to be considered in any chronic illness situation. Specifically, excessive parental concern, oversupport and overinvolvement can be elements that undermine the adaptation of the entire family system to the offspring’ chronic illness. Clinical centers should implement comprehensive psychological support for patients and the relationship systems (e.g., families) in which they are embedded, especially during the initial period after diagnosis of a chronic illness (Rintell & Melito, 2013 ). Parents should be given information about the disease to better manage their anxiety, which is often the initial cause of overparenting practices. Parents who are better able to control their emotions should also feel more able to establish appropriate relationships with their children by balancing support and control. In particular, parenting practices should promote the development of an equal relationship in which emerging adult children are treated as adults and their need for independence and autonomy is recognized.

Other results of our study should be considered with reference to specific aspects of MS that are the sudden diagnosis in emerging adulthood, the unpredictability of the disease course, and the need for medical therapies tailored to the patient. Parents may revert to dynamics typical of when their child was younger and demonstrate intrusiveness in the management not only of daily life, but also of medical treatments. Therefore, parents should be helped to support their children while encouraging their autonomous management of daily life and illness-related difficulties and therapies (Blundell Jones et al., 2017 ; Bonino et al., 2018 ). A very sensitive issue for parents is respecting children’s choices, especially regarding talking about the disease with them and outside the family (e.g., with friends, colleagues, employer). Parents should be helped to separate their own emotional experiences from those of their child, trying to take their child’s point of view but not putting themselves in their child’s place; in this way, they can help them and promote their autonomy. The implementation of adaptive parenting is not a goal that is achieved forever but requires constant changes that go hand in hand with the continuous process of adaptation to MS for both patients and their families.

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This study was funded by Cosso Foundation, Pinerolo, Torino, Italy. Open access funding provided by Università degli Studi di Torino within the CRUI-CARE Agreement.

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What Is Qualitative Research?
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and ...
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Parents of emerging adults are requested to adjust their level of support and control according to their child's developmental age and to foster their autonomy. This developmental task may be more difficult when emerging adults are suffering from a chronic illness. Parenting emerging adults with a chronic illness is an under-investigated topic, especially with reference to multiple sclerosis ...

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Table of Contents

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research Methods

One-to-One Interview

Focus Groups

Ethnographic Studies

Text Analysis

Process of Observation

Record Keeping

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Thematic Analysis

Content Analysis

Discourse Analysis

Grounded Theory Analysis

Narrative Analysis

Phenomenological Analysis

Comparative Analysis

Applications of Qualitative Research

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Examples of Qualitative Research

Purpose of Qualitative Research

When to use Qualitative Research

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Limitations of Qualitative Research

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

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Qualitative Methods in Health Care Research

Renjulal Yesodharan

Judith A. Noronha

Elissa Ladd

Anice George

Introduction

Qualitative Research

Significance of Qualitative Research

Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research Questions and Purpose Statements

Review of the Literature

Reflexivity

Types of Qualitative Research Designs

Narrative research

Phenomenological research

Grounded Theory Research

Ethnographic research

Historical research

Case study research

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Convenience sampling