qualitative research examples for stem students

161+ Exciting Qualitative Research Topics For STEM Students

Are you doing Qualitative research? Looking for the best qualitative research topics for stem students? It is a most interesting and good field for research. Qualitative research allows STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) students to delve deeper into complex issues, explore human behavior, and understand the intricacies of the world around them.

In this article, we’ll provide you with an extensive list of 161+ qualitative research topics tailored to STEM students. We’ll also explore how to find and choose good qualitative research topics, and why these topics are particularly beneficial for students, including those in high school.

Also Like To Read: 171+ Brilliant Quantitative Research Topics For STEM Students

Table of Contents

What Are Qualitative Research Topics for STEM Students

Qualitative research topics for stem students are questions or issues that necessitate an in-depth exploration of people’s experiences, beliefs, and behaviors. STEM students can use this approach to investigate societal impacts, ethical dilemmas, and user experiences related to scientific advancements and innovations.

Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research delves into the ‘whys’ and ‘hows’ of a particular phenomenon.

How to Find and Choose Good Qualitative Research Topics

Selecting qualitative research topics for stem students is a crucial step in the research process. Here are some tips to help you find and choose a suitable topic:

• Passion and Interest: Start by considering your personal interests and passions. What topics within STEM excite you? Research becomes more engaging when you’re genuinely interested in the subject.
• Relevance: Choose qualitative research topics for stem students. Look for gaps in the existing knowledge or unanswered questions.
• Literature Review: Conduct a thorough literature review to identify the latest trends and areas where qualitative research is lacking. This can guide you in selecting a topic that contributes to the field.
• Feasibility: Ensure that your chosen topic is feasible within the resources and time constraints available to you. Some research topics may require extensive resources and funding.
• Ethical Considerations: Be aware of ethical concerns related to your qualitative research topics for stem students, especially when dealing with human subjects or sensitive issues.

Here are the most exciting and very interesting Qualitative Research Topics For STEM Students, high school students, nursing students, college students, etc.

Biology Qualitative Research Topics

• Impact of Ecosystem Restoration on Biodiversity
• Ethical Considerations in Human Gene Editing
• Public Perceptions of Biotechnology in Agriculture
• Coping Mechanisms and Stress Responses in Marine Biologists
• Cultural Perspectives on Traditional Herbal Medicine
• Community Attitudes Toward Wildlife Conservation Efforts
• Ethical Issues in Animal Testing and Research
• Indigenous Knowledge and Ethnobotany
• Psychological Well-being of Conservation Biologists
• Attitudes Toward Endangered Species Protection

Chemistry Qualitative Research Topics For STEM Students

• Adoption of Green Chemistry Practices in the Pharmaceutical Industry
• Public Perception of Chemical Safety in Household Products
• Strategies for Improving Chemistry Education
• Art Conservation and Chemical Analysis
• Consumer Attitudes Toward Organic Chemistry in Everyday Life
• Ethical Considerations in Chemical Waste Disposal
• The Role of Chemistry in Sustainable Agriculture
• Perceptions of Nanomaterials and Their Applications
• Chemistry-Related Career Aspirations in High School Students
• Cultural Beliefs and Traditional Chemical Practices

Physics Qualitative Research Topics

• Gender Bias in Physics Education and Career Progression
• Philosophical Implications of Quantum Mechanics
• Public Understanding of Renewable Energy Technologies
• Influence of Science Fiction on Scientific Research
• Perceptions of Dark Matter and Dark Energy in the Universe
• Student Experiences in High School Physics Classes
• Physics Outreach Programs and Their Impact on Communities
• Cultural Variations in the Perception of Time and Space
• Role of Physics in Environmental Conservation
• Public Engagement with Science Through Astronomy Events

Engineering Qualitative Research Topics For STEM Students

• Ethics in Artificial Intelligence and Robotics
• Human-Centered Design in Engineering
• Innovation and Sustainability in Civil Engineering
• Public Perception of Self-Driving Cars
• Engineering Solutions for Climate Change Mitigation
• Experiences of Women in Male-Dominated Engineering Fields
• Role of Engineers in Disaster Response and Recovery
• Ethical Considerations in Technology Patents
• Perceptions of Engineering Education and Career Prospects
• Students Views on the Role of Engineers in Society

Computer Science Qualitative Research Topics

• Gender Diversity in Tech Companies
• Ethical Implications of AI-Powered Decision-Making
• User Experience and Interface Design
• Cybersecurity Awareness and Behaviors
• Digital Privacy Concerns and Practices
• Social Media Use and Mental Health in College Students
• Gaming Culture and its Impact on Social Interactions
• Student Attitudes Toward Coding and Programming
• Online Learning Platforms and Student Satisfaction
• Perceptions of Artificial Intelligence in Everyday Life

Mathematics Qualitative Research Topics For STEM Students

• Gender Stereotypes in Mathematics Education
• Cultural Variations in Problem-Solving Approaches
• Perception of Math in Everyday Life
• Math Anxiety and Coping Mechanisms
• Historical Development of Mathematical Concepts
• Attitudes Toward Mathematics Among Elementary School Students
• Role of Mathematics in Solving Real-World Problems
• Homeschooling Approaches to Teaching Mathematics
• Effectiveness of Math Tutoring Programs
• Math-Related Stereotypes in Society

Environmental Science Qualitative Research Topics

• Local Communities’ Responses to Climate Change
• Public Understanding of Conservation Practices
• Sustainable Agriculture and Farmer Perspectives
• Environmental Education and Behavior Change
• Indigenous Ecological Knowledge and Biodiversity Conservation
• Conservation Awareness and Behavior of Tourists
• Climate Change Perceptions Among Youth
• Perceptions of Water Scarcity and Resource Management
• Environmental Activism and Youth Engagement
• Community Responses to Environmental Disasters

Geology and Earth Sciences Qualitative Research Topics For STEM Students

• Geologists’ Risk Perception and Decision-Making
• Volcano Hazard Preparedness in At-Risk Communities
• Public Attitudes Toward Geological Hazards
• Environmental Consequences of Extractive Industries
• Perceptions of Geological Time and Deep Earth Processes
• Use of Geospatial Technology in Environmental Research
• Role of Geology in Disaster Preparedness and Response
• Geological Factors Influencing Urban Planning
• Community Engagement in Geoscience Education
• Climate Change Communication and Public Understanding

Astronomy and Space Science Qualitative Research Topics

• The Role of Science Communication in Astronomy Education
• Perceptions of Space Exploration and Colonization
• UFO and Extraterrestrial Life Beliefs
• Public Understanding of Black Holes and Neutron Stars
• Space Tourism and Future Space Travel
• Impact of Space Science Outreach Programs on Student Interest
• Cultural Beliefs and Rituals Related to Celestial Events
• Space Science in Indigenous Knowledge Systems
• Public Engagement with Astronomical Phenomena
• Space Exploration in Science Fiction and Popular Culture

Medicine and Health Sciences Qualitative Research Topics

• Patient-Physician Communication and Trust
• Ethical Considerations in Human Cloning and Genetic Modification
• Public Attitudes Toward Vaccination
• Coping Strategies for Healthcare Workers in Pandemics
• Cultural Beliefs and Health Practices
• Health Disparities Among Underserved Communities
• Medical Decision-Making and Informed Consent
• Mental Health Stigma and Help-Seeking Behavior
• Wellness Practices and Health-Related Beliefs
• Perceptions of Alternative and Complementary Medicine

Psychology Qualitative Research Topics

• Perceptions of Body Image in Different Cultures
• Workplace Stress and Coping Mechanisms
• LGBTQ+ Youth Experiences and Well-Being
• Cross-Cultural Differences in Parenting Styles and Outcomes
• Perceptions of Psychotherapy and Counseling
• Attitudes Toward Medication for Mental Health Conditions
• Psychological Well-being of Older Adults
• Role of Cultural and Social Factors in Psychological Well-being
• Technology Use and Its Impact on Mental Health

Social Sciences Qualitative Research Topics

• Political Polarization and Online Echo Chambers
• Immigration and Acculturation Experiences
• Educational Inequality and School Policy
• Youth Engagement in Environmental Activism
• Identity and Social Media in the Digital Age
• Social Media and Its Influence on Political Beliefs
• Family Dynamics and Conflict Resolution
• Social Support and Coping Strategies in College Students
• Perceptions of Cyberbullying Among Adolescents
• Impact of Social Movements on Societal Change

Interesting Sociology Qualitative Research Topics For STEM Students

• Perceptions of Racial Inequality and Discrimination
• Aging and Quality of Life in Elderly Populations
• Gender Roles and Expectations in Relationships
• Online Communities and Social Support
• Cultural Practices and Beliefs Related to Marriage
• Family Dynamics and Coping Mechanisms
• Perceptions of Community Safety and Policing
• Attitudes Toward Social Welfare Programs
• Influence of Media on Perceptions of Social Issues
• Youth Perspectives on Education and Career Aspirations

Anthropology Qualitative Research Topics

• Traditional Knowledge and Biodiversity Conservation
• Cultural Variation in Parenting Practices
• Indigenous Language Revitalization Efforts
• Social Impacts of Tourism on Indigenous Communities
• Rituals and Ceremonies in Different Cultural Contexts
• Food and Identity in Cultural Practices
• Traditional Healing and Healthcare Practices
• Indigenous Rights and Land Conservation
• Ethnographic Studies of Marginalized Communities
• Cultural Practices Surrounding Death and Mourning

Economics and Business Qualitative Research Topics

• Small Business Resilience in Times of Crisis
• Workplace Diversity and Inclusion
• Corporate Social Responsibility Perceptions
• International Trade and Cultural Perceptions
• Consumer Behavior and Decision-Making in E-Commerce
• Business Ethics and Ethical Decision-Making
• Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Startups
• Perceptions of Economic Inequality and Wealth Distribution
• Impact of Economic Policies on Communities
• Role of Economic Education in Financial Literacy

Good Education Qualitative Research Topics For STEM Students

• Homeschooling Experiences and Outcomes
• Teacher Burnout and Coping Strategies
• Inclusive Education and Special Needs Integration
• Student Perspectives on Online Learning
• High-Stakes Testing and Its Impact on Students
• Multilingual Education and Bilingualism
• Perceptions of Educational Technology in Classrooms
• School Climate and Student Well-being
• Teacher-Student Relationships and Their Effects on Learning
• Cultural Diversity in Education and Inclusion

Environmental Engineering Qualitative Research Topics

• Sustainable Transportation and Community Preferences
• Ethical Considerations in Waste Reduction and Recycling
• Public Attitudes Toward Renewable Energy Projects
• Environmental Impact Assessment and Community Engagement
• Sustainable Urban Planning and Neighborhood Perceptions
• Water Quality and Conservation Practices in Residential Areas
• Green Building Practices and User Experiences
• Community Resilience in the Face of Climate Change
• Role of Environmental Engineers in Disaster Preparedness

Why Qualitative Research Topics Are Good for STEM Students

• Deeper Understanding: Qualitative research encourages STEM students to explore complex issues from a human perspective. This deepens their understanding of the broader impact of scientific discoveries and technological advancements.
• Critical Thinking: Qualitative research fosters critical thinking skills by requiring students to analyze and interpret data, consider diverse viewpoints, and draw nuanced conclusions.
• Real-World Relevance: Many qualitative research topics have real-world applications. Students can address problems, inform policy, and contribute to society by investigating issues that matter.
• Interdisciplinary Learning: Qualitative research often transcends traditional STEM boundaries, allowing students to draw on insights from psychology, sociology, anthropology, and other fields.
• Preparation for Future Careers: Qualitative research skills are valuable in various STEM careers, as they enable students to communicate complex ideas and understand the human and social aspects of their work.

Qualitative Research Topics for High School STEM Students

High school STEM students can benefit from qualitative research by honing their critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Here are some qualitative research topics suitable for high school students:

• Perceptions of STEM Education: Investigate students’ and teachers’ perceptions of STEM education and its effectiveness.
• Environmental Awareness: Examine the factors influencing high school students’ environmental awareness and eco-friendly behaviors.
• Digital Learning in the Classroom: Explore the impact of technology on learning experiences and student engagement.
• STEM Gender Gap: Analyze the reasons behind the gender gap in STEM fields and potential strategies for closing it.
• Science Communication: Study how high school students perceive and engage with popular science communication channels, like YouTube and podcasts.
• Impact of Extracurricular STEM Activities: Investigate how participation in STEM clubs and competitions influences students’ interest and performance in science and technology.

In essence, these are the best qualitative research topics for STEM students in the Philippines and are usable for other countries students too. Qualitative research topics offer STEM students a unique opportunity to explore the multifaceted aspects of their fields, develop essential skills, and contribute to meaningful discoveries. With the right topic selection, a strong research design, and ethical considerations, STEM students can easily get the best knowledge on exciting qualitative research that benefits both their career growth. So, choose a topic that resonates with your interests and get best job in your interest field.

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55 Brilliant Research Topics For STEM Students

Primarily, STEM is an acronym for Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. It’s a study program that weaves all four disciplines for cross-disciplinary knowledge to solve scientific problems. STEM touches across a broad array of subjects as STEM students are required to gain mastery of four disciplines.

As a project-based discipline, STEM has different stages of learning. The program operates like other disciplines, and as such, STEM students embrace knowledge depending on their level. Since it’s a discipline centered around innovation, students undertake projects regularly. As a STEM student, your project could either be to build or write on a subject. Your first plan of action is choosing a topic if it’s written. After selecting a topic, you’ll need to determine how long a thesis statement should be .

Given that topic is essential to writing any project, this article focuses on research topics for STEM students. So, if you’re writing a STEM research paper or write my research paper , below are some of the best research topics for STEM students.

List of Research Topics For STEM Students

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Several research topics can be formulated in this field. They cut across STEM science, engineering, technology, and math. Here is a list of good research topics for STEM students.

• The effectiveness of online learning over physical learning
• The rise of metabolic diseases and their relationship to increased consumption
• How immunotherapy can improve prognosis in Covid-19 progression

For your quantitative research in STEM, you’ll need to learn how to cite a thesis MLA for the topic you’re choosing. Below are some of the best quantitative research topics for STEM students.

• A study of the effect of digital technology on millennials
• A futuristic study of a world ruled by robotics
• A critical evaluation of the future demand in artificial intelligence

There are several practical research topics for STEM students. However, if you’re looking for qualitative research topics for STEM students, here are topics to explore.

• An exploration into how microbial factories result in the cause shortage in raw metals
• An experimental study on the possibility of older-aged men passing genetic abnormalities to children
• A critical evaluation of how genetics could be used to help humans live healthier and longer.

Experimental research in STEM is a scientific research methodology that uses two sets of variables. They are dependent and independent variables that are studied under experimental research. Experimental research topics in STEM look into areas of science that use data to derive results.

Below are easy experimental research topics for STEM students.

• A study of nuclear fusion and fission
• An evaluation of the major drawbacks of Biotechnology in the pharmaceutical industry
• A study of single-cell organisms and how they’re capable of becoming an intermediary host for diseases causing bacteria

Unlike experimental research, non-experimental research lacks the interference of an independent variable. Non-experimental research instead measures variables as they naturally occur. Below are some non-experimental quantitative research topics for STEM students.

• Impacts of alcohol addiction on the psychological life of humans
• The popularity of depression and schizophrenia amongst the pediatric population
• The impact of breastfeeding on the child’s health and development

STEM learning and knowledge grow in stages. The older students get, the more stringent requirements are for their STEM research topic. There are several capstone topics for research for STEM students .

Below are some simple quantitative research topics for stem students.

• How population impacts energy-saving strategies
• The application of an Excel table processor capabilities for cost calculation
•  A study of the essence of science as a sphere of human activity

Correlations research is research where the researcher measures two continuous variables. This is done with little or no attempt to control extraneous variables but to assess the relationship. Here are some sample research topics for STEM students to look into bearing in mind how to cite a thesis APA style for your project.

• Can pancreatic gland transplantation cure diabetes?
• A study of improved living conditions and obesity
• An evaluation of the digital currency as a valid form of payment and its impact on banking and economy

There are several science research topics for STEM students. Below are some possible quantitative research topics for STEM students.

• A study of protease inhibitor and how it operates
• A study of how men’s exercise impacts DNA traits passed to children
• A study of the future of commercial space flight

If you’re looking for a simple research topic, below are easy research topics for STEM students.

• How can the problem of Space junk be solved?
• Can meteorites change our view of the universe?
• Can private space flight companies change the future of space exploration?

For your top 10 research topics for STEM students, here are interesting topics for STEM students to consider.

• A comparative study of social media addiction and adverse depression
• The human effect of the illegal use of formalin in milk and food preservation
• An evaluation of the human impact on the biosphere and its results
• A study of how fungus affects plant growth
• A comparative study of antiviral drugs and vaccine
• A study of the ways technology has improved medicine and life science
• The effectiveness of Vitamin D among older adults for disease prevention
• What is the possibility of life on other planets?
• Effects of Hubble Space Telescope on the universe
• A study of important trends in medicinal chemistry research

Below are possible research topics for STEM students about plants:

• How do magnetic fields impact plant growth?
• Do the different colors of light impact the rate of photosynthesis?
• How can fertilizer extend plant life during a drought?

Below are some examples of quantitative research topics for STEM students in grade 11.

• A study of how plants conduct electricity
• How does water salinity affect plant growth?
• A study of soil pH levels on plants

Here are some of the best qualitative research topics for STEM students in grade 12.

• An evaluation of artificial gravity and how it impacts seed germination
• An exploration of the steps taken to develop the Covid-19 vaccine
• Personalized medicine and the wave of the future

Here are topics to consider for your STEM-related research topics for high school students.

• A study of stem cell treatment
• How can molecular biological research of rare genetic disorders help understand cancer?
• How Covid-19 affects people with digestive problems

Below are some survey topics for qualitative research for stem students.

• How does Covid-19 impact immune-compromised people?
• Soil temperature and how it affects root growth
• Burned soil and how it affects seed germination

Here are some descriptive research topics for STEM students in senior high.

• The scientific information concept and its role in conducting scientific research
• The role of mathematical statistics in scientific research
• A study of the natural resources contained in oceans

Final Words About Research Topics For STEM Students

STEM topics cover areas in various scientific fields, mathematics, engineering, and technology. While it can be tasking, reducing the task starts with choosing a favorable topic. If you require external assistance in writing your STEM research, you can seek professional help from our experts.

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Playful Strategies to Engage STEM Students in Qualitative Research Methods

• First Online: 03 May 2024

Cite this chapter

• Laura Roberts 10 &
• Courtney Kurlanska 10  

Part of the book series: Knowledge Studies in Higher Education ((KSHE,volume 14))

Faced with the unique challenge of teaching qualitative research methods to quantitatively minded STEM students, the authors use a range of playful pedagogy techniques to help students understand the value of qualitative information, as well as develop skills and strategies to employ these tools outside the classroom successfully. A core component of this is helping students make connections between the adaptability of the qualitative skills they are learning in class and how they will help students as they enter the workforce. Employers value twenty-first-century skills such as teamwork, communication, leadership, critical thinking, creativity, adaptability, and the ability to understand the many facets of a problem—social, humanistic, political, and ethical alongside the technical. Finding connections between students’ past, present, and future experiences and the role of qualitative data already present in their lives helps STEM students bridge the gap between quantitative and qualitative data. This chapter will discuss playful strategies used to help STEM students develop an appreciation and healthy respect for the power of qualitative data and enhance their teamwork, communication, and leadership skills. The playful pedagogies discussed include role play, humor, awkward conversations, and even M&M’s!

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Roberts, L., Kurlanska, C. (2024). Playful Strategies to Engage STEM Students in Qualitative Research Methods. In: Baecher, L., Portnoy, L. (eds) Playful Pedagogy in Higher Education. Knowledge Studies in Higher Education, vol 14. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54956-4_9

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Qualitative research in STEM : studies of equity, access, and innovation

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• Contents Introduction Sherry Marx
• *"I am an innovator:" Quahn's Counter-narrative of Becoming in STEM
• Angela Calabrese Barton, Myunghwan Shin, and LaQuahn Johnson
• *"I come because I make toy.": Examining Nodes of Criticality in an Afterschool Science & Engineering (SE) Club with Refugee Youth
• Edna Tan and Beverly Faircloth
• * Sociocultural Analysis of Engineering Design: Latino High School Students' Funds of Knowledge and Implications for Culturally Responsive Engineering Education
• Joel Alejandro Mejia
• * Bruised But Not Broken: African American Women Persistence in Engineering Degree Programs in Spite of Stereotype Threat
• Sherry Marx
• * Examining Academic Integrity in the Postmodern: Undergraduates' Use of Solutions to Complete Textbook-based Engineering Coursework
• Angela Minichiello
• * Engineering Dropouts: A Qualitative Examination of Why Undergraduates Leave Engineering
• Matthew Meyer and Sherry Marx
• * nitacimowinis: A research story in Indigenous Science Education
• * From Ambivalences toward Self-Efficacy: Bilingual Teacher Candidates' Shifting Sense of Knowing as Conocimiento with STEM
• Anita Bright and G. Sue Kasun
• * Examining the Non-Rational in Science Classrooms: Girls, Sustainability, and Science Education
• Kim Haverkos
• * Seven Types of Subitizing Activity Characterizing Young Children's Mental Activity
• Beth L. MacDonald and Jesse L. M. Wilkins
• * Orienting Students to One Another and to the Mathematics During Discussions
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Research and trends in STEM education: a systematic analysis of publicly funded projects

• Yeping Li 1 ,
• Ke Wang 2 ,
• Yu Xiao 1 ,
• Jeffrey E. Froyd 3 &
• Sandra B. Nite 1  

International Journal of STEM Education volume  7 , Article number:  17 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Taking publicly funded projects in STEM education as a special lens, we aimed to learn about research and trends in STEM education. We identified a total of 127 projects funded by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the US Department of Education from 2003 to 2019. Both the number of funded projects in STEM education and their funding amounts were high, although there were considerable fluctuations over the years. The number of projects with multiple principal investigators increased over time. The project duration was typically in the range of 3–4 years, and the goals of these projects were mostly categorized as “development and innovation” or “efficacy and replication.” The majority of the 127 projects focused on individual STEM disciplines, especially mathematics. The findings, based on IES-funded projects, provided a glimpse of the research input and trends in STEM education in the USA, with possible implications for developing STEM education research in other education systems around the world.

Introduction

The rapid development of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education and research since the beginning of this century has benefited from strong, ongoing support from many different entities, including government agencies, professional organizations, industries, and education institutions (Li, 2014 ). Typically, studies that summarized the status of research in STEM education have used publications as the unit of their analyses (e.g., Li et al., 2019 ; Li et al., 2020 ; Margot & Kettler, 2019 ; Minichiello et al., 2018 ; Otten, Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, & Veldhuis, 2019 ; Schreffler et al., 2019 ). Another approach, which has been used less frequently, is to study research funding. Although not all research publications were generated from funded projects and not all funded projects have been equally productive, as measured by publications, research funding and publications present two different, but related perspectives on the state of research in STEM education. Our review focuses on research funding.

Types of funding support to education research

There are different types of sources and mechanisms in place to allocate, administer, distribute, and manage funding support to education. In general, there are two sources of funding: public and private.

Public funding sources are commonly government agencies that support education program development and training, project evaluation, and research. For example, multiple state and federal agencies in the USA provide and manage funding support to education research, programs and training, including the US Department of Education (ED), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the National Endowment for the Humanities—Division of Education Programs. Researchers seeking support from public funding sources often submit proposals that are vetted through a well-structured peer-review process. The process is competitive, and the decision to fund a project validates both its importance and alignment with the funding agency’s development agenda. Changes in the agencies’ agendas and funding priorities can reflect governmental intentions and priorities for education and research.

Private funding sources have played a very important role in supporting education programs and research with a long history. Some private funding sources in the USA can be sizeable, such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation ( https://www.gatesfoundation.org ), while many also have specific foci, such as the Howard Hughes Medical Institute ( https://www.hhmi.org ) that is dedicated to advancing science through research and science education. At the same time, private funding sources often have their own development agendas, flexibility in deciding funding priorities, and specific mechanisms in making funding decisions, including how funds can be used, distributed, and managed. Indeed, private funding sources differ from public funding sources in many ways. Given many special features associated with private funding sources, including the lack of transparency, we chose to examine projects that were supported by public funding sources in this review.

Approaches to examining public research funding support

One approach to studying public research funding support to STEM education would be to examine requests-for-proposals (RFPs) issued by different government agencies. However, those RFPs tend to provide guidelines, which are not sufficiently concrete to learn about specific research that is funded. In contrast, reviewing those projects selected for funding can provide more detailed information on research activity. Figure 1 shows a flowchart of research activity and distinguishes how funded projects and publications might provide different perspectives on research. In this review, we focus on the bolded portion of the flowchart, i.e., projects funded to promote STEM education.

A general flowchart of RFPs to publications

Current review

Why focus on research funding in the usa.

Recent reviews of journal publications in STEM education have consistently revealed that scholars in the USA played a leading role in producing and promoting scholarship in STEM education, with about 75% of authorship credits for all publications in STEM education either in the International Journal of STEM Education alone from 2014 to 2018 (Li et al., 2019 ) or in 36 selected journals published from 2000 to 2018 (Li et al., 2020 ). The strong scholarship development in the USA is likely due to a research environment that is well supported and conducive to high research output. Studying public funding support for STEM education research in the USA will provide information on trends and patterns, which will be valuable both in the USA and in other countries.

The context of policy and public funding support to STEM education in the USA

The tremendous development of STEM education in the USA over the past decades has benefited greatly from both national policies and strong funding support from the US governmental agencies as well as private funding sources. Federal funding for research and development in science, mathematics, technology, and engineering-related education in the USA was restarted in the late 1980s, in the latter years of the Reagan administration, which had earlier halted funding. In recent years, the federal government has strongly supported STEM education research and development. For example, the Obama administration in the USA (The White House, 2009 ) launched the “Educate to Innovate” campaign in November 2009 for excellence in STEM education as a national priority, with over 260 million USD in financial and in-kind support commitment. The Trump administration has continued to emphasize STEM education. For example, President Trump signed a memorandum in 2017 to direct ED to spend 200 million USD per year on competitive grants promoting STEM (The White House, 2017 ). In response, ED awarded 279 million USD in STEM discretionary grants in Fiscal Year 2018 (US Department of Education, 2018 ). The Trump administration took a step further to release a report in December 2018 detailing its five-year strategic plan of boosting STEM education in the USA (The White House, 2018 ). The strategic plan envisions that “All Americans will have lifelong access to high-quality STEM education and the USA will be the global leader in STEM literacy, innovation, and employment.” (Committee on STEM Education, 2018 , p. 1). Consistently, current Secretory of Education DeVos in the Trump administration has taken STEM as a centerpiece of her comprehensive education agenda (see https://www.ed.gov/stem ). The consistency in national policies and public funding support shows that STEM education continues to be a strategic priority in the USA.

Among many federal agencies that funded STEM education programs, the ED and NSF have functioned as two primary agencies. For ED, the Institute of Education Sciences (Institute of Education Sciences (IES), n.d. , see https://ies.ed.gov/aboutus/ ) was created by the Education Sciences Reform Act of 2002 as its statistics, research, and evaluation arm. ED’s support to STEM education research has been mainly administered and managed by IES since 2003. In contrast to the focus of ED on education, NSF (see https://www.nsf.gov/about/ ) was created by Congress in 1950 to support basic research in many fields such as mathematics, computer sciences, and social sciences. Education and Human Resources is one of its seven directorates that provides important funding support to STEM education programs and research. In addition to these two federal agencies, some other federal agencies also provide funding support to STEM education programs and research from time to time.

Any study of public funding support to STEM education research in the USA would need to limit its scope, given the complexity of various public funding sources available in the system, the ambiguity associated with the meaning of STEM education across different federal agencies (Li et al., 2020 ), and the number of programs that have funded STEM education research over the years. For the purpose of this review, we have chosen to focus on the projects in STEM education funded by IES.

Research questions

Given the preceding research approach decision to focus on research projects funded by IES, we generated the following questions:

What were the number of projects, total project funding, and the average funding per project from 2003 to 2019 in STEM education research?

What were the trends of having single versus multiple principal investigator(s) in STEM education?

What were the types of awardees of the projects?

What were the participant populations in the projects?

What were the types of projects in terms of goals for program development and research in STEM education?

What were the disciplinary foci of the projects?

What research methods did projects tend to use in conducting STEM education research?

Based on the above discussion to focus on funding support from IES, we first specified the time period, and then searched the IES website to identify STEM education research projects funded by IES within the specified time period.

Time period

As discussed above, IES was established in 2002 and it did not start to administer and manage research funding support for ED until 2003. Therefore, we considered IES funded projects from 2003 to the end of 2019.

Searching and identifying IES funded projects in STEM education

Given the diverse perspectives about STEM education across different agencies and researchers (Li et al., 2020 ), we did not discuss and define the meaning of STEM education. Instead, we used the process described in the following paragraph to identify STEM education research projects funded by IES.

On the publicly accessible IES website ( https://ies.ed.gov ), one menu item is “FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES”, and there is a list of choices within this menu item. One choice is “SEARCH FUNDED RESEARCH GRANTS AND CONTRACTS.” On this web search page, we can choose “Program” under “ADDITIONAL SEARCH OPTIONS.” There are two program categories related to STEM under the option of “Program.” One is “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education” under one large category of “Education Research” and the other is “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics” under another large category of “Special Education Research.” We searched for funded projects under these two program categories, and the process returned 98 funded projects in “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education” under “Education Research” and 29 funded projects in “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics” under “Special Education Research,” for a total of 127 funded projects in these two programs designated for STEM education by IES Footnote 1 .

Data analysis

To address questions 1, 2, 3, and 4, we collected the following information about these projects identified using above procedure: amount of funding, years of duration, information about the PI, types of awardees that received and administered the funding (i.e., university versus those non-university including non-profit organization such as WestEd, Educational Testing Service), and projects’ foci on school level and participants. When a project’s coverage went beyond one category, the project was then coded in terms of its actual number of categories being covered. For example, we used the five categories to classify project’s participants: Pre–K, grades 1–4, grades 5–8, grades 9–12, and adult. If a funded project involved participants from Pre-school to grade 8, then we coded the project as having participants in three categories: Pre-K, grades 1–4, and grades 5–8.

To address question 5, we analyzed projects based on goal classifications from IES. IES followed the classification of research types that was produced through a joint effort between IES and NSF in 2013 (Institute of Education Sciences (IES) and National Science Foundation (NSF), 2013 ). The effort specified six types of research that provide guidance on the goals and level of funding support: foundational research, early-stage or exploratory research, design and development research, efficacy research, effectiveness research, and scale-up research. Related to these types, IES classified goals for funded projects: development and innovation, efficacy and replication, exploration, measurement, and scale-up evaluation, as described on the IES website.

To address question 6, we coded the disciplinary focus using the following five categories: mathematics, science, technology, engineering, and integrated (meaning an integration of any two or more of STEM disciplines). In some cases, we coded a project with multiple disciplinary foci into more than one category. The following are two project examples and how we coded them in terms of disciplinary foci:

The project of “A Randomized Controlled Study of the Effects of Intelligent Online Chemistry Tutors in Urban California School Districts” (2008, https://ies.ed.gov/funding/grantsearch/details.asp?ID=601 ) was to test the efficacy of the Quantum Chemistry Tutors, a suite of computer-based cognitive tutors that are designed to give individual tutoring to high school students on 12 chemistry topics. Therefore, we coded this project as having three categories of disciplinary foci: science because it was chemistry, technology because it applied instructional technology, and integrated because it integrated two or more of STEM disciplines.

The project of “Applications of Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) to Improve the Skill Levels of Students with Deficiencies in Mathematics” (2009, https://ies.ed.gov/funding/grantsearch/details.asp?ID=827 ) was coded as having three categories of disciplinary foci: mathematics, technology because it used intelligent tutoring systems, and integrated because it integrated two or more of STEM disciplines.

To address question 7, all 127 projects were coded using a classification category system developed and used in a previous study (Wang et al., 2019 ). Specifically, each funded project was coded in terms of research type (experimental, interventional, longitudinal, single case, correlational) Footnote 2 , data collection method (interview, survey, observation, researcher designed tests, standardized tests, computer data Footnote 3 ), and data analysis method (descriptive statistics, ANOVA*, general regression, HLM, IRT, SEM, others) Footnote 4 . Based on a project description, specific method(s) were identified and coded following a procedure similar to what we used in a previous study (Wang et al., 2019 ). Two researchers coded each project’s description, and the agreement between them for all 127 projects was 88.2%. When method and disciplinary focus-coding discrepancies occurred, a final decision was reached after discussion.

Results and discussion

In the following sections, we report findings as corresponding to each of the seven research questions.

Question 1: the number of projects, total funding, and the average funding per project from 2003 to 2019

Figure 2 shows the distribution of funded projects over the years in each of the two program categories, “Education Research” and “Special Education Research,” as well as combined (i.e., “STEM” for projects funded under “Education Research,” “Special STEM” for projects funded under “Special Education Research,” and “Combined” for projects funded under both “Education Research” and “Special Education Research”). As Fig. 2 shows, the number of projects increased each year up to 2007, with STEM education projects started in 2003 under “Education Research” and in 2006 under “Special Education Research.” The number of projects in STEM under “Special Education Research” was generally less than those funded under the program category of “Education Research,” especially before 2011. There are noticeable decreases in combined project counts from 2009 to 2011 and from 2012 to 2014, before the number count increased again in 2015. We did not find a consistent pattern across the years from 2003 to 2019.

The distribution of STEM education projects over the years. (Note: STEM refers to projects funded under “Education Research,” Special STEM refers to projects funded under “Special Education Research,” and “Combined” refers to projects funded under both “Education Research” and “Special Education Research.” The same annotations are used in the rest of the figures.)

A similar trend can be observed in the total funding amount for STEM education research (see Fig. 3 ). The figure shows noticeably big year-to-year swings from 2003 to 2019, with the highest funding amount of more than 33 million USD in 2007 and the lowest amount of 2,698,900 USD in 2013 from these two program categories. Although it is possible that insufficient high-quality grant proposals were available in one particular year to receive funding, the funded amount and the number of projects (Fig. 2 ) provide insights about funding trends over the time period of the review.

Annual funding totals

As there are diverse perspectives and foci about STEM education, we also wondered if STEM education research projects might be funded by IES but in program options other than those designated options of “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education.” We found a total of 54 funded projects from 2007 to 2019, using the acronym “STEM” as a search term under the option of “SEARCH FUNDED RESEARCH GRANTS AND CONTRACTS” without any program category restriction. Only 2 (3.7%) out of these 54 projects were in the IES designated program options of STEM education in the category of “Education Research.” Further information about these 54 projects and related discussion can be found as additional notes at the end of this review.

Results from two different approaches to searching for IES-funded projects will likely raise questions about what kinds of projects were funded in the designated program option of “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education,” if only two funded projects under this option contained the acronym “STEM” in a project’s title and/or description. We shall provide further information in the following sub-sections, especially when answering question 6 related to projects’ disciplinary focus.

Figure 4 illustrates the trend of average funding amount per project each year in STEM education research from 2003 to 2019. The average funding per project varied considerably in the program category “Special Education Research,” and no STEM projects were funded in 2014 and 2017 in this category. In contrast, average funding per project was generally within the range of 1,132,738 USD in 2019 to 3,475,975 USD in 2014 for the projects in the category of “Education Research” and also for project funding in the combined category.

The trend of average funding amount per project funded each year in STEM education research

Figure 5 shows the number of projects in different funding amount categories (i.e., less than 1 million USD, 1–2 million USD, 2–3 million USD, 3 million USD or more). The majority of the 127 projects obtained funding of 1–2 million USD (77 projects, 60.6%), with 60 out of 98 projects (61.2%) under “Education Research” program and 17 out of 29 projects (58.6%) in the program category “Special Education Research.” The category with second most projects is funding of 3 million USD or more (21 projects, 16.5%), with 15 projects (15.3% of 98 projects) under “Education Research” and 6 projects (20.7% of 29 projects) under “Special Education Research.”

The number of projects in terms of total funding amount categories

Figure 6 shows the average amount of funding per project funded across these different funding amount and program categories. In general, the projects funded under “Education Research” tended to have a higher average amount than those funded under “Special Education Research,” except for those projects in the total funding amount category of “less than 1 million USD.” Considering all 127 funded projects, the average amount of funding was 1,960,826.3 USD per project.

The average amount of funding per project across different total funding amount and program categories

Figure 7 shows that the vast majority of these 127 projects were 3- or 4-year projects. In particular, 59 (46.5%) projects were funded as 4-year projects, with 46 projects (46.9%) under “Education Research” and 13 projects (44.8%) under “Special Education Research.” This category is followed closely by 3-year projects (54 projects, 42.5%), with 41 projects (41.8%) under “Education Research” and 13 projects (44.8%) under “Special Education Research.”

The number of projects in terms of years of project duration. (Note, 2: 2-year projects; 3: 3-year projects; 4: 4-year projects; 5: 5-year projects)

Question 2: trends of single versus multiple principal investigator(s) in STEM education

Figure 8 shows the distribution of projects over the years grouped by a single PI or multiple PIs where the program categories of “Education Research” and “Special Education Research” have been combined. The majority of projects before 2009 had a single PI, and the trend has been to have multiple PIs for STEM education research projects since 2009. The trend illustrates the increased emphases on collaboration in STEM education research, which is consistent with what we learned from a recent study of journal publications in STEM education (Li et al., 2020 ).

The distribution of projects with single versus multiple PIs over the years (combined)

Separating projects by program categories, Fig. 9 shows projects funded in the program category “Education Research.” The trends of single versus multiple PIs in Fig. 9 are similar to the trends shown in Fig. 8 for the combined programs. In addition, almost all projects in STEM education funded under this regular research program had multiple PIs since 2010.

The distribution of projects with single versus multiple PIs over the years (in “Education Research” program)

Figure 10 shows projects funded in the category “Special Education Research.” The pattern in Fig. 10 , where very few projects funded under this category had multiple PIs before 2014, is quite different from the patterns in Figs. 8 and 9 . We did not learn if single PIs were appropriate for the nature of these projects. The trend started to change in 2015 as the number of projects with multiple PIs increased and the number of projects with single PIs declined.

The distribution of projects with single versus multiple PIs over the years (in “Special Education Research” program)

Question 3: types of awardees of these projects

Besides the information about the project’s PI, the nature of the awardees can help illustrate what types of entity or organization were interested in developing and carrying out STEM education research. Figure 11 shows that the university was the main type of awardee before 2012, with 80 (63.0%) projects awarded to universities from 2003 to 2019. At the same time, non-university entities received funding support for 47 (37.0%) projects and they seem to have become even more active and successful in obtaining research funding in STEM education over the past several years. The result suggests that diverse organizations develop and conduct STEM education research, another indicator of the importance of STEM education research.

The distribution of projects funded to university versus non-university awardees over the years

Question 4: participant populations in the projects

Figure 12 indicates that the vast majority of projects were focused on student populations in preschool to grade 12. This is understandable as IES is the research funding arm of ED. Among those projects, middle school students were the participants in the most projects (70 projects), followed by student populations in elementary school (48 projects), and high school (38 projects). The adult population (including post-secondary students and teachers) was the participant group in 36 projects in a combined program count.

The number of projects in STEM education for different groups of participants (Note: Pre-K: preschool-kindergarten; G1–4: grades 1–4; G5–8: grades 5–8; G9–12: grades 9–12; adult: post-secondary students and teachers)

If we separate “Education Research” and “Special Education Research” programs, projects in the category “Special Education Research” focused on student populations in elementary and middle school most frequently, and then adult population. In contrast, projects in the category “Education Research” focused most frequently on middle school student population, followed by student populations in high school and elementary school.

Given the importance of funded research in special education Footnote 5 at IES, we considered projects focused on participants with disabilities. Figure 13 shows there were 28 projects in the category “Special Education Research” for participants with disabilities. There were also three such projects funded in the category “Education Research,” which together accounted for a total of 31 (24.4%) projects. In addition, some projects in the category “Education Research” focused on other participants, including 11 projects focused on ELL students (8.7%) projects and 37 projects focused on low SES students (29.1%).

The number of funded projects in STEM education for three special participant populations (Note: ELL: English language learners, Low SES: low social-economic status)

Figure 14 shows the trend of projects in STEM education for special participant populations. Participant populations with ELL and/or Low SES gained much attention before 2011 among these projects. Participant populations with disabilities received relatively consistent attention in projects on STEM education over the years. Research on STEM education with special participant populations is important and much needed. However, related scholarship is still in an early development stage. Interested readers can find related publications in this journal (e.g., Schreffler et al., 2019 ) and other journals (e.g., Lee, 2014 ).

The distribution of projects in STEM education for special participant populations over the years

Question 5: types of projects in terms of goals for program development and research

Figure 15 shows that “development and innovation” was the most frequently funded type of project (58 projects, 45.7%), followed by “efficacy and replication” (34 projects, 26.8%), and “measurement” (21 projects, 16.5%). The pattern is consistent across “Education Research,” “Special Education Research,” and combined. However, it should be noted that all five projects with the goal of “scale-up evaluation” were in the category “Education Research” Footnote 6 and funding for these projects were large.

The number of projects in terms of the types of goals

Examining the types of projects longitudinally, Fig. 16 shows that while “development and innovation” and “efficacy and replication” types of projects were most frequently funded in the “Education Research” program, the types of projects being funded changed longitudinally. The number of “development and innovation” projects was noticeably fewer over the past several years. In contrast, the number of “measurement” projects and “efficacy and replication” projects became more dominant. The change might reflect a shift in research development and needs.

The distribution of projects in terms of the type of goals over the years (in “Education Research” program)

Figure 17 shows the distribution of project types in the category “Special Education Research.” The pattern is different from the pattern shown in Fig. 16 . The types of “development and innovation” and “efficacy and replication” projects were also the dominant types of projects under “Special Education Research” program category in most of these years from 2007 to 2019. Projects in the type “measurement” were only observed in 2010 when that was the only type of project funded.

The distribution of projects in terms of goals over the years (in “Special Education Research” program)

Question 6: disciplinary foci of projects in developing and conducting STEM education research

Figure 18 shows that the majority of the 127 projects under such specific programs included disciplinary foci on individual STEM disciplines: mathematics in 88 projects, science in 51 projects, technology in 43 projects, and engineering in 2 projects. The tremendous attention to mathematics in these projects is a bit surprising, as mathematics was noted as being out of balance in STEM education (English, 2016 ) and also in STEM education publications (Li, 2018b , 2019 ). As noted above, each project can be classified in multiple disciplinary foci. However, of the 88 projects with a disciplinary focus on mathematics, 54 projects had mathematics as the only disciplinary focus (38 under “Education Research” program and 16 under “Special Education Research” program). We certainly hope that there will be more projects that further scholarship where mathematics is included as part of (integrated) STEM education (see Li & Schoenfeld, 2019 ).

The number of projects in terms of disciplinary focus

There were also projects with specific focus on integrated STEM education (i.e., combining any two or more disciplines of STEM), with a total of 55 (43.3%) projects in a combined program count. The limited number of projects on integrated STEM in the designated STEM funding programs further confirms the common perception that the development of integrated STEM education and research is still in its initial stage (Honey et al., 2014 ; Li, 2018a ).

In examining possible funding trends, Fig. 19 shows that mathematics projects were more frequently funded before 2012. Engineering was a rare disciplinary focus. Integrated STEM was a disciplinary focus from time to time among these projects. No other trends were observed.

The distribution of projects in terms of disciplinary focus over the years

Question 7: research types and methods that projects used

Figure 20 indicates that “interventional” (in 104 projects, 81.9%) and “experimental research” (in 89 projects, 70.1%) were the most frequently funded types of research. The percentages of projects funded under the regular education research program were similar to those funded under “Special Education Research” program, except that projects funded under “Special Education Research” tended to utilize correlational research more often.

The number of projects in terms of the type of research conducted

Research in STEM education uses diverse data collection and analysis methods; therefore, we wanted to study types of methods (Figs. 21 and 22 , respectively). Among the six types of methods used for data collection, Fig. 21 indicates that “standardized tests” and “designed tests” were the most commonly used methods for data collection, followed by “survey,” “observation,” and “interview.” The majority of projects used three quantitative methods (“standardized tests,” “researcher designed tests,” and “survey”). The finding is consistent with the finding from analysis of journal publications in STEM education (Li et al., 2020 ). Data collected through “interview” and “observation” were more likely to be analyzed using qualitative methods as part of a project’s research methodology.

The number of projects categorized by the type of data collection methods

The number of projects categorized by the type of data analysis methods

Figure 22 shows the use of seven (including others) data analysis methods among these projects. The first six methods (i.e., descriptive, ANOVA*, general regression, HLM, IRT, and SEM) as well as some methods in “others” are quantitative data analysis methods. The number of projects that used these quantitative methods is considerably larger than the number of projects that used qualitative methods (i.e., included in “others” category).

Concluding remarks

The systematic analysis of IES-funded research projects in STEM education presented an informative picture about research support for STEM education development in the USA, albeit based on only one public funding agency from 2003 to 2019. Over this 17-year span, IES funded 127 STEM education research projects (an average of over seven projects per year) in two designated STEM program categories. Although we found no discernable longitudinal funding patterns in these two program categories, both the number of funded projects in STEM education and their funding amounts were high. If we included an additional 52 projects with the acronym “STEM” funded by many other programs from 2007 to 2019 (see “ Notes ” section below), the total number of projects in STEM education research would be even higher, and the number of projects with the acronym “STEM” would also be larger. The results suggested the involvement of many researchers with diverse expertise in STEM education research was supported by a broad array of program areas in IES.

Addressing the seven questions showed several findings. Funding support for STEM education research was strong, with an average of about 2 million USD per project for a typical 3–4 year duration. Also, our analysis showed that the number of projects with multiple PIs over the years increased over the study time period, which we speculate was because STEM education research increasingly requires collaboration. STEM education research is still in early development stage, evidenced by the predominance of project goals in either “development and innovation” or “efficacy and replication” categories. We found very few projects (5 out of 127 projects, 4.0%) that were funded for “scale-up evaluation.” Finally, as shown by our analysis of project participants, IES had focused on funding projects for students in grades 1–12. Various quantitative research methods were frequently used by these projects for data collection and analyses.

These results illustrated how well STEM education research was supported through both the designated STEM education and many other programs during the study time period, which helps to explain why researchers in the USA have been so productive in producing and promoting scholarship in STEM education (Li et al., 2019 ; Li et al., 2020 ). We connected several findings from this study to findings from recent reviews of journal publications in STEM education. For example, publications in STEM education appeared in many different journals as many researchers with diverse expertise were supported to study various issues related to STEM education, STEM education publications often have co-authorship, and there is heavy use of quantitative research methods. The link between public funding and significant numbers of publications in STEM education research from US scholars offers a strong argument for the importance of providing strong funding support to research and development in STEM education in the USA and also in many other countries around the world.

The systematic analysis also revealed that STEM education, as used by IES in naming the designated programs, did not convey a clear definition or scope. In fact, we found diverse disciplinary foci in these projects. Integrated STEM was not a main focus of these designated programs in funding STEM education. Instead, many projects in these programs had clear subject content focus in individual disciplines, which is very similar to discipline-based education research (DBER, National Research Council, 2012 ). Interestingly enough, STEM education research had also been supported in many other programs of IES with diverse foci Footnote 7 , such as “Small Business Innovation Research,” “Cognition and Student Learning,” and “Postsecondary and Adult Education.” This funding reality further suggested the broad scope of issues associated with STEM education, as well as the growing need of building STEM education research as a distinct field (Li, 2018a ).

Inspired by our recent review of journal publications as research output in STEM education, this review started with an ambitious goal to study funding support as research input for STEM education. However, we had to limit the scope of the study for feasibility. We limited funding sources to one federal agency in the USA. Therefore, we did not analyze funding support from private funding sources including many private foundations and corporations. Although public funding sources have been one of the most important funding supports available for researchers to develop and expand their research work, the results of this systematic analysis suggest the importance future studies to learn more about research support and input to STEM education from other sources including other major public funding agencies, private foundations, and non-profit professional organizations.

Among these 54 funded projects containing the acronym “STEM” from 2007 to 2019, Table 1 shows that only 2 (3.7%) were in the IES designated program option of STEM education in the category of “Education Research.” Forty-nine projects were in 13 other program options in the category of “Education Research,” with surprisingly large numbers of projects under the “Small Business Innovation Research” option (17, 31.5%) and “Cognition and Student Learning” (11, 20.4%). Three of the 54 funded projects were in the program category of “Special Education Research.” To be specific, two of the three were in the program of “Small Business Innovation Research in Special Education,” and one was in the program of “Special Topic: Career and Technical Education for Students with Disabilities.”

The results suggest that many projects, focusing on various issues and questions directly associated with STEM education, were funded even when researchers applied for funding support in program options not designated as “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education.” It implies that issues associated with STEM education had been generally acknowledged as important across many different program areas in education research and special education research. The funding support available in diverse program areas likely allowed numerous scholars with diverse expertise to study many different questions and publish their research in diverse journals, as we noted in the recent review of journal publications in STEM education (Li et al., 2020 ).

A previous study identified and analyzed a total of 46 IES funded projects from 2007 to 2018 (with an average of fewer than 4 projects per year) that contain the acronym “STEM” in a project’s title and/or description (Wang et al., 2019 ). Finding eight newly funded projects in 2019 suggested a growing interest in research on issues directly associated with STEM education in diverse program areas. In fact, five out of these eight newly funded projects specifically included the acronym “STEM” in the project’s title to explicitly indicate the project’s association with STEM education.

Availability of data and materials

The data and materials used and analyzed for the review are publicly available at the IES website, White House website, and other government agency websites.

In a previous study (Wang, Li, & Xiao, 2019), we used the acronym “STEM” as a search term under the option of “SEARCH FUNDED RESEARCH GRANTS AND CONTRACTS” without any program category restriction, and identified and analyzed 46 funded projects from 2007 to 2018 that contain “STEM” in a project’s title and/or description after screening out unrelated key words containing “stem” such as “system”. To make comparisons when needed, we did the same search using the acronym “STEM” and found 8 more funded projects in 2019 for a total of 54 funded projects across many different program categories from 2007 to 2019.

The project of “A Randomized Controlled Study of the Effects of Intelligent Online Chemistry Tutors in Urban California School Districts” (2008). In the project description, its subtitle shows intervention information. We coded this project as “interventional.” Then, the project also included the treatment group and the control group. We coded this project as “experimental.” Finally, this project was to test the efficacy of computer-based cognitive tutors. This was a correlational study. We thus coded it as “correlational.”

Computer data means that the project description indicated this kind of information, such as log data on students.

Descriptive means “descriptive statistics.” General regression means multiple regression, linear regression, logistical regression, except hierarchical linear regression model. ANOVA* is used here as a broad term to include analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, multivariate analysis of variance, and/or multivariate analysis of variance. Others include factor analysis, t tests, Mann-Whitney tests, and binomial tests, log data analysis, meta-analysis, constant comparative data analysis, and qualitative analysis.

Special education originally was about students with disabilities. It has broadened in scope over the years.

The number of students under Special Education was 14% of students in public schools in the USA in 2017–2018. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgg.asp

For example, “Design Environment for Educator-Student Collaboration Allowing Real-Time Engineering-centric, STEM (DESCARTES) Exploration in Middle Grades” (2017) was funded as a 2-year project to Parametric Studios, Inc. (awardee) under the program option of “Small Business Innovation Research” (here is the link: https://ies.ed.gov/funding/grantsearch/details.asp?ID=1922 ). “Exploring the Spatial Alignment Hypothesis in STEM Learning Environments” (2017) was funded as a 4-year project to WestEd (awardee) under the program option of “Cognition and Student Learning” (link: https://ies.ed.gov/funding/grantsearch/details.asp?ID=2059 ). “Enhancing Undergraduate STEM Education by Integrating Mobile Learning Technologies with Natural Language Processing” (2018) was funded as a 4-year project to Purdue University (awardee) under the program option of “Postsecondary and Adult Education” (link: https://ies.ed.gov/funding/grantsearch/details.asp?ID=2130 ).

Abbreviations

Analysis of variance

Discipline-based education research

Department of Education

Hierarchical linear modeling

Institute of Education Sciences

Item response theory

National Science Foundation

Pre-school–grade 12

Requests-for-proposal

Structural equation modeling

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

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Thriving or Simply Surviving? A Qualitative Exploration of STEM Community College Students’ Transition to a Four-Year University

Mackenzie j. gray.

† Biology Department, Portland State University, Portland, OR 97201

Sandhya A. Gunarathne

Nikki n. nguyen, erin e. shortlidge, associated data.

Community colleges expand access to higher education and play a key role in efforts to increase and diversify the future science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) workforce. While community colleges increase access to higher education and millions of students attend them for some portion of their education, the experiences of transfer students remain relatively understudied. Transferring during an academic journey can compound the barriers that students already face when pursuing a STEM degree. This study uses Schlossberg’s model for analyzing human adaptation to transition to understand how STEM community college transfer students navigate and adapt to the 4-year university. Five semistructured focus groups were conducted with STEM community college transfer students attending an urban university. Analysis of the focus groups resulted in a new model: the amended model of adaptation to transfer transition, or AMATT, which illustrates various factors that played a role in STEM community college transfer students’ adaptation a university. Analyses illumined two broad pathways that students tend to diverge into during their transitions—thriving or simply surviving. This work provides a framework for understanding factors influencing the transfer process and ideally will inform institutions and students as they consider maximal transfer student success.

INTRODUCTION

Estimates state that the United States will need an additional one million science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) professionals over the next decade to maintain relevance in these fields ( President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology [PCAST], 2012 ). An annual increase in the number of students who graduate with a STEM degree will be required to meet such demands. Of all students who enter a STEM degree program, less than 40% finish their degrees ( PCAST, 2012 ); therefore, reducing attrition rates and retaining more students in STEM will be essential for reaching the projected number of STEM professionals needed.

Although often overlooked, community colleges are a critical component of undergraduate STEM education in the United States, and thus are key in mitigating the predicted shortage of STEM workers. Community colleges train a large portion of the current STEM workforce, as 44% of those who earn a STEM degree report attending a community college at some point ( Hagedorn and Purnamasari, 2012 ). Community colleges have been recognized for their role in advancing students toward degree completion ( Cohen and Brawer, 1989 ; Smith and Vellani, 1999 ; Hagedorn and Purnamasari, 2012 ; Ma and Baum, 2016 ), and as recently as the Fall of 2019, 34% of all undergraduate students in the United States were enrolled in community colleges ( National Center for Education Statistics, 2019 ).

Community colleges increase access to education by offering convenient and cost-effective options for students, open admission, and many courses ( Kasper 2003 ; Boggs, 2011 ). They enroll the most diverse student body in higher education in terms of demographic dimensions ( Boggs, 2011 ), and they enroll a large proportion of minority, first-generation, low-income, and non-traditional age (23+ years) students ( Ma and Baum, 2016 ). According to the American Association of Community Colleges, 28% of community college students are Hispanic, 13% are Black, 6% are Asian ( AACC, 2021 ), 60% are women, 29% are first-generation college students, 56% receive financial aid, and the average student age is 27, ( AACC, n.d. ). Thus, community colleges will play a key role in the push to not only increase but also diversify the future STEM workforce ( Briggs, 2017 ; Benish, 2018 ).

Community colleges increase access to higher education, with millions of students attending them for at least some portion of their higher education ( Boggs, 2011 ). There are well-intended national calls to make the STEM transfer pathway more robust ( National Research Council, 2012 ), yet the experiences of community college students remain surprisingly understudied ( Schinske et al. , 2017 )—particularly lacking is investigation into the transfer process itself. Some researchers state that students can face what is known as “transfer shock” as they transfer from 2- to 4-year universities ( Cejda, 1997 ). Transfer shock refers to declines in academic success, such as a drop in grade point average upon transfer ( Rhine et al. , 2000 ), and/or social factors, such as lacking a sense of belonging at the university ( Strayhorn, 2018 ). These experiences can lead to a misalignment between student intentions and outcomes and present barriers to persistence. While 80% of students attending a community college intend to earn a bachelor’s degree, only 14% of students who start at a community college and transfer to a 4-year university earn a bachelor’s degree within 6 years ( Jenkins and Fink, 2016 ). Thus, we need to focus on understanding factors that both inhibit and promote transfer student completion of a bachelor’s degree.

Transferring midway through an academic journey can compound the many barriers that students already face when pursing a degree in STEM ( Packard et al. , 2012 ), such as departmental and classroom culture, time to degree, and cost ( National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2016 ). Barriers that impact community college transfer students during their transition can include a lack of information, poor advising, and varying degrees of preparedness ( Hagedorn et al. , 2008 ). The community college environment can differ dramatically from a 4-year college environment when students transfer to more selective and/or large universities with bigger class sizes ( Rhine et al. , 2000 ; Umbach et al. , 2019 ). Researchers looking at community college transfer students’ academic adjustment found that students who reported positive course learning experiences at the university are more likely to adjust, whereas those with a perceived negative stigma around being a transfer student are less likely to adjust ( Laanan et al. , 2010 ). A study examining STEM transfer students found that social factors such as gender and student connections with faculty play an important role in the academic adjustment of transfer students, as do academic factors such as having a large number of transfer credit hours ( Jackson and Laanan, 2015 ). Another study examining STEM transfer student experiences found that parent’s education level, interactions with faculty, and perception of the university influenced students’ academic adjustment ( Lopez and Jones, 2017 ). There are clearly many factors that will impact how a transfer student adapts to the university posttransfer. Given that STEM fields are historically exclusionary, it is critical to understand key supports for STEM transfer students, particularly those who come from marginalized, low socioeconomic, and/or groups otherwise underrepresented in science ( Carter et al. , 2019 ; Berhe et al. , 2022 ).

Our work here centers on qualitatively understanding the various ways in which STEM transfer students navigated their transition to one 4-year, public research institution. Through focus groups, STEM students shared their experiences transferring to our university, allowing us to identify the academic and social factors that tended to positively and negatively impact their adaptations to the transition. The purpose of this work is to summarize the various obstacles and supports that STEM transfer students report grappling with in their transition from community college to a 4-year institution and ultimately encourage institutions to apply lessons learned to their transfer support structures and programs.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A model for analyzing human adaptation to transition.

To understand student adaptation to transfer, we used a model designed to understand how humans adapt to transitions ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). The model—a model for analyzing human adaptation to transition, which we will refer to as “MAAT” ( Figure 1 )—aims to provide a tool for understanding differences in experiences among individuals going through a particular transition and has been used to examine various life transitions, such as career transitions for nurses ( Wall et al. , 2018 ) and the transitions faced by athletes after concluding their athletic careers ( Wylleman et al. , 2004 ). The MAAT proposes that the perception of the transition, characteristics of the pretransition and posttransition environment, and characteristics of the individual will influence if and how one moves from transition to adaptation.

Redrawn from “A Model for Analyzing Human Adaptation to Transition” ( Schlossberg, 1981 ).

The MAAT defines “transition” as “an event or non-event resulting in a change in assumptions about oneself and the world, thus requiring a corresponding change in one’s behavior and relationships” ( Schlossberg, 1981 , p. 5). A non-event is described as the loss of an event that was expected to occur. Within this model, three major factors influence the individual’s adaptation to a transition: the perception of the transition, the characteristics of the pre- and posttransition environments, and the characteristics of the individual experiencing the transition ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). The transition that we examined is the transition from a community college to a 4-year university.

Perception of the Transition

According to the MAAT, most transitions can be understood through a common set of variables: affect, timing, and degree of stress ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). Any change or transition, regardless of characteristics, involves some degree of stress, even if primarily positive or negative in affect. One might consider oneself “on-timing” or “off-timing” for the transition based on what is perceived to be the correct timing within a society for a major life event ( Neugarten, 1976 ).

Characteristics of the Pretransition and Posttransition Environments

Environment within the MAAT is described broadly and includes interpersonal support systems, institutional supports, and physical settings ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). Interpersonal support systems are thought to be important for successful adaptation. Institutional supports describe any place that an individual can turn to for help throughout the transition. The factors of the physical setting involved in the transition can contribute to the stress or general well-being experienced by the individual, which may play a role in the individual’s ability to adapt to the particular transition.

Characteristics of the Individual

The characteristics of the individual going through the transition will impact the individual’s ability to adapt to that particular transition ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). Some important characteristics to consider include the life stage of the individual, social identities, being a member of an underrepresented group, and previous experiences with similar transitions. For undergraduate STEM students, additional characteristics may be important to consider, such as their self-efficacy, sense of belonging, and science identity ( Estrada et al. , 2011 ; Strayhorn, 2018 ).

The MAAT describes “adaptation” as “a process during which an individual moves from being totally preoccupied with the transition to integrating the transition into his or her life” ( Schlossberg, 1981 , p. 7). Understanding the experiences of community college transfer students during their transition and what impacts their ability to adapt may lead to new ways to support and retain these students.

Recruitment

This study was conducted at a large public northwestern urban commuter university. Our university is classified by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education as high research activity with a 4-year, medium full-time, selective, high transfer-in undergraduate profile ( Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, n.d. ). In the Spring of 2019, a survey was sent to all declared STEM majors as part of a larger research study. The survey collected demographic data and was designed to measure student integration into science, STEM involvement, and sense of belonging (Shortlidge, E. E., Goodwin, E. C., Gray, M. J., & Estes, S. R., unpublished data). At the end of the survey, participants were asked various demographic questions and whether they would be interested in participating in a focus group to share more about their experiences as STEM students. Survey participants who indicated that they were willing to be contacted were emailed by a researcher to confirm interest and availability. We wanted to learn about the transfer student experience, so students were selected to participate in focus groups from the pool of volunteers based on their community college transfer status. This work is part of a larger, mixed-methods study on factors that support student belonging and retention in STEM, and students were also selected to participate based on whether or not they were a member of a STEM intervention program (SIP) on our campus. SIPs have been created nationwide to increase access to STEM fields and to ultimately improve student retention to graduation ( Rincon and George-Jackson, 2016 ). SIPs often recruit and support students who are historically marginalized by STEM fields ( Fagen and Labov, 2007 ), and approximately 10% of our university’s STEM students are involved with SIPs. This study was approved by the Portland State University Institutional Review Board (no. 174450).

Focus Groups

We conducted five semistructured focus groups with STEM transfer students at the end of the Spring 2019 quarter. We used a semistructured focus group format, following a predetermined list of questions but allowing for a natural flow of conversation and follow-up questions as appropriate ( Clifford et al. , 2016 ). Each focus group had one primary facilitator and a secondary facilitator. The primary facilitator was the same for each focus group.

We separated transfer student focus groups by SIP status. We did this for two reasons: 1) we were concerned that students who were not part of SIPs would not be comfortable discussing their experiences if they felt that the other students had disproportionately increased opportunities ( Onwuegbuzie et al. , 2009 ); and 2) focus groups were conducted as part of a larger, mixed-methods study on STEM student retention and the role of SIPs. The intention of the present work is to better understand the holistic experience of STEM transfer students at our university. We felt that a collective research setting would present a unique perspective, differently nuanced than that of individual interviews, as focus groups allow participants to produce a collective discussion and understanding of a shared problem or experience ( Wilkinson, 1998 ).

We (E.E.S., M.J.G.) iteratively developed the focus group questions in part to better understand the constructs intended to be measured by the survey instrument (e.g. science identity and sense of belonging; Shortlidge, E. E., Goodwin, E. C., Gray, M. J., & Estes, S. R., unpublished data), as well as to generally understand the students’ transitions to our university (for a full list of questions, see Supplemental Material, Appendix 1). Each focus group lasted 1 hour, was held on campus, followed the predetermined script, took place within the same 2-week time period at the end of the academic year, and was audio- and video-recorded. Focus group participants were compensated with a $25 gift card.

Participants

A total of 33 community college transfer students participated in the five focus groups (ranging from two to 10 per group). Table 1 illustrates descriptive demographics of the focus group participants. We would like to point out a few things regarding our focus group sample that could limit the transferability of the data. Students at our university who identify as BIPoC students (Black, Indigenous and people of color) make up approximately 40% of the overall population. BIPoC students were thus overrepresented (53%) in the focus groups that contained students who were part of SIPs compared with the university as a whole. On the other hand, BIPoC students were vastly underrepresented in our other, non-SIP focus groups. Many SIPs specifically recruit minoritized students to apply, or in the case of the National Science Foundation (NSF)-funded Louis Stokes Alliance of Minority Participation program, are designed specifically to support students minoritized in STEM. We recognize this discrepancy as a limitation of the generalizability of our results. Otherwise, the demographics of our sample do not vary significantly from our STEM population, except they are all transfer students—and transfer students comprise approximately 60% of our overall STEM population. It is also important to note that, while the demographics of our sample mostly align with our university’s population, the average age of our students is older than that of many other universities (our mean student age is 26 years). This likely impacts the perceptions and experiences discussed by our participants; however, the age mean is in alignment with the broader transfer student population ( AACC, n.d. ). We did not disaggregate or analyze our results by demographic factors, as these were focus groups and not all students had a chance to, nor were they expected to, equally respond to each prompt as they would in an interview; therefore, such disaggregation would not appropriately represent the data.

Demographics of study participants (self-identified by participants)

Qualitative Data Analysis

Each focus group was transcribed verbatim (Rev.com, San Francisco) and de-identified. Researchers (M.J.G., S.A.G., N.N.N., E.E.S.) read through a subset of the transcripts to identify overarching themes. The researchers also had access to the secondary facilitator’s (M.J.G.) focus group notes. Three researchers (M.J.G., S.A.G., N.N.N.) then iteratively developed a codebook using multiple methods. We used inductive content analysis to derive themes and codes from the focus group participant responses that arose organically and were not necessarily anticipated ( Patton, 1990 ; Saldana, 2015 ). We also used deductive content analysis to identify existing ideas within the data that related to integration into science, sense of belonging, and human adaptation to transition ( Patton, 1990 ; Saldana, 2015 ). The codebook was iteratively developed by the research team (see Supplemental Material, Appendix 2). We used the final codebook to code two of the five transcripts to full consensus. One researcher (M.J.G.) then coded the remaining three focus group transcripts and conferred with the other researchers regarding any questions or instances where the appropriate code to apply was not entirely clear. As a research group, we then aligned the codes developed in our iterative analysis with the factors of the original transition model (MAAT; Figure 1 ). Our qualitative analysis revealed that we were well positioned to use our student data to expand the original model, as we could fully represent our students’ experiences and tailor the model to the STEM transfer student experience. This expansion resulted in what we call the amended model of adaptation to transfer transition (AMATT; Figure 2 ).

Amended model of adaptation to transfer transition, or AMATT. Black lines represent relationships between characteristics, blue boxes represent elements of thrive adaptation, yellow boxes represent elements of survive adaptation, and black boxes represent dynamic elements (elements that can contribute to either surviving or thriving, given the context).

For this study, we conducted focus groups in an effort to broadly understand the transfer experiences of STEM students at our university. Focus groups produce group-level data in addition to individual-level data ( Hydén and Bülow, 2003 ) and have been recognized as a method whereby participants can produce a collective understanding of a phenomenon ( Wilkinson, 1998 ). Due to the nature of focus groups, not every student answered every focus group question, nor was this expected ( Parker and Tritter, 2006 ). We are currently conducting individual interviews with transfer students, and the interview questions have been acutely informed by the focus group results reported here. Forthcoming reports of those interviews will add to the literature base by contributing individual, nuanced transfer stories.

We did not set out to gather levels of agreement with specific components of the AMATT, nor to specifically identify individual-level experiences, thus we do not quantify each category of response. Instead, we holistically analyzed the data, taking the individual and collective experiences into account so we could map student experiences by these factors. These data are meant to put forth an overview of the sorts of experiences that may occur during the transfer experience from a community college to a university.

Our analysis expands upon Schlossberg’s model to understand human adaptation to transition by keeping the existing elements within the model that were discussed by participants and adding emergent themes from our analysis, resulting in the AMATT ( Figure 2 ). Community college transfer students participating in the study discussed many factors that impacted their adaptation to the transition to university. These factors can be described within the following categories: perception of the transition, environmental characteristics, and individual characteristics. In addition to these categories, participants also described what we deemed as being two divergent paths of adaptation: surviving and thriving. Our model also demonstrates which characteristics appeared to contribute to a “survive” adaptation and which characteristics appeared to contribute to a “thrive” adaptation and the potential relationships between characteristics ( Figure 2 ). We describe each characteristic presented in the model and how it may have related to thriving or surviving. Typically, the most positive responses were contributors to students thriving in their transition, whereas commonplace or negative experiences contributed to surviving.

Perception of Transition

According to Schlossberg’s model of human adaptation to transition, most transitions can be represented by a common set of variables that describe the perception of the transition ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). The most common variables discussed by the focus group participants included timing, degree of stress, and affect ( Figure 2 ).

One might consider oneself “on-timing” or “off-timing” for major life events based on what is perceived to be the “correct” timing within a society ( Neugarten, 1976 ). This can be true for college students, who may have an internal perception of when is the correct time to start and finish their degrees and to be in college. Timing was discussed among focus group participants.

Few participants discussed feeling on-time within their degree program. One participant expressed excitement about the transition from the community college to the university, as it allowed the student to be in alignment with peers, while few others expressed that their age did not impact their perception of their experiences, suggesting that they did not feel off-time for their transition to the university ( Table 2 ).

Perceptions of the transition (illustrated by example quotes) were a major component of the AMATT

Off-Timing.

Participants discussed feeling off-time across focus groups. Participants discussed how being a non–traditional age student impacted them emotionally, while others discussed how this impacted their educational experience ( Table 2 ).

It is pertinent to note here that our university’s average student age (undergraduate and graduate) is typically reported to be 26 or 27 years old. Although perhaps unique across some institutions of higher education, this non–traditional student age is a prominent student group that we have a limited understanding of ( Spitzer, 2000 ). The perception of timing held by these participants may have been impacted by the average age of students at our university.

Degree of Stress.

Any transition, regardless of other characteristics, causes stress ( George, 1993 ; Miller, 2016 ; Schlossberg, 1981 ). The level of stress caused by a transition impacts adaptation to that transition. Participants expressed experiencing what we categorized as being “low” degrees of stress or “high” degrees of stress throughout their transitions from community college to a 4-year university ( Table 2 ). Each group discussed experiencing a high degree of stress more often than they discussed experiencing a low degree of stress.

Some transitions can generate positive feelings, while others generate negative feelings, but most transitions are likely to have both positive and negative affect ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). Among the focus group participants, we found discussion of positive, neutral, and negative perceptions of the transition from a community college to a 4-year university, with negative perceptions of the transition itself being the most discussed by the participants ( Table 2 ).

Environmental Characteristics

In Schlossberg’s model of human adaptation to transition, environment is described broadly ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). The original model describes three aspects of the environment: institutional supports, interpersonal support systems, and the physical setting. In addition to these aspects, as depicted in the AMATT ( Figure 2 ), our participants discussed the pretransition environment, posttransition environment, and a lack of quality supports within their environments.

Institutional Supports.

Institutional support describes any formal or informal agency that an individual can turn to for help ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). Institutional support has been recognized for the role that it plays in increasing undergraduate student persistence ( Thomas, 2014 ; Toven-Lindsey et al. , 2015 ). Our participants discussed receiving academic support, professional support, and financial support ( Table 3 ). The participants often described receiving academic support in the form of working with peers, while others reported positive or negative experiences with academic advising, particularly as it relates to transfer credits to degree. Professional support was often described in the form of help with research or internship placements, and some participants discussed receiving support with finding a job or getting career advice from a mentor. Financial support was discussed by participants as receiving scholarships or having the funds needed to purchase class materials; for other students, finances were the reason that they attended our relatively “low-cost” university.

Environmental characteristics (illustrated by example quotes) were a major component of the AMATT

Interpersonal Support Systems.

Interpersonal support is thought to be essential to successful adaptation to transition ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). The focus group participants discussed receiving interpersonal support in the forms of social and emotional support ( Table 3 ). A study examining undergraduate Latinx students found that social support was positively associated with adjustment to college ( Alvan et al. , 1996 ). Emotional support has also been found to be important for undergraduate students’ adjustment to college ( Azmitia et al. , 2013 ). Participants discussed receiving social support from peers, faculty, and family. Participants discussed experiencing emotional support through receiving reassurance and encouragement, feeling comfortable in their environment, and being able to share honest experiences among peers.

Physical Setting.

Physical setting encompasses factors such as weather and location that may contribute to stress, well-being, and general outlook, therefore playing a role in adaptation to the transition ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). Participants considered the location of the university as well as physical aspects of the campus, such as the size or layout of the campus ( Table 3 ).

Pre- and Posttransition Environment.

Participants mentioned aspects of their community colleges (pretransition environment), including the size of the community college and their instructors ( Table 3 ). Participants also discussed aspects of the 4-year university (posttransition environment; Table 3 ). Two main themes arose within the discussion of the posttransition environment: default university and feelings of morale. Many participants discussed feeling as if the university that they transferred to was their only option due to factors related to location or finances (default university). Feelings of morale describes the positive emotional response that comes with belonging to a group ( Bollen and Hoyle, 1990 ). Some participants expressed positive feelings of morale toward the 4-year university.

Lack of Quality Supports.

While some participants felt they received adequate support, others felt there was an overall lack of quality support in their transition. The lack of quality support category was broad and included social, emotional, academic, professional, and financial support ( Table 3 ).

Individual Characteristics

According to Schlossberg’s model of human adaptation to transition, the third major determinant of adaptation to the transition is the individual experiencing the transition ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). As depicted in the AMATT ( Figure 2 ), a number of individual-level characteristics or attributes seemed to influence transfer student adaptation to being a STEM student at a 4-year university. The most salient characteristics among our participants included: life stage, being a member of an underrepresented group in STEM fields, previous experience with a similar transition, and being a member of a SIP ( Table 4 ). The participants also explored their perceptions of what it means to be a scientist, have a science identity, their self-efficacy, and sense of belonging to their fields and/or the university ( Table 4 ). There is evidence in the literature that these constructs are important characteristics for STEM students’ persistence ( Estrada et al. , 2011 , 2018 ; Simon et al. , 2015 ; Rainey et al. , 2018 ; Strayhorn, 2018 ), and we wanted to explore what they mean to students in this study; the focus group questions were therefore designed in part to probe these topics.

Individual characteristics (illustrated by example quotes) were a major component of the AMATT

Both the life stages of the participants and having identities that are considered underrepresented in STEM fields, such as being a first-generation college student ( Engle and Tinto, 2008 ), influenced the perceptions held by the participants and impacted the experiences they had throughout their transitions ( Table 4 ). Schlossberg’s model suggests that those who have successfully adapted to a transition in the past will likely be able to adapt to another transition of a similar nature ( Schlossberg, 1981 ). We found evidence of such adaptation among our participants, with some reminiscing on how the transition to the community college was more difficult than the transition to the university. The participants supported by a SIP often emphasized the impact that this organized support had on their experiences. Example quotes from students with each of these characteristics can be found in Table 4 .

Science Identity, Self-Efficacy, and Belonging.

The participants also discussed their perception of what it means to be a scientist, their science identity, self-efficacy, and sense of belonging ( Table 4 ). Within the participants’ perceptions of what makes someone “a scientist,” two major themes arose—they tended to perceive scientists as having either intrinsic or extrinsic traits. Some participants viewed scientists as having intrinsic traits, such as curiosity and a drive to persist within research. Students also believed that scientists held extrinsic traits, such as having a specific appearance or being involved in the scientific process. The participants’ perceptions of a scientist seemed to be related to and influenced by other individual characteristics, such as their own personal science identities or having a research experience ( Figure 2 ). Students developing a science identity can be critical to persisting in STEM ( Chemers et al. , 2011 ; Estrada et al. , 2011 , 2018 ), and those who identify with a role are more likely to follow the norms associated with that role and then pursue a career within that role ( Estrada et al. , 2011 ). The student participants could be roughly categorized into having a strong science identity, an emerging science identity, or lacking a science identity ( Table 4 ).

The participants displayed varying levels of self-efficacy, or their belief in their personal ability to achieve their goals ( Bandura, 1977 ), and what contributed to or hindered their self-efficacy. They talked of elements of having high self-efficacy, such as being very sure of their goals and how their abilities were reinforced through past successes. The participants also disclosed barriers to self-efficacy. This included being impacted by a lack of motivation, being unsure of their goals, having a lack of time due to their involvement in many things, and having a lack of community. Some participants displayed a high level of self-efficacy, while few participants displayed low levels of self-efficacy ( Table 4 ).

Having a sense of belonging is also deemed as crucial for persistence in college ( O’Keeffe, 2013 ; Strayhorn, 2018 ), in particular for STEM majors and specifically for students of marginalized groups ( Rainey et al. , 2018 ). Participants’ emotions ranged across the board on how they expressed having or not having a sense of belonging, and there were various factors that supported or hindered the feeling of belonging. They talked about belonging as it relates to both the university as a whole or to a group at the university. Examples of groups at the university include academic clubs, professional clubs, departments, multicultural centers, SIPs, or sports teams. Those with a strong sense of belonging attributed it to many factors, including having a physical space to go to with affinity groups, being highly involved within the campus, having a diverse community, and feeling comfortable in their environment. Other participants had a weak or completely lacking sense of belonging. The barriers to belonging included having to commute to the university, having little time for getting involved, and feeling a lack of connection to their peers ( Table 4 ).

Schlossberg’s model defines adaptation as the process during which “an individual moves from being totally preoccupied with the transition to integrating the transition into their life” ( Schlossberg, 1981 , p. 7). Qualitatively, it became clear that although most students were adapting to the university, there were significant differences in how they were adapting. Participants presented evidence of adapting to the university after their transition from the community college in various ways. Some were absolute (thriving), others less so (surviving; Table 5 ).

The distinction between surviving and thriving (each type of adaptation illustrated by example quotes) was a major component of the AMATT

In this study, we aimed to holistically understand STEM community college students’ transitions and adaptations to a 4-year university. Expanding upon Schlossberg’s model for analyzing human adaptation to transition (MAAT) and listening to the perspectives of our STEM transfer students, we created the AMATT to illustrate how many different factors play a role in a STEM community college transfer students’ adaptation to the transition. The AMATT includes characteristics that others have proposed as being important for STEM students’ persistence to graduation, such as science identity, self-efficacy, and sense of belonging ( Estrada et al. , 2011 , 2018 ; Simon et al. , 2015 ; Rainey et al. , 2018 ; Strayhorn, 2018 ). Our model also indicates that there are two types of adaptation: surviving and thriving. We adapted Schlossberg’s model to include these different levels of adaptation, categorized the characteristics of the transition experience as elements that contribute to a survive adaptation or a thrive adaptation, and outlined potential relationships among the characteristics in the AMATT ( Figure 2 ).

Transitioning to a Four-Year University Is Complex

While community colleges increase access to education and many students attend community college for at least some portion of their higher education experiences ( Boggs, 2011 ), transitioning from a community college to a 4-year university can bring forth barriers to persistence ( Hagedorn et al. , 2008 ). These barriers can lead to misalignment between students’ intentions and outcomes. Our derived model demonstrates just how complex the transition experience can be, emphasizing the need to support such students throughout this journey. While our model is not representative of every characteristic that could impact adaptation to the transition, it demonstrates many characteristics that impacted our students’ transfer experiences, including their perceptions of the transition, environmental characteristics, and individual characteristics.

The perception of the transition describes the student’s attitudes toward the transition from a community college to a 4-year university. Very little work has been done on how community college students feel about having to transfer to a 4-year university or how these perceptions influence the transition experience, but our model suggests that the perceptions of timing, degree of stress, and affect associated with the transition impact if and how a student adapts to the transition.

Environmental characteristics, such as institutional supports or physical settings involved in the transition process, were found to impact how a student adapted to the 4-year university. Prior research on community college students’ transitions to a 4-year university found that the quality of academic advisement, access to financial aid, and social and cultural issues can impede a successful transition ( Gard et al. , 2012 ). Our work complements those findings, in that having easy access to quality academic, financial, social, and emotional support seemed to buttress a thrive adaptation. Our model also demonstrates that the characteristics of the pretransition and posttransition environment influence adaptation. This is in alignment with prior research on community college transfer students, with one study finding that attending a large community college was positively associated with student success, but that a large university size was negatively related to transfer student persistence ( Umbach et al. , 2019 ). Characteristics of the physical setting impacted adaptation, for example, one student discussed how a large classroom influenced the transition experience:

“Being at [the university], this is the first time I had actually been in a lecture hall, or just been in a class of over 50 people. And I remember my first class was organic chemistry, and that was down in one of the big lecture halls that seat like 500 people. And I just remember pretty much getting trampled on the way in, like I walked into the classroom and there was a flood of people coming after me. Every single class I had to fight for a seat in the front, just so I could see things. And that was just a culture shock. It was terrifying, knowing there are like 400 other people behind me, that could potentially squish me if they wanted to.”

Individual characteristics impact adaptation to the transition. Others have shown that a transfer student’s individual characteristics such as parent educational level ( Lopez and Jones, 2017 ) and gender ( Jackson and Laanan, 2015 ) can impact academic adjustment, with first-generation students and women students being less likely to adjust academically at the 4-year university. Our model reinforces this, demonstrating that many different individual characteristics such as life stage, being underrepresented or minoritized in STEM, having experience with a previous transition of a similar nature, and being a SIP participant can be impactful to adaptation ( Table 4 ). Additional STEM-specific individual characteristics are discussed later. Further research is needed to understand how hidden identities or undiscussed social factors may impact STEM students’ adaptation to the transition ( Henning et al. , 2019 ; Cooper et al. , 2020 ). It is possible that certain factors did not come up in discussion due to the focus group setting and that tailored individual interviews and surveys could further unpack the salient individual factors.

This model could be used in future research to evaluate which characteristics are most impactful on the transition experience. It could also be expanded upon or adapted to reflect the experiences of students at other types of universities. Transferring from a community college should not hinder one’s ability to persist to graduation, and developing a deeper understanding of which characteristics contribute to a transition experience that supports a thrive adaptation will allow us to help students through that transition in meaningful ways.

Adaptation: Thriving vs. Surviving

The AMATT highlights the many varied inputs involved in a community college students’ adaptation to the transition. We saw a clear qualitative difference among our participants: some were thriving, while others were simply surviving. Students who had more alignment with the thrive adaptation seemed to have more supports in place, both academically and socially. Having more supports may provide a critical buffer, giving students something to lean on or someone to turn to when they face barriers to persistence. One student discussed how having communities within the university helped in getting through a particularly difficult course, while others discussed receiving academic support from faculty and their peers:

“I don’t think I would have been able to survive my first year of organic chemistry had it not been for my [research group] or even the [SIP] alone, having a place where I can just let go and be myself and not be scared.”

“I would always hear my math teacher say, ‘If this office hour doesn’t work for you, email me and I’ll find another one that works for you.” Also, my classmates, I would form friendships with my classmates, too. We’d email and text about, ‘Did you get this as the answer?’ ‘No, I didn’t.’ ‘Well, then let’s troubleshoot why we’re getting two answers.’”

The students who were more aligned with characteristics of surviving expressed a lack of quality supports to lean upon. For example, one student explains a lack of social support, and another describes a lack of quality academic support:

“I’m 27, so much older than most people in my classes. I’m paired up with these students who are 18 and 19. My life experiences are just so different from theirs and I just don’t feel like we have very much in common. And my first semester that was just very daunting.”

“I just found out two days ago that I needed a prerequisite course that I could’ve taken this term if I was given the right information. And instead, I am passing up a job that pays very well for the summer so I can take one prerequisite course so that I don’t get my graduation date delayed by a year.”

Students who are simply surviving the adaptation to the university may be more vulnerable to barriers to persistence. They may also not be able to take advantage of opportunities that contribute to a thrive adaptation or that will help them succeed beyond college. One student discussed financial barriers to participation:

“I mean I’d love to be more involved and do more campus stuff but realistically that’s not doable for my financial situation.”

Further research is needed to better interrogate and understand the paths leading to survive and thrive adaptations and how these different ways of adapting impact students in the long run, to graduation and beyond.

Adapting in STEM

While Schlossberg’s model is useful in describing the general experience of adapting to a life transition, having a model for STEM community college transfer students’ adaptation to the 4-year university allows for a deeper understanding of the characteristics impacting these students. Students pursing a STEM degree already face many barriers, and transferring midway through this journey can compound these barriers ( Packard et al. , 2012 ). Individual characteristics in our model that are fundamental to the STEM student experience—including their perceptions of scientists and their individual science identity, self-efficacy, and sense of belonging—have proven to be key elements to persistence in STEM fields ( Estrada et al. , 2011 ; Estrada et al. , 2018 ; Rainey et al. , 2018 ; Simon et al. , 2015 ; Strayhorn, 2018 ). The students who expressed these factors more readily also appeared to be more closely aligned with a thrive adaptation. We believe that, if universities and community colleges alike can intentionally focus on bolstering the factors in the AMATT ( Figure 2 ) that tend to lead to a thriving adaptation, more students may have the chance to persist to graduation posttransition.

Leveraging Structured STEM Support Programs

Because we conducted and analyzed focus groups with community college transfer students both supported by SIPs and not supported by SIPs, we were able to clearly detect and begin to understand differences in their experiences. The experiences that SIP and non-SIP students discussed regarding their transitions and adaptations, were at times viscerally different between the groups. Understanding these differences may allow us to leverage the support provided by SIPs and find ways to facilitate thriving for more community college transfer students.

Both SIP and non-SIP participants revealed several negative transition experiences and that these experiences caused them a high degree of stress. This suggests that being part of a SIP does not necessarily eliminate “transfer shock” but instead may provide students with the tools to better cope with challenges experienced at the university and promote a quicker, more robust adaptation.

“I had a very rough transfer and I think just having the [SIP peers] that I can relate to has been nice and we have been together through all three terms. And then having [SIP mentors] as well, I don’t know, it’s kind of a reason to stay.”—SIP participant

SIP participants readily discussed positive environmental characteristics that aligned with the thrive adaptation, including institutional supports and interpersonal support systems, whereas more non-SIP participants were prone to explaining a lack of quality supports—in particular, a lack of social and emotional support. In fact, we did not code focus groups with SIP participants as discussing a lack of emotional support. SIP participants more frequently discussed having feelings of morale regarding the university. Conversely, non-SIP participants framed the university as their “default” option and noted that they did not have a choice regarding where they could attend. SIP participants also discussed their identities as a member of an SIP and how this supported the development of their science identity, sense of belonging, and self-efficacy. These factors seemed to contribute to a thrive adaptation, whereas, non-SIP participants more often discussed that they did not always feel the need to belong to the university.

“I definitely think going through the [SIP program] really helped introduce me to all the resources that are available for me, both on campus and even outside of campus. Having this group, I call them my tribe, my tribe of people who are like minded that we can talk to outside of class and debrief. And they are just there for moral and emotional support. Which for me is the most important part. I get so tied up in my inferiority complex, like I’m not good enough, I don’t belong here, I should just quit. It is just nice to have people who are in the same boat as you, who can tell you ‘No, you are doing fine.’”—SIP participant

“Being in the [SIP] has definitely opened up a lot of doors for me here at [the university]. It has also made me feel like a part of [the university]. Talking to some of my other classmates who aren’t in a program like this, I feel like they kind of feel lost and don’t have a drive and aren’t doing as well. It’s not that they aren’t smart, it is just that they maybe lose their focus a little bit. So being in a [SIP] is really nice, because it helps to guide me and remind me of where I am headed.”—SIP participant

“I feel like feeling supported is more important to me than feeling like I’m in the community.”—Non-SIP participant

“Honestly, I don’t care about free ice cream socials or whatever. I’m glad that it’s there for other people who enjoy it but I’m not 18. I’ve already been through the workforce. I just want to get really good grades and then go get a good paycheck.”—Non-SIP participant

By examining the differences between students’ experiences and affordances, we can begin to understand what types of support may facilitate a thrive adaptation for community college transfer students, even if they do not have specific programmatic support. It is critical to see these often ephemeral, yet impactful interventions as opportunities for learning, growth, and institutionalization of the aspects that appear to facilitate student success at individual institutions.

Limitations

There are several limitations to our study in addition to the demographic representation discussed earlier ( Participants ). First, this study was not initially designed around the human adaptation to transitions theory, but instead this framework was deemed suitable during the data analysis stage after data collection occurred. Second, this study describes the collective experience of a subset of self-selecting students and therefore is not representative of all students at our university or other institutions. Third, while we intentionally designed the focus groups to separate SIP and non-SIP students, this may have led to SIP students sharing more, as they might have been familiar and comfortable with other participants due to their participation in the same programs; conversely, this may have also caused SIP participants to hold back from openly sharing their experiences if they were concerned about future interactions with other participants. Fourth, while we intentionally conducted focus groups to understand the collective transfer student experience, we recognize that there are limitations to focus group data. Those limitations include that some students may not have spoken up due to the group dynamics or may not have answered every question posed by the facilitators ( Parker and Tritter, 2006 ). Finally, our research is not representative of students who did not adapt to the transition or students who left college, as they all were currently “adapting.” Studying an attrition group with the AMATT, thus identifying a new pathway of nonadaptation, could lead to key insights, such as when survive characteristics outweigh thrive characteristics to a student’s detriment. Equipping the AMATT with such an additional pathway could be highly informative.

STEM students transferring from a community college to a 4-year university face a complex transition wherein many characteristics will contribute to their ability or inability to adapt. This adaptation may also look different for students depending on any number of factors. While community college transfer students can cope with the transition to a university and survive, all students deserve to have access to the support that they need to thrive. Helping students adapt in a way that allows them to thrive may lead to better student retention and could help set students up for success beyond the university. This work centers and leverages the student voice to supplement a growing understanding of STEM community college students’ pathways to the 4-year university and provides a model for practitioners who aim to better support the transfer student experience.

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgments.

We thank the student study participants for their invaluable contributions. We also thank Julia Burrows and Emma Goodwin for their help conducting focus groups and Lindsay Lutner for assistance in data analysis. This research was supported in part by NSF no. 1742542, awarded to E.E.S.

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN STEM EDUCATION: Studies of Equity, Access and Innovation

Qualitative Research in STEM Education examines the ground-breaking potential of qualitative research methods to address issues of social justice, equity, and sustainability in STEM. A collection of empirical studies conducted by prominent STEM researchers, this book examines the experiences and challenges faced by traditionally marginalized groups in STEM, most notably minority students and women. Investigations ito these issues, as well as the high dropout rate among engineering students and issues of academic integrity in STEM, come with detailed explanations of the study methodologies used in each case. Contributors also provide personal narratives that share their perspectives on the benefits of qualitative research methodologies for the topics explored. Through a variety of qualitative methodologies, including participatory action research, indigenous research, and critical ethnography, this volume aims to reveal and remedy the inequalities within STEM education today.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Looking through the glass ceiling: a qualitative study of stem women’s career narratives.

• Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA

Although efforts have been directed toward the advancement of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) positions, little research has directly examined women’s perspectives and bottom-up strategies for advancing in male-stereotyped disciplines. The present study utilized Photovoice, a Participatory Action Research method, to identify themes that underlie women’s experiences in traditionally male-dominated fields. Photovoice enables participants to convey unique aspects of their experiences via photographs and their in-depth knowledge of a community through personal narrative. Forty-six STEM women graduate students and postdoctoral fellows completed a Photovoice activity in small groups. They presented photographs that described their experiences pursuing leadership positions in STEM fields. Three types of narratives were discovered and classified: career strategies, barriers to achievement, and buffering strategies or methods for managing barriers. Participants described three common types of career strategies and motivational factors, including professional development, collaboration, and social impact. Moreover, the lack of rewards for these workplace activities was seen as limiting professional effectiveness. In terms of barriers to achievement, women indicated they were not recognized as authority figures and often worked to build legitimacy by fostering positive relationships. Women were vigilant to other people’s perspectives, which was costly in terms of time and energy. To manage role expectations, including those related to gender, participants engaged in numerous role transitions throughout their day to accommodate workplace demands. To buffer barriers to achievement, participants found resiliency in feelings of accomplishment and recognition. Social support, particularly from mentors, helped participants cope with negative experiences and to envision their future within the field. Work-life balance also helped participants find meaning in their work and have a sense of control over their lives. Overall, common workplace challenges included a lack of social capital and limited degrees of freedom. Implications for organizational policy and future research are discussed.

Introduction

Research on the underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) often focuses on top-down factors that influence recruitment, retention, and promotion. Such top-down factors tend to overlook women’s unique perspectives and strategies. Women are agents of their own career success, with their own complex perceptions and bottom-up strategies within the workplace. Granting that individual experiences in the workplace give rise to personal narratives, common themes are likely to emerge across STEM women’s experiences. The goal of this research is to examine the career narratives of STEM women, or the spoken account of their experiences pursuing leadership positions in STEM. Photovoice, a Participatory Action Research method, informed by a grounded theory perspective, was used to identify the barriers that STEM women perceive as especially challenging, as well as their bottom-up approaches for managing barriers to achievement.

Women prepare for college degrees in STEM at approximately equal rates as men. However, after matriculating into college, women are less likely to pursue degrees in these fields ( Hill et al., 2010 ). While women are more likely than men to earn a bachelor’s, Master’s, or doctoral degree, they remain the minority of degree-earning STEM students ( United States Census Bureau, 2010 ). This is particularly true for more advanced degrees, where graduation rates in STEM favor men 2.5:1 ( National Science Foundation, 2015a ). Women are excluded from STEM despite generally high levels of academic achievement. In high school, girls and boys take approximately equal credits in STEM fields, with girls earning higher grades on average ( Shettle et al., 2007 ). In higher education, women earn better grades than men and are more likely to achieve post-secondary degrees at all levels ( Buchmann and DiPrete, 2006 ; United States Census Bureau, 2010 ). Despite generally high levels of achievement, women who are proficient in math-intensive fields are more likely to choose careers outside of STEM and leave STEM careers as they advance in their education ( Ceci et al., 2009 ).

Gender discrepancies become more pronounced at the professional level, a pattern that is evidenced across both academia and industry ( Trower and Chait, 2002 ). Women account for nearly half of the United States workforce, but compose less than 30% of the positions in STEM ( National Science Foundation, 2015b ). STEM women advance more slowly and are more likely to leave their positions than male peers ( Valian, 1999 ). Overall, the higher the rank in STEM the less likely it is to be occupied by a woman, making women particularly underrepresented in leadership positions.

The shortage of women from high-ranking positions is not exclusive to STEM fields. For example, while the average corporate board has 8.8 members, 36% of companies do not have any women on their board of directors and only 8% of boards have three or more women ( Gladman and Lamb, 2012 ). However, the shortage of women is particularly striking when leadership and STEM intersect: at 61%, energy companies have the highest percentage of boards with no women, and in academia, only 31% of full-time STEM faculty and 27% of deans and department heads are women ( National Science Foundation, 2015b ).

Despite evidence that attrition of women from STEM disciplines increases as women progress through college, graduate school, professional, and leadership ranks, surprisingly little research has been conducted on the intersection between STEM and leadership ( McCullough, 2011 ). In order to address this problem, it is essential to understand features of the workplace climate that are objectionable and unwelcoming to women. Qualitative research provides a unique opportunity to synthesize the complex experiences of STEM women by identifying common themes that underlie women’s career narratives. To date, a small number of qualitative studies with student participants have highlighted the importance that STEM women place on social support, coursework success, and early and positive exposure to STEM disciplines (e.g., Hughes, 2010 ; Packard et al., 2011 ). For example, STEM women transitioning from a community college to a 4-year program identified social support in the form of helpful academic advisors and professors as significant resources for overcoming obstacles such as poor course experiences and limited finances ( Packard et al., 2011 ). A study by Riffle et al. (2013) highlighted the spoken accounts of STEM faculty using semi-structured interviews. Men and women faculty members identified aspects of their work environment that facilitated success, including mentorship, social support, and work-life balance. However, there were gender differences in perceptions of departmental climate. Unlike men, women reported greater discrimination and sexism during interviews, less departmental collegiality, and holding less influence in their department. In addition, though men and women participants were found to have equal levels of productivity, women noted that their departments viewed their productivity as lower than their male counterparts ( Riffle et al., 2013 ). Qualitative studies such as these lay the foundation for accounts of workplace gender inequality by beginning to draw attention to factors that are perceived as major obstacles and supports in pursuing STEM careers.

The present study expanded on this work by using Photovoice to examine the career narratives of STEM women graduate students and postdoctoral fellows pursuing leadership positions. Photovoice ( Wang and Burris, 1997 ) is a method of group analysis that requires participants to take photographs that represent their viewpoint and present them during a group discussion. Participatory Action Research methods such as Photovoice recognize experiential learning as a legitimate source of knowledge and allow researchers to gather information about the targets’ perspective. Photovoice is particularly well-suited for research on STEM women, as it was developed based on feminist theory and literature on critical consciousness ( Wang, 1999 ). As defined by Weiler (1988) , feminist methodology is characterized by an emphasis on women’s subjective, everyday experiences. Critical consciousness literature argues that people’s perspectives can be used to break a culture of silence and increase awareness of social issues ( Freire, 1973 ). Photovoice was used to promote a critical dialog about how women’s everyday experiences in male-dominated careers impact broader gender distribution. This approach is useful in synthesizing the complex issues that influence STEM women’s career trajectories: First, as a consequence of identifying experiences common to STEM women, this approach is positioned to consolidate a number of topics relevant to the advancement of women in STEM (e.g., organizational climate and incentive structure). Second, Photovoice has direct ties to policy advocacy by providing a platform for STEM women to identify aspects of the work environment that they perceive as especially relevant to their career trajectories, including changes that need to be made to enhance their success. Third, qualitative research can facilitate the identification of new research directions useful for understanding and enhancing STEM women’s career advancement.

The present study expands on previous qualitative studies of women’s experiences in STEM in three key ways. First, STEM women graduate students and postdoctoral fellows were recruited from STEM leadership workshops, representing a group of women experienced in STEM and with explicit interest in leadership positions. Women in this career stage are making critical decisions about their career trajectory, with many opting for careers in education or healthcare over STEM occupations ( Beede et al., 2011 ). Thus, participants have a unique vantage point as they are actively gaining insight into the advantages and disadvantages of STEM careers and navigating their career path. Second, this is the first study using Photovoice to examine STEM women’s experiences and the first qualitative study to focus on STEM women in leadership. Photovoice gives participants the opportunity to identify and share aspects of their experiences that are most important to them and is more open-ended than methods like structured or semi-structured interviews. Literature on STEM women emphasizes a wide range of factors that influence women’s career outcomes, from implicit stereotype cues to organizational policies (e.g., Valian, 1999 ; Smith and White, 2002 ; Murphy et al., 2007 ; Bilimoria and Lord, 2014 ). However, it remains unclear which of these aspects of the work environment that women find more or less challenging. Identification of themes underlying women’s experiences in STEM via qualitative methods can be used to highlight their observations and perceptions of the field in a way that is atypical of most experimental research. Third, the present research recruited a relatively large and diverse group of participants. Forty-six participants completed the Photovoice exercise, which is considerably more than the median of 13 participants in Photovoice studies ( Catalani and Minkler, 2010 ). The sample also included 16 international participants, representing 11 different countries.

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics women graduate students participating in leadership workshops were invited to a an additional workshop session where they had the opportunity to present four photographs depicting their experiences with STEM leadership and discuss them in a small group setting. Specifically, participants were asked to share with a group two photographs depicting the past experience in STEM and two describing their future in STEM. Transcripts from the eight workshops sessions were coded borrowing from grounded theory framework ( Glaser and Strauss, 1967 ). The grounded theory perspective forwarded by Strauss allows for basic research questions and predictions to guide analysis ( Corbin and Strauss, 1990 ; Devadas et al., 2011 ). Accordingly, it was hypothesized that STEM women would acknowledge the effects of gender stereotypes in STEM, reflecting their common experience with gender stereotypes. Additional coding was carried out inductively to identify emergent themes in the raw data. The current article discusses the career strategies, barriers to achievement, and approaches for managing barriers to achievement described by STEM women, as well as implications for research and practice.

Materials and Methods

Participants.

Forty-six participants from a leadership workshop for STEM women enrolled in a second session in order to complete the Photovoice activity. Participants signed up for one of eight possible workshop sessions, with an average of six participants in each session. Participants from the final sample ranged in age from 21 to 51 years ( M = 29, SD = 6.13). Thirty-five percent of the sample was international students, with participants representing 11 different countries. Sixty-four percent of participants identified as White, 22% Asian, 4% Black, 4% Hispanic, 4% Biracial, and 2% Native American. A variety of fields were represented from the natural sciences (50%), medicine and health (28%), and engineering (22%).

Women graduate students and postdoctoral fellows in STEM fields from a large public research university were recruited to participate in leadership workshops via flyers and e-mails. Participants indicated their availability for eight different workshop groups. Whenever possible, they were matched into groups in order to have individuals from different academic disciplines in each session. Upon arriving to the first workshop session, participants were asked to sign an informed consent and complete a demographic survey. The first session included interactive activities designed to identify leadership role models and personal values, develop personal action plans, and practice conflict resolution. Prior to the end of the workshop, participants were invited back for a second session to complete the Photovoice activity.

In line with the goal to understand the broad range of issues related to women’s advancement in STEM, Photovoice allowed for open-ended discussion about participants’ experiences in STEM. Participants were asked to prepare two photographs describing past experiences with leadership and two pictures representing their future leadership aspirations. Participants were invited to take their own pictures or use images found online. Directions did not prompt participants to attend to a particular issue. Photographs were e-mailed to the researcher prior to workshop sessions in order to format them into a slide show for the Photovoice discussion. Audio and video equipment was positioned to record each workshop session. The Photovoice activity was transcribed, producing 80 single-spaced pages of transcription.

The Photovoice activity was held 1 week after the participants’ original workshop sessions. Participants were invited to discuss their Photovoice pictures with the group, and participants determined the order of presentation (i.e., who presented and the order of photographs). Each individual projected their photographs onto a large screen at the front of the room and explained the meaning of each of their four photographs. After each individual presented a photograph, the workshop facilitator (i.e., a female graduate student) or participants were allowed to ask questions or comment. For example, a participant projected a picture of their messy desk while explaining how it relates to their past experience pursuing STEM leadership, in this case, noting that they juggle many projects and do not always have a healthy lifestyle due to high workplace demands. Other participants related to this narrative, noting that they too do not always have a healthy lifestyle or work-life balance even though they consider those things important. Within this structure, the workshop facilitator and participants were able to probe further comments. Individual narratives can elicit agreement or disagreement from peers as they discuss photographs in a small group setting, providing information about the typicality of a given experience. All research was carried out in accordance with the protocol approved by the University of Cincinnati’s Institutional Review Board.

Data Analysis

The grounded theory approach to qualitative analysis forwarded by Glaser and Strauss (1967) provides a framework for text analysis. Grounded theory utilizes a constant comparative method whereby text is assigned to a category based on content and compared with other text included in the same category ( Glaser and Strauss, 1967 ). Categories are created if text needs to be further differentiated, or if categories need to be integrated. Over the course of the analysis, categories are arranged into a hierarchy that is representative of their relationship to one another. This method of coding is used to uncover the full range of categories possible, their dimensions, the conditions under which it is pronounced, its consequences, and its relationship to other categories. Unlike many experimental studies that typically examine cause-and-effect relationships, qualitative research is often utilized at the discovery stage of research in order to develop new and testable theories.

Qualitative data was analyzed using QSR International’s NVivo 10 software to aid in examining text and coding transcripts. The author and a trained research assistant independently coded the transcripts, condensing language into categories. Categories were defined using open coding, examining the transcripts line-by-line, allowing for patterns and categories to emerge through observation ( Glaser and Strauss, 1967 ). Text was coded when it was identified as meeting specific criteria relevant to a categorical definition. To investigate the a priori research questions, additional coding examined career challenges and strategies. Category labels and definitions were shared between researchers, though they were blind to the text included within each category by the other researcher. When possible, categories were collapsed into higher-order categories based on researcher consensus until no new categories or sub-categories were identified. This is an indicator of theoretical saturation, such that additional data collection and coding is unlikely to identify new emerging themes ( Locke, 2001 ; Kreiner et al., 2009 ).

After categories were independently coded, they were discussed in meetings to finalize coding ( Kreiner et al., 2009 ). Consensual validation was used to refine category definitions and reduce bias ( Kreiner et al., 2009 ). Agreement was reached on categories and content by the researchers and coding was adjusted. Only categories mentioned by 25% or more participants were included as themes ( Dutton and Dukerich, 1991 ). Relationships across categories were then examined using axial coding, rendering nine primary themes ( Strauss and Corbin, 1998 ). After identifying the most prominent thematic connections between categories and subcategories, three broader frameworks were identified using selective coding ( Strauss and Corbin, 1998 ). These frameworks and their underlying themes were examined and adjusted by six study participants in order to verify its trustworthiness ( Creswell, 2007 ). Three additional faculty-level researchers were also enlisted to review the findings for alternate themes and explanations ( Lincoln and Guba, 1985 ; Creswell, 2007 ). Participants’ descriptions of past experiences and future aspirations in STEM leadership were coded for themes across groups. Three complementary frameworks were identified from the participants’ Photovoice narratives: Career motivation, barriers to participation, and buffering strategies. The conceptual frameworks and underlying themes are elaborated below (see Tables 1 and 2 ).

TABLE 1. Summary of themes and theoretical significance.

TABLE 2. Illustrative evidence for themes.

Framework 1: Motivation

In describing past experiences and future pursuits of “leadership,” participants had a broad definition of leadership that extended beyond managing others to the achievement of individual and group goals. In terms of individual goals, STEM advancement was seen not only as a way to achieve career success, but also personal development ( Theme 1 ): “Leadership is a good way to help me to improve myself…I don’t want to just stay in one specific level.” Leadership was also seen as a way to help others achieve their goals and develop positive relationships. As one participant put it, “I try to find a sky for me to fly, and…if I want to be a leader I also have to find a sky for the others.”

Women noted a number of methods important to facilitating effective collaboration ( Theme 2 ). Participants believed that collaboration could be enhanced through clear communication, justification of team goals, and individual recognition. Participants noted the importance of actively motivating colleagues, as exemplified by one participant’s statement: “Appreciating their work and being respectful of them is really important; not treating them like your workers and giving them menial tasks but making them feel valuable to the project.” The value of working side-by-side with others was seen as a strategy for teaching other people positive work habits, and demonstrated participant’s preference for a more egalitarian work environment. Overall, participants described their leadership style as transformational ( Burns, 1978 ), where leaders work to motivate team members toward the achievement of a common goal.

Participants sought to develop a full range of skills within the workplace to influence others in a meaningful way. Teaching, mentorship, service, organizational, and applied work were all seen as opportunities for broader impact ( Theme 3 ). Among those pursuing careers in research, their goals were often geared toward promoting the well-being of others (e.g., water conservation, disease control, and social programming). Other participants questioned how much impact research has in comparison to applied work. One woman stated that while she had never discussed career options within her department, she was strongly considering going into applied work, “I don’t want to belittle it by saying ‘cookie-cutter’ or saying this is the ‘typical route’ that graduate students take, to be a professor. And that ignores the need for better science education at the lower levels.” Whether interested in research or applied work, participants engaged in big picture thinking: Women not only desired to advance in their field, they saw leadership as a means of self-actualization ( Theme 1 ), collaboration ( Theme 2 ), and social impact ( Theme 3 ).

Framework 2: Barriers

The second framework outlined the circumstances under which goal achievement became especially challenging. Participants generally preferred a transformational leadership style, but they did not always feel empowered as leaders. One participant noted, “…this is literally kind of like a struggle, not just finding leadership opportunities, but once you’re in them I feel like I am kind of up against somebody most of the time.” When women were in authority positions, they did not assume that subordinates would take their direction seriously and instead worked to build legitimacy by fostering positive relationships. The “fair-and-balanced” approach some women desired may have, in part, reflected their uneasiness in positions of authority ( Theme 4 ). As one woman stated, “I can give you a token. I can call you up and recognize you for your work and thank you. That’s all I have. That’s the only power.” Participants were primarily focused on increasing their social status through relationships, rather than increasing their personal power or access to resources (e.g., Sachdev and Bourhis, 1991 ).

Attempting positive relationships and social impact were costly in terms of time and energy. To support a positive and collaborative work environment, women were vigilant to other people’s perspectives ( Theme 5 ). Participants frequently noted the thoughts and feelings of others during their narratives. One participant stated, “We should always do well in our own business, but we also need to think about others, be considerate, and so everyone can be comfortable.” Participants were also vigilant to how their own behavior might be evaluated by others. One participant described carefully watching her steps, “I’m walking around with my shoes untied. I always have to look and make sure I’m not going to trip and fall.” She contrasted this with her “comfy shoes” that she wore at home. Another participant stated the importance of controlling other people’s impressions of her, “Wear your dark-colored suit, flat shoes, and no jewelry.”

Monitoring social interactions was particularly challenging when gender dynamics were involved ( Theme 6 ). Participants noted the dichotomy between being the “motherly figure” and the “authoritative b-word,” and sometimes felt the need to adapt their leadership style to the situation. A woman with industry experience stated, “I always work in a man environment, so I cannot be too soft. They just crush you.” She contrasted this with working with women, explaining, “It’s like if you’re in this as equals, then they think you’re not in it to get anything. Somehow you have to keep your feminine, soft side.” When working with men, participants felt the need to mask emotions and appear confident, but among women they tried to act less threatening, more egalitarian, and attentive to emotion. Some women felt that situational pressures could be overcome by adopting a more individualized leadership style, and other women expressed their continuing journey to find a leadership identity. Upon hearing other participants discuss how they changed their behavior based on context, one woman noted, “All I can do is be a good person and be strong in what I do.”

Framework 3: Buffers

The third framework illustrated coping strategies participants used to buffer against career challenges they encountered. Participants sought comfort in their achievements ( Theme 7 ). Feelings of accomplishment reassured women that they were on the right career path. Participants often noted achievements in mentoring, service, and applied roles. In these positions women were more readily elevated into leadership, developed relationships with others, and gained respect. One woman noted about her teaching, “I’ve had great success with being a leader in that people really appreciate me and I have gotten really good feedback.” For some women, finding comfort in their achievements meant being appreciative of their current positions. As one participant stated, “Whatever you do and what role you are in in your future career, even though it can be boring or a simple role, as long as you have positive thinking and you are smiling you can do this job very well.” This perspective was controversial among other participants, some of whom argued that women are too easily satisfied with just having a job, rather than expecting to be treated fairly based on their qualifications.

Outside of their own accomplishments, participants found resiliency in social support offered by mentors, friends, and family ( Theme 8 ). The encouragement of mentors helped them cope with negative experiences, and to envision their future within the field—as one participant said, “I do so many things now and I attribute it to my advisor giving me so many opportunities and just kind of encouraging me.” However, the difficult balance between the ideal woman and ideal leader led to a lack of real world role models for some participants. For example, one participant stated, “I have role models for leadership, and I have role models for personal growth, but both of them together they don’t really exist. And it’s hard to even imagine a real, tangible opportunity.” Perhaps because of this, some women adopted an informal definition of ‘mentorship,’ looking for guidance from coworkers, friends, and professionals outside of their field. Mentorship outside of formal supervision helped women navigate the politics of their fields.

Family was another important source of support and an arena where many women took on a leadership role. Participants discussed future leadership aspirations in terms of family, as numerous women considered motherhood as a significant leadership role. As one women explained, “I would like to become a mother someday. So that’s another big kind of leadership thing that will be hard to balance.” Work-life balance also helped women find meaning in their work and have a sense of control over their lives ( Theme 9 ). One woman described the importance of taking time off work saying, “Even if it’s 10 min, it shows that you’re in control and you know what you want to get out of this.”

The present study is the first to qualitatively examine the experiences and perspectives of STEM women using Photovoice as a Participatory Action Research method. Findings provide a basis for better understanding the complex ways that gender stereotypes surface in organizations, as well as the bottom-up strategies STEM women employ to cope with workplace challenges. Specifically, results provide a framework for understanding women’s work preferences, challenges, and buffering strategies. In line with its history as a advocacy tool, Photovoice also generated insight into policies that can best support and enhance STEM women’s career success.

While institutional policies were mentioned more or less indirectly, the frequency and depth of narrative surrounding interpersonal interactions suggests that this is often the most immediate and troubling aspect of the work environment for women. Women were mindful of other people’s perspectives and actively worked to manage them. Participants described being held accountable for multiple, often conflicting, roles in the workplace related to gender and STEM. Women’s perceptions of conflicting expectations, between acting “soft” and “hard” as they put it, is consistent with literature on role congruity and the evaluation of women in typically male-dominated fields. Role congruity theory states that, because men have traditionally occupied positions in science and leadership, career success in these fields are associated with masculine traits ( Eagly and Karau, 2002 ). As a result, women are viewed as unfit for STEM, particularly in STEM leadership, and are also evaluated more negatively when occupying these roles. Women are viewed as less likely to succeed, less likely to be promoted, and less likely to become a leader when in male-dominated sectors than when in female-dominated professions ( Garcia-Retamero and Lopez-Zafra, 2006 ). Women who succeed in spite of these stereotypes often experience backlash for stepping outside of their prescribed social role. For instance, women in senior management typically have less authority, less opportunity for advancement, and receive fewer rewards than their male peers ( Jacobs, 1992 ). At first glance it might appear that STEM women are too image-focused and work unnecessarily hard to manage their interpersonal interactions, but these efforts may be a reaction to the negative evaluations commonly encountered by STEM women.

Women in this study responded to perceived gender role conflict with two primary strategies: First, some women adopted distinct behaviors within different contexts, remaining vigilant to cues regarding role expectations. This workplace strategy required role transitions throughout their day to accommodate workplace demands (cf. Schein, 1971 ; Van Maanen, 1982 ). Role transitions entail “the psychological (and, where relevant, physical) movement between roles, including disengagement from one role (role exit) and engagement in another (role entry; Burr, 1972 ; Richter, 1984 )” ( Ashforth et al., 2000 ). Each transition requires psychological preparation, as roles require varying levels of attention and arousal ( Ashforth, 2001 ), and may therefore be costly in terms of cognitive and physical resources. Individuals vary in the extent to which their roles are segregated from one another ( Ashforth, 2001 ); the more integrated roles are, the less challenging it is to transition between them. Along these lines, some women adopted a second workplace strategy and avoided numerous role transitions by adopting an individualized leadership style that they could comfortably apply across a variety of situations. Given the relatively large age range of participants, it is possible that older participants were more likely to have developed a stable sense of self and were less easily influenced by social pressures.

In addition to the interpersonal demands reported by STEM women, women often described being socially disconnected from both leadership and subordinates. Consistent with research that women are viewed as less competent leaders (e.g., Jacobs, 1992 ; Garcia-Retamero and Lopez-Zafra, 2006 ), even when women were in leadership positions, they noted they were not treated as authority figures. Participants appealed to subordinates by fostering positive relationships, working alongside them, or incentivizing them with rewards. Women also had a difficult time identifying mentors and role models who represented, not only a desirable career path, but also a desirable lifestyle. A lack of real world examples meant that women had a difficult time imagining how they would be able to succeed in STEM.

Women’s focus on social interactions, vs. policy, as barriers to achievement suggests that women are more frequently and directly confronted with the former, and that these challenges are viewed as more personal in nature. The focus of narratives on social interactions may reflect a shifting tide where organizational policy may change over time to support more gender-neutral practices. Even so, gender stereotypes, societal norms, and organizational climate are more enduring and difficult to change. As one women stated, “Just because the policy changes does not mean [people’s] beliefs change.” Overall, women reported a lack of social capital , or “the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance or recognition” ( Bourdieu, 1985 , p. 248). Women devoted significant time and energy to fostering group cohesion and developing professional relationships: Monitoring social cues, accommodating social expectations, implementing strategies to enhance collaboration, and pursuing applied work and social impact all require significant effort. These efforts were not always rewarded, as women struggled to establish relationships with subordinates and mentors. Women also noted that they faced negative evaluation, from being belittled during presentations to being harshly questioned for their career decisions. Similar reports come from the faculty-level, as women professors generally report low-levels of collegiality ( Riffle et al., 2013 ). Despite committing significant resources to maintaining positive relationships, women often failed to receive benefits from participation in groups ( Portes, 1998 ).

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics women encountered two distinct limitations in the workplace that restricted their social interactions and professional activities. First, women’s workplace behavior was restricted by the potential for negative evaluation and its implied consequences. Women worked to overcome negative evaluation by maintaining a certain appearance, adopting different mannerisms based on role expectations, working to make sure people “liked” them, and monitoring their behavior for what could be perceived as “mistakes.” Women felt that they were encouraged, implicitly or explicitly, to mold their behavior to avoid negative social evaluation. Second, women were limited by an incentive structure that rewarded a relatively narrow range of professional activities. Numerous women reported that their departments valued basic research over applied directions, and the pressure on academics to publish and pursue research trajectories without direct application caused some participants to question if their goals aligned with a career in STEM, vs. fields like health or education. Opportunities for self-development, collaboration, and social impact were identified as major motivational factors for STEM women—a lack of rewards for these activities may therefore hinder STEM women’s professional advancement. The space that women in STEM are allowed to occupy is enclosed by narrow boundaries and is enforced by the potential for negative social evaluation and career stagnation. Compared to their male peers, STEM women have fewer degrees of freedom in the workplace.

Policy Implications

Though women’s narratives often referenced the importance of interpersonal interactions to shaping their careers, institutional policies can foster a workplace climate conducive to collegiality and increased opportunity for a diverse faculty. The threat of negative evaluation significantly impacts women’s daily activities. STEM leadership may benefit from an awareness of the chronic judgment that women are often subject to by both female and male coworkers and subordinates. Methods of formal evaluation used by departments and universities can be altered or weighted to take into account gender biases typical of student and departmental evaluations ( Kaschak, 1978 ; Sprague and Massoni, 2005 ; Moss-Racusin et al., 2012 ). Departments can also reduce the threat of negative evaluation and increase women’s social capital by promoting diversity and a positive workplace climate. In particular, institutions can explicitly advocate for workplace collegiality, offer structured networking opportunities, institute faculty mentorship programs along with mentorship training, and incentivize departmental and interdepartmental collaboration.

The ability to recruit, retain, and promote a diverse workforce hinges on the ability of an organization to value heterogeneous perspectives and contributions. In this study, numerous participants noted the value that they placed on applied scholarship. At an institutional level, criteria for promotion and tenure can be restructured to reward a more diverse set of workplace activities. For example, some women may place greater emphasis on applied work over publishing, the former of which can be explicitly incentivized. In addition, recognition for achievements, in the form of competitive grants and awards, can advance women’s research and publicly recognize their achievements. Individuals who experience barriers to participation in STEM need sufficient reason to enter into and persevere within these stereotyped domains. Women can be encouraged to remain in STEM with opportunities for self-development, collaboration, and social impact. Organizations can incentivize these activities and emphasize these opportunities through organizational messaging.

In the present study, a fulfilling personal and family life is closely tied to STEM women’s feelings of success and life satisfaction. This is consistent with research suggesting that policies promoting work-life balance are essential to recruiting, retaining, and advancing faculty in academia ( Welch et al., 2011 ). A variety of initiatives can bolster STEM employee’s support network and work-life balance (e.g., Kelly, 1999 ; Association for Women in Science, 2001 ; Tower and Dilks, 2015 ): Employee benefits can be structured to allow for flexible work hours, leadership can take into account family obligations during scheduling, organizations can offer paid maternity and paternity leave, and dual-career hires can be made a greater priority, as these issues may disproportionately influence female employees.

Future Directions and Limitations

One strength of qualitative research is its ability to formulate new research questions ( Glaser and Strauss, 1967 ). While there is much work to be done to understand the complex array of factors that influence women’s participation in STEM, the present study generated two distinct research questions to be explored further. First, a significant portion of women in this study described their strategy for dealing with conflicting demands in the workplace, particularly disparate role expectations for women vs. scientists in male-dominated domains. Some of these women adapted their behavior to different contexts based on situational cues; other women adopted a personal leadership style that they carried across contexts. Women in the latter tended to be older and more experienced scientists. It is unclear from this study if there is an association between seniority and leadership style. Future research should investigate the perspectives of women in more or less advanced positions in STEM to examine how factors influence women’s participation in different ranks, as well as whether women in various career stages employ different strategies for dealing with workplace challenges. Along these lines, it is important to increase our understanding of which career strategies are more or less useful for overcoming barriers to achievement. Second, many participants preferred applied work over basic research. Additional research is needed to examine if this preference holds true across a broader sample. It is also essential to understand whether or not women are implicitly or explicitly encouraged by others to go into applied work over basic research. Women may be directed away from basic research, which is likely to be more male-stereotyped.

A limitation of this study is that participants did not play a significant role as decision-makers in the research project. Photovoice often emphasizes the involvement of participants in study design and implementation. However, participants retained significant independence in their personal contribution, and a number of participants were also recruited to help in data interpretation after data analysis was completed. In addition, material from the workshop women were recruited from may have cued women to talk about particular aspects of their career progression. An attempt was made to control for this possibility by making the original workshops activity-based. Overall, the workshop format was an effective recruitment method, and career narratives were largely unrelated to workshop material, which focused on values, conflict management, and role model identification.

Finally, the current study is limited in focusing on the experiences of STEM graduate students and postdoctoral fellows. For the purposes of this study, graduate women offer a unique perspective. Having persevered as an undergraduate in typically male-dominated fields and continuing into advanced training, they have made a considerable personal investment in their fields. They are also gaining a new perspective into the professional world ahead of them. As graduate women advance in STEM they remain vulnerable to the gender stereotypes that pervade these fields.

Women identify interpersonal interactions as limiting their professional opportunities more often than institutional policy. In particular, women report having less social capital and fewer degrees of freedom than their male counterparts. Their reports are largely consistent with research demonstrating women’s lack of authority and the negative evaluation of women compared to men ( Jacobs, 1992 ; Garcia-Retamero and Lopez-Zafra, 2006 ). The close relationship between women’s career narratives and previous research findings supports that notion that qualitative research is not only useful in understanding the perceptions of a given population, but that group analysis is relatively reliable in describing their experiences. The findings also synthesize a number of the complex issues that influence STEM women’s career trajectories.

The present work identifies strategies implemented by women to cope with organizational and interpersonal barriers to achievement. Recognition of achievements, social support, and work-life balance assured women that their efforts pursuing STEM leadership would pay off. In addition, some women managed conflicting role expectations by adapting their behavior based on context; other women adopted a more individualized leadership style that they could comfortably maintain across contexts and regardless of social demands.

Findings enhance understanding of how gender stereotypes manifest and impact women in male-dominated careers, and have a number of implications for organizational policy. By emphasizing the importance of positive interpersonal interactions and organizational climate to career success, women’s narratives indicate the importance of organizational policies that incentivize collegiality and collaboration. Though barriers to achievement often occur at an interpersonal level, a variety of organizational policies can address these challenges by promoting fair workplace evaluation, positive climate, collaboration, work-life balance, and an incentive structure that rewards a variety of scholarly activities.

Author Contributions

MA was responsible for the research question, study design, running participants, data analysis, and manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the individuals who participated in this research for sharing their experiences and perspectives. I would also like to thank Dr. Luis H. Favela for his valuable edits and comments.

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Keywords : STEM women, leadership, Photovoice, career strategy, gender roles, organizational policy, Participatory Action Research, underrepresentation of women

Citation: Amon MJ (2017) Looking through the Glass Ceiling: A Qualitative Study of STEM Women’s Career Narratives. Front. Psychol. 8:236. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00236

Received: 21 October 2016; Accepted: 07 February 2017; Published: 20 February 2017.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2017 Amon. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Mary J. Amon, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Real-World Problem-Solving Class is Correlated with Higher Student Persistence in Engineering

• Davis, Nathan
• Burkholder, Eric

Student persistence in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) has long been a focus of educational research, with both quantitative and qualitative methods being used to investigate patterns and mechanisms of attrition. Some studies have used machine learning to predict a student's likelihood to persist given measurable classroom factors and institutional data, while others have framed persistence as a function of a student's social integration in the classroom. While these methods have provided insight into broader underlying patterns of attrition in STEM, they have not investigated class structures or teaching methods that promote persistence. In this study we explore how a research-based instructional format for an introductory calculus-based physics class using real world problem-solving (RPS) was correlated with higher persistence for students at a large research-intensive university. We found that the one-year persistence rates for the RPS course were 74% (fall semester) and 90% (spring semester), while the lecture-based class had a persistence rate of 64% and 78%, respectively. In spring, the RPS persistence rate was significantly higher (p=0.037). The RPS also had higher final grades and larger learning gains than the lecture-based class despite lower scores on a physics diagnostic test. We also note that the higher rates of persistence were not completely explained by higher final grades. This study motivates future work to understand the structural mechanisms that promote student persistence in introductory physics courses.

• Physics - Physics Education

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Faculty member selected for prestigious 2024 faculty research fellowship program to study intersectionality for hbcu stem students.

Assistant professor Genevieve Ritchie-Ewing, Ph.D., in the Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences at Central State University, has been selected as a faculty fellow in the 2024 Faculty Research Fellowship Program in the HBCU STEM US Research Center.  

Ritchie-Ewing teaches anthropology, sociology, and forensics and has received a National Science Foundation grant to create a Forensic Studies Minor. 

The fellowship through the HBCU STEM US Research Center involves intersectionality among science, technology, engineering, and mathematics students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), delving into the psychosocial factors that impact the academic success of these students, according to a program overview .  

It will focus on exploring the experiences of HBCU students and how their identities affect academic performance. By using an intersectionality perspective, the study will provide in-depth knowledge about the unique experiences of Black students who are pursuing STEM majors at HBCUs.  

The findings from this research aim to help in broadening participation in STEM across HBCUs by shedding light on the factors that influence academic success among HBCU STEM students. 

The HBCU STEM US Research Center is a collaboration with Morehouse College, Spelman College, and Virginia State University.   

Ritchie-Ewing recently received a $400,000 National Science Foundation (NSF) HBCU-Undergraduate Program Targeted Infusion Project grant. She and co-principal investigators (PI) Drs. Leanne Petry and Suzanne Seleem, professions of Chemistry, will create three new forensic courses — Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Psychology, and Forensic Social Work — and a new Forensic Studies Minor.  

“That grant requires an external evaluator to collect data about student perceptions and thoughts regarding the new courses and minor,” Ritchie-Ewing said.

“We also plan to explore barriers students face in seeing themselves as part of the forensic fields (personal, practical, and identity-based barriers). I'm using the fellowship to help me design collection strategies for that data as well as learn more about the various ways I can use that data.”  

“As a requirement of the fellowship is producing an NSF project summary for a new grant, I am working with Professor Brittany Brake, assistant professor of Political Science, to develop a grant proposal to bring new computer modeling programs to the Political Science program. As part of that proposal, we want to look at barriers students face in developing and implementing research projects. Again, those barriers can come from a variety of internal and external sources.” 

With deep excitement for the opportunity to broaden her research interests and interact with HBCU faculty members from across the country, Ritchie-Ewing considered psychosocial factors often overlooked in research. These include factors related to barriers students face in seeing themselves as scientists, she said.  

“For first generation students, however, these barriers can be significant in achieving academic success in the students chosen field,” Ritchie-Ewing added. “Many HBCU students are first-generation college students and may not have African American and Black role models in science to show them their dreams are a possibility. I'm hoping this kind of research will reveal those kinds of barriers and explore ways to help students more fully understand their own potential.” 

Ritchie-Ewing's prior research interests focused on how cultural expectations and social structures such as racial bias affect maternal experiences during and after pregnancy in the United States. She also has explored the use and perception of open educational resources (OER) in undergraduate classrooms.  

Teaching, however, is Ritchie-Ewing's true passion, and working at a small university enables her to concentrate on teaching classes and creating close mentoring relationships with her undergraduate students, she said.  

Ritchie-Ewing holds a doctorate degree in Anthropology from The Ohio State University, a Master of Arts in Anthropology from the University of Tennessee-Knoxville, and a Bachelor of Science in Biology from Millersville University. Fields of specialization include medical anthropology, stress and human reproduction, biocultural approaches, and biopolitics of health and pregnancy.  

Her thesis titles were “Managing Mixed Messages: Cultural expectations of motherhood and maternal stress during pregnancy” and “A Comparison of Human Decomposition in an Indoor and Outdoor Environment.  

Ritchie-Ewing joined the faculty at Central State in August 2018. Prior to coming to CSU, she held the following positions:  

Adjunct faculty member, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Wright State University. 

Graduate teaching associate and graduate research assistant, Center for the Study of Teaching and Writing and the Department of Anthropology at The Ohio State University; and the Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee-Knoxville. 

Research assistant, Lifespan Health Research Center, Wright State University. 

With numerous grants and fellowship awards since 2014, Ritchie-Ewing also worked as a forensic technician at the Tennessee Bureau of Investigation and a forensic autopsy technician at the Knox County Medical Examiner’s Office, both in Knoxville.  

More detailed information about the program can be found at https://stemuscenter.org/intersectionality-in-stem-at-hbcus/  

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M.  Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity.  Research Ethics ,  14 (3), 1-17.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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