paragraph on physical education in school

Physical Education

Physical education is the foundation of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program. 1, 2 It is an academic subject characterized by a planned, sequential K–12 curriculum (course of study) that is based on the national standards for physical education. 2–4 Physical education provides cognitive content and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors for physical activity and physical fitness. 2–4 Supporting schools to establish physical education daily can provide students with the ability and confidence to be physically active for a lifetime. 2–4

There are many benefits of physical education in schools. When students get physical education, they can 5-7 :

• Increase their level of physical activity.
• Improve their grades and standardized test scores.
• Stay on-task in the classroom.

Increased time spent in physical education does not negatively affect students’ academic achievement.

Strengthen Physical Education in Schools [PDF – 437 KB] —This data brief defines physical education, provides a snapshot of current physical education practices in the United States, and highlights ways to improve physical education through national guidance and practical strategies and resources. This was developed by Springboard to Active Schools in collaboration with CDC.

Secular Changes in Physical Education Attendance Among U.S. High School Students, YRBS 1991–2013

The Secular Changes in Physical Education Attendance Among U.S. High School Students report [PDF – 3 MB] explains the secular changes (long-term trends) in physical education attendance among US high school students over the past two decades. Between 1991 and 2013, US high school students’ participation in school-based physical education classes remained stable, but at a level much lower than the national recommendation of daily physical education. In order to maximize the benefits of physical education, the adoption of policies and programs aimed at increasing participation in physical education among all US students should be prioritized. Download the report for detailed, nationwide findings.

Physical Education Analysis Tool (PECAT)

The  Physical Education Curriculum Analysis Tool (PECAT) [PDF – 6 MB] is a self-assessment and planning guide developed by CDC. It is designed to help school districts and schools conduct clear, complete, and consistent analyses of physical education curricula, based upon national physical education standards.

Visit our PECAT page  to learn more about how schools can use this tool.

• CDC Monitoring Student Fitness Levels1 [PDF – 1.64 MB]
• CDC Ideas for Parents: Physical Education [PDF – 2 MB]
• SHAPE America: The Essential Components of Physical Education (2015) [PDF – 391 KB]
• SHAPE America: Appropriate Instructional Practice Guidelines for Elementary, Middle School, and High School Physical Education [PDF – 675 KB]
• SHAPE America: National Standards and Grade-Level Outcomes for K–12 Physical Education 2014
• SHAPE America: National Standards for K–12 Physical Education (2013)
• SHAPE America Resources
• Youth Compendium of Physical Activities for Physical Education Teachers (2018) [PDF – 145 KB]
• Social Emotional Learning Policies and Physical Education
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A Guide for Developing Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs . Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services; 2013.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. School health guidelines to promote healthy eating and physical activity. MMWR . 2011;60(RR05):1–76.
• Institute of Medicine. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2013. Retrieved from  http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=18314&page=R1 .
• SHAPE America. T he Essential Components of Physical Education . Reston, VA: SHAPE America; 2015. Retrieved from   http://www.shapeamerica.org/upload/TheEssentialComponentsOfPhysicalEducation.pdf  [PDF – 392 KB].
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance . Atlanta, GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services; 2010.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Health and Academic Achievement. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2014.
• Michael SL, Merlo C, Basch C, et al. Critical connections: health and academics . Journal of School Health . 2015;85(11):740–758.

Healthy Youth

To receive email updates about this page, enter your email address:

Exit Notification / Disclaimer Policy

• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.
• Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.
• You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.
• CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website.

Physical Education is just as important as any other school subject

Lecturer in Physical Education, University of Central Lancashire

Senior Lecturer in PE and Sports Studies, University of Central Lancashire

Disclosure statement

Andrew Sprake is affiliated with the North Western Counties Physical Education Association and FIEP in a voluntary capacity.

Clive Palmer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of Central Lancashire provides funding as a member of The Conversation UK.

View all partners

• Bahasa Indonesia

Physical Education (PE) is often viewed as a marginal subject within the curriculum. And many secondary schools actively reduce PE time to make way for what are deemed more “serious” or “important” subjects.

Research from the Youth Sport Trust shows that 38% of English secondary schools have cut timetabled PE for 14- to 16-year-olds. One of the main reasons for this is the increased pressure to produce exam results . Much of the time pupils would usually spend in PE lessons is now spent receiving extra tutoring on topics other than PE.

Despite these cuts, however, PE is still championed for its potential to promote health and encourage lifelong physical activity. This is an important issue given that over 30% of year six pupils are classed as “overweight” or “obese” according to the latest government figures .

PE is also praised for its contribution to improved psychological health , for helping to nurture social and moral development – as well as supporting cognitive and academic performance .

The Association for Physical Education maintains that high quality PE fosters the physical, moral, social, emotional, cultural and intellectual development of pupils. But the many aims for PE – such as health promotion, skills development as well as a focus on social and moral issues – has resulted in confusion about the subject and has done little to further the educational experiences in practice. In fact, it has been argued that PE offers more entertainment than education .

Not intellectual enough

A waste of time and a bit of entertainment, or vitally important to the education and development of a child – which is it?

Part of the problem seems to be that PE is often viewed as an opportunity for pupils to be active and to enjoy themselves. Or in some cases, as a form of stress relief and to serve as a break from traditional learning.

Clearly, these areas are valuable for pupils’ general well-being and there is a growing evidence base to suggest that physical activity has the potential to support learning more broadly . But the role of PE is not merely to prop up and support pupils’ learning in other subjects. Instead, it should provide meaningful learning experiences within the subject itself.

What PE seemingly lacks in comparison to all other subjects is a platform on which pupils’ learning can be communicated and evidenced with clarity and rigour. And while PE is often marginalised to make way for more valuable or academic subjects, it seems the intellectual and academic value of PE itself is largely overlooked.

The potential of PE

PE, sport and physical culture each offer a unique platform on which to explore a multitude of holistic learning opportunities. For instance, the ethical or moral controversies in sport can give teachers a range of educational stimuli for debate, reasoning and critical thinking.

The Sports Monograph is a recent project we worked on, which invited learners to collaborate and share their opinions and experiences about sport and what it means to them. The project included primary and secondary school pupils, as well as undergraduate and postgraduate students, who were all supported by their teachers and lecturers.

As part of the project, not only were the pupils recognised for their written contributions at school awards evenings, but unlike in traditional PE, their work left a trail of learning evidence and intellectual engagement – which the schools recognised and celebrated. PE was effectively standing shoulder to shoulder with other subjects in the curriculum as a valuable educational endeavour, with written evidence to support the claim. These pupils now have publications that are being used to teach undergraduate students at the University of Central Lancashire.

Future health

The spiralling downtrend of PE time in secondary schools is a major cause for concern and it would seem that PE is in urgent need of an overhaul. But while the future of PE may be uncertain, there are certainly many opportunities for cross-curricular links and integrative learning in PE.

A recent project, for instance, explored the link between cycling and wider conceptual learning. Similarly, another recent study explored the physical aspects of learning across all curriculum areas, simply through setting up a tent .

The role that PE can play as part of the wider academic curriculum seems to be, at best understated, and at worst, completely overlooked. Activities like the ones raised here could help to broaden the educational potential of PE, encourage more pupils to engage with the subject and strengthen the place of PE as a unique and valuable educational pursuit. The opportunities are there, but PE must be ready to grasp them and let the pupils write about their sporting passions to reflect what they are said to be learning.

• Physical education

Program Manager, Teaching & Learning Initiatives

Lecturer/Senior Lecturer, Earth System Science (School of Science)

Sydney Horizon Educators (Identified)

Deputy Social Media Producer

Associate Professor, Occupational Therapy

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School (2013)

Chapter: 1 introduction.

Introduction

P hysical inactivity is a key determinant of health outcomes across the life span. A lack of activity increases the risk of heart disease, colon and breast cancer, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, osteoporosis, anxiety and depression, and other diseases. Recent studies have found that in terms of mortality the global population health burden of physical inactivity approaches that of cigarette smoking and obesity (Lee et al., 2012). Indeed, the prevalence of physical inactivity, along with this substantial associated disease risk, has been described as a pandemic (Kohl et al., 2012). Further, higher educational achievement and years of schooling are both markers and determinants of better health status, mainly as a result of education’s correlation with improved work and economic conditions, enhanced social psychological resources, and the ability to pursue a healthful lifestyle (Ross and Mirowsky, 1999). There is a long-held belief that health is an important determinant of educational performance, yet only recently has evidence begun to accumulate on a plausible physiologic pathway explaining the influence of one important health behavior—physical activity—on brain function and cognitive processes (see Chapter 4 ). These data increase confidence that improving physical activity and fitness may result in better school achievement and performance.

Although complete data are lacking, the best estimate in the United States is that no more than half of youth meet the current evidence-based guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity daily (CDC, 2012). Moreover, the proportion of youth who meet this guideline declines with advancing age, so that younger children are more likely to do so than adolescents (Pate et al., 2002). Daily opportunities

for incidental physical activity also have declined for children and adolescents, as they have for adults, as the result of such factors as increased reliance on nonactive transportation, automation of activities of daily living, and greater opportunities for sedentary behavior. In addition, significant disparities in physical activity exist across racial/ethnic and socioeconomic lines (see Chapter 2 ).

The prevalence and health impacts of physical inactivity, together with evidence indicating its susceptibility to change, have resulted in calls for action aimed at increasing physical activity across the life span. A common belief is that, the earlier in life this important health behavior can be ingrained, the greater the impact will be on lifelong health. The question becomes, then, how physical activity among children and adolescents can be increased feasibly, effectively, and sustainably to improve their health, both acutely and throughout life. A recent report of the Institute of Medicine (IOM), Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention: Solving the Weight of the Nation , singles out schools as “a focal point for obesity prevention among children and adolescents,” stating: “Children spend up to half their waking hours in school. In an increasingly sedentary world, schools therefore provide the best opportunity for a population-based approach for increasing physical activity among the nation’s youth” (IOM, 2012, p. 333).

PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

Given the importance of physical activity to health in youth and increasing attention to its role in educational performance, coupled with the potential of schools to provide opportunities to be physically active, a 14-member ad hoc committee of the IOM was convened and charged to review the current status of physical activity and physical education in the school environment. The committee was also tasked with reviewing influences of physical activity and physical education on the short- and long-term physical health, cognition and brain health, and psychosocial health and development of children and adolescents. The committee was asked to make recommendations, as appropriate, regarding approaches for strengthening and improving programs and policies for physical activity and physical education in the school environment, including before, during, and after school. In doing so, the committee was expected to review the current status of physical activity and physical education in the school environment; review evidence on the relationship between physical activity, physical education, or physical fitness and physical, cognitive and brain, and psychosocial health and development; within a life-stage framework, consider the role of physical activity– and physical education–related programs and policies in the school environment in contributing to short- and

long-term health, health behaviors, and development (e.g., motor and cognitive development); recommend, as appropriate, strategic programmatic, environmental, and policy approaches for providing, strengthening, and improving physical activity and physical education opportunities and programs in the school environment, including before, during, and after school; and, as evidence was reviewed, identify major gaps in knowledge and recommend key topic areas in need of research.

Key Terms Used in This Report

Academic Learning Time (ALT)-physical education (PE): A measure used to assess quality physical education instruction. ALT-PE is the time in physical education class during which children are exposed to motor skill development, understanding of movement principles, attainment of health-enhancing levels of fitness, regular engagement in physical activity, socially responsible behaviors in physical activity settings, and an appreciation of the importance of engagement in physical activity.

Active transport: Modes of transportation to and from school that involve physical activity; includes primarily walking and biking.

Classroom physical activity: Opportunities for physical activity integrated into classroom lessons.

Developmentally appropriate physical activity: Physical activity that meets/includes the following criteria: (1) an orderly sequence of motor skills learning, (2) provisions for individual differences, (3) appropriate goal structures, and (4) ample learning time.

Exercise: Planned, structured, and repetitive activity designed to target a particular outcome (e.g., a component of fitness).

Extramural sports: Organized and supervised sports programs sanctioned by the school system that provide opportunities for competition outside the bounds of a particular school.

Intramural sports: Organized and supervised sports programs involving within-school teams and clubs that provide opportunities for all students to participate.

Moderate-intensity physical activity: Physical exertion that is equivalent to brisk walking. Such activities are usually performed at between 3.5 and 6.0 times resting metabolic rate.

Physical activity: Bodily movement that increases energy expenditure.

Physical activity breaks: Brief opportunities for physical activity provided throughout the day, such as during morning announcements.

Physical education: A planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence.

Physical fitness: A set of physiologic attributes that are either health related or skill related. Physical fitness is an adaptive physiologic state that varies with growth and maturity status and physical activity.

Recess: A regularly scheduled period within the school day for supervised physical activity and play.

Vigorous-intensity physical activity: Physical exertion that leads to sweating and heavy breathing, such as running, basketball, soccer, and swimming laps; usually performed at or above an intensity of 6.0 times resting metabolic rate.

BACKGROUND AND STUDY CONTEXT

Since before the early 1900s, schools have had a role in providing health care for youth (IOM, 1997). From the single school nurse performing inspections and injury treatment to the provision of screening, health education, and immunizations to today’s school-based health centers, schools have been important in providing health services to children. Throughout the history of school-based health care, access to children for large portions of the day has made schools practical and effective in providing these services (IOM, 1997). With the emergence of obesity as a key health threat for youth, schools are yet again being called on to take a lead role in the health of students.

As noted above, physical activity is an essential component of proximal and distal health indicators in youth (see Chapter 3 ). Recent efforts have led to an evidence-based guideline for physical activity in youth of at least 60 minutes per day, 7 days per week (Strong et al., 2005; Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008) (see Box 1-1 ). Most of the 60 minutes per day should be spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity activities. Further, vigorous physical activities, bone-strengthening activities, and muscle-strengthening activities should be included at least 3 days each week. Such activities should offer variety, be enjoyable, and be age appropriate.

Schools have long provided opportunities for physical activity to children and adolescents, most notably through physical education. Early school-based physical education efforts in the 19th century focused largely

Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans: Active Children and Adolescents

Children and adolescents should perform 60 minutes (1 hour) or more of physical activity daily.

Aerobic: Most of the 60 or more minutes per day should be either moderate- or vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity and should include vigorous-intensity physical activity at least 3 days per week.

Muscle-strengthening: As part of their 60 or more minutes of daily physical activity, children and adolescents should include muscle-strengthening physical activity on at least 3 days of the week.

Bone-strengthening: As part of their 60 or more minutes of daily physical activity, children and adolescents should include bone-strengthening physical activity on at least 3 days of the week.

It is important to encourage young people to participate in physical activities that are appropriate for their age, that are enjoyable, and that offer variety.

SOURCE: HHS, 2008.

on hygiene, gymnastics, performance in sports and games, and (later) military readiness (IOM, 2012). A focus on physical education for health and fitness subsequently emerged, gradually taking hold in the middle of the 20th century (IOM, 1997). Quality school physical education has been recommended as an evidence-based strategy to increase physical activity among youth (Task Force on Community Preventive Services, 2005). Physical education thus has a long history of being a central foundation for health, development, and learning in schools.

Despite the effectiveness of quality physical education (whereby students have an opportunity to learn meaningful content with appropriate instruction and assessments) in increasing physical activity, challenges exist to its equitable and effective delivery. Fiscal pressures, resulting in teacher layoffs or reassignments and a lack of equipment and other resources, can inhibit the offering of quality physical education in some schools and districts. Schools may lack trained physical educators, and safety issues are associated with allowing children to play. Educators and policy makers may lack awareness and understanding of the potential for physical activity to improve academic achievement and the many ways in which physical activity can be and has been successfully incorporated into the school environment. The role of school physical education in providing physical activity for youth is further challenged by a demand for better standardized test scores by increasing classroom academic time and the ensuing policy pressures to do so. Nearly half of school administrators report cutting significant amounts of time from physical education, art, music, and recess to increase time in reading and mathematics since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001. These challenges have been cited as reasons why the percentage of schools offering physical education daily or at least 3 days each week declined dramatically in U.S. schools between 2000 and 2006 (GAO, 2012).

Children and adolescents engage in different types and patterns of physical activity as the result of a variety of factors, including age and access to resources. Exercise capacity in children and the activities in which they can successfully engage change in a predictable way across developmental periods. Young children are active in short bursts of free play, and their capacity for continuous activity increases as they grow and mature. In adults and likely also adolescents, improved complex motor skills allow for more continuous physical activity, although intermittent exercise offers much the same benefit as continuous exercise when the type of activity and energy expenditure are the same. While the health benefits of sporadic physical activity at younger ages are not well established, children require frequent opportunities for practice to develop the skills and confidence that promote ongoing engagement in physical activity. Physical education curricula are structured to provide developmentally appropriate experiences that

build the motor skills and self-efficacy that underlie lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activity, and trained physical education specialists are uniquely qualified to deliver them.

In the best-possible scenario, however, physical education classes are likely to provide only 10-20 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per session. Physical education, then, although important, cannot be the sole source of the at least 60 minutes per day of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity recommended to enhance the health of children and adolescents. Other ways to promote physical activity in youth must be systematically exploited to provide physical activity opportunities. Family, neighborhood, and community programs can be a source of such additional opportunities. Moreover, other school-based opportunities, including intramural and extramural sports programs, active transport to and from school, classroom physical activity breaks, recess, and before- and after-school programming, all can help youth accumulate the recommended 60 or more minutes per day of physical activity. Recent policy guidance from the National Association of State Boards of Education suggests such an integrated approach (NASBE, 2012).

Although family and community settings are helpful, schools provide a unique framework for physical activity opportunities because of the tremendous opportunity to contact many students multiple times. According to estimates of the U.S. Census Bureau, more than 51 million children aged 5-17 were enrolled in U.S. public schools in 2010; an additional 5.5 million were enrolled in U.S. private schools. Thus, an estimated 96-98 percent of the entire population in this age group was enrolled in an institutional school. Youth spend up to 7 hours each school day in school. Moreover, recent figures suggest that 15 percent of students across all grades attend an after-school program, and 38 percent of parents whose children do not attend such a program say their children would do so if they had access (Afterschool Alliance, 2009). These data, together with the role of schools in health promotion for youth, suggest that more can be done to leverage schools to help children meet the recommendation for at least 60 minutes per day of physical activity.

STUDY APPROACH

The committee recognized that, although physical education and physical activity in the school setting are primarily the responsibility of the education system, schools alone cannot implement the changes across systems required to achieve a healthy and educated future generation. Accomplishing these changes will demand systems approaches influenced by the social and cultural, economic, and physical environments, as well as the drivers of local, state, and national policies (see Figure 1-1 ).

FIGURE 1-1 Context for physical activity and physical education in the school environment.

Changes in a single venue or sector or at a single level or those that are uncoordinated are unlikely to be effective and will do little to effect long-term improvement. Interactions among and between the local school or district and eight additional sectors will be required to achieve the desired outcomes: (1) home and family; (2) transportation, land use, and community design; (3) volunteer and nonprofit community organizations; (4) business and industry; (5) parks, recreation, and sports; (6) neighborhood resources, including safety; (7) health care and public health; and (8) media and communications. These sectors traditionally have operated independently and have not communicated effectively. All, however, share a stake in and responsibility for working to change the conditions that pro-

mote the status quo of decreasing physical activity and increasing sedentary behavior among the nation’s youth.

A Systems Approach

A challenge in current efforts to address the problem of physical inactivity among youth has been an unbalanced attention to individualized behavior change strategies instead of a true public health approach that requires systems thinking (Kohl et al., 2012) (see Box 1-2 for a definition of systems thinking). A systems approach posits that schools may act as a focal point but alone cannot accomplish the task of increasing and sustaining physical activity in youth because multiple systems and sectors in society influence the adoption of an active healthy lifestyle. A systematic review of recent obesity prevention interventions (Krishnaswami et al., 2012) found a significant correlation between engagement with the community and intervention outcomes. Capacity building, needs assessments, dissemination

What Is Meant by Systems Thinking?

A systems approach

•  explicitly designs strategies to focus on interactions and interconnections (integration) between and among different sectors in the community and between individuals and their community environment;

•  accounts for the context and characteristics of a community in planning intervention strategies in order to see the whole picture so that intended and unintended consequences of strategies can be recognized and the strategies altered if required;

•  utilizes a multidisciplinary approach, including community experts, to determine the interactions among systems and sectors necessary to develop feasible interventions that will be sustainable (persistence of changes made and ongoing adoption of new ones) and scalable (capable of being brought to scale to impact many settings) and have reach across cultural and language population subgroups.

of results, and durable partnerships among different sectors can improve health outcomes.

Increasing societal demand for and ingraining values that support a healthier environment and population requires direct engagement and alignment of the priorities of multiple sectors, including those displayed earlier in Figure 1-1 . A systems approach in public health requires identifying key actors that can effect change. Within the local education sector, the actors that can influence physical activity and physical education opportunities for children and adolescents include school board members, superintendents, principals, administrators and coordinators of curricular areas and evaluation, school physical education and pupil services, security, and transportation programs. Parent-teacher organizations and school health advisory councils also are part of a systems perspective on the problem.

To capture the systems perspective on increasing physical activity among children and adolescents, it is important to recognize that efforts must go beyond physical education curricula or physical activity programs per se (see Figure 1-2 ). Components of an intervention should explicitly and directly impact elements of the support infrastructure (at both the school and community levels) that enables high-quality physical education and meaningful opportunities for physical activity throughout the school day. Investments in the support infrastructure should ensure that its elements are well aligned and integrated (i.e., work synergistically) to achieve the goals of school curricula and programs. In addition, opportunities for physical activity throughout the school day should be cohesively designed to bring about a culture of active living and the value of wellness. Finally, the support infrastructure should enable accountability of physical education cur-

FIGURE 1-2 Integrated/coordinated approach to increasing physical activity among children and adolescents in the school environment before, during, and after school. NOTE: PA = physical activity; PE = physical education.

ricula and physical activity programs. In turn, these curricula and programs should be monitored and evaluated to inform iterative improvements to the overall system.

As part of its systems approach, the committee acknowledged that much of what happens in the school setting is part of an overall system of policies and regulations at multiple levels (see Figure 1-3 ). The center of interest is students’ physical activity opportunities and experiences. Such opportunities include physical education, intramural and extramural sports, active transport to and from school, classroom physical activity, recess, before- and after-school programs, and other types of breaks. These opportunities and experiences are influenced by a series of federal guidelines, state laws, district policies, and school and classroom policies and practices. The impact of this set of guidelines, laws, policies, and practices is influenced in part by any accompanying assistance or incentives and by whether means of enforcement are in place. In other words, guidelines, laws, and policies

FIGURE 1-3 Influence of policy level and strength of implementation on student experience. NOTE: Arrow weight indicates no implementation, weak implementation, and strong implementation (thin to thick); box shade indicates no law or policy, weak law or policy, and strong law or policy (light to dark).

are more likely to be properly implemented if there are aids and rewards (e.g., funding, training) for doing so and penalties (e.g., less funding, less job security) for not doing so. The varying strengths of influence are depicted in Figure 1-3 by the varying thicknesses of the arrows exiting each level of influence (i.e., federal, state, district, school, classroom). Figure 1-3 also acknowledges other influences, such as other and sometimes competing policies issuing from the same organizational level; competing interests; or a lack of funding, personnel, or space. The arrows veering toward the empty space at the edges of Figure 1-3 indicate that at every level there is likely to be slippage. One study found, for example, that seven of eight high schools in Mississippi and Tennessee had entirely avoided implementation of new state legislation designed to increase levels of physical activity and improve the quality of physical education in high schools. The main barriers to implementation at these schools were the priority given to standardized testing, subordination of physical education to varsity sports, resource constraints, and policy overload (Amis et al., 2012).

Figure 1-3 also suggests that monitoring (surveillance) of federal guidelines, state laws, district policies, and school and classroom policies, plus related incentives and enforcements, is important. Monitoring of students’ physical activity opportunities and experiences is essential because they represent the ultimate outcome of importance, and barriers may have derailed implementation (Amis et al., 2012).

A systems approach demands analysis of existing and potential practical program and policy interactions among the sectors and individuals outlined above, interactions that are necessary for the optimal impact on physical activity. A process of aligning priorities among disparate sectors should lead to new types of intersectoral interactions. These new interactions can potentially produce greater synergistic effects than independent within-sector efforts. Such synergies can in turn allow for opportunities to pool and share resources. For example, synergies that lead to combining efforts in the education and transportation sectors may be more likely to create a sustainable and effective program that promotes active transportation to and from school than such a program implemented only within the education sector. Developing these approaches in a place-based framework will allow for tailoring interventions, taking into account the strengths and constraints, cultural and demographic characteristics, and resources of each local context. The outcomes achieved must be sustainable (persistence of changes made and ongoing adoption of new ones) and scalable (diffusion across settings) and have reach across population subgroups.

Guiding Principles

Early in this study the committee formulated a set of principles that guided its deliberations and its consideration of recommendations:

• Instilling lifelong physical activity in children and adolescents is crucial to the current and future health of the nation, and its long-term benefits should be recognized.

• Systems thinking is needed to develop recommendations for improving physical activity and physical education opportunities in schools in the context of children’s and adolescents’ development, family, home, culture, and community. Unintended consequences, accelerants, barriers, and other factors should be considered.

• Disparities in physical activity and physical education opportunities exist, and their elimination should be a priority in any recommendations for school-based efforts.

• The committee should consider all types of school environments in formulating its recommendations.

• The committee should consider student diversity, including gender, culture, religion, education, resources, and physical ability, in developing its recommendations.

• The committee should consider the practicality of implementation and existing school resources in making its recommendations. In addition, it should consider the challenges and barriers faced by policy makers, principals, teachers, parents/guardians, students, and other stakeholders.

• The committee should base its recommendations on the best-available scientific evidence and promising approaches.

Conceptual Framework

The committee developed a conceptual framework for its work plan and its deliberations (see Figure 1-4 ). In this framework, the proximal and distal outcomes of most interest for this study are measures of academic performance and indicators of health and development in youth. Leading to these two ultimate outcomes of interest are several layers of determinants, programs, and intermediate outcomes reviewed by the committee. At the base of Figure 1-4 are key supports for the multiple programmatic and policy approaches to improving physical activity and physical education in schools.

Although the central programmatic approach to physical activity in schools remains the physical education curriculum, the committee conceptualized multiple additional opportunities, including intramural and

FIGURE 1-4 Conceptual framework for physical activity and physical education in the school environment. NOTE: The framework applies to all opportunities for physical activity and physical education on K-12 school campuses before, during, and after school, including before- and after-school programming. a For example, professional development/credentials, staffing, class size, class/program length and frequency, curricula/instructional materials, equipment, supervision, use of class time (vigorous- and moderate-intensity physical activity), use of technology. b Each approach can occur before, during, or after school.

extramural sports, active transport to and from school, classroom physical activity, before- and after-school programs, recess, and other types of breaks. (Although the framework applies to all opportunities for physical activity and physical education on K-12 school campuses before, during, and after school, including onsite preschool and after-school programming, summer was not considered independently.)

Factors affecting a program’s impact toward achievement of the ultimate outcomes include the quality (fidelity) of implementation, the scalability of the program (its ability to move beyond an individual school or class to affect a broader population of schools and youth), and the reach of the program—whether it is available to all students and is unaffected by potential disparities. Finally, the committee believed that sustainability was a critical factor to consider, an issue that is central to the systems thinking that guided its deliberations.

Literature Review

In addressing its charge, the committee identified more than 1,000 articles and reports from the peer-reviewed published literature and from organizations relevant to physical education, physical activity, and health. The focus of the literature review was on gathering available evidence on (1) the influences of physical activity and physical education on the short-and long-term physical, cognitive and brain, and psychosocial health and development of children and adolescents and (2) potential physical activity and physical education policies and programs.

The literature search strategy generated search terms based on the committee’s conceptual framework. The initial search strategy paired the terms physical education and physical activity with terms related to themes, including academic achievement , brain development , classrooms , disparities , fitness , intra- and extramural sports , joint-use agreements , mental health , out-of-school time , policy , psychosocial health , recess , sedentary activity , school financing , somatic growth , transport , and weight . Searches were typically limited to U.S. populations and to children and adolescents, with the exception of studies examining the long-term and adult health benefits of childhood activity. See Appendix B and the references in Chapters 2 through 7 for more details on the methodology used and the evidence identified.

A Whole-of-School Approach

School and community policy and regulatory environments impact both the health and learning of children and youth. The “healthy schools” and “healthy communities” initiatives in various countries around the

world, following guidance from the World Health Organization, have placed major emphasis on attempting to create school and community environments that support both physical and psychosocial health (Samdel and Rowling, 2013). In the United States, local “wellness policies” have been mandated for schools receiving U.S. Department of Agriculture support for food and nutrition programs. Recently, these policies have been strengthened, leading to potential new systems of accountability for how healthy the school environment is for both children and staff (Belansky et al., 2009; Schwartz et al., 2009).

Early in its deliberations, the committee defined a whole-of-school approach for physical activity and physical education. In this approach, each opportunity for physical activity that can be tied to school grounds and facilities can be considered together. As seen in Figure 1-5 , such an approach can realistically be expected to provide nearly the full 60 minutes or more of recommended health-enhancing physical activity on school days. Figure 1-5 also reflects the description of programmatic and policy approaches in the committee’s conceptual framework (see Figure 1-4 ).

The committee recommends a whole-of-school approach to physical activity promotion. Under such an approach, all of a school’s components and resources operate in a coordinated and dynamic manner to provide access, encouragement, and programs that enable all students to engage in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity 60 minutes or more each day. A whole-of-school approach encompasses all segments of the school day, including travel to and from school, school-sponsored before-and after-school activities, recess and lunchtime breaks, physical education,

FIGURE 1-5 Comprehensive approach to school-wide physical activity promotion. SOURCE: Beets, 2012. Reprinted with permission from Michael Beets.

and classroom instructional time. Beyond the resources devoted to quality daily physical education for all students, other school resources, such as classroom teachers, staff, administrators, and aspects of the physical environment, are oriented toward physical activity. Intramural and extramural sports programs are available to all who wish to participate, active transportation is used by substantial numbers of children to move from home to school and back again, recess and other types of breaks offer additional opportunities for physical activity, and lesson plans integrate physical activity as an experiential approach to instruction.

A whole-of-school approach encompasses all people involved in the day-to-day functioning of the school, including students, faculty, staff, and parents. It creates an atmosphere in which physical activity is appreciated and encouraged by all these groups. School buildings, outdoor grounds and playgrounds, indoor and outdoor equipment, and streets and pathways leading to a school from the surrounding neighborhood encourage and enable all persons to be more physically active. Moreover, a school is part of a larger system that encompasses community partnerships to help these goals be realized.

Development of Recommendations

The committee’s approach to developing its recommendations was informed by the systems approach and guiding principles outlined above. A consensus process was used to develop and review the overarching recommendations presented in Chapter 8 . In addition, committee members discussed areas for research that, if pursued, would advance the field of physical activity and physical education in schools to further the evidence base.

OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT

The remainder of this report is organized into seven chapters. Chapter 2 describes the status and trends of physical activity behaviors and related school policies. Chapters 3 and 4 , respectively, describe health and development outcomes and academic and cognitive outcomes associated with physical activity and physical education. Chapter 5 provides an overview and discussion of physical education programs and policies in schools, including what a quality program looks like. Chapter 6 presents an overview and discussion of physical activity programs and policies in schools. Chapter 7 summarizes the evidence for the effectiveness of physical activity and physical education programs and policies. Finally, Chapter 8 provides the committee’s recommendations. Appendix A is a glossary of acronyms and terms used in the report, Appendix B provides a detailed description of the study’s methodology, Appendix C provides a summary of data extracted from the

National Association of State Boards of Education’s State School Health Policy Database, Appendix D contains the agenda for workshops held to inform the committee’s deliberations, and Appendix E presents biographical sketches of the committee members.

Afterschool Alliance. 2009. America after 3pm: The most in-depth study of how America’s children spend their afternoons. Washington, DC: Afterschool Alliance.

Amis, J. M., P. M. Wright, B. Dyson, J. M. Vardaman, and H. Ferry. 2012. Implementing childhood obesity policy in a new educational environment: The cases of Mississippi and Tennessee. American Journal of Public Health 102(7):1406-1413.

Beets, M. W. 2012. Before- and after-school physical activity programs including intra-and extramural sports: Challenges and opportunities. Presented at the Workshop on Physical Activity and Physical Education in Schools: Perspectives on Successes, Barriers, and Opportunities, September 20, Washington, DC.

Belansky, E. S., N. Cutforth, E. Delong, C. Ross, S. Scarbro, L. Gilbert, B. Beatty, and J. A. Marshall. 2009. Early impact of the federally mandated local wellness policy on physical activity in rural, low-income elementary schools in Colorado. Journal of Public Health Policy 30(Suppl 1):S141-S160.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2012. Youth risk behavior surveillance: United States, 2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 61(4):1-162.

GAO (U.S. Government Accountability Office). 2012. K-12 education: School-based physical education and sports programs. Washington, DC: GAO.

HHS (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). 2008. Physical activity guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC: HHS.

IOM (Institute of Medicine). 1997. Schools & health: Our nation’s investment . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

IOM. 2012. Accelerating progress in obesity prevention: Solving the weight of the nation . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Kohl, H. W., C. L. Craig, E. V. Lambert, S. Inoue, J. R. Alkandari, G. Leetongin, and S. Kahlmeier. 2012. The pandemic of physical inactivity: Global action for public health. Lancet 380(9838):294-305.

Krishnaswami, J., M. Martinson, P. Wakimoto, and A. Anglemeyer. 2012. Community-engaged interventions on diet, activity, and weight outcomes in U.S. schools: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 43(1):81-91.

Lee, I. M., E. J. Shiroma, F. Lobelo, P. Puska, S. N. Blair, and P. T. Katzmarzyk. 2012. Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: An analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet 380(9838):219-229.

NASBE (National Association of State Boards of Education). 2012. A school health policy guide: Fit, healthy, and ready to learn. In Chapter D: Policies to promote physical activity and physical education, 2nd ed., edited by J. F. Bogden, M. Brizius, and E. M. Walker. Arlington, VA: NASBE.

Pate, R. R., P. S. Freedson, J. F. Sallis, W. C. Taylor, J. Sirard, S. G. Trost, and M. Dowda. 2002. Compliance with physical activity guidelines: Prevalence in a population of children and youth. Annals of Epidemiology 12(5):303-308.

Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee. 2008. Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee report. Washington, DC: HHS.

Ross, C. E., and J. Mirowsky. 1999. Refining the association between education and health: The effects of quantity, credentials, and selectivity. Demography 36(4):445-460.

Samdel, O., and L. Rowling, eds. 2013. The implementation of health promoting schools: Exploring the theories of what, why and how . London and New York: Routledge.

Schwartz, M. B., A. E. Lund, H. M. Grow, E. McDonnell, C. Probart, A. Samuelson, and L. Lytle. 2009. A comprehensive coding system to measure the quality of school wellness policies. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 109(7):1256-1262.

Strong, W. B., R. M. Malina, C. J. Blimkie, S. R. Daniels, R. K. Dishman, B. Gutin, A. C. Hergenroeder, A. Must, P. A. Nixon, J. M. Pivarnik, T. Rowland, S. Trost, and F. Trudeau. 2005. Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth. Journal of Pediatrics 146(6):732-737.

Task Force on Community Preventive Services. 2005. Physical activity. In The guide to community preventive services: What works to promote health?, edited by S. Zaza, P. A. Briss, and K. W. Harris. Atlanta, GA: Oxford University Press. Pp. 80-113.

This page intentionally left blank.

Physical inactivity is a key determinant of health across the lifespan. A lack of activity increases the risk of heart disease, colon and breast cancer, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, osteoporosis, anxiety and depression and others diseases. Emerging literature has suggested that in terms of mortality, the global population health burden of physical inactivity approaches that of cigarette smoking. The prevalence and substantial disease risk associated with physical inactivity has been described as a pandemic.

The prevalence, health impact, and evidence of changeability all have resulted in calls for action to increase physical activity across the lifespan. In response to the need to find ways to make physical activity a health priority for youth, the Institute of Medicine's Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment was formed. Its purpose was to review the current status of physical activity and physical education in the school environment, including before, during, and after school, and examine the influences of physical activity and physical education on the short and long term physical, cognitive and brain, and psychosocial health and development of children and adolescents.

Educating the Student Body makes recommendations about approaches for strengthening and improving programs and policies for physical activity and physical education in the school environment. This report lays out a set of guiding principles to guide its work on these tasks. These included: recognizing the benefits of instilling life-long physical activity habits in children; the value of using systems thinking in improving physical activity and physical education in the school environment; the recognition of current disparities in opportunities and the need to achieve equity in physical activity and physical education; the importance of considering all types of school environments; the need to take into consideration the diversity of students as recommendations are developed.

This report will be of interest to local and national policymakers, school officials, teachers, and the education community, researchers, professional organizations, and parents interested in physical activity, physical education, and health for school-aged children and adolescents.

READ FREE ONLINE

Welcome to OpenBook!

You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

Show this book's table of contents , where you can jump to any chapter by name.

...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

Switch between the Original Pages , where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter .

Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

View our suggested citation for this chapter.

Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

Get Email Updates

Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free ? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released.

This site belongs to UNESCO's International Institute for Educational Planning

IIEP Learning Portal

Search form

• issue briefs
• Improve learning

The physical school environment

The brief explores how physical education facilities – that is, land, buildings, and furniture for education – can affect learning processes and what measures can be undertaken to create the optimal conditions for learners and teachers’ achievement and well-being.

Target 4.a of the Sustainable Development Goal 4 on inclusive and equitable quality education calls for the international community to ‘build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all’.  Proposed indicators include water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), electricity, and ICT access, as well as access to adapted infrastructure and materials for learners with disabilities (UNESCO, 2016) . Spaces that are safe and healthy have been found to positively affect pupil’s academic outcomes (Barrett et al., 2019) . Given the sizeable budget allocated to physical facilities, around 10–25 per cent of educational expenditures, it is crucial that funds are well spent and that school locations and facilities support access to education and an environment conducive to learning (Beynon, 1997) . The COVID-19 pandemic showed that poor-quality infrastructure (e.g. lack of ventilation) can exacerbate COVID-19 transmission in a school setting (USAID, 2020) . School infrastructure is, therefore, high on the agenda as governments prepare for school reopening. 

What we know

School location.

Schools are an integral part of a community and are best located close to the learners they serve. The need to travel long distances to school can have a negative impact on enrolment and retention (especially among girls and disabled children), as well as attendance and performance. For example, studies have found that students living less than 1 km from their school perform statistically better than those who walk further (Theunynck, 2009) .

School size

Evidence on the impact of school size on learning is mixed. Studies from the USA suggest that smaller schools may contribute to better student outcomes as learners, teachers, and parents see themselves as part of a community (Barrett et al., 2019) , while in India small schools with fewer facilities and a lack of specialist teachers may be resulting in lower outcomes (Rolleston and Moore, 2018) . Data from Senegal showed that school size had no effect on student performance in the early grades, but that attending a large school had adverse effects on student performance by the fourth grade. This may be due to the fact that fourth graders have spent more time in the education system whereas, at the start of the learning process, schools have not yet left their mark on younger learners, whose learning is shaped more by family environment (Koussihouede, 2020) . Barrett et al. (2019) also point to the drawbacks of large schools, citing higher transportation costs, higher administrative overheads, lower graduation rates, higher absenteeism, higher rates of vandalism, and lower teacher satisfaction.

School premises

An ‘inviting physical environment that ensures the safety and health of learners’ helps to enhance the quality of learning (UIS, 2012: 38) . Learning assessment data from Latin America shows a clear relationship between school infrastructure and learning even after controlling the socioeconomic level of the families. The two categories that are most clearly associated with learning outcomes are pedagogical and academic spaces, and connection to services (electricity, telephone, and Internet) (UNESCO Santiago Office and IDB, 2017) .

The quality of infrastructure affects enrolment and completion rates, and it is an important aspect in parents’ satisfaction with and perception of school quality (Gershberg, 2014) . There is evidence to suggest that school construction projects can help raise motivation among students and teachers and improve parental engagement, which subsequently leads to improved academic achievement (Neilson and Zimmerman, 2011) . Well-designed schools can increase the productivity of school staff and cut financial waste on unnecessary services and maintenance (RIBA, 2016) .

Although the literature does not show a strong relationship between students’ exam results and their satisfaction with the condition of school facilities, some studies have demonstrated convincing links between student outcomes and specific aspects of classroom infrastructure in OECD countries (Barrett et al., 2019) . Table 1 summarizes the evidence gathered from the literature.

a. Classroom features that are strongly related to their use. Source: Barrett et al., 2019: 28.

Outside of the classroom, learners need access to adequate outdoor space for organized physical education and sports, as well as for play during break times (UIS, 2012) . Physical activity and recreation have a significant impact on child development and the physical and mental health of learners (Barrett et al., 2019) .

WASH facilities

Schools are one of the most successful and cost-effective resources for targeting children and communities with key health and hygiene interventions (WHO, 2004) . Basic services such as water, sanitation, waste disposal, electricity, and communications also help ensure that children and teachers attend school and remain healthy there (Barrett et al., 2019) . Inadequate WASH facilities affect boys and girls in different ways, and this may contribute to unequal learning opportunities. Specifically, lack of sanitary facilities may mean that female students but also female teachers are absent from school during menstruation (WHO, 2009; Gershberg, 2014) .

Equity and inclusion

Equity issues are an important factor in the relationship among school location, facilities, premises, and student outcomes. The following findings emerged from the literature:

• Schools located in areas with good quality-of-life factors (e.g. higher pay, educated population) may attract and retain more qualified and motivated teachers (Gagnon, 2015) .
• In general, older school buildings and those in poor condition are located in the poorest areas (Barrett et al., 2019) .
• Overcrowded school buildings and heat exposure have been found to have a negative impact on student performance, especially for students from minority and financially disadvantaged backgrounds (Earthman, 2002; Park et al., 2020) .
• The effects of small schools (better attendance, higher graduation rates, greater engagement in extracurricular activities) may be more beneficial to children from disadvantaged backgrounds (Barrett et al., 2019) .
• Accessibility to school (transportation, well-maintained pavements) and in school (wide doors and corridors, adjusted toilets) is still a challenge worldwide (Education International Research, 2018) . The ‘physical “place” of the classroom’ can be improved to support learners with disabilities through the provision of clearly written texts, facilitating the use of assistive devices and adaptive learning resources. Space can be re-organized by moving learners with visual and physical disabilities to the front of the classroom so they can see and hear the teacher (Miles, Westbrook, and Croft, 2018: 79) . Flexible, age-appropriate learning spaces have the potential to improve academic outcomes for all learners (Barrett et al., 2019) .

Condition of school infrastructure

In Africa, the rapid expansion in access to education has surpassed the growth trend in primary school classrooms, often resulting in overcrowded classrooms (Theunynck, 2009) . This is further aggravated by the general poor quality, durability, and functionality of the existing infrastructure that requires renovation. However, poor learning conditions do not only affect developing countries. Environmental conditions in elementary schools (in terms of thermal and air quality) are often inadequate in developed countries (Wargocki and Wyon, 2013 in Barrett et al., 2019) .

Lack of facilities

Many schools lack the basic services necessary to guarantee a safe and healthy environment for learning. In Africa and Latin America, a high proportion of students attend schools with inadequate facilities (e.g. no potable water, lack of working sanitary facilities, broken or missing school furniture) (Theunynck, 2009; UIS, 2012b; UNESCO Santiago Office and IDB, 2017) . For instance, in Latin America, only one-quarter of third graders attend schools that met the infrastructure sufficiency criteria of the study (UNESCO Santiago Office and IDB, 2017) .

Inadequate resource allocation

Beyond budget constraints, ‘the problems of poor infrastructure are often exacerbated by an inefficient and inequitable distribution of construction resource’ (Theunynck, 2009: 10) . In some countries, overcrowded classrooms coexist with underutilized spaces (Theunynck, 2009; Barrett et al., 2019) . This can be partly explained by the high centralization of infrastructure planning, which cannot always accurately assess the actual needs at the local level (Theunynck, 2009; Gershberg, 2014) .

Policy and planning

School design.

In areas that are prone to natural disasters, schools should develop disaster preparedness plans that are reviewed on a regular basis (UIS, 2012a) . Other physical factors to consider for creating an optimal teaching and learning environment include: learner-to-classroom ratios, appropriate furniture for learner comfort, noise levels, heating and ventilation, sex-segregated toilets or latrines, and adequate lighting (Beynon, 1997; Neilson and Zimmerman, 2011; UIS, 2012a; UNESCO et al., 2020) . The COVID-19 pandemic has emphasized the need for adequate WASH facilities and classroom arrangements that facilitate social distancing (UNESCO et al., 2020; Furlani and Tibério Cardoso, 2021) .

It is also important to go beyond health and safety minimum standards and create spaces conducive to participatory learning methodologies. Although its impact on learning remains to be documented, school design can help build a connection between schools and the wider community if conceived in accordance with local climatic and cultural environments (UIS, 2012a; Barrett et al., 2019) .

Infrastructure planning

In areas facing budget constraints, cost-effectiveness analysis can help guide decisions regarding the construction or renovation of classrooms depending on their impact on the quality of learning (Jenkins and Zeinali, 2015) . Steps to create quality learning environments include an audit of the current state of affairs in schools, the development of a plan with specific baseline standards and indicators for reaching them, and a cost evaluation (Theunynck, 2009; UIS, 2012a) . Using up-to-date information on the condition of school infrastructure and adopting a participatory approach (involving parents and communities) are critical elements for successful infrastructure planning (UIS, 2012a; UNESCO Santiago Office and IDB, 2017) .

Access to school places

Maintaining reasonable travel distances implies increasing the number of schools and reducing their size rather than fewer and larger schools (Theunynck, 2009; Barrett et al., 2019) . This means that smaller schools should be locally distributed according to the density of demand (Barrett et al., 2019) .

Improving equity in access

Simple solutions exist when working towards better inclusion of children with physical disabilities, provided that they are incorporated in the school design and planning process (Theunynck, 2009) . These include building ramps, widening door openings, minimizing stairs, attention to topography, etc.

Maintenance of buildings

Consistently maintaining and bringing the necessary improvements to the existing infrastructure can result in a good-quality educational environment in buildings of any age. Additionally, attention to infrastructure sustainability can help accommodate future demographic or pedagogic changes (Barrett et al., 2019) . In this regard, Gershberg (2014) suggests that in developing countries, the decentralization of the education infrastructure can ensure more efficient maintenance.

Plans and policies

• Lao PDR: School construction guidelines (2009)
• Togo: Stratégie nationale du MEPSA en matière de constructions scolaires du primaire (2009)
• Beynon, J. 1997. Physical Facilities for Education: What Planners Need to Know.   Paris: IIEP-UNESCO.
• UNICEF. 2009. Child-Friendly Schools Manual.  New York: UNICEF.
• UNESCO; UNICEF; World Bank; WFP. 2020. Framework for Reopening Schools.
• WHO. 2009.   Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Standards for Schools in Low-cost Settings. Geneva: WHO.

Barrett, P.; Treves, A.; Shmis, T.; Ambasz, D.; Ustinova, M. 2019. The Impact of School Infrastructure on Learning: A Synthesis of the Evidence. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Beynon, J. 1997. Physical Facilities for Education: What Planners Need to Know. Fundamentals of Educational Planning 57. Paris: IIEP-UNESCO.

Earthman, G.I. 2002. ‘School facility conditions and student academic achievement’. Williams Watch Series: Investigating the Claims of Williams v. State of California. Los Angeles: UCLA’s Institute for Democracy, Education, and Access.

Education International Research. 2018. Are We There Yet? Education Unions Assess the Bumpy Road to Inclusive Education. Brussels: Education International.

Furlani, S.; Tibério Cardoso, G. 2021. ‘Rethinking post-Covid-19 school design in Brazil: Adaptation strategies for public schools PEE-12 FNDE’. In: Strategic Design Research Journal , April 2021.

Gagnon, D.J. 2015. ‘School location and teacher supply: Understanding the distribution of teacher effects’. In: Current Issues in Education, 18(3) : 15.

Gershberg, A.I. 2014. ‘Educational infrastructure, school construction & decentralization in developing countries: Key issues for an understudied area’. Working paper 14–12. Atlanta: International Center for Public Policy.

Jenkins, G.P.; Zeinali, A. 2015. ‘Cost-effective infrastructure choices in education: Location, build or repair’. In: South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 18(1): 70–83.

Koussihouede, O. 2020. ‘School size and student performance’. IIEP Learning Portal, 9 September 2020.

Miles, S.; Westbrook, J.; Croft, A. 2018. ‘Inclusions and exclusions in rural Tanzanian primary schools: Material barriers, teacher agency and disability equality’. In: Social Inclusion, 6(1): 73–81.

Neilson, C.; Zimmerman, S. 2011. ‘The effect of school construction on test scores, school enrollment, and home prices’. IZA DP No. 6106. Discussion Paper Series. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA).

Park, R.J.; Goodman, J.; Hurwitz, M.; Smith, J. 2020. ‘Heat and learning’ . In: American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 12(2) : 306–39.

RIBA (Royal Institute of British Architects). 2016. Better Spaces for Learning. London: RIBA.

Rolleston, C.; Moore, R. 2018. Young Lives School Survey, 2016–17: Value-added analysis in India.  Oxford: Young Lives.

Theunynck, S. 2009. School Construction Strategies for Universal Primary Education in Africa: Should Communities Be Empowered to Build Their Schools? Washington, DC: The World Bank.

UIS (UNESCO Institute for Statistics). 2012a. A place to learn: Lessons from research on learning environments. Technical paper 9. Montreal: UIS.

UIS (UNESCO Institute for Statistics). 2012b. School and teaching resources in Sub-Saharan Africa: Analysis of the 2011 UIS Regional Data Collection on Education. UIS Information Bulletin 9. Montreal: UIS.

UNESCO. 2016. Education 2030: Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4: Ensure Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Promote Lifelong Learning .   Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO Santiago Office; IDB (Inter-American Development Bank). 2017. Sufficiency, Equity and Effectiveness of School Infrastructure in Latin America According to TERCE . Santiago: UNESCO Office Santiago and Regional Bureau for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean; IDB.

UNESCO; UNICEF; World Bank; World Food Programme. 2020. Framework for reopening schools.  Paris : UNESCO

USAID (United States Agency for International Development). 2020. COVID-19 and Education: Initial Insights for Preparedness, Planning and Response. Washington, DC: USAID.

WHO (World Health Organization). 2004. The physical school environment: An essential component of a health-promoting school. Information series on school health document. Geneva: WHO.

WHO (World Health Organization). 2009. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Standards for Schools in Low-Cost Settings.  Geneva: WHO.

Related information

• Why education infrastructure matters for learning
• Child-friendly school (CFS)
• Learning environment
• School facilities

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• Browse Titles

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

5 Approaches to Physical Education in Schools

Key messages.

• Because it is guaranteed to reach virtually all children, physical education is the only sure opportunity for nearly all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities.
• High-quality physical education programs are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week (30 minutes per day) for children in elementary schools and 225 minutes per week (45 minutes per day) for students in middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation.
• Students are more physically active on days on which they have physical education.
• Quality physical education has strong support from both parents and child health professional organizations.
• Several models and examples demonstrate that physical education scheduled during the school day is feasible on a daily basis.
• Substantial discrepancies exist in state mandates regarding the time allocated for physical education.
• Nearly half of school administrators (44 percent) reported cutting significant time from physical education and recess to increase time spent in reading and mathematics since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act.
• Standardized national-level data on the provision of and participation, performance, and extent of engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity are insufficient to allow assessment of the current status and trends in physical education in the United States.
• Systematic research is needed on personal, curricular, and policy barriers to successful physical education.
• The long-term impact of physical education has been understudied and should be a research priority to support the development of evidence-based policies.

Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools that is standards based and encompasses assessment based on standards and benchmarks. It is defined in Chapter 1 as “a planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence.” As a school subject, physical education is focused on teaching school-aged children the science and methods of physically active, healthful living ( NASPE, 2012 ). It is an avenue for engaging in developmentally appropriate physical activities designed for children to develop their fitness, gross motor skills, and health ( Sallis et al., 2003 ; Robinson and Goodway, 2009 ; Robinson, 2011 ). This chapter (1) provides a perspective on physical education in the context of schooling; (2) elaborates on the importance of physical education to child development; (3) describes the consensus on the characteristics of quality physical education programs; (4) reviews current national, state, and local education policies that affect the quality of physical education; and (5) examines barriers to quality physical education and solutions for overcoming them.

• PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE CONTEXT OF SCHOOLING

Physical education became a subject matter in schools (in the form of German and Swedish gymnastics) at the beginning of the 19th century ( Hackensmith, 1966 ). Its role in human health was quickly recognized. By the turn of the 20th century, personal hygiene and exercise for bodily health were incorporated in the physical education curriculum as the major learning outcomes for students ( Weston, 1962 ). The exclusive focus on health, however, was criticized by educator Thomas Wood (1913 ; Wood and Cassidy, 1930 ) as too narrow and detrimental to the development of the whole child. The education community subsequently adopted Wood's inclusive approach to physical education whereby fundamental movements and physical skills for games and sports were incorporated as the major instructional content. During the past 15 years, physical education has once again evolved to connect body movement to its consequences (e.g., physical activity and health), teaching children the science of healthful living and skills needed for an active lifestyle ( NASPE, 2004 ).

Sallis and McKenzie (1991) published a landmark paper stating that physical education is education content using a “comprehensive but physically active approach that involves teaching social, cognitive, and physical skills, and achieving other goals through movement” (p. 126). This perspective is also emphasized by Siedentop (2009) , who states that physical education is education through the physical. Sallis and McKenzie (1991) stress two main goals of physical education: (1) prepare children and youth for a lifetime of physical activity and (2) engage them in physical activity during physical education. These goals represent the lifelong benefits of health-enhancing physical education that enable children and adolescents to become active adults throughout their lives.

Physical Education as Part of Education

In institutionalized education, the main goal has been developing children's cognitive capacity in the sense of learning knowledge in academic disciplines. This goal dictates a learning environment in which seated learning behavior is considered appropriate and effective and is rewarded. Physical education as part of education provides the only opportunity for all children to learn about physical movement and engage in physical activity. As noted, its goal and place in institutionalized education have changed from the original focus on teaching hygiene and health to educating children about the many forms and benefits of physical movement, including sports and exercise. With a dramatic expansion of content beyond the original Swedish and German gymnastics programs of the 19th century, physical education has evolved to become a content area with diverse learning goals that facilitate the holistic development of children ( NASPE, 2004 ).

To understand physical education as a component of the education system, it is important to know that the education system in the United States does not operate with a centralized curriculum. Learning standards are developed by national professional organizations such as the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and/or state education agencies rather than by the federal Department of Education; all curricular decisions are made locally by school districts or individual schools in compliance with state standards. Physical education is influenced by this system, which leads to great diversity in policies and curricula. According to NASPE and the American Heart Association (2010), although most states have begun to mandate physical education for both elementary and secondary schools, the number of states that allow waivers/exemptions from or substitutions for physical education increased from 27 and 18 in 2006 to 32 and 30 in 2010, respectively. These expanded waiver and substitution policies (discussed in greater detail later in the chapter) increase the possibility that students will opt out of physical education for nonmedical reasons.

Curriculum Models

Given that curricula are determined at the local level in the United States, encompassing national standards, state standards, and state-adopted textbooks that meet and are aligned with the standards, physical education is taught in many different forms and structures. Various curriculum models are used in instruction, including movement education, sport education, and fitness education. In terms of engagement in physical activity, two perspectives are apparent. First, programs in which fitness education curricula are adopted are effective at increasing in-class physical activity ( Lonsdale et al., 2013 ). Second, in other curriculum models, physical activity is considered a basis for students' learning skill or knowledge that the lesson is planned for them to learn. A paucity of nationally representative data is available with which to demonstrate the relationship between the actual level of physical activity in which students are engaged and the curriculum models adopted by their schools.

Movement Education

Movement has been a cornerstone of physical education since the 1800s. Early pioneers (Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, Rudolf von Laban) focused on a child's ability to use his or her body for self-expression ( Abels and Bridges, 2010 ). Exemplary works and curriculum descriptions include those by Laban himself ( Laban, 1980 ) and others (e.g., Logsdon et al., 1984 ). Over time, however, the approach shifted from concern with the inner attitude of the mover to a focus on the function and application of each movement ( Abels and Bridges, 2010 ). In the 1960s, the intent of movement education was to apply four movement concepts to the three domains of learning (i.e., cognitive, psychomotor, and affective). The four concepts were body (representing the instrument of the action); space (where the body is moving); effort (the quality with which the movement is executed); and relationships (the connections that occur as the body moves—with objects, people, and the environment; Stevens-Smith, 2004 ). The importance of movement in physical education is evidenced by its inclusion in the first two NASPE standards for K-12 physical education ( NASPE, 2004 ; see Box 5-7 later in this chapter).

Standards for a Physically Educated Person. SOURCE: NASPE, 2004.

These standards emphasize the need for children to know basic movement concepts and be able to perform basic movement patterns. It is imperative for physical educators to foster motor success and to provide children with a basic skill set that builds their movement repertoire, thus allowing them to engage in various forms of games, sports, and other physical activities (see also Chapter 3 ).

Sport Education

One prevalent physical education model is the sport education curriculum designed by Daryl Siedentop ( Siedentop, 1994 ; Siedentop et al., 2011 ). The goal of the model is to “educate students to be players in the fullest sense and to help them develop as competent, literate, and enthusiastic sportspersons” (2011, p. 4, emphasis in original). The model entails a unique instructional structure featuring sport seasons that are used as the basis for planning and teaching instructional units. Students are organized into sport organizations (teams) and play multiple roles as team managers, coaches, captains, players, referees, statisticians, public relations staff, and others to mimic a professional sports organization. A unit is planned in terms of a sports season, including preseason activity/practice, regular-season competition, playoffs and/or tournaments, championship competition, and a culminating event (e.g., an awards ceremony or sport festivity). Depending on the developmental level of students, the games are simplified or modified to encourage maximum participation. In competition, students play the roles noted above in addition to the role of players. A sport education unit thus is much longer than a conventional physical education unit. Siedentop and colleagues (2011) recommend 20 lessons per unit, so that all important curricular components of the model can be implemented.

Findings from research on the sport education model have been reviewed twice. Wallhead and O'Sullivan (2005) report that evidence is insufficient to support the conclusion that use of the model results in students' developing motor skills and fitness and learning relevant knowledge; some evidence suggests that the model leads to stronger team cohesion, more active engagement in lessons, and increased competence in game play. In a more recent review, Hastie and colleagues (2011) report on emerging evidence suggesting that the model leads to improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness (only one study) and mixed evidence regarding motor skills development, increased feeling of enjoyment in participation in physical education, increased sense of affiliation with the team and physical education, and positive development of fair-play values. The only study on in-class physical activity using the model showed that it contributed to only 36.6 percent activity at the vigorous- or moderate-intensity levels ( Parker and Curtner-Smith, 2005 ). Hastie and colleagues caution, however, that because only 6 of 38 studies reviewed used an experimental or quasi-experimental design, the findings must be interpreted with extreme caution. The model's merits in developing motor skills, fitness, and desired physical activity behavior have yet to be determined in studies with more rigorous research designs.

Fitness Education

Instead of focusing exclusively on having children move constantly to log activity time, a new curricular approach emphasizes teaching them the science behind why they need to be physically active in their lives. The curriculum is designed so that the children are engaged in physical activities that demonstrate relevant scientific knowledge. The goal is the development and maintenance of individual student fitness. In contrast with the movement education and sport education models, the underlying premise is that physical activity is essential to a healthy lifestyle and that students' understanding of fitness and behavior change result from engagement in a fitness education program. The conceptual framework for the model is designed around the health-related components of cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility. A recent meta-analysis ( Lonsdale et al., 2013 ) suggests that physical education curricula that include fitness activities can significantly increase the amount of time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Several concept-based fitness education curriculum models exist for both the middle school and senior high school levels. They include Fitness for Life: Middle School ( Corbin et al., 2007 ); Personal Fitness for You ( Stokes and Schultz, 2002 ); Get Active! Get Fit! ( Stokes and Schultz, 2009 ); Personal Fitness: Looking Good, Feeling Good ( Williams, 2005 ); and Foundations of Fitness ( Rainey and Murray, 2005 ). Activities in the curriculum are designed for health benefits, and the ultimate goal for the student is to develop a commitment to regular exercise and physical activity. It is assumed that all children can achieve a health-enhancing level of fitness through regular engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Randomized controlled studies on the impact of a science-based fitness curriculum in 15 elementary schools showed that, although the curriculum allocated substantial lesson time to learning cognitive knowledge, the students were more motivated to engage in physical activities than students in the 15 control schools experiencing traditional physical education ( Chen et al., 2008 ), and they expended the same amount of calories as their counterparts in the control schools ( Chen et al., 2007 ). Longitudinal data from the study reveal continued knowledge growth in the children that strengthened their understanding of the science behind exercise and active living ( Sun et al., 2012 ). What is unclear, however, is whether the enthusiasm and knowledge gained through the curriculum will translate into the children's lives outside of physical education to help them become physically active at home.

To incorporate standards and benchmarks into a fitness education model, a committee under the auspices of NASPE (2012) developed the Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education. It is suggested that through this proposed comprehensive framework, fitness education be incorporated into the existing physical education curriculum and embedded in the content taught in all instructional units. The entire framework, highlighted in Box 5-1 , can be viewed at http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/publications/upload/Instructional-Framework-for-Fitness-Education-in-PE-2012-2.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013).

Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education. Technique: Demonstrate competency in techniques needed to perform a variety of moderate to vigorous physical activities. Technique in developing cardiovascular fitness.

Emergence of Active Gaming in Fitness Education

Today, active gaming and cell phone/computer applications are a part of physical activity for both youth and adults. Accordingly, fitness education in school physical education programs is being enhanced through the incorporation of active video games, also known as exergaming. Examples of active gaming programs with accompanying equipment include Konami Dance Dance Revolution (DDR), Nintendo Wii, Gamebikes, Kinect XBOX, Xavix, and Hopsports. These active games have been incorporated into school wellness centers as high-tech methods of increasing student fitness levels to supplement the traditional modes for attaining vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity ( Greenberg and Stokes, 2007 ).

Bailey and McInnis (2011) compared selected active games with treadmill walking and found that each game—DDR, LightSpace (Bug Invasion), Nintendo Wii (Boxing), Cyber Trazer (Goalie Wars), Sportwall, and Xavix (J-Mat)—raised energy expenditure above that measured at rest. Mean metabolic equivalent (MET) values for each game were comparable to or higher than those measured for walking on a treadmill at 3 miles per hour. Graf and colleagues (2009) , studying boys and girls aged 10-13, found that both Wii boxing and DDR (level 2) elicited energy expenditure, heart rate, perceived exertion, and ventilatory responses that were comparable to or greater than those elicited by moderate-intensity walking on a treadmill. Similar results were found by Lanningham-Foster and colleagues (2009) among 22 children aged 10-14 and adults in that energy expenditure for both groups increased significantly when playing Wii over that expended during all sedentary activities. Staiano and colleagues (2012) explored factors that motivated overweight and obese African American high school students to play Wii during school-based physical activity opportunities. They found greater and more sustained energy expenditure over time and noted that players' various intrinsic motivations to play also influenced their level of energy expenditure. Mellecker and McManus (2008) determined that energy expenditure and heart rate were greater during times of active play than in seated play. Fawkner and colleagues (2010) studied 20 high school–age girls and found that dance simulation games provided an opportunity for most subjects to achieve a moderate-intensity level of physical activity. The authors conclude that regular use of the games aids in promoting health through physical activity. Haddock and colleagues (2009) conducted ergometer tests with children aged 7-14 and found increased oxygen consumption and energy expenditure above baseline determinations. Maddison and colleagues (2007) , studying children aged 10-14, found that active video game playing led to significant increases in energy expenditure, heart rate, and activity counts in comparison with baseline values. They conclude that playing these games for short time periods is comparable to light- to moderate-intensity conventional modes of exercise, including walking, skipping, and jogging. Mhurchu and colleagues (2008) also conclude that a short-term intervention involving active video games is likely to be an effective means of increasing children's overall level of physical activity. Additionally, Sit and colleagues (2010) , studying the effects of active gaming among 10-year-old children in Hong Kong, found the children to be significantly more physically active while playing interactive games compared with screen-based games.

Exergaming appears to increase acute physical activity among users and is being used in school settings because it is appealing to students. Despite active research in the area of exergaming and physical activity, however, exergaming's utility for increasing acute and habitual physical activity specifically in the physical education setting has yet to be confirmed. Further, results of studies conducted in nonlaboratory and nonschool settings have been mixed ( Baranowski et al., 2008 ). Moreover, any physical activity changes that do occur may not be sufficient to stimulate physiologic changes. For example, White and colleagues (2009) examined the effects of Nintendo Wii on physiologic changes. Although energy expenditure was raised above resting values during active gaming, the rise was not significant enough to qualify as part of the daily 60 minutes or more of vigorous-or moderate-intensity exercise recommended for children.

While collecting data on the effects of Nintendo Wii on 11-year-olds in New Zealand, White and colleagues (2009) found that active video games generated higher energy expenditure than both resting and inactive screen watching. They determined, however, that active gaming is a “low-intensity” physical activity. Therefore, it may be helpful in reducing the amount of sedentary behavior, but it should not be used as a replacement for more conventional modes of physical activity. Sun (2012) found that active gaming can increase student motivation to engage in physical activity, but the motivation may decrease as a result of prolonged exposure to the same games. This study also found that exergaming lessons provided less physical activity for children than regular conventional physical education. For inactive children, however, the exergaming environment is conducive to more active participation in the game-based physical activities than in conventional physical education ( Fogel et al., 2010 ). Finally, Sheehan and Katz (2012) found that among school-age children the use of active gaming added to postural stability, an important component of motor skills development.

From the research cited above, as well as ongoing research being conducted by the Health Games Research Project funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, active gaming is promising as a means of providing young children an opportunity to become more physically active and helping them meet the recommended 60 or more minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. Different types of games may influence energy expenditure differentially, and some may serve solely as motivation. Selected games also appear to hold greater promise for increasing energy expenditure, while others invite youth to be physically active through motivational engagement. The dynamic and evolving field of active gaming is a promising area for future research as more opportunities arise to become physically active throughout the school environment.

Other Innovative Programs

While several evidence-based physical education programs—such as the Coordinated Approach to Child Health (CATCH) and Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK)—are being implemented in schools, many innovative programs also have been implemented nationwide that are motivating and contribute to skills attainment while engaging youth in activities that are fun and fitness oriented. These programs include water sports, involving sailing, kayaking, swimming, canoeing, and paddle boarding; adventure activities such as Project Adventure; winter sports, such as snow skiing and snowshoeing; and extreme sports, such as in-line skating, skateboarding, and cycling.

Differences Among Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

Instructional opportunities vary within and among school levels as a result of discrepancies in state policy mandates. Although the time to be devoted to physical education (e.g., 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for secondary schools) is commonly included in most state mandates, actual time allocation in school schedules is uncertain and often left to the discretion of local education officials.

With respect to content, in both elementary and secondary schools, physical activity is an assumed rather than an intended outcome except in the fitness education model. The goals of skill development and knowledge growth in physical education presumably are accomplished through participation in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. Data are lacking, however, to support the claim that physical activity offered to further the attainment of skills and knowledge is of vigorous or moderate intensity and is of sufficient duration for children to reap health benefits.

Children in Nontraditional Schools

Research on physical education, physical activity, and sports opportunities in nontraditional school settings (charter schools, home schools, and correctional facilities) is extremely limited. Two intervention studies focused on charter schools addressed issues with Mexican American children. In the first ( Johnston et al., 2010 ), 10- to 14-year-old children were randomly assigned to either an instructor-led intervention or a self-help intervention for 2 years. The instructor-led intervention was a structured daily opportunity for the students to learn about nutrition and to engage in structured physical activities. The results indicate that the children in the instructor-led intervention lost more weight at the end of the intervention than those in the self-help condition. In the second study ( Romero, 2012 ), 11- to 16-year-old Mexican American children from low-income families participated in a 5-week, 10-lesson, hip-hop dance physical activity intervention. In comparison with data collected prior to the intervention, the children reported greater frequency of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity, lower perceived community barriers to physical activity, and stronger self-efficacy for physical activity. Collectively, the results of these two studies suggest that a structured physical activity intervention can be effective in enhancing and enriching physical activity opportunities for Mexican American adolescents in charter schools.

Research on physical activity among home-schooled children is also limited. The only study found was published in 2004 ( Welk et al., 2004 ). It describes differences in physical fitness, psychosocial correlates of physical activity, and physical activity between home-schooled children and their public school counterparts aged 9-16. No significant differences were found between the two groups of children on the measures used, but the researchers did note that the home-schooled children tended to be less physically active.

Research on physical education and physical activity in juvenile correction institutions is equally scarce. Munson and colleagues (1985 , 1988 ) conducted studies on the use of physical activity programs as a behavior mediation intervention strategy and compared its impact on juvenile delinquents' behavior change with that of other intervention strategies. They found that physical activity did not have a stronger impact than other programs on change in delinquent behavior.

Fitness Assessment

All states except Iowa have adopted state standards for physical education. However, the extent to which students achieve the standards is limited since no accountability is required.

An analysis of motor skills competency, strategic knowledge, physical activity, and physical fitness among 180 4th- and 5th-grade children demonstrated that the physical education standards in force were difficult to attain ( Erwin and Castelli, 2008 ). Among the study participants, fewer than a half (47 percent) were deemed motor competent, 77 percent demonstrated adequate progress in knowledge, only 40 percent were in the Healthy Fitness Zone on all five components of the Fitnessgram fitness assessment, and merely 15 percent engaged in 60 or more minutes of physical activity each day. Clearly most of the children failed to meet benchmark measures of performance for this developmental stage. This evidence highlights the need for additional physical activity opportunities within and beyond physical education to enhance opportunities for students to achieve the standards.

Relationships among these student-learning outcomes were further decomposed in a study of 230 children ( Castelli and Valley, 2007 ). The authors determined that aerobic fitness and the number of fitness test scores in the Healthy Fitness Zone were the best predictors of daily engagement in physical activity relative to factors of gender, age, body mass index (BMI), motor skills competency, and knowledge. However, in-class engagement in physical activity was best predicted by aerobic fitness and motor skills competence, suggesting that knowledge and skills should not be overlooked in a balanced physical education curriculum intended to promote lifelong physical activity.

As an untested area, student assessment in physical education has been conducted on many indicators other than learning outcomes. As reported in a seminal study ( Hensley and East, 1989 ), physical education teachers base learning assessment on participation (96 percent), effort (88 percent), attitude (76 percent), sportsmanship (75 percent), dressing out (72 percent), improvement (68 percent), attendance (58 percent), observation of skills (58 percent), knowledge tests (46 percent), skills tests (45 percent), potential (25 percent), and homework (11 percent). These data, while several years old, show that most learning assessments in physical education fail to target relevant learning objectives such as knowledge, skills, and physical activity behavior. The development of teacher-friendly learning assessments consistent with national and/or state standards is sorely needed.

Fitness assessment in the school environment can serve multiple purposes. On the one hand, it can provide both teacher and student with information about the student's current fitness level relative to a criterion-referenced standard, yield valid information that can serve as the basis for developing a personal fitness or exercise program based on current fitness levels, motivate students to do better to achieve a minimum standard of health-related fitness where deficiencies exist, and possibly assist in the identification of potential future health problems. On the other hand, an overall analysis of student fitness assessments provides valuable data that can enable teachers to assess learner outcomes in the physical education curriculum and assess the present curriculum to determine whether it includes sufficient fitness education to allow students to make fitness gains throughout the school year. Fitness assessment also provides a unique opportunity for schools to track data on students longitudinally. The ultimate goal of assessing student fitness in the school environment should be to educate students on the importance of maintaining a physically active lifestyle throughout the life span.

When administering fitness assessments in the school setting, caution is essential to ensure confidentiality of the results. The results and their interpretation should be shared with students and parents/guardians to have the greatest impact. To ensure the greatest benefits from fitness assessment, NASPE (2010) developed a position statement on “Appropriate Uses of Fitness Measurement.” Table 5-1 outlines appropriate and inappropriate practices related to fitness testing in schools and other educational settings.

Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices Related to Fitness Testing in Schools and Other Educational Settings.

When fitness assessment becomes part of a quality physical education program, teaching and learning strategies will guide all students to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to maintain and improve their personal health-related fitness as part of their commitment to lifelong healthy lifestyles. Teachers who incorporate fitness education as a thread throughout all curricula will make the greatest impact in engaging and motivating students to participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in order to maintain and/or improve their personal health-related fitness. For example, the development of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program with the use of a criterion-referenced platform provides students with the educational benefits of fitness assessment knowledge (see Box 5-2 ). The emergence of one national fitness assessment, Fitnessgram, along with professional development and recognition protocols, further supports fitness education in the school environment.

Presidential Youth Fitness Program. The Presidential Youth Fitness Program, launched in September 2012, is a comprehensive program that provides training and resources to schools for assessing, tracking, and recognizing youth fitness. The program promotes (more...)

Online Physical Education

Online physical education is a growing trend. Fully 59 percent of states allow required physical education credits to be earned through online courses. Only just over half of these states require that the online courses be taught by state-certified physical education teachers. Daum and Buschner (2012) report that, in general, online physical education focuses more on cognitive knowledge than physical skill or physical activity, many online courses fail to meet national standards for learning and physical activity guidelines, and teachers are not concerned about students' accountability for learning.

Although online courses differ from traditional in-school physical education courses in the delivery of instruction, the standards and benchmarks for these courses must mirror those adopted by each individual state, especially when the course is taken to meet high school graduation requirements. NASPE (2007a , p. 2) recommends that all physical education programs include “opportunity to learn, meaningful content, appropriate instruction, and student and program assessment.” If an online physical education program meets these standards, it may be just as effective as a face-to-face program. Online physical education can be tailored to each student's needs, and it helps students learn how to exercise independently. The full NASPE position statement on online physical education can be found at http://www.ncpublic-schools.org/docs/curriculum/healthfulliving/resources/onlinepeguidelines.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013). The physical education policy of one online school, the Florida Virtual School, is presented in Box 5-3 .

Florida Virtual School's Physical Education Policy. Sections 1001.11(7) and 1003.453(2) of the Florida Statutes require that every school district have a current version of its Physical Education Policy on the district website. This document satisfies (more...)

Online physical education provides another option for helping students meet the standards for physical education if they lack room in their schedule for face-to-face classes, need to make up credit, or are just looking for an alternative to the traditional physical education class. On the other hand, online courses may not be a successful mode of instruction for students with poor time management or technology skills. According to Daum and Buschner (2012) , online learning is changing the education landscape despite the limited empirical research and conflicting results on its effectiveness in producing student learning. Through a survey involving 45 online high school physical education teachers, the authors found that almost three-fourths of the courses they taught failed to meet the national guideline for secondary schools of 225 minutes of physical education per week. Most of the courses required physical activity 3 days per week, while six courses required no physical activity. The teachers expressed support, hesitation, and even opposition toward online physical education.

Scheduling Decisions

Lesson scheduling is commonly at the discretion of school principals in the United States. The amount of time dedicated to each subject is often mandated by federal or state statutes. Local education agencies or school districts have latitude to make local decisions that go beyond these federal or state mandates. Often the way courses are scheduled to fill the school day is determined by the managerial skills of the administrator making the decisions or is based on a computer program that generates individual teacher schedules.

Successful curriculum change requires supportive scheduling (see Kramer and Keller, 2008 , for an example of curriculum reform in mathematics). More research is needed on the effects of scheduling of physical education. In one such attempt designed to examine the impact of content and lesson length on calorie expenditure in middle school physical education, Chen and colleagues (2012) found that a lesson lasting 45-60 minutes with sport skills or fitness exercises as the major content would enable middle school students to expend more calories than either shorter (30–40 minutes) or longer (65–90 minutes) lessons. The evidence from such research can be used to guide allocation of the recommended weekly amount of physical education (150 minutes for elementary schools, 225 minutes for secondary schools) to achieve optimal health benefits for youth. Additional discussion of scheduling is provided later in this chapter in the section on solutions for overcoming the barriers to quality physical education.

• IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT

As discussed in Chapter 3 , there is a direct correlation between regular participation in physical activity and health in school-age children, suggesting that physical activity provides important benefits directly to the individual child ( HHS, 2008 ). Physical activity during a school day may also be associated with academic benefits ( Chapter 4 ) and children's social and emotional well-being ( HHS, 2008 ; Chapter 3 ). Physical education, along with other opportunities for physical activity in the school environment (discussed in Chapter 6 ), is important for optimal health and development in school-age children. It may also serve as a preventive measure for adult conditions such as heart disease, high blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes.

Little has been learned about the short- and long-term effectiveness of physical education in addressing public health issues ( Pate et al., 2011 ). Because the learning objectives of physical education have not included improvement in health status as a direct measure, indirect measures and correlates have been used as surrogates. However, some promising research, such as that conducted by Morgan and colleagues (2007) , has demonstrated that students are more physically active on days when they participate in physical education classes. Further, there is no evidence of a compensatory effect such that children having been active during physical education elect not to participate in additional physical activity on that day. Accordingly, quality physical education contributes to a child's daily accumulation of physical activity and is of particular importance for children who are overweight or who lack access to these opportunities in the home environment ( NASPE, 2012 ).

Unlike other physical activity in school (e.g., intramural or extramural sports), physical education represents the only time and place for every child to learn knowledge and skills related to physical activity and to be physically active during the school day. It also is currently the only time and place for all children to engage in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity safely because of the structured and specialist-supervised instructional environment. It is expected that children will use the skills and knowledge learned in physical education in other physical activity opportunities in school, such as active recess, active transportation, and intramural sports. For these reasons, physical education programming has been identified as the foundation on which multicomponent or coordinated approaches incorporating other physical activity opportunities can be designed and promoted.

Coordinated approaches in one form or another have existed since the early 1900s, but it was not until the 21st century that physical education was acknowledged as the foundation for these approaches. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2010) , the National Association of State Boards of Education ( NASBE; 2012 ), and NASPE (2004 , 2010 ) all support this view because physical education provides students with the tools needed to establish and maintain a physically active lifestyle throughout their life span. As discussed in Chapter 3 , research on motor skills development has provided evidence linking physical skill proficiency levels to participation in physical activity and fitness ( Stodden et al., 2008 , 2009 ). Exercise psychology research also has identified children's perceived skill competence as a correlate of their motivation for participation in physical activity ( Sallis et al., 2000 ). When school-based multicomponent interventions include physical activities experienced in physical education that are enjoyable and developmentally appropriate, such coordinated efforts are plausible and likely to be effective in producing health benefits ( Corbin, 2002 ). Accordingly, two of the Healthy People 2020 ( Healthy People 2020, 2010 ) objectives for physical activity in youth relate to physical education: “PA-4: Increase the proportion of the Nation's public and private schools that require daily physical education for all students ” and “PA-5: Increase the proportion of adolescents who participate in daily school physical education.” 1

The importance of physical education to the physical, cognitive, and social aspects of child development has been acknowledged by many federal, state, and local health and education agencies. Many private entities throughout the country likewise have offered their support and recommendations for strengthening physical education. For example, the Institute of Medicine (2012a), in its report Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention: Solving the Weight of the Nation , points to the need to strengthen physical education to ensure that all children engage in 60 minutes or more of physical activity per school day. Similarly, the National Physical Activity Plan (2010) , developed by a group of national organizations at the forefront of public health and physical activity, comprises a comprehensive set of policies, programs, and initiatives aimed at increasing physical activity in all segments of schools. The plan is intended to create a national culture that supports physically active lifestyles so that its vision that “one day, all Americans will be physically active and they will live, work, and play in environments that facilitate regular physical activity” can be realized. To accomplish this ultimate goal, the plan calls for improvement in the quantity and quality of physical education for students from prekindergarten through 12th grade through significant policy initiatives at the federal and state levels that guide and fund physical education and other physical activity programs. Specifically, the plan prescribes seven specific tactics presented in Box 5-4 .

National Physical Activity Plan: Strategy 2. The National Physical Activity Plan's Strategy 2 is as follows: Strategy 2: Develop and implement state and school district policies requiring school accountability for the quality and quantity of physical (more...)

Medical professional associations, such as the American Cancer Society (ACS), American Diabetes Association (ADA), and American Heart Association (AHA), have long acknowledged the importance of physical education and have endorsed policies designed to strengthen it. A position statement on physical education from the ACS Cancer Action Network, ADA, and AHA (2012) calls for support for quality physical education and endorses including physical education as an important part of a student's comprehensive, well-rounded education program because of its positive impact on lifelong health and well-being. Further, physical education policy should make quality the priority while also aiming to increase the amount of time physical education is offered in schools.

Recently, private-sector organizations—such as the NFL through its Play60 program—have been joining efforts to ensure that youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. One such initiative is Nike's (2012) Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda , a framework for improving access to physical activity for all American children in schools. Although the framework does not focus exclusively on physical education, it does imply the important role of physical education in the action agenda (see Box 5-5 ).

Nike's Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda. Universal access: Design programs that are effective for every child, including those who face the most barriers to participating in physical activity. Age appropriate: Physical activities and (more...)

Finally, in response to First Lady Michelle Obama's Let's Move initiative, the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) launched the Let's Move In School initiative, which takes a holistic approach to the promotion of physical activity in schools. The purpose of the initiative is to help elementary and secondary schools launch the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP), which is focused on strengthening physical education and promoting all opportunities for physical activity in school. The CSPAP in any given school is intended to accomplish two goals: (1) “provide a variety of school-based physical activity opportunities that enable all students to participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity each day” and (2) “provide coordination among the CSPAP components to maximize understanding, application, and practice of the knowledge and skills learned in physical education so that all students will be fully physically educated and well-equipped for a lifetime of physical activity” ( AAHPERD, 2012 ). The five CSPAP components, considered vital for developing a physically educated and physically active child, are physical education, physical activity during school, physical activity before and after school, staff involvement, and family and community involvement ( AAHPERD, 2012 ). Schools are allowed to implement all or selected components.

An AAHPERD (2011) survey indicated that 16 percent of elementary schools, 13 percent of middle schools, and 6 percent of high schools (from a self-responding nationwide sample, not drawn systematically) had implemented a CSPAP since the program was launched. Although most schools sampled (90 percent) provided physical education, the percentage declined through middle school and high school, such that only 44 percent of high schools provided physical education to seniors. In most schools (92 percent), classes were taught by teachers certified to teach physical education.

More than 76 percent of elementary schools provided daily recess for children, and 31 percent had instituted a policy prohibiting teachers from withholding children from participating in recess for disciplinary reasons. In 56 percent of elementary schools that had implemented a CSPAP, physical activity was encouraged between lessons/classes; in 44 percent it was integrated into academic lessons; and in 43 percent the school day started with physical activity programs.

The percentage of schools that offered intramural sports clubs to at least 25 percent of students declined from 62 percent of middle schools to 50 percent of high school for males, and from 53 to 40 percent, respectively, for females. Interscholastic sports were offered in 89 percent of high schools. Among them, approximately 70 percent involved at least 25 percent of the male student population participating and 58 percent involved at least 25 percent of the female student population participating. Sixty-five percent of high schools had “cut” policies, which could limit the enrollment of students in interscholastic sports.

• CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS

As noted, a high-quality physical education program can help youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. This increase in physical activity should be balanced with appropriate attention to skill development and to national education standards for quality physical education (see Box 5-6 ). In a recent literature review, Bassett and colleagues (2013) found that physical education contributes to children achieving an average of 23 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity daily. However, the time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity could be increased by 6 minutes if the physical education curriculum were to incorporate a standardized curriculum such as SPARK (discussed in detail below) ( Bassett et al., 2013 ). Thus, it is possible for physical education to contribute to youth meeting at least half (30 minutes) of their daily requirement for vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. To help children grow holistically, however, physical education needs to achieve other learning goals when children are active. To this end, physical education programs must possess the quality characteristics specified by NASPE (2007b , 2009b , c ) (see Box 5-6 ). Designing and implementing a physical education program with these characteristics in mind should ensure that the time and curricular materials of the program enable students to achieve the goals of becoming knowledgeable exercisers and skillful movers who value and adopt a physically active, healthy lifestyle.

NASPE's Characteristics of a High-Quality Physical Education Program. All students are required to take physical education. Instructional periods total 150 minutes per week (elementary schools) and 225 minutes per week (middle and secondary schools).

Findings from research on effective physical education support these characteristics as the benchmarks for quality programs. In an attempt to understand what effective physical education looks like, Castelli and Rink (2003) conducted a mixed-methods comparison of 62 physical education programs in which a high percentage of students achieved the state physical education learning standards with programs whose students did not achieve the standards. Comprehensive data derived from student performance, teacher surveys, and onsite observations demonstrated that highly effective physical education programs were housed in cohesive, long-standing departments that experienced more facilitators (e.g., positive policy, supportive administration) than inhibitors (e.g., marginalized status as a subject matter within the school). Further, effective programs made curricular changes prior to the enactment of state-level policy, while ineffective programs waited to make changes until they were told to do so. The teachers in ineffective programs had misconceptions about student performance and, in general, lower expectations of student performance and behavior.

Examples of Evidence-Based Physical Education Curricular Programs

Two large-scale intervention studies—SPARK and CATCH—are discussed in this section as examples of how programs can be structured to increase vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education classes.

The aim of SPARK, a research-based curriculum, is to improve the health, fitness, and physical activity levels of youth by creating, implementing, and evaluating programs that promote lifelong wellness. Each SPARK program “fosters environmental and behavioral change by providing a coordinated package of highly active curriculum, on-site teacher training, extensive follow-up support, and content-matched equipment focused on the development of healthy lifestyles, motor skills and movement knowledge, and social and personal skills” ( SPARK, 2013 ).

Research supports the use of SPARK as a platform for improving the quality of physical activity instruction in schools. The SPARK curriculum has demonstrated the ability to improve student activity levels, increase the number of minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity for students, and provide sustainable and positive change in a school district ( Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012 ). In one study, researchers found that “the children were positive about this specific curriculum. This is gratifying because one of the goals of the program was to engender positive feeling in the students toward physical activity” ( McKenzie et al., 1994 , p. 213). In another study, a SPARK intervention is credited with exposing students to an increase in motor skills drills, which in turn led to a higher level of manipulative motor skills acquisition ( McKenzie et al., 1998 ). As a result of improved activity levels, students who participated in the SPARK curriculum improved their times in the 1-mile run and sit-up tests ( Sallis et al., 1997 ). Finally, System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) classroom observations revealed that students in SPARK classes increased their time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class from 17.8 to up to 40.2 minutes compared with students in non-SPARK classes, who engaged in 17.8 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class. Teachers involved in the SPARK intervention offered increased levels of fitness promotion and provided students with an increased amount of general instruction and increased minutes of attention per week ( McKenzie et al., 1997 ; Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012 ).

The CATCH program teaches children in grades K-8 how to be healthy throughout their lifetimes through a coordinated approach that involves engaging the community, families, and educators to work together. The goal of CATCH is to impact children's health behaviors positively, improve the school health environment, and influence and change school health policies and practices in order to reduce and eliminate health risk factors and risk-related behaviors of students ( Perry et al., 1990 ). CATCH significantly increases the physical activity levels of students during physical education class and provides a wide range of learning experiences for students of all abilities.

CATCH began as a clinical trial from 1991 to 1994 in four regional sites: Tulane University in New Orleans; the University of California, San Diego; the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis; and the University of Texas in Houston. The participants were elementary school children in grades 3 through 5 and included children from multiethnic backgrounds. Upon completion of the main trial, CATCH had succeeded in producing positive and lasting changes in children's behaviors, including decreasing fat consumption and increasing physical activity ( Luepker et al., 1996 ). The changes were maintained for 3 years postintervention ( Nader et al., 1999 ).

National Standards

Because physical education is part of the curriculum in schools, its quality should be judged only by whether and to what extent children have learned and benefited from it. In a landmark document on learning goals, Moving into the Future: National Standards for Physical Education , NASPE (2004) proposes six student learning standards specifying both conceptual and behavioral characteristics that a physically educated person must possess and display (see Box 5-7 ). These characteristics encompass knowledge, skill, behavior, and confidence critical to the development and maintenance of health and to the enjoyment of a physically active, healthful lifestyle.

Certified Physical Education Specialists as the Main Teaching Force

If standards are the gauge for quality, teachers make the difference in a particular school in terms of the extent to which students can achieve the standards. Research has made clear that certified physical education specialists can provide more and longer opportunities for students to meet physical activity guidelines compared with classroom teachers trained to teach physical education ( McKenzie et al., 2001 ). Moreover, when teachers are taught strategies to encourage vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education class, a significant increase in physical activity can be expected ( Lonsdale et al., 2013 ). The role of certified physical education specialists in health-enhancing physical education has become increasingly critical ( McKenzie, 2007 ). The evidence is unequivocal regarding the need for a continued effort to train physical education specialists and the need for schools to continue to employ them as the main teaching force designing and implementing health-enhancing physical education programs to the fullest extent.

Aside from serving as the instructional leader for physical education, physical education specialists can serve as expert resources for classroom teachers in the implementation of classroom physical activity breaks and recess (discussed in detail in Chapter 6 ). Their expertise in age-appropriate physical activity helps ensure that students are participating in activities that are fun and engaging. Additionally, as the catalyst for a healthy school environment, the physical education specialist can assist in the design and delivery of intramural programs provided before and after school, as well as serve as a community outreach specialist for onsite activity partnerships. For physical education specialists interested in a more formal role as a physical activity leader at their school, NASPE has developed a director of physical activity certification program.

It is a commonly held notion of society that to maintain the quality of education, schools should hire teachers certified to teach in the subject matter areas in which they are licensed. Unfortunately, in the United States, not all physical education classes are taught by certified physical education specialists. Indeed, 68 percent of elementary schools allow classroom teachers (generalists) to teach physical education ( NASPE, 2012 ). Certification or licensure of middle/junior high school and high school physical education teachers is required in only 82 percent and 90 percent of states ( NASPE, 2012 ), respectively. Only 37 states (72 percent) have a requirement for professional development and continuing education hours/credit for physical education teachers to maintain or renew their certification, with renewal time ranging from 3 to 5 years ( NASPE, 2012 ). Twenty-eight states (55 percent) allow temporary/emergency certificates to teach physical education that are valid for 1 to 3 years ( NASPE, 2012 ). The basic requirements for emergency certification include a bachelor's degree in teaching or in any area except physical education. Only 31 states (60 percent) support physical education teachers going through the national board certification process, and only New York requires each school district to have a licensed physical education specialist serving as a physical education coordinator ( NASPE, 2012 ).

Preservice Education for Teachers

Teaching physical education to children effectively and safely requires specific knowledge about children and their physical/mental development, body composition (anatomy) and functions (physiology and biomechanics), and motor skills development and acquisition. In addition, teaching physical education requires substantial knowledge and skill in pedagogy—the science and art of teaching. Box 5-8 lists the NASPE standards for beginning physical education teachers who have completed a bachelor's teacher training program and those who have completed advanced (master's-level) training.

National Association for Sport and Physical Education Standards for Beginning Physical Education Teachers. Scientific and theoretical knowledge: Physical education teacher candidates know and apply discipline-specific scientific and theoretical concepts (more...)

These standards are accompanied by measurement rubrics (unacceptable, acceptable, and target, with target being exemplary) developed jointly by NASPE and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) for evaluating physical education teacher education programs across the country (the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico). NCATE identified a total of 133 physical education teacher education programs as “nationally recognized.” The committee was unable to determine how many programs nationwide have met the minimum standards (not at the nationally recognized level) or locate reliable information on the total number of physical education teacher education programs. A Web search using the term “physical education” resulted in two different but relatively reliable statistics: 720 ( College Board, 2013 ) and 1,945 ( Peterson's, 2013 ). But the data sources did not distinguish between physical education teaching majors and other kinesiology concentrations (e.g., sports medicine, exercise physiology/fitness). Statistics on the number of physical education teacher education programs and their quality based on the NASPE standards are needed.

The current wave of effort to curb physical inactivity among youth has begun to influence teacher education programs. According to a national survey study ( Kulinna et al., 2010 ), current teacher candidates believe that helping K-12 students become physically active and fit is the first priority of physical education, followed by helping them actualize their own goals, develop motor skills, and become responsible. These data appear to suggest that physical education teacher education programs are beginning to turn from a traditionally sports- and skills-centered model to a more comprehensive, physical activity– and health-centered model. This change is important in that the role of both current and future physical education teachers extends beyond merely teaching their classes to advancing public health goals ( McKenzie, 2007 ).

In many universities, however, teacher education programs in physical education have either been reduced or eliminated because of the decline in physical education requirements, which has resulted in a decrease in the number of physical education teachers being employed. Concomitantly, physical education teacher education programs are experiencing an unprecedented crisis. A recent report indicates that, in school year 2008–2009, only 23 doctorate-granting kinesiology departments offered doctoral programs that were training future teacher educators ( Boyce and Rikard, 2011a ). A total of 140 doctoral students were receiving training offered by 114 professors (including part-time), and 11 percent of those professors were planning to retire. Boyce and Rikard (2011a) report that in the past 13 years, 479 doctoral students graduated as physical education teacher educators—36.8 each year on average—89 percent of whom were able to find positions in colleges and universities. During the same period, 61 positions were open, only 39 of which were filled (64 percent), with an applicant pool of 38 candidates with earned degrees and 13 who completed the doctoral course-work but did not complete the dissertation research ( Boyce and Rikard, 2011b ). Clearly there is a shortage of physical education teacher educators in higher education institutions. Because of a lack of national tracking data on physical education graduates, the extent to which the teacher educator shortage has impacted and will impact the need to supply quality physical education teachers to the nation is unclear.

Professional Development

In all educational settings, professional development for teachers and administrators is a continuous process of acquiring new knowledge and skills that relate to an educator's profession or academic subject area, job responsibilities, or work environment. Professional development is essential for improving classroom instruction and student achievement ( Ball and Cohen, 1999 ; Cohen and Hill, 2000 ). Through a variety of delivery methods, professional development activities may include credit or noncredit courses, classroom or online venues, workshops, seminars, teleconferences, and webinars, with the ultimate goal of improving the delivery of instruction to enhance student achievement.

Yoon and colleagues (2007) assert that a strong link exists among professional development, teacher learning and practice, and student achievement. Figure 5-1 , which aligns with the research on effective professional development ( Kennedy, 1998 ; Loucks-Horsley and Matsumoto, 1999 ; Cohen and Hill, 2000 ; Garet et al., 2001 ; Fishman et al., 2003 ; Guskey and Sparks, 2004 ), illustrates how (1) professional development enhances teacher knowledge and skills, (2) better knowledge and skills improve classroom teaching, and (3) improved teaching raises student achievement.

Logic model of the impact of professional development on student achievement.

The most impactful statement of government policy on the preparation and professional development of teachers was the 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act ( Whitehurst, 2002 ), known as the No Child Left Behind Act. While Title I of the act places highly qualified teachers in the classroom, Title II addresses the same goal by funding professional development for teachers. The importance of quality professional development is well documented in the act.

Professional development, according to the No Child Left Behind Act, should be offered to improve teachers' knowledge of the subject matter they teach, strengthen their classroom management skills, advance their understanding and implementation of effective teaching strategies, and build their capabilities to address disparities in education. The act states that high-quality professional development programs should have the characteristics listed in Box 5-9 .

Characteristics of a High-Quality Professional Development Program. It is sustained, intensive, and content-focused to have a positive and lasting impact on classroom instruction and teacher performance. It is aligned with and directly related to state (more...)

Although there is a substantial literature on professional development, only a few high-quality studies relate teachers' professional development experiences to student outcomes. Recommendations for high-quality professional development tend to emphasize the importance of intense, content-focused experiences, as well as opportunities for peer collaboration and structured induction experiences for new teachers. Wiley and Yoon (1995) and Kennedy (1998) suggest that teaching practice and student achievement are likely to improve when professional development is focused on academic content and curriculum that are aligned with standards-based reform.

Kulinna (2012) used Guskey and Sparks' (2004) Model of Teacher Change to determine whether students' physical activity and BMI changed after their teacher underwent a 1-year professional development program. Significant increases in students' physical activity levels were found, but no significant changes in BMI. Looking at the effect of professional development on changes in behavior among physical education teachers, Martin and colleagues (2008) found that, following a variety of professional development experiences and follow-up sessions, teachers showed increases in their efficacy in attaining motor skills objectives, physical activity and fitness knowledge objectives, and personal and social objectives. These results lend support to the value of professional development in enhancing teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy for teaching the curriculum. McCaughtry and colleagues (2006) explored the factors that make teacher professional development successful and what success might mean in terms of teachers' instructional practices and feelings about change. Results indicated that after teachers completed professional development the resources they gained enabled them to improve their instruction by teaching more content, maximizing student learning opportunities, teaching diverse learners, teaching to development, and increasing classroom safety.

Learning Forward (formerly known as the National Staff Development Council) provides research-based guidelines to assist districts in aligning local professional development programs with qualitative standards. Its Standards for Professional Learning were revised in 2011 and are guided by the relationship between professional learning and student results (see Box 5-10 ). According to Learning Forward (2012) :

Standards for Professional Learning. Learning communities: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students occurs within learning communities committed to continuous improvement, collective responsibility, and (more...)

• When professional learning is standards based, it has greater potential to change what educators know, are able to do, and believe.
• When educators' knowledge, skills, and dispositions change, they have a broader repertoire of effective strategies to use in adapting their practices to meet performance expectations and students' learning needs.
• When educator practices improve, students have a greater likelihood of achieving results.
• When student results improve, the cycle repeats for continuous improvement.
• Professional learning standards provide a foundation on which to design professional learning experiences at the district or school level that will assist educators in acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills, and tools.

As a recognized means of providing physical education teachers with the tools necessary to enhance student achievement, quality professional development should be provided on a regular basis with follow-up support, along with a method for determining its effectiveness in meeting both curricular and pedagogical standards. Furthermore, to enhance the fitness achievement of students, school-based professional development should provide instruction on the integration of fitness testing into a curriculum and should include training in protocols, the interpretation and communication of results, and the setting and achievement of fitness goals and recommendations for developing healthy living habits for both students and their parents ( IOM, 2012a ).

• POLICIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Instructional opportunities for physical activity and physical education are mandated by most states. In comparison with data prior to 2006, more states have developed mandates for physical education at both the elementary and secondary school levels. However, most mandates lack a specified time allocation that ensures meeting the NASPE recommendation of 150 and 225 minutes per week for elementary and secondary schools, respectively ( McCullick et al., 2012 ), despite the fact that physical education has been considered a cornerstone for developing schoolwide multicomponent interventions to address the issue of physical inactivity in schools. Some obstacles to the implementation of quality physical activity are listed in Box 5-11 .

Obstacles to Implementation of Quality Physical Education. Class periods dedicated to physical education are declining at all school levels. Existing discrepancies between policy and implementation with respect to specific time allocation contribute to (more...)

According to Title IX of the No Child Left Behind Act (Part A Sec 9101–11), core academic subjects include “English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics, arts, history, and geography.” If physical education were designated as a core academic subject, it would receive much-needed policy attention that would enhance its overall quality with respect to content offerings, instruction, and accountability. In support of the inclusion of physical education as a core subject, Senator Tom Udall (D-NM) reintroduced the Promoting Health for Youth Skills in Classrooms and Life (PHYSICAL) Act on February 27, 2013, to support and encourage the health and well-being of elementary and secondary school students.

With physical education not being considered a core subject, and amid growing concern regarding the increase in childhood obesity and physical inactivity, several national studies and reports have emphasized the importance of implementing state statutes, laws, and regulations both mandating time requirements for physical education and monitoring compliance. Yet although several national governmental, nongovernmental, private industry, and public health organizations have recommended specific day and time/minute requirements for physical education, no standardized state policy has emerged.

Analysis of State Statutes and Administrative Codes

In the United States, school policies on curriculum and school-based activities are determined by local education agencies according to state laws governing educational activities. Decisions about what to teach, who will teach it, and what level of resources will be provided are made by the state, county or district, and school administration. To better understand the status of state statutes, administrative codes, and policies impacting physical education in schools, the committee analyzed NASBE's State School Health Policy Database ( NASBE, 2012 ; www.nasbe.org/healthy_schools [accessed February 1, 2013]). Of importance to this analysis is the distinction made between state statutes and administrative codes, which accords with the definition proffered by Perna and colleagues (2012) : “At the state level, the 2 primary official public policy levers referred to as ‘codified law’ used for developing school-based physical education policy are 1) statutory laws (laws enacted by the given State legislature); and 2) administrative laws (rule and regulations by state executive branch agencies, such as the Department of Education)” (p. 1594). A second point to note is that in descriptions of physical education graduation requirements, it is impossible to differentiate among “credit,” “Carnegie unit,” and “course” so as to determine the exact time requirements for graduation.

Using the NASBE database, the committee performed an overall analysis of policies on physical education and physical activity of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The analysis revealed that 45 states (88 percent) mandate physical education; 22 states (23 percent) require it with mandatory minutes, while 25 states (49 percent) have no mandatory minutes and 4 (0.07 percent) leave the required number of minutes up to local decision makers. A majority of states allow for waivers or substitutions for physical education (see the discussion below). Fitness assessment is required in 15 states (29 percent), and other curricular assessments are required in 4 states (0.07 percent). Twenty-six states (53 percent) require physical education grades to be included in a student's grade point average. Forty-three states (84 percent) require some degree of physical education for high school graduation, with a range of 0.5 to 3.75 credits. One state (0.02 percent) requires K-12 physical education but does not require 4 years of physical education for high school graduation.

Although no federal policies requiring physical education presently exist, the above evidence shows that the majority of states require physical education. However, the number of days and time required vary greatly by state and local school district, as does the amount of physical education required for high school graduation. Given the reduced time for physical activity in school through recess, and absent the implementation of stronger policies, schools have not only the opportunity but also the responsibility to nurture in youth the skills, knowledge, and confidence to develop and maintain a healthy lifestyle. The consensus among states indicated by the mandates for physical education summarized above, together with the discrepancies in specific policies, may suggest the need for general guidelines or a federal-level mandate that can serve to guide a collective effort to address the prevalence of childhood inactivity and obesity.

Policies That Support Physical Education

In addition to policies that directly require offering physical education in schools, other policies support physical education opportunities in schools. In 2004 the U.S. government issued a mandate, under the Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004, requiring school districts that receive funds under this act to establish local school wellness policies. These policies were to include provisions for physical activity and healthy eating, thus expanding schools' responsibility for providing physical activity to school-age children. The enactment of this mandates made schools “the central element in a community system that ensures that students participate in enough physical activity to develop healthy lifestyles” ( Pate et al., 2006 , p. 1215). Several government agencies and organizations have recommended embedding a specific number of days and minutes of physical education into each school's or district's wellness policy. Although school districts are required to include goals for physical activity in their local school wellness policies, they are not required to address physical education specifically.

Policies That Hinder Physical Education

Some policies have contributed to the substantial reduction in the opportunities for school-age children to be physically active, such as by shortening or eliminating physical education classes. These reductions can be attributed to budget cuts and increased pressure for schools to meet academic standards imposed by the federal government.

No Child Left Behind Act

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 requires that states develop assessment and accountability measures to verify performance improvements in the subject areas of reading and mathematics (P.L. No. 107-110, Section 115). Specifically, federal funding is now dependent on schools making adequate progress in reading and mathematics. No Child Left Behind requires all public schools receiving federal funding to administer statewide standardized annual tests for all students. Schools that receive Title I funding through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 must make adequate yearly progress in test scores (e.g., each year 5th graders must do better on standardized tests than the previous year's 5th graders). If required improvements are not made, schools are penalized through decreased funding. If a school produces poor results for 2 consecutive years, improvement plans must be developed for the school. If a school does not make adequate progress for 5 consecutive years, a full restructuring of the school is mandated.

Under the act, physical education, music, and art are considered “nonessential” subjects and are not a main focus of the school learning environment. In response to the act, schools have devoted more time in the school day to instruction in reading and mathematics. Since the act was passed, 62 percent of elementary schools and 20 percent of middle schools have increased instructional time in reading/language arts and mathematics ( Center on Education Policy, 2008 ). Unfortunately, 44 percent of school administrators reported that these increases in instructional time for reading and mathematics were achieved at the expense of time devoted to physical education, recess, art, music, and other subjects ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 , 2008 ) (see Table 5-2 ).

Changes in Time Allocation in Elementary Schools Since 2001–2002.

The emphasis on high-stakes testing and pressure for academic achievement in the core subjects has had unintended consequences for other subjects throughout the school day. In developing master schedules, school site administrators have been forced to make difficult decisions regarding the allotment of time for “nonessential” subjects. The average reduction in instructional time in these “nonessential” subjects has been 145 minutes per week. As discussed earlier, however, no evidence suggests that physical education and physical activity have a negative effect on student achievement or academic outcomes ( CDC, 2010 ). On the contrary, positive academic-related outcomes (e.g., improved on-task classroom behavior, cognitive development, academic performance) have been associated with physical education and physical activity (see Chapter 4 ).

The Center on Education Policy (2007) conducted an analysis of 2006–2007 survey data from 349 school districts on the amount of time devoted to specific subjects to determine the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act. Shifts in instructional time toward English language arts and mathematics and away from other subjects were relatively large in a majority of school districts that made these types of changes. Sixty-two percent of districts reported increasing time in elementary schools in English language arts and/or mathematics since 2001–2002. A higher proportion of urban districts (76 percent) than rural districts (54 percent) reported such increases.

Districts that increased instructional time for English language arts and/or mathematics did so by 43 percent on average. Districts that also reduced instructional time in other subjects reported total reductions of 32 percent, on average. Eight of 10 districts that reported increasing time for English language arts did so by at least 75 minutes per week, and more than half (54 percent) did so by 150 minutes or more per week. Among districts that reported adding time for mathematics, 63 percent added at least 75 minutes per week, and 19 percent added 150 minutes or more per week.

Most districts that increased time for English language arts or mathematics also reported substantial cuts in time for other subjects or periods, including social studies, science, art and music, physical education, recess, and lunch. Among the districts that reported both increasing time for English language arts or mathematics and reducing time in other subjects, 72 percent indicated that they reduced the time for one or more of these other subjects by a total of at least 75 minutes per week. For example, more than half (53 percent) of these districts cut instructional time by at least 75 minutes per week in social studies, and the same percentage (53 percent) cut time by at least 75 minutes per week in science ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 ).

Districts that reported an increase in instructional time for elementary school English language arts spent an average of 378 minutes per week on this subject before No Child Left Behind was enacted. After the act became law, they spent 520 minutes per week. The average increase for English language arts was 141 minutes per week, or a 47 percent increase over the level prior to the act ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 ; see district survey items 18 and 19 in Table IT-18A). Table 5-3 shows the specific amounts of time cut from various subjects in districts that reported decreases.

Time Cut from Subjects or Periods in Districts Reporting Decreases in Instructional Time.

Districts with at least one school identified as “in need of improvement” under the act were far more likely than districts not in need of improvement to decrease time in certain subjects so as to devote more time to English language arts and mathematics (78 versus 57 percent). For example, 51 percent of districts with a school in need of improvement reported decreased time in social studies, compared with 31 percent of districts with no school in need of improvement ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 ).

Exemptions from Physical Education Requirements

The 2012 Shape of the Nation Report includes documentation of the multiple reasons students may be exempt from physical education classes. Thirty-three states permit school districts or schools to allow students to substitute other activities for physical education. The most common substitutions are Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (JROTC), inter-scholastic sports, marching band, cheerleading, and community sports. Twenty-eight states allow schools and school districts to grant exemptions/waivers from physical education time or credit requirements. Reasons for exemptions/waivers include health, physical disability, religious belief, and early graduation; six states leave the reasons to the local schools or school districts. Although it would seem reasonable that some substitution programs such as JROTC or cheerleading might accrue physical activity comparable to that from physical education, these programs do not necessarily offer students opportunities to learn the knowledge and skills needed for lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activities. Research on the impact of exemptions/waivers from physical education is lacking. No evidence currently exists showing that students receive any portion of the recommended 60 minutes or more of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity through substituted activities sanctioned by their schools.

• BARRIERS TO QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOLUTIONS

Barriers other than the policies detailed above hinder efforts to improve and maintain high-quality physical education. This section reviews these barriers, along with some solutions for overcoming them.

Morgan and Hanson (2008) classify barriers that hinder schools from implementing quality physical education programs as either institutional (outside the teacher's control) or teacher related (arising from teacher behavior). Table 5-4 lists institutional and teacher-related as well as student-related barriers identified by various authors.

Barriers to the Delivery of Physical Education and Physical Activity Programs to Primary and Secondary School Students.

Dwyer and colleagues (2003) examined Toronto teachers' perspectives on why children were not engaged in daily physical education. They identified three categories of barriers: lower priority for physical education relative to other subjects, lack of performance measures for physical activity, and lack of sufficient infrastructure. Jenkinson and Benson (2010) surveyed 270 secondary school physical education teachers in Victoria, Australia, and asked them to rank order the barriers they perceived to providing quality physical education. The results are shown in Table 5-5 . The institutional barriers listed in this table are similar to those identified for U.S. schools in Table 5-4 .

Physical Education Teachers' Ranking of Barriers to Providing Quality Physical Education (PE) in Victorian State Secondary Schools.

Jenkinson and Benson (2010) also presented teachers with a list of barriers to student participation in physical education and physical activity in three categories: institutional, teacher-related, and student-related. The teachers were asked to rank the top five barriers they perceived. Results are presented in Table 5-6 .

Perceived Barriers to Student Participation in Physical Education and Physical Activity in Victorian State Secondary Schools: Physical Education Teachers' Ranking (from most [“5”] to least [“1”] influential).

Finally, Gallo and colleagues (2006) found that the greatest process barriers to assessing students in physical education were grading students on skill levels and abilities; time constraints; class size; and record keeping, especially when assessing students on skills, cognitive knowledge, and fitness.

Two key barriers to physical education identified in the studies summarized above are staffing and funding. These barriers reflect a lack of support structure in schools for quality physical education.

As noted earlier in this chapter, physical education is short staffed. State mandates have placed pressure on schools to preserve instructional resources for the high-stakes tested core subject areas at the expense of non-core subjects. For example, when a state mandates a maximum class size of 20 students per teacher in all core subjects, with noncompliance resulting in some form of penalty, an elementary school with an average of 25 students per teacher is forced to hire additional teachers in these subjects to meet the state mandate. Consequently, the school must shrink its teaching force in noncore subjects, such as physical education, to balance its budget. If noncore classes are to be preserved, their class sizes must increase, with fewer teachers serving more students. As a result, it becomes difficult to implement a quality program, and physical education teachers perceive their programs as being undervalued.

According to the Government Accountability Office report K-12 Education: School-Based Physical Education and Sports Programs ( GAO, 2012 ), school officials cite budget cuts and inadequate facilities as major challenges to providing physical education opportunities for students. Budget cuts have affected schools' ability to hire physical education teachers, maintain appropriate class sizes, and purchase sufficient equipment. As noted earlier, lack of equipment and limited access to facilities are cited as top barriers in the study by Jenkinson and Benson (2010) (see Tables 5-5 and 5-6 ). Limited budgets have a negative impact on a school's ability to purchase enough physical education equipment to engage all students in increasingly large class sizes and cause physical education teachers to abandon quality evidence-based physical education programs and resort to large-group games and “throw out the ball” activities. Students disengaged as a result of such practices may prefer sedentary activities to more active lifestyles. A NASPE (2009a) survey found that the median physical education budget for physical education programs nationally was $764 per school ($460 per elementary school, $900 per middle school, and $1,370 per high school).

Solutions for Overcoming the Barriers

For many adolescents who have few opportunities to be active outside of the school day, quality physical education becomes the only option for physical activity. For students in large urban communities, physical education classes serve as a safe environment in which to be physically active under adult supervision in a structured environment. For students with disabilities in particular, physical education classes are one of the only outlets for physical activity. For these reasons, it is crucial to overcome the above barriers to quality physical education. Some school districts have found ways to do so and provide robust physical education programs.

The barrier of limited time during the school day can be overcome through creative scheduling that makes use of every minute of the day in a constructive manner. For example, Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the fourth largest school district in the United States, in a large urban minority-majority community with large budgetary shortfalls and attention in schools being diverted to academic requirements. Yet the district has always had daily physical education in its elementary schools taught by a certified physical education teacher. This is accomplished by scheduling physical education during the classroom teacher's planning time. In addition, students receive school board–mandated recess for either 20 minutes two times per week or 15 minutes three times per week. Figures 5-2 and 5-3 show examples of elementary school teacher schedules that demonstrate how 150 minutes of time for physical education can be incorporated successfully into any master schedule.

Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physical education. NOTE: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a traditional elementary school. SOURCE: Large Urban Public School District, Miami-Dade County Public Schools.

Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physical education. NOTES: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a combination special education and disabilities (SPED)/Spanish-language elementary class. PE = physical education; (more...)

Other positive examples, identified in the report Physical Education Matters ( San Diego State University, 2007 ), include successful case studies from low-resource California schools. The report acknowledges, however, that advancing such opportunities will require policy changes at the state, district, and local levels. These changes include securing grant funds with which to implement high-tech physical education wellness centers, staff commitment to professional development, administrative support, physical education being made a priority, community support, use of certified physical education teachers, and district support. Identifying the need to reform physical education guided by evidence-based findings, the report concludes that (1) curriculum matters, (2) class size matters, (3) qualified teachers matter, (4) professional development matters, and (5) physical environment matters. If programs are to excel and students are to achieve, delivery of the curriculum must be activity based; class sizes must be commensurate with those for other subject areas; highly qualified physical education specialists, as opposed to classroom teachers, must be hired to deliver instruction; professional development in activity-focused physical education must be delivered; and school physical education facilities, such as playing fields and indoor gym space and equipment, must be available.

A separate report, Physical Education Matters: Success Stories from California Low Resource Schools That Have Achieved Excellent Physical Education Programs ( San Diego State University, 2007 ), notes that when funding from a variety of grant resources, including federal funding, became available, schools were able to transition to high-quality programs using innovative instructional strategies. Those strategies included wellness centers and active gaming, which engaged students in becoming more physically active. Administrative support was found to be a key factor in turning programs around, along with staff commitment and professional development. Having certified physical education teachers and making physical education a priority in the schools were other key factors. External factors further strengthened programs, including having school district support, having a physical education coordinator, and using state standards to provide accountability. Additional ways to overcome the barriers to quality physical education include scheduling time for physical education, ensuring reasonable class size, providing nontraditional physical education activities, making classes more active and fun for all students, and acknowledging the importance of role modeling and personal investment and involvement in participation in physical activity among staff.

Still another way to overcome the barriers to quality physical education is to assist administrative decision makers and policy makers in understanding the correlation between physical education and academic achievement (see Chapter 4 ). The report Active Education: Physical Education, Physical Activity and Academic Performance by Active Living Research ( Trost, 2009 ) cites evidence that “children who are physically active and fit tend to perform better in the classroom and that daily physical education does not adversely affect academic performance. Schools can provide outstanding learning environments while improving children's health through physical education.” The findings reported include the following (p. 6):

• “In some cases, more time in physical education leads to improved grades and standardized test scores.”
• “Physically active and fit children tend to have better academic achievement.”
• “Evidence links higher levels of physical fitness with better school attendance and fewer disciplinary problems.”
• “There are several possible mechanisms by which physical education and regular physical activity may improve academic achievement, including enhanced concentration skills and classroom behavior.”
• “Additional research is needed to determine the impact of physical activity on academic performance among those children who are at highest risk for obesity in the United States, including black, Latino, American Indian and Alaska Native, and Asian-American and Pacific Islander children, as well as children living in lower-income communities.”

Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools, it is standards based, and it encompasses assessment according to standards and benchmarks. Select curriculum-based physical education programs have been described in this chapter to show the potential of high-quality physical education in developing children into active adults. Such models provide the only opportunity for all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities. Curriculum models for physical education programs include movement education, which emphasizes the importance of fundamental motor skills competence as a prerequisite for engagement in physical activity throughout the life span; sport education, which emphasizes helping students become skillful players in lifetime sports of their choosing; and fitness education, which imparts physical fitness concepts to students, including the benefits and scientific principles of exercise, with the goal of developing and maintaining individual fitness and positive lifestyle change. The emergence of a technology-focused fitness education curriculum and the new Presidential Youth Fitness Program offer further motivational opportunities for students to engage in lifelong physical activities.

Because quality physical education programs are standards based and assessed, they are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation. Quality professional development programs are an essential component for both novice and veteran teachers to ensure the continued delivery of quality physical education.

An analysis of datasets from NASPE, NASBE, and Bridging the Gap reveals that the implementation of supportive physical education policies varies from state to state and from school to school. Since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001, several studies and reports have identified a decline in physical education resulting from the shifting of time to academic subjects. Because physical education is not a high-stakes tested content area, the implementation of supportive policies often is hindered by other education priorities. Although the above analysis indicates that 30 states (74.5 percent) mandate physical education, most policies do not require specific amounts of instructional time, and more than half allow for waivers or exemptions. In addition, an unintended consequence of the No Child Left Behind Act has been disparities in access to physical education and physical activity opportunities during the school day for Hispanic students and those of lower socioeconomic status. In high school, relying on students to elect physical education after meeting the minimum required credit hours (one credit in all states but one) appears to be unfruitful.

Strengthening of school physical education has received support from the public, health agencies, and parents. Parents recently surveyed expressed favorable views of physical education. Specifically:

• A majority of parents (54–84 percent) believe that physical education is at least as important as other academic subjects ( CDC, 2010 ).
• Ninety-one percent believe that there should be more physical education in schools (Harvard School of Public Health, 2003).
• Seventy-six percent think that more school physical education could help control or prevent childhood obesity ( NASPE, 2009a ).
• Ninety-five percent believe that regular daily physical activity helps children do better academically and should be a part of the school curriculum for all students in grades K-12 ( NASPE, 2003 ).

Additionally, many public and private organizations have proposed initiatives aimed at developing a comprehensive school-based strategy centered on curriculum physical education. As the largest institution where children spend more than half of their waking hours on school days, schools can play a pivotal role in increasing students' physical activity levels by providing access for all to quality physical education, along with physical activities throughout the school environment, the subject of Chapter 7 .

• AAHPERD (American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance). 2011 Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) survey report. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2011.
• AAHPERD. Let's move in school. 2012. [April 15, 2012]. www ​.aahperd.org/letsmoveinschool .
• Abels KW, Bridges JM. Teaching movement education: Foundations for active lifestyles. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers; 2010.
• ACS (American Cancer Society) CAN (Cancer Action Network), ADA (American Diabetes Association), and AHA (American Heart Association). Physical education in schools—both quality and quantity are important: A statement on physical education from the American Cancer Society and Cancer Action Network (ACS CAN), the American Diabetes Association (ADA), and the American Heart Association (AHA). Dallas, TX: AHA; 2012.
• Bailey B, McInnis K. Energy cost of exergaming: A comparison of the energy cost of 6 forms of exergaming. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. 2011; 165 (7):597. [ PubMed : 21383255 ]
• Ball DL, Cohen DK. Developing practice, developing practitioners: Toward a practice-based theory of professional development. In: Darling-Hammond L, Sykes G, editors. In Teaching as the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice, San Francisco, CA: ERIC; 1999. pp. 30–32. (Jossey-Bass education series).
• Baranowski T, Buday R, Thompson DI, Baranowski J. Playing for real: Video games and stories for health-related behavior change. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2008; 34 (1):74–82. [ PMC free article : PMC2189579 ] [ PubMed : 18083454 ]
• Barroso CS, McCullum-Gomez C, Hoelscher DM, Kelder SH, Murray NG. Self-reported barriers to quality physical education by physical education specialists in Texas. Journal of School Health. 2005; 75 (8):313–319. [ PubMed : 16179081 ]
• Bassett DR, Fitzhugh EC, Heath GW, Erwin PC, Frederick GM, Wolff DL, Welch WA, Stout AB. Estimated energy expenditures for school-based policies and active living. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2013; 44 (2):108–113. [ PubMed : 23332325 ]
• Boyce B, Rikard GL. Characteristics of PETE doctoral level institutions: Descriptions of programs, faculty and doctoral students. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 2011a; 30 (2):103–115.
• Boyce B, Rikard GL. A comparison of supply and demand for PETE professionals in higher education in the United States. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 2011b; 30 (2):116–128.
• Boyle SE, Jones GL, Walters SJ. Physical activity among adolescents and barriers to delivering physical education in Cornwall and Lancashire, UK A qualitative study of heads of P.E. and heads of schools. BMC Public Health. 2008; 8 (1):273. [ PMC free article : PMC2518562 ] [ PubMed : 18673562 ]
• Castelli D, Rink JE. A comparison of high and low performing secondary physical education programs. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 2003; 22 (5):512.
• Castelli DM, Valley JA. The relationship of physical fitness and motor competence to physical activity. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 2007; 26 (4):358–374.
• CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). The association between school based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2010.
• Center on Education Policy. Choices, changes, and challenges: Curriculum and instruction in the NCLB era. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy; 2007.
• Center on Education Policy. A call to restructure restructuring: Lessons from the No Child Left Behind Act in five states. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy; 2008.
• Chen A, Martin R, Sun H, Ennis CD. Is in-class physical activity at risk in constructivist physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2007; 78 (5):500–509. [ PMC free article : PMC4477689 ] [ PubMed : 18274221 ]
• Chen A, Martin R, Ennis CD, Sun H. Content specificity of expectancy beliefs and task values in elementary physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2008; 79 (2):195–208. [ PMC free article : PMC4477638 ] [ PubMed : 18664044 ]
• Chen A, Sun H, Zhu X, Ennis CD. Influences of personal and lesson factors on caloric expenditure in physical education. Journal of Sport and Health Science. 2012; 1 (1):49–56.
• Cohen D, Hill H. Instructional policy and classroom performance: The mathematics reform in California. The Teachers College Record. 2000; 102 (2):294–343.
• College Board. College search. 2013. [March 18, 2013]. https://bigfuture ​.collegeboard ​.org/college-search .
• Corbin CB. Physical activity for everyone: What every physical educator should know about promoting lifelong physical activity. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 2002; 21 (2):128–144.
• Corbin C, Le Masurier G, Lambdin D. Fitness for life: Middle school. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2007.
• Dagkas S, Stathi A. Exploring social and environmental factors affecting adolescents' participation in physical activity. European Physical Education Review. 2007; 13 (3):369–384.
• Daum DN, Buschner C. The status of high school online physical education in the United States. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 2012; 31 (1):86–100.
• DeCorby K, Halas J, Dixon S, Wintrup L, Janzen H. Classroom teachers and the challenges of delivering quality physical education. Journal of Educational Research. 2005; 98 (4):208–221.
• Dwyer JJ, Allison KR, Barrera M, Hansen B, Goldenberg E, Boutilier MA. Teachers' perspective on barriers to implementing physical activity curriculum guidelines for school children in Toronto. Canadian Journal of Public Health. 2003; 94 (6):448–452. [ PMC free article : PMC6980039 ] [ PubMed : 14700245 ]
• Erwin HE, Castelli DM. National physical education standards: A summary of student performance and its correlates. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2008; 79 (4):495–505. [ PubMed : 19177951 ]
• Fawkner SG, Niven A, Thin AG, MacDonald MJ, Oakes JR. Adolescent girls' energy expenditure during dance simulation active computer gaming. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2010; 28 (1):61–65. [ PubMed : 20013462 ]
• Fishman BJ, Marx RW, Best S, Tal RT. Linking teacher and student learning to improve professional development in systemic reform. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2003; 19 (6):643–658.
• FLVS (Florida Virtual School). Florida Virtual School physical education policy. 2013. [March 13, 2013]. http://www ​.flvs.net/myFLVS ​/student-handbook ​/Pages/Policies/PEPolicy.aspx .
• Fogel VA, Miltenberger RG, Graves R, Koehler S. The effects of exergaming on physical activity among inactive children in a physical education classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2010; 43 (4):591–600. [ PMC free article : PMC2998252 ] [ PubMed : 21541146 ]
• Gallo AM, Sheehy DA, Patton K, Griffin L. Assessment benefits and barriers: What are you committed to. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 2006; 77 (8):46–50.
• GAO (U.S. Government Accountability Office). K-12: School-based physical education and sports programs. Washington, DC: GAO; 2012.
• Garet MS, Porter AC, Desimone L, Birman BF, Yoon KS. What makes professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers. American Educational Research Journal. 2001; 38 (4):915–945.
• Graf DL, Pratt LV, Hester CN, Short KR. Playing active video games increases energy expenditure in children. Pediatrics. 2009; 124 (2):534–540. [ PMC free article : PMC8329994 ] [ PubMed : 19596737 ]
• Greenberg J, Stokes R. Developing school site wellness centers. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2007.
• Guskey T, Sparks D. Linking professional development to improvements in student learning. Guyton EM, Dangel JR, editors. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt; 2004. [April 1, 2013]. pp. 233–247. (In Research linking teacher preparation and student performance: Teacher education yearbook, Vol. XII). http://ies ​.ed.gov/ncee ​/edlabs/regions/southwest ​/pdf/rel_2007033.pdf .
• Hackensmith CW. History of physical education. New York: Harper & Row; 1966.
• Haddock BL, Siegel SR, Wikin LD. The addition of a video game to stationary cycling: The impact on energy expenditure in overweight children. Open Sports Sciences Journal. 2009; 2 :42. [ PMC free article : PMC2784676 ] [ PubMed : 19946380 ]
• Hastie PA, de Ojeda DM, Luquin AC. A review of research on sport education: 2004 to the present. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. 2011; 16 (2):103–132.
• Healthy People 2020. Healthy People 2020: Physical activity objectives. 2010. [March 14, 2013]. http://www ​.healthypeople ​.gov/2020/topicsobjectives2020 ​/overview.aspx?topicid=33 .
• Hensley L, East W. Measurement concepts in physical education and exercise science. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1989. Testing and grading in the psychomotor domain.
• HHS (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). Physical activity guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC: HHS; 2008.
• IOM (Institute of Medicine). Accelerating progress in obesity prevention: Solving the weight of the nation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2012a. [ PMC free article : PMC3648752 ] [ PubMed : 22983849 ]
• IOM. Fitness measures and health outcomes in youth. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2012b. [ PubMed : 25187939 ]
• Jenkinson KA, Benson AC. Barriers to providing physical education and physical activity in Victorian state secondary schools. Australian Journal of Teacher Education. 2010; 35 (8):1.
• Johnston CA, Tyler C, McFarlin BK, Poston WSC, Haddock CK, Reeves RS, Foreyt JP. Effects of a school-based weight maintenance program for Mexican-American children: Results at 2 years. Obesity. 2010; 18 (3):542–547. [ PubMed : 19661957 ]
• Kennedy M. Form and substance of inservice teacher education. Madison: National Institute for Science Education, University of Wisconsin; 1998. (Research Monograph No. 13).
• Kramer SL, Keller R. An existence proof: Successful joint implementation of the IMP curriculum and a 4 × 4 block schedule at a suburban U.S. high school. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. 2008; 39 (1):2–8.
• Kulinna PH. Increasing physical activity: A comprehensive professional development effort. Biomedical Human Kinetics. 2012; 4 :6–11.
• Kulinna PH, Brusseau T, Ferry M, Cothran D. Preservice teachers' belief systems toward curricular outcomes for physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2010; 81 (2):189–198. [ PubMed : 20527304 ]
• Laban R. The mastery of movement. Plymouth: Macdonald & Evans; 1980.
• Lanningham-Foster L, Foster RC, McCrady SK, Jensen TB, Mitre N, Levine JA. Activity promoting games and increased energy expenditure. Journal of Pediatrics. 2009; 154 (6):819. [ PMC free article : PMC2683894 ] [ PubMed : 19324368 ]
• Learning Forward. Standards for professional learning: Standards list. 2012. [March 19, 2013]. http://www ​.learningforward ​.org/standards/standards-list# ​.UUhuMKK7mXw .
• Logsdon B, Barrett K, Logsdon B. Physical Education for Children. 1984. Movement—the content of physical education; pp. 295–355.
• Lonsdale C, Rosenkranz RR, Peralta LR, Bennie A, Fahey P, Lubans DR. A systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions designed to increase moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in school physical education lessons. Preventive Medicine. 2013; 56 (2):152–161. [ PubMed : 23246641 ]
• Loucks-Horsley S, Matsumoto C. Research on professional development for teachers of mathematics and science: The state of the scene. School Science and Mathematics. 2010; 99 (5):258–271.
• Luepker RV, Perry CL, McKinlay SM, Nader PR, Parcel GS, Stone EJ, Webber LS, Elder JP, Feldman HA, Johnson CC, Kelder SH, Wu M. CATCH Collaborative Group. Outcomes of a field trial to improve children's dietary patterns and physical activity. The child and adolescent trial for cardiovascular health. CATCH collaborative group. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1996; 275 (10):768–776. [ PubMed : 8598593 ]
• Maddison R, Mhurchu CN, Jull A, Jiang Y, Prapavessis H, Rodgers A. Energy expended playing video console games: An opportunity to increase children's physical activity. Pediatric Exercise Science. 2007; 19 (3):334. [ PubMed : 18019591 ]
• Martin JJ, Mccaughtry N, Hodges-Kulinna P, Cothran D. The influences of professional development on teachers' self-efficacy toward educational change. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. 2008; 13 (2):171–190.
• McCaughtry N, Martin J, Kulinna PH, Cothran D. What makes teacher professional development work? The influence of instructional resources on change in physical education. Journal of In-Service Education. 2006; 32 (2):221–235.
• McCullick BA, Baker T, Tomporowski PD, Templin TJ, Lux K, Isaac T. An analysis of state physical education policies. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 2012; 31 (2):200–210.
• McKenzie TL. The preparation of physical educators: A public health perspective. Quest. 2007; 59 (4):346–357.
• McKenzie TL, Alcaraz JE, Sallis JF. Assessing children's liking for activity units in an elementary school physical education curriculum. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 1994; 13 (3):206–215.
• McKenzie TL, Sallis JF, Kolody B, Faucette FN. Long-term effects of a physical education curriculum and staff development program: SPARK. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 1997; 68 :280–291. [ PubMed : 9421840 ]
• McKenzie TL, Alcaraz JE, Sallis JF, Faucette E. Effects of a physical education program on children's manipulative skills. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 1998; 17 :327–341.
• McKenzie TL, Stone EJ, Feldman HA, Epping JN, Yang M, Strikmiller PK, Lytle LA, Parcel GS. Effects of the catch physical education intervention: Teacher type and lesson location. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2001; 21 (2):101–109. [ PubMed : 11457629 ]
• Mellecker RR, McManus AM. Energy expenditure and cardiovascular responses to seated and active gaming in children. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. 2008; 162 (9):886. [ PubMed : 18762609 ]
• Mhurchu CN, Maddison R, Jiang Y, Jull A, Prapavessis H, Rodgers A. Couch potatoes to jumping beans: A pilot study of the effect of active video games on physical activity in children. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. 2008; 5 (1):8. [ PMC free article : PMC2254648 ] [ PubMed : 18257911 ]
• Morgan CF, Beighle A, Pangrazi RR. What are the contributory and compensatory relationships between physical education and physical activity in children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2007; 78 (5):407–412. [ PubMed : 18274212 ]
• Morgan P, Bourke S. Non-specialist teachers' confidence to teach PE: The nature and influence of personal school experiences in PE. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. 2008; 13 (1):1–29.
• Morgan PJ, Hansen V. Classroom teachers' perceptions of the impact of barriers to teaching physical education on the quality of physical education programs. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2008; 79 (4):506–516. [ PubMed : 19177952 ]
• Mowling CM, Brock SJ, Eiler KK, Rudisill ME. Student motivation in physical education breaking down barriers. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 2004; 75 (6):40–45.
• Munson WW. Effects of leisure education versus physical activity or informal discussion on behaviorally disordered youth offenders. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly. 1988; 5 (4):305–317.
• Munson WW, Baker SB, Lundegren HM. Strength training and leisure counseling as treatment for institutionalized juvenile delinquents. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly. 1985; 2 (1):65–75.
• Myers-Schieffer T, Thomas KT. Fifteen years of promise in school-based interventions: A meta-analysis. Kinesiology Reviews. 2012; 1 :155–169.
• Nader PR, Stone EJ, Lytle LA, Perry CL, Osganian SK, Kelder S, Webber LS, Elder JP, Montgomery D, Feldman HA, Wu M, Johnson C, Parcel GS, Luepker RV. Three-year maintenance of improved diet and physical activity: The CATCH cohort. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. 1999; 153 (7):695–704. [ PubMed : 10401802 ]
• NASBE (National Association of State Boards of Education). State School Health Policy Database. 2012. [May 1, 2013]. http://www ​.nasbe.org/healthy_schools/hs .
• NASPE (National Association for Sport and Physical Education). Parents' view of children's health and fitness: A summary of results. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2003.
• NASPE. Physical activity for children: A statement of guidelines for children ages 5-12. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2004.
• NASPE. Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby; 2004.
• NASPE. Initial guidelines for online physical education: Position paper. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2007a.
• NASPE. Position statement: What constitutes a highly qualified physical education teacher. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2007b.
• NASPE. Physical education trends in our nation's schools: A survey of practicing K-12 physical education teachers. Port Washington, NY: Roslow Research Group; 2009a.
• NASPE. School physical education program checklist—how does your program rate. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2009b.
• NASPE. NASPE resource brief: Quality physical education. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2009c.
• NASPE. Opportunity to learn: Guidelines for elementary, middle, and high school physical education. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2010.
• NASPE. Instructional framework for fitness education in physical education. Guidance document. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2012.
• NASPE and AHA. Shape of the nation report: Status of physical education in the USA. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2010.
• National Physical Activity Plan. National Physical Activity Plan. Columbia, SC: The National Physical Activity Plan; 2010. [February 1, 2013]. http://www ​.nationalactivityplan.org .
• Nike. Designed to move: A physical activity agenda. Beaverton, OR: Nike; 2012.
• Parker MB, Curtner-Smith M. Health-related fitness in sport education and multi-activity teaching. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. 2005; 10 (1):1–18.
• Pate RR, Davis MG, Robinson TN, Stone EJ, McKenzie TL, Young JC. Promoting physical activity in children and youth: A leadership role for schools. A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism (Physical Activity Committee) in collaboration with the Councils on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young and Cardiovascular Nursing. Circulation. 2006; 114 (11):1214–1224. [ PubMed : 16908770 ]
• Pate RR, Mitchell JA, Byun W, Dowda M. Sedentary behaviour in youth. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2011; 45 (11):906–913. [ PubMed : 21836174 ]
• Perna FM, Oh A, Chriqui JF, Mâsse LC, Atienza AA, Nebeling L, Agurs-Collins T, Moser RP, Dodd KW. The association of state law to physical education time allocation in US public schools. American Journal of Public Health. 2012; 102 (8):1594–1599. [ PMC free article : PMC3464828 ] [ PubMed : 22594746 ]
• Perry CL, Stone EJ, Parcel GS, Ellison RC, Nader PR, Webber LS, Luepker RV. School-based cardiovascular health promotion: The Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH). Journal of School Health. 1990; 60 (8):406–413. [ PubMed : 2255198 ]
• Peterson's. Physical education colleges. 2013. [March 18, 2013]. http://www ​.petersons ​.com/college-search/SearchResults ​.aspx?q= ​%22physical%20education%22&c=UG .
• Presidential Youth Fitness Program. Presidential Youth Fitness Program: Promoting health and activity for America's youth. 2013. [March 1, 2013]. http://www ​.presidentialyouthfitnessprogram.org/index.shtml .
• Rainey DL, Murray TD. Foundations of personal fitness. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2005.
• Robinson LE. Effect of a mastery climate motor program on object control skills and perceived physical competence in preschoolers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2011; 82 (2):355–359. [ PubMed : 21699116 ]
• Robinson LE, Goodway JD. Instructional climates in preschool children who are at risk. Part I: Object-control skill development. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2009; 80 (3):533–542. [ PubMed : 19791639 ]
• Romero AJ. A pilot test of the Latin active hip hop intervention to increase physical activity among low-income Mexican-American adolescents. American Journal of Health Promotion. 2012; 26 (4):208–211. [ PubMed : 22375569 ]
• Sallis JF, McKenzie TL. Physical education's role in public health. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 1991; 62 (2):124–137. [ PubMed : 1925034 ]
• Sallis JF, McKenzie TL, Alcaraz JE, Kolody B, Faucette N, Hovell MF. The effects of a 2-year physical education program (SPARK) on physical activity and fitness in elementary school students: Sports, play and active recreation for kids. American Journal of Public Health. 1997; 87 (8):1328–1334. [ PMC free article : PMC1381094 ] [ PubMed : 9279269 ]
• Sallis JF, Prochaska JJ, Taylor WC. A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2000; 32 (5):963–975. [ PubMed : 10795788 ]
• Sallis JF, McKenzie TL, Conway TL, Elder JP, Prochaska JJ, Brown M, Zive MM, Marshall SJ, Alcaraz JE. Environmental interventions for eating and physical activity: A randomized controlled trial in middle schools. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2003; 24 (3):209–217. [ PubMed : 12657338 ]
• Salvy SJ, Roemmich JN, Bowker JC, Romero ND, Stadler PJ, Epstein LH. Effect of peers and friends on youth physical activity and motivation to be physically active. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 2009; 34 (2):217–225. [ PMC free article : PMC3202936 ] [ PubMed : 18617572 ]
• San Diego State University. Physical education matters: Success stories from California low resource schools that have achieved excellent P.E. programs. Los Angeles: The California Endowment; 2007.
• San Diego State University. Physical education matters: A full report from The California Endowment. Los Angeles, CA: The California Endowment; 2008.
• Sheehan DP, Katz L. The impact of a six week exergaming curriculum on balance with grade three school children using Wii Fit Plus. International Journal of Computer Science in Sport. 2012; 11 (3):5–22.
• Sherar LB, Gyurcsik NC, Humbert ML, Dyck RF, Fowler-Kerry S, Baxter-Jones A. Activity and barriers in girls (8–16 years old) based on grade and maturity status. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2009; 41 (1):87. [ PubMed : 19092703 ]
• Siedentop DL. Sport education: Quality PE through positive sport experiences. Chicago, IL: Human Kinetics; 1994.
• Siedentop DL. Introduction to physical education, fitness, and sport. 8th. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2009.
• Siedentop DL, Hastie PA, Van der Mars H. Complete guide to sport education. Chicago, IL: Human Kinetics; 2011.
• Sit CH, Lam JW, McKenzie TL. International Journal of Pediatrics. 2010. Children's use of electronic games: Choices of game mode and challenge levels. epub ahead of print. [ PMC free article : PMC2905688 ] [ PubMed : 20652069 ]
• SPARK (Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids). What is SPARK. 2013. [March 14, 2013]. http://www ​.sparkpe.org/what-is-spark .
• Staiano A, Abraham A, Calvert S. Motivating effects of cooperative exergame play for overweight and obese adolescents. Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology. 2012; 6 (4):812. [ PMC free article : PMC3440152 ] [ PubMed : 22920807 ]
• Stevens-Smith D. Teaching spatial awareness to children. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 2004; 75 (6):52.
• Stodden DF, Goodway JD, Langendorfer SJ, Roberton MA, Rudisill ME, Garcia C, Garcia LE. A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity: An emergent relationship. Quest. 2008; 60 (2):290–306.
• Stodden D, Langendorfer S, Roberton MA. The association between motor skill competence and physical fitness in young adults. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2009; 80 (2):223–229. [ PubMed : 19650387 ]
• Stokes R, Schultz S. Personal fitness for you. Winston-Salem, NC: Hunter Textbooks; 2002.
• Stokes R, Schultz SL. Get active! Get fit! Winston-Salem, NC: Hunter Textbooks; 2009.
• Sun H. Exergaming impact on physical activity and interest in elementary school children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2012; 83 (2):212–220. [ PubMed : 22808707 ]
• Sun H, Chen A, Zhu X, Ennis CD. Curriculum matters: Learning science-based fitness knowledge in constructivist physical education. Elementary School Journal. 2012; 113 (2):215–229. [ PMC free article : PMC4530802 ] [ PubMed : 26269659 ]
• Trost S. Active education: Physical education, physical activity and academic performance. San Diego, CA: Active Living Research, San Diego State University; 2009.
• Wallhead T, O'Sullivan M. Sport education: Physical education for the new millennium. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. 2005; 10 (2):181–210.
• Welk GJ, Schaben JA, Shelley M. Physical activity and physical fitness in children schooled at home and children attending public schools. Pediatric Exercise Science. 2004; 16 (4):310–323.
• Weston A. The making of American physical education. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1962.
• White K, Kilding AE, Schofield G. Energy expenditure and enjoyment during Nintendo ® Wii active video games: How do they compare to other sedentary and physical activities. New Zealand: AUT University, Center for Physical Activity and Nutrition (CPAN); 2009.
• Whitehurst GJ. Research on teacher preparation and professional development; A paper presented at the White House Conference on Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers; Washington, DC. Mar 5, 2002.
• Wiley DE, Yoon B. Teacher reports on opportunity to learn: Analyses of the 1993 California Learning Assessment System (CLAS). Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 1995; 17 (3):355–370.
• Williams CS. Personal fitness: Looking good/feeling good. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt; 2005.
• Wood TD. The ninth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (part 1). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 1913.
• Wood TD, Cassidy RF. The new physical education: A program of naturalized activities for education toward citizenship. New York: Macmillan; 1930.
• Xiang P, Lowry S, McBride R. The impact of a field-based elementary physical education methods course on preservice classroom teachers' beliefs. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 2002; 21 :145–161.
• Yoon KS, Duncan T, Lee SWY, Scarloss B, Shapley K. Reviewing the evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest; 2007. [April 1, 2013]. (Issues and Answers Report, REL 2007, No. 033). http://ies ​.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs .

Available online at http://www ​.healthypeople ​.gov/2020/topicsobjectives2020 ​/pdfs/PhysicalActivity.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013).

• Cite this Page Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 5, Approaches to Physical Education in Schools.
• PDF version of this title (4.4M)

In this Page

Related information.

• PMC PubMed Central citations
• PubMed Links to PubMed

Recent Activity

• Approaches to Physical Education in Schools - Educating the Student Body Approaches to Physical Education in Schools - Educating the Student Body

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

Connect with NLM

National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894

Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure

Help Accessibility Careers

Home — Essay Samples — Education — Studying Process — Physical Education

Essays on Physical Education

Prompt examples for physical education essays, the importance of physical education in schools.

Discuss the significance of including physical education as a part of the school curriculum. How does physical education benefit students' overall development?

Physical Education and Health

Explore the relationship between physical education and students' health. How does regular physical activity in schools contribute to the well-being of students?

The Role of Physical Education Teachers

Examine the responsibilities and impact of physical education teachers. How do they help students develop physical skills and a lifelong love for fitness?

Innovations in Physical Education

Discuss innovative approaches and technologies used in modern physical education programs. How have these innovations improved the learning experience?

Physical Education and Academic Performance

Explore the potential links between physical education and academic success. How does regular physical activity impact students' cognitive abilities and classroom performance?

The Role of Team Sports in Physical Education

Analyze the benefits of incorporating team sports into physical education programs. How do team sports promote cooperation, leadership, and physical fitness?

Physical Education for Special Populations

Discuss the importance of adapting physical education programs for students with special needs. How can inclusive physical education benefit all students?

Challenges and Solutions in Physical Education

Examine the challenges faced by physical education programs, such as limited resources or lack of facilities. What solutions can be implemented to overcome these challenges?

Physical Education and Lifelong Fitness

Explore the role of physical education in promoting lifelong fitness habits. How can physical education programs instill a love for physical activity beyond the school years?

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Physical Education

Discuss methods for assessing the effectiveness of physical education programs. How can schools measure the impact of these programs on students' health and well-being?

Importance of Physical Education

The sequence of cephalocaudal development, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

Each essay is customized to cater to your unique preferences

+ experts online

Physical Education in Schools

The benefits of physical education: develop skills & confidence, the importance of physical education to maintain a healthy and happy life, physical education should always be included in the school curriculum, let us write you an essay from scratch.

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

The Benefits of Taking a Physical Education Course During School

The importance of compulsory physical education classes, gender issues in physical education, different types of play as an important part of young children’s development, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

Expert-written essays crafted with your exact needs in mind

Game Play Participation of Amotivated Students During Sport Education

Using videos in teaching physical education, the importance of sports for students, myers v. peel county board of education, the wingate test: peak power output and anaerobic systems in the college-aged population, social, mental, and physical benefits of sports for young adolescents, physical education in school as a tool for motor development, benefits of physical education in school for body development, the importance of physical education: a comprehensive analysis, the impact of physical education on student grades, importance of physical education in schools, ethics, education, and responsible practices in running, running as a conduit for physical and mental well-being.

Physical Education is an education which brings improvement in human performance with the help of physical activities.

Physical activities range from simple walking to jogging, running, sprinting, hopping, jumping, climbing, throwing, pushing, pulling, kicking, etc.

Physical education helps students develop physical skills and confidence. It develops fitness and fosters the desire for lifelong participation in physical activity. School curriculum prepares students to become highly proficient in one or more sport and/or fitness activity of their choice.

Relevant topics

• Critical Thinking
• Studying Abroad
• Stem Education
• Academic Interests
• Middle School
• Academic Achievements
• School Uniform
• High School
• Academic Challenges

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

71 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best physical education topic ideas & essay examples, 🔎 interesting topics to write about physical education, 📑 good research topics about physical education.

• Keeping Physical Education in Schools Apart from participating in the physical education programs, the students need to be taught on the importance of the various exercises so that they inculcate the culture of physical fitness into their life-time fitness programs.
• Physical Education and Its Benefits Schools in particular know the benefits of physical education in a student’s life and should be able to fight for the children’s rights. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Role of Parents in Physical Education and Sport The involvement of parents in physical education and sports is viewed differently in regard to how it affects the child’s participation in sports even later in life.
• Adaptive Physical Education The value of the brochure developed for the informational purpose is attributed to the need to communicate the importance of APE and point out the value that it could bring to children with special needs.
• Bodies in Physical Education The purpose of this study is to investigate how students view the construction of their bodies in relation to physical education and how students’ meanings of their bodies affect their participation or resistance to physical […]
• Physical Education: Personal Physical Exercise Plan Given the necessity of taking fluids, it is good to identify and avail the same before starting a physical exercise session.
• The Usefulness of Physical Education in Modern Education Varied criticism adds to the debate on the usefulness of PE in modern education and the need to change current approaches. This indicates the need to focus the debate on the meaning of PE to […]
• Health Teaching and Physical Education Lesson Plan Students will be able to dribble a ball with a hand paying attention to such principles as dribbling on the side, waist-high, pushing the ball down, and eyes lookup.
• Physical Education Curriculum Physical education has significantly contributed towards the realization of the school philosophy as it helps in the development of the physical aspects of the students.
• Reducing Physical Education Classes The teaching process has a significant amount of waste regarding the excess number of teachers dedicated to sports training compared to math and technical subjects.
• Physical Education Is an Academic Subject These aspects make physical activity one of the core subjects at school, including for younger students who need a surge of emotions and energy.
• Race and Gender in Physical Education and Sports These factors create the diversity of cultures and nations, and inclusiveness, giving access to the best talents and disclosing the individual’s potential, abilities, and strengths.
• Physical Education: Effect of Phototherapy Therefore, it is evident that the intensity of an exercise directly influences one’s heart rate, breathing rate, skin coloration, sweating, and recovery.
• Effectiveness of Physical Education Provisions in the UK School The vital need for health promotion, especially in terms of secondary education has been highlighted by the science of epidemiology the study of factors that influence the health and illnesses of people.
• British Development of Sport and Physical Education in the Last 25 Years Sport England wishes to increase participation in sports through community sports activities, sporting completions providing and training coaches and officiators, and closely working with the Youth Sport Trust and UK Sports formed in 1996 to […]
• Increase of Physical Education Classes Children are the future of any nation, and their health and well-being are the essential preconditions for the successful development of the United States.
• Physical Educators Attitude to Special Needs Children Sue Combs, together with her colleagues from the University of North Carolina, investigated the attitudes of the physical education teachers towards the inclusion of children with special needs in their lessons.
• The Nature and Values of Physical Education In the past, physical education was considered to consist of only physical and practical activities, however, the recent research has justified that physical education can be included in the curriculum on the basis of scientific […]
• Should Public Schools Be Required to Restore Physical Education Classes to the Curriculum? The occurrence of obesity prevalence in children, in the U S, can be associated with the removal of physical education courses in public school curriculum.
• Physical Education within Elementary Schools One of the benefits of the physical education is the level of physical fitness that it induces to the students. The manner in which these students are introduced to physical education and the way that […]
• Effects of Physical Education on Brain These neurons are usually created in a place called the hippocampus, which happens to be the section of the brain involved in learning and storage of memory.
• Elementary School Curriculum and Physical Education
• Should Physical Education Be a Required Class in College?
• Physical Education Class: The Perfect Place to Be Bullied
• Pros and Cons of Physical Education
• How Physical Education Should Be Taught
• Physical Education for Elementary School Students
• Weight-Related Barriers for Overweight Students in an Elementary Physical Education Classroom
• Physical Education Lesson Plan and Activity Ideas
• Motivation, Discipline, and Academic Performance in Physical Education
• Adaptive Physical Education for Students With Special Needs
• Physical Education Should Not Be Mandated
• How Technology Enhances the Physical Education Curriculum
• Physical Education: Standards, Cooperative Skills, and Learning Theories
• Physical Education’s Contribution to Public Health
• Physical Education Importance for Child Development
• Reasons to Keep Physical Education in the National Curriculum
• Ethical Relativism and Its Impact on Physical Education
• Inclusive School Physical Education and Physical Activity
• History and Benefits of Physical Education: Why I Want to Be a P.E. Teacher
• Physical Education Beyond the Middle School
• The Importance of Physical Education in Childhood Obesity
• Physical Activity Promotion and School Physical Education
• Implementing the TARGET Model in Physical Education: Effects on Perceived Psychobiosocial and Motivational States in Girls
• Teaching the Nuts and Bolts of Physical Education
• Health-Related Intensity Profiles for Physical Education Classes
• Anticipated Benefits From a Basic College Physical Education Activity Course
• Physical Education Should Be Graded on Effort, Not Ability
• Motivation and Intention to Be Physically Active in Physical Education Students
• Personal Development, Health, and Physical Education
• Why Physical Education Should Be Included in the School Curriculum
• Attitude and Teacher’s Qualification as Factors Affecting Students’ Participation in Physical Education Activities
• Burnout in Physical Education Teachers
• What Benefits Physical Activity Has on Academic Performance
• SPARK Physical Education Curriculum Program
• Changing the National Curriculum for Physical Education
• Physical Education: Official School Policy
• How Physical Education Helps to Develop Your Personality
• Early Childhood Development: Physical Education Program Effects
• Fun Physical Education Games for High School Students
• How Extracurricular Sports Should Satisfy State Physical Education Requirements
• One’s Readiness to Self-Development Through Physical Education
• Would More Physical Education Reduce Obesity in the Youths?
• Goal-Directed Physical Education for Learners With Disabilities
• Health and Physical Education: Volleyball
• Managing the Physical Education Classroom
• Strategies to Accommodate Autism Spectrum Disorder Students in General Physical Education
• Physical Education vs. School Sports: What’s the Difference?
• The Impact of School Budgetary Cuts on Physical Education
• Teaching Health and Physical Education in Australian Schools
• Positive Reinforcement Techniques in Physical Education
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, November 9). 71 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/physical-education-essay-topics/

"71 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." IvyPanda , 9 Nov. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/physical-education-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2023) '71 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples'. 9 November.

IvyPanda . 2023. "71 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." November 9, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/physical-education-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "71 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." November 9, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/physical-education-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "71 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." November 9, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/physical-education-essay-topics/.

• Fitness Topics
• Disabilities Titles
• Curriculum Essay Ideas
• Academic Achievements Research Topics
• Athletics Topics
• Wellness Essay Topics
• Metabolism Research Topics
• Child Development Research Ideas
• Academic Performance Topics
• Football Topics
• Asthma Paper Topics
• Lifespan Development Essay Titles
• Obesity Ideas
• Soccer Research Topics
• Adolescence Questions

Essay on Physical Education in School for Students in 1000+ Words

In this article, we have published an essay on physical education in school. It includes its meaning, importance, and benefits. Also, how is physical education good for our  health?

Table of Contents

Essay on Physical Education in School (1000 Words)

Physical education is essential because it improves the fitness of youngsters, makes them  disciplined  and active. It helps them to find out teamwork, test their decision-making capabilities too.

Education  should be mandatory in every school, from preschools, primary, elementary to secondary school and also in colleges, hostels. But we should always not force them to try to do it, and they ought to be made conscious of its benefits.

The goal of education is to assist students in developing healthy habits that can serve them within the long term. In today’s world, things have become easy due to technology, and we are enjoying the facilities like no other generation.

Adults spend their whole day in air-cooled offices; they eat food, don’t find time to exercise. It’s getting to be very tough for our generation.

If we get  good healthy  habits now, once we are within the school, it’ll help us now and within the future. It’s a dire need of your time.

The education system should be proactive and make it mandatory in schools. So allow us to see why do children need physical education?

Healthy Habits

With education, children can improve their  fitness,  body posture, and ultimately it’ll boost their confidence.

It helps students to make good habits from an early age. Running, jogging, weight training, eating, and sleeping on time are a few habits that can help them in the future.

One of the essential aspects of education is  discipline . It’ll help them to plan their studies, finances, and life generally.

They’re going to be ready to allot time to studies and for fun too. Alongside academics, children should get time to be children; it’s the most uncomplicated phase of human life.

Interpersonal Skills & Team Work

Physical education and  sports  improve the interpersonal skills of youngsters. These skills are very crucial at work and within the relationship.

Physical education teaches the way to communicate messages effectively and the way to figure them together.

Stress Buster

Education comes with exams, assignments, projects, and homework, which can stress students.

Alongside this, they even have parents’ expectations burden, Financial worries. In today’s time, the overuse of  social media  makes them suffer from social anxiety, envy, and FOMO.

In this case, education becomes an excellent outlet. It cuts them from these worries and situations. Due to it, they’re going to be ready to focus more on studies and life generally.

Makes you Confident

With improved interpersonal skills, relaxed and calm composure, and healthy habits, one becomes more confident. Physical education plays a notable role during this too.

Alternate Career Opportunity

Everyone is different; not all students will be great at academics, and there is no such rule. Children find themselves in trouble with  selecting a career . Education can help them during this also. One might find the internet in sports and games.

Physical education may be an excellent opportunity to scout for potential athletic talent also. They were within the suitable career matters tons.

If one gets to try to do a thing they like to do, their lives will be happier. Physical education can help them to seek out that or a minimum of narrow down the alternatives.

Health is Wealth

Our current generation is affected by obesity from an early age. They also get spectacles at an old age. Obesity comes with related illnesses too.

An obese child is susceptible to diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, stress, vital sign, etc. Habits formed with education will make them fit from infancy. It’ll encourage them to enhance and maintain their health in the future.

Children inculcate with the importance of physical education for maintaining a healthy body and teach them the importance of regular fitness activity in daily routine, which successively keeps them happy and energized.

It helps the youngsters to take care of their fitness, develop their muscular strength, and increase their stamina.

Research has proven that children who regularly play different types of sports lead to high self-confidence, which is essential for building a person’s character.

Education instills the will to participate, enjoy the victory, and take defeat positively, developing the character’s general personality.

By making children participate in sports, especially team sports, education also imbibes in them a way of solidarity. Children find out how to figure as a team member, organize themselves, and perform together towards attaining a goal.

It successively improves a child’s overall communication skills and, therefore, urges alongside different people.

Physical education helps one gain knowledge about the general aspects of physical health. Teenagers face many health-related problems like obesity, anemia, bulimia, and even diabetes, which are rampant amongst teenagers.

Through education, teachers can promote the advantages of healthy and nutritious food and discourage them from having food by highlighting their ill effects. They will easily promote sound eating practices and guidelines for nutrition.

Physical education also teaches about the importance of private hygiene and the importance of  cleanliness . They guide the scholars by informing them about the essential hygiene practices for maintaining health and well-being throughout life.

Additionally, to the present, the education classes also cover a crucial aspect that the youngsters need to affect at puberty.

Apart from the health and knowledge benefits that students get from education, they also learn how to unwind and relieve themselves of stress and anxiety. Sports and other fitness activities offered within the education classes are a welcome break for the scholars.

It won’t be wrong to mention that children, who learn the importance of health and hygiene at an early age, tend to get older to be responsible and healthy adults who are conscious of the advantages of a healthy lifestyle.

Children who provided good education are more likely to become responsible adults who know the importance of a healthy lifestyle.

Anti-Depressant

It is proven that physical activities help us to alleviate stress. Though we all know its importance, we make all possible excuses to avoid it.

Physical education helps us to take care of a timely schedule of physical activities. Students become calmer composed; then, they will focus more on their goals.

The Bottom Line

Physical education leads to a more focused, active, composed, and  happy in life . It makes us disciplined and arranged.

Habits formed with the assistance of education tend to remain with us for an extended time. We should bring skilled coaches and needed equipment to colleges.

Students should know its benefits. There are real advantages of education and in the present situation, children, also as adults, need it the foremost.

The opportunity to participate in physical activity daily in schools may increase the probability of adopting a physically active lifestyle.

Choosing to measure a physically active lifestyle is vital to health and wellness. A school’s education department is responsible for assisting students in being involved in and adopting a private lifestyle of regular physical activity.

I hope you liked this essay on physical education in school for students and children.

Leave a comment Cancel reply

What is Physical Education, Meaning and Definition

What is Physical Education, Meaning, Definition- Physical education is taught to promote health and physical fitness by encouraging learning through movement exploration.

Table of Contents

What is Physical Education Meaning

Physical education (Phys Ed. or P.E.) is a subject that is taught in schools all around the world. It is commonly taught in primary and secondary schools, and it promotes health and physical fitness by encouraging psychomotor learning through play and movement exploration. Football, netball, hockey, rounders, cricket, four square, racing, and a variety of other children’s games are among the activities offered in P.E. Nutrition, healthy behaviours, and individuality of needs are also taught in physical education.

What is Physical Education Definition?

Physical education programs differ from country to country. P.E. class, when taught properly, can have a good impact on students’ health, behavior, and academic performance. The main goals of modern physical education are to provide active role models, individualise duration, intensity, and type of activity, encourage self-reporting and monitoring of exercise, teach skills to maintain a lifetime of fitness and health, and expose children and teens to a wide variety of exercise and healthy activities. P.E. is one of the few options for children to engage in good and healthful activities because it is available to nearly all of them. Aerobic, muscle-strengthening, bone-strengthening, and stretching are the four main types of physical activity. Each one works in a distinct way to maintain your body trim and healthy. Stretching targets joints and promotes flexibility, while aerobic benefits your heart and lungs the most.

Define Physical Education Benefits

Children and teenagers can reap a slew of health benefits if they are educated correctly and in a good manner. Reduced metabolic disease risk, improved cardiological fitness, and improved mental health are just a few of the benefits. There is also a link between brain growth and physical activity, according to research. Physical education can also help students achieve academic success. In 2007, researchers discovered a significant increase in English Arts standardised exam results among kids who had 56 hours of physical education in a year compared to those who had 28 hours.

The Use of Technology in Physical Education

Many physical education classrooms use technology to help their students exercise effectively. A simple video recorder is one of the most affordable and often used equipment. Students can use this to record themselves and then review the recordings to see what faults they are doing in activities like throwing or swinging. Students find this more helpful than having someone try to explain what they’re doing wrong and then try to remedy it, according to studies. Educators can also employ technology like pedometers and heart rate monitors to help kids set step and heart rate objectives. Video projectors and GPS systems are two other technologies that can be employed in a physical education context.

Physical Education: Syllabus

Physical education is a school-based subject that emphasises the development of physical fitness and the capacity to perform and enjoy everyday physical activities. Kids get the skills they need to engage in a variety of sports, including soccer, basketball, and swimming. Physical educators must promote and strengthen growing motor skills, as well as equip children and teenagers with a fundamental skill set that expands their movement repertory, allowing them to participate in a variety of games, sports, and other physical activities throughout their lives. These objectives can be met in a variety of ways. National, state, and municipal criteria often specify which physical education standards must be taught. The subject presented, the credentials required of instructors, and the textbooks and materials that must be utilised are all determined by these criteria.

These methods and curricula are based on pioneers in physical education, such as Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, and Rudolf von Laban, who emphasised on a child’s ability to utilise their body for self-expression in the 1800s. This, together with 1960s techniques (which included the use of the body, spatial awareness, effort, and relationships), gave birth to modern physical education teaching.

What is Physical Education in Hindi?

शारीरिक शिक्षा क्या है? – परिभाषा

शारीरिक शिक्षा (फिजिक्स एड या पीई) एक ऐसा विषय है जो दुनिया भर के स्कूलों में पढ़ाया जाता है। यह आमतौर पर प्राथमिक और माध्यमिक विद्यालयों में पढ़ाया जाता है, और यह खेल और आंदोलन की खोज के माध्यम से साइकोमोटर सीखने को प्रोत्साहित करके स्वास्थ्य और शारीरिक फिटनेस को बढ़ावा देता है। फुटबॉल, नेटबॉल, हॉकी, राउंडर, क्रिकेट, चार वर्ग, रेसिंग, और कई अन्य बच्चों के खेल पीई में दी जाने वाली गतिविधियों में से हैं। शारीरिक शिक्षा में पोषण, स्वस्थ व्यवहार और आवश्यकताओं की वैयक्तिकता भी सिखाई जाती है।

What is Physical Education Essay in Hindi?

शारीरिक शिक्षा कार्यक्रम हर देश में अलग-अलग होते हैं। पी.ई. कक्षा, जब ठीक से पढ़ाया जाता है, छात्रों के स्वास्थ्य, व्यवहार और शैक्षणिक प्रदर्शन पर अच्छा प्रभाव डाल सकता है। आधुनिक शारीरिक शिक्षा के मुख्य लक्ष्य सक्रिय रोल मॉडल प्रदान करना, अवधि, तीव्रता और गतिविधि के प्रकार को अलग करना, व्यायाम की आत्म-रिपोर्टिंग और निगरानी को प्रोत्साहित करना, जीवन भर फिटनेस और स्वास्थ्य बनाए रखने के लिए कौशल सिखाना और बच्चों और किशोरों को उजागर करना है। व्यायाम और स्वस्थ गतिविधियों की एक विस्तृत विविधता। पी.ई. बच्चों के लिए अच्छी और स्वस्थ गतिविधियों में संलग्न होने के कुछ विकल्पों में से एक है क्योंकि यह लगभग सभी के लिए उपलब्ध है। एरोबिक, मांसपेशियों को मजबूत करना, हड्डियों को मजबूत करना और खींचना चार मुख्य प्रकार की शारीरिक गतिविधि हैं। आपके शरीर को सुडौल और स्वस्थ बनाए रखने के लिए हर एक अलग तरीके से काम करता है। स्ट्रेचिंग जोड़ों को लक्षित करता है और लचीलेपन को बढ़ावा देता है, जबकि एरोबिक आपके दिल और फेफड़ों को सबसे ज्यादा फायदा पहुंचाता है।

शारीरिक शिक्षा के लाभ

यदि बच्चों और किशोरों को सही तरीके से और अच्छी तरह से शिक्षित किया जाए तो वे कई स्वास्थ्य लाभ प्राप्त कर सकते हैं। चयापचय रोग के जोखिम में कमी, कार्डियोलॉजिकल फिटनेस में सुधार और मानसिक स्वास्थ्य में सुधार कुछ ही लाभ हैं। शोध के अनुसार, मस्तिष्क के विकास और शारीरिक गतिविधि के बीच एक कड़ी भी है। शारीरिक शिक्षा भी छात्रों को अकादमिक सफलता प्राप्त करने में मदद कर सकती है। 2007 में, शोधकर्ताओं ने उन बच्चों के बीच अंग्रेजी कला मानकीकृत परीक्षा परिणामों में उल्लेखनीय वृद्धि की खोज की, जिनके पास 28 घंटे की तुलना में एक वर्ष में 56 घंटे की शारीरिक शिक्षा थी।

शारीरिक शिक्षा में प्रौद्योगिकी का उपयोग

कई शारीरिक शिक्षा कक्षाएं अपने छात्रों को प्रभावी ढंग से व्यायाम करने में मदद करने के लिए प्रौद्योगिकी का उपयोग करती हैं। एक साधारण वीडियो रिकॉर्डर सबसे किफायती और अक्सर उपयोग किए जाने वाले उपकरणों में से एक है। छात्र इसका उपयोग खुद को रिकॉर्ड करने के लिए कर सकते हैं और फिर रिकॉर्डिंग की समीक्षा करके देख सकते हैं कि वे फेंकने या झूलने जैसी गतिविधियों में क्या दोष कर रहे हैं। अध्ययन के अनुसार, छात्रों को यह समझाने की कोशिश करने से ज्यादा मददगार लगता है कि वे क्या गलत कर रहे हैं और फिर इसे ठीक करने का प्रयास करें। बच्चों को कदम और हृदय गति के उद्देश्यों को निर्धारित करने में मदद करने के लिए शिक्षक पेडोमीटर और हृदय गति मॉनिटर जैसी तकनीक का भी उपयोग कर सकते हैं। वीडियो प्रोजेक्टर और जीपीएस सिस्टम दो अन्य प्रौद्योगिकियां हैं जिन्हें शारीरिक शिक्षा के संदर्भ में नियोजित किया जा सकता है।

शारीरिक शिक्षा: पाठ्यक्रम

शारीरिक शिक्षा एक स्कूल-आधारित विषय है जो शारीरिक फिटनेस के विकास और रोजमर्रा की शारीरिक गतिविधियों को करने और आनंद लेने की क्षमता पर जोर देता है। बच्चों को फ़ुटबॉल, बास्केटबॉल और तैराकी सहित विभिन्न प्रकार के खेलों में शामिल होने के लिए आवश्यक कौशल प्राप्त होते हैं। शारीरिक शिक्षकों को बढ़ते मोटर कौशल को बढ़ावा देना और मजबूत करना चाहिए, साथ ही बच्चों और किशोरों को एक मौलिक कौशल सेट से लैस करना चाहिए जो उनके आंदोलन प्रदर्शनों का विस्तार करता है, जिससे उन्हें अपने पूरे जीवन में विभिन्न प्रकार के खेल, खेल और अन्य शारीरिक गतिविधियों में भाग लेने की अनुमति मिलती है। इन उद्देश्यों को विभिन्न तरीकों से पूरा किया जा सकता है। राष्ट्रीय, राज्य और नगरपालिका मानदंड अक्सर निर्दिष्ट करते हैं कि कौन से शारीरिक शिक्षा मानकों को पढ़ाया जाना चाहिए। प्रस्तुत विषय, प्रशिक्षकों के लिए आवश्यक साख, और पाठ्यपुस्तकों और सामग्रियों का उपयोग किया जाना चाहिए जो सभी इन मानदंडों द्वारा निर्धारित किए जाते हैं।

ये तरीके और पाठ्यक्रम शारीरिक शिक्षा में अग्रदूतों पर आधारित हैं, जैसे कि फ्रेंकोइस डेल्सर्ट, लिसेलॉट डायम और रुडोल्फ वॉन लाबान, जिन्होंने 1800 के दशक में आत्म-अभिव्यक्ति के लिए अपने शरीर का उपयोग करने की एक बच्चे की क्षमता पर जोर दिया था। इसने 1960 के दशक की तकनीकों (जिसमें शरीर का उपयोग, स्थानिक जागरूकता, प्रयास और संबंध शामिल थे) के साथ मिलकर आधुनिक शारीरिक शिक्षा शिक्षण को जन्म दिया।

What is Physical Education PDF?

Download Now: What is Physical Education PDF

Read More Essay:

Independence Day Speech In English Hindi For Kids Health Is Wealth Essay/Speech

Water Conservation- Save Water Save Life Essay

What is Physical Education: QNAs

Ques. What are the 4 types of physical education?

Ans. Aerobic, muscle-strengthening, bone-strengthening, and stretching are the four main types of physical activity. Each one works in a distinct way to maintain your body trim and healthy. Stretching targets joints and promotes flexibility, while aerobic benefits your heart and lungs the most.

Ques. What is physical education for students?

Ans. Physical education is a school-based subject that emphasises the development of physical fitness and the capacity to perform and enjoy everyday physical activities. Kids get the skills they need to engage in a variety of sports, including soccer, basketball, and swimming.

Ques. What is the aim of physical education?

Ans. The main goals of modern physical education are to provide active role models, individualise duration, intensity, and type of activity, encourage self-reporting and monitoring of exercise, teach skills to maintain a lifetime of fitness and health, and expose children and teens to a wide variety of exercise and healthy activities. P.E. is one of the few options for children to engage in good and healthful activities because it is available to nearly all of them.

Ques. What are 5 benefits of physical activity?

Ans. The following are five advantages of engaging in physical activities: 1. Exercise helps you lose weight. Exercising can help you avoid gaining weight or keep it off once you’ve lost it. 2. Exercise helps to prevent and treat illnesses and diseases. 3. Exercise elevates one’s mood. 4. Exercise gives you more energy. 5. Exercise helps you sleep better.

Ques. What are the types of exercise?

Ans. It’s crucial to obtain all four forms of exercise, according to research: endurance, strength, balance, and flexibility. Each one works in a distinct way to maintain your body trim and healthy. Stretching targets joints and promotes flexibility, while aerobic benefits your heart and lungs the most.

Sharing is caring!

Leave a comment

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Trending Articles

• MP Board 12th Result 2024
• MP Board 10th Result 2024
• TS Inter Results 2024 Link
• TS Inter Topper List 2024

CBSE Board Exam 2024

• CBSE Class 10 Syllabus 2024 
• CBSE Class 12 Syllabus 2024 
• CBSE Previous Year Papers  
• CUET Syllabus
• CUET Previous Year paper
• CUET Participating College & Universities
• JEE Main 2024  
• JEE Main Syllabus 2024  
• JEE Main Exam Analysis 2023  
• NEET 2024  
• NEET Syllabus 2024
• NEET State wise Cut off
• NEET Rank Predictor  
• NEET OMR Sheet
• NEET College Predictor

Recent Posts

Important exams, ncert solutions.

• NCERT Class 12
• NCERT Class 11
• NCERT Class 10
• NCERT Class 9

NCERT Books

School syllabus.

• CBSE Class 12
• CBSE Class 11
• CBSE Class 10
• CBSE Class 9
• JEE Mains 2024

Our Other Websites

• Teachers Adda
• Bankers Adda
• Adda Malayalam
• Adda Punjab
• Current Affairs
• Defence Adda
• Adda Bengali
• Engineers Adda
• Adda Marathi
• Adda School

Get all your queries solved in one single place. We at Adda247 school strive each day to provide you the best material across the online education industry. We consider your struggle as our motivation to work each day.

Download Adda247 App

Follow us on

• Responsible Disclosure Program
• Cancellation & Refunds
• Terms & Conditions
• Privacy Policy

Teacher arrested, accused of using AI to falsely paint boss as racist and antisemitic

A Maryland high school teacher was arrested after he allegedly used artificial intelligence to create phony audio, planting racist and antisemitic words into the voice of his boss, authorities said Thursday.

Dazhon Darien, a physical education teacher and the athletic director at Pikesville High School, was accused of falsifying the voice of principal Eric Eiswert in January, authorities said.

"We now have conclusive evidence that the recording was not authentic," Baltimore County Police Chief Robert McCullough told reporters in Towson. "It’s been determined the recording was generated through the use of artificial intelligence technology."

Darien was charged with disrupting school activities and other counts.

"As you could imagine, this has been a very difficult time for [the] Pikesville High School community, principal Eiswert and his family," Baltimore County Public Schools Superintendent Myriam Rogers said.

A judge signed on Wednesday afternoon an arrest warrant for Darien, who was caught Thursday morning at Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport.

Darien was scheduled to fly to Houston when security questioned whether he had properly packed his gun for travel, McCullough said.

Darien's name was run through police records, and the warrant showed up, leading to his arrest, McCullough added.

McCullough stopped short of saying whether Darien was seeking to flee.

Darien was also charged with theft, retaliation against a witness and stalking.

He and Eiswert had been at odds over “work performance challenges” with Darien’s contract possibly “not being renewed next semester,” according to the arrest warrant.

"Through their investigation, detectives allege that Mr. Darien, who was athletic director at the high school, made the recording to retaliate against the principal, who had launched an investigation into the potential mishandling of school funds," McCullough said.

Eiswert had been following up on a $1,916 payment Darien allegedly authorized for an assistant girls soccer coach, who the head coach and players said never assisted the team, police said.

Eiswert had also reprimanded Darien for terminating a coach without his approval, police said.

Eiswert was widely admonished when the viral audio seemed to capture him spewing hateful rhetoric, mocking Black and Jewish people.

The voice initially believed to have been Eiswert's said Black students were unable to "test their way out of a paper bag," according to the court document.

"The recording went on to make disparaging comments about Jewish individuals and two teachers ... who 'should have never been hired' at the school," the warrant said.

Eiswert has always insisted that the recording, which was sent to Darien and two other teachers the night of Jan. 16, was fake.

The audio spread quickly on social media and "had profound repercussions," causing "significant disruptions for the PHS staff and students," according to the arrest warrant.

Eiswert has been on paid administrative leave since the recording went viral.

District appointees have run the school since Eiswert's departure, and the temporary administrators will stay on the job through the end of the school year, Rogers said.

"We will work with principal Eiswert and the Pikesville community concerning next year," Rogers added.

Investigators linked the email [email protected], which was used to send the audio, to an internet service provider registered to Darien's grandmother, according to the warrant.

The recovery phone number for the Google account had a 213 area code, registered to Darien, a Southern California native, police said.

A forensic analyst contracted by the FBI also found that the recording "contained traces of AI-generated content with human editing after the fact," the arrest warrant said.

Darien was shown to have used the Baltimore County Public Schools' network to access OpenAI tools and Microsoft Bing Chat services on Dec. 18 and 19 and Jan. 15, a day before the audio clip was sent out, police said.

Darien and his family could not immediately be reached for comment Thursday.

The school district will seek to fire Darien, Rogers said.

Eiswert could not be immediately reached for comment on Thursday.

A rep for the principal’s union said he’s relieved that “responsible people are being held accountable,” but is worried that harm caused by the fake audio could be long-lasting.

“I continue to be concerned about the damage these actions have caused for Principal Eiswert, his family, the students and staff of Pikesville High School, and the Black and Jewish community members,” Council of Administrative and Supervisory Employee executive director Billy Burke said in a statement. “I hope there is deliberate action to heal the trauma caused by the fake audio and that all people can feel restored.”

David K. Li is a senior breaking news reporter for NBC News Digital.

Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World

Read our research on:

Full Topic List

Regions & Countries

• Publications
• Our Methods
• Short Reads
• Tools & Resources

Read Our Research On:

About 1 in 5 U.S. teens who’ve heard of ChatGPT have used it for schoolwork

Roughly one-in-five teenagers who have heard of ChatGPT say they have used it to help them do their schoolwork, according to a new Pew Research Center survey of U.S. teens ages 13 to 17. With a majority of teens having heard of ChatGPT, that amounts to 13% of all U.S. teens who have used the generative artificial intelligence (AI) chatbot in their schoolwork.

Teens in higher grade levels are particularly likely to have used the chatbot to help them with schoolwork. About one-quarter of 11th and 12th graders who have heard of ChatGPT say they have done this. This share drops to 17% among 9th and 10th graders and 12% among 7th and 8th graders.

There is no significant difference between teen boys and girls who have used ChatGPT in this way.

The introduction of ChatGPT last year has led to much discussion about its role in schools , especially whether schools should integrate the new technology into the classroom or ban it .

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand American teens’ use and understanding of ChatGPT in the school setting.

The Center conducted an online survey of 1,453 U.S. teens from Sept. 26 to Oct. 23, 2023, via Ipsos. Ipsos recruited the teens via their parents, who were part of its KnowledgePanel . The KnowledgePanel is a probability-based web panel recruited primarily through national, random sampling of residential addresses. The survey was weighted to be representative of U.S. teens ages 13 to 17 who live with their parents by age, gender, race and ethnicity, household income, and other categories.

This research was reviewed and approved by an external institutional review board (IRB), Advarra, an independent committee of experts specializing in helping to protect the rights of research participants.

Here are the  questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its  methodology .

Teens’ awareness of ChatGPT

Overall, two-thirds of U.S. teens say they have heard of ChatGPT, including 23% who have heard a lot about it. But awareness varies by race and ethnicity, as well as by household income:

• 72% of White teens say they’ve heard at least a little about ChatGPT, compared with 63% of Hispanic teens and 56% of Black teens.
• 75% of teens living in households that make $75,000 or more annually have heard of ChatGPT. Much smaller shares in households with incomes between $30,000 and $74,999 (58%) and less than $30,000 (41%) say the same.

Teens who are more aware of ChatGPT are more likely to use it for schoolwork. Roughly a third of teens who have heard a lot about ChatGPT (36%) have used it for schoolwork, far higher than the 10% among those who have heard a little about it.

When do teens think it’s OK for students to use ChatGPT?

For teens, whether it is – or is not – acceptable for students to use ChatGPT depends on what it is being used for.

There is a fair amount of support for using the chatbot to explore a topic. Roughly seven-in-ten teens who have heard of ChatGPT say it’s acceptable to use when they are researching something new, while 13% say it is not acceptable.

However, there is much less support for using ChatGPT to do the work itself. Just one-in-five teens who have heard of ChatGPT say it’s acceptable to use it to write essays, while 57% say it is not acceptable. And 39% say it’s acceptable to use ChatGPT to solve math problems, while a similar share of teens (36%) say it’s not acceptable.

Some teens are uncertain about whether it’s acceptable to use ChatGPT for these tasks. Between 18% and 24% say they aren’t sure whether these are acceptable use cases for ChatGPT.

Those who have heard a lot about ChatGPT are more likely than those who have only heard a little about it to say it’s acceptable to use the chatbot to research topics, solve math problems and write essays. For instance, 54% of teens who have heard a lot about ChatGPT say it’s acceptable to use it to solve math problems, compared with 32% among those who have heard a little about it.

Note: Here are the  questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its  methodology .

• Artificial Intelligence
• Technology Adoption
• Teens & Tech

Olivia Sidoti is a research assistant focusing on internet and technology research at Pew Research Center

Jeffrey Gottfried is an associate director focusing on internet and technology research at Pew Research Center

Many Americans think generative AI programs should credit the sources they rely on

Americans’ use of chatgpt is ticking up, but few trust its election information, q&a: how we used large language models to identify guests on popular podcasts, striking findings from 2023, what the data says about americans’ views of artificial intelligence, most popular.

1615 L St. NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036 USA (+1) 202-419-4300 | Main (+1) 202-857-8562 | Fax (+1) 202-419-4372 |  Media Inquiries

Research Topics

• Age & Generations
• Coronavirus (COVID-19)
• Economy & Work
• Family & Relationships
• Gender & LGBTQ
• Immigration & Migration
• International Affairs
• Internet & Technology
• Methodological Research
• News Habits & Media
• Non-U.S. Governments
• Other Topics
• Politics & Policy
• Race & Ethnicity
• Email Newsletters

ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER  Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of  The Pew Charitable Trusts .

Copyright 2024 Pew Research Center

Terms & Conditions

Privacy Policy

Cookie Settings

Reprints, Permissions & Use Policy

• Skip to main content
• Keyboard shortcuts for audio player

We, the voters

Where gun violence is common, some students say physical safety is a top concern.

Meg Anderson

The busy halls of North Community High School in Minneapolis in between classes. Caroline Yang for NPR hide caption

The busy halls of North Community High School in Minneapolis in between classes.

The students at North Community High School in Minneapolis have seen a lot. Some things, morbid curiosities: a bullet, freshly fired, spinning and melting the rubber on the track surrounding the school's football field.

Others, much more painful: the murder of Deshaun Hill Jr., shot and killed two years ago just blocks from the school. He was 15 years old, and the quarterback of the football team.

"That was my best friend, so we did everything with each other. I feel like that's the toughest thing, just knowing that he's not physically by my side anymore," senior Kahlil Brown says.

Last spring, another member of the football team was shot in both legs. He survived.

"It is not normal. It shouldn't be seen as normal. But we go through it so much that it is normal here," senior Jalen Beard says.

Kahlil Brown, 18, says teammate Deshaun Hill Jr., the student and quarterback who was shot and killed in 2022, was his best friend. Brown, shown posing for a portrait at the North Community High School football field in Minneapolis on April 9, will attend St. Olaf College in the fall. Caroline Yang for NPR hide caption

Kahlil Brown, 18, says teammate Deshaun Hill Jr., the student and quarterback who was shot and killed in 2022, was his best friend. Brown, shown posing for a portrait at the North Community High School football field in Minneapolis on April 9, will attend St. Olaf College in the fall.

Across the country, millions of young people are enduring this same reality: Firearm injuries are the leading cause of death for children and teens over age 1 nationwide.

The federal government is investing billions of dollars to combat this problem. But on the north side of Minneapolis, some students living under the threat of gun violence say there's a disconnect between what the government is offering and what they say they need.

"We needed that police officer at our school and they took it out"

Gun violence affects children and teenagers in devastating ways, says Sonali Rajan, an associate professor at Columbia University's Teachers College. That goes far beyond the physical harm guns can cause.

"Witnessing firearm violence, surviving a shooting, hearing gunshots," Rajan says. "There's a real range of experiences that we have to consider when we think about its impacts and the emotional trauma that goes hand-in-hand with that — nightmares, anxiety, difficulty concentrating, typical symptoms we might associate with post-traumatic stress disorder."

Students exposed to gun violence are less likely to do well in school and less likely to graduate . What's more, the rate of firearm deaths for Black children is six times higher than it is for white children. In Minneapolis, students at North High are well aware of those effects.

"If you're outside, you don't really feel comfortable, you don't really get to relax," Beard says. "Even if you're not the one doing it, even if you're not a part of no gang, nothing like that. But you could still end up being the one on the ground."

A portrait of Deshaun Hill Jr. hangs outside on the fence surrounding the North Community High School track and football field in Minneapolis. Caroline Yang for NPR hide caption

A portrait of Deshaun Hill Jr. hangs outside on the fence surrounding the North Community High School track and football field in Minneapolis.

In response, the Biden administration is awarding $1 billion across the next several years as part of the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act . That money aims to increase the number of mental health professionals in schools.

As part of the same legislation, the administration distributed about another $1 billion in grants to create what it calls "safer and healthier learning environments," employing a wide range of strategies — including anti-bullying and violence prevention programs, staff training and metal detectors.

Minneapolis Public Schools will receive at least $500,000 of this federal aid, much of which is focused on drug and alcohol prevention. The district plans to apply for the mental health grants and has received other state and federal funding specifically for preventing gun violence.

When it comes to more mental health resources, Beard says he would welcome that extra support, as long as a counselor can truly relate.

"You don't want to talk to a stranger who has never been in this situation, who never had one of their best friends pass away at 15," Beard says. "They wouldn't understand. And it would feel like I'm talking to an alien, basically."

In 2020, George Floyd was murdered by a police officer in this same city. Shortly after, the school district ended its contract with the city's police — and pulled school resource officers from its buildings.

"So now the police is out of our schools," says Brown, the senior whose best friend was killed. "We needed that police officer at our school and they took it out."

The school still has a security monitor, but that person is not a sworn officer. The security monitor can't arrest people and doesn't carry a weapon. Students say they don't want to be overpoliced, much less by officers they don't know. But at North, the school resource officer was also the head coach of the football team — and still is.

"That's a trusted person," Beard says. "If I knew my coach was out there protecting me, I'm fine."

Jalen Beard, 18, a friend and teammate of Deshaun Hill Jr., stands by the football field at school. Beard plans to attend St. Olaf College. Caroline Yang for NPR hide caption

Jalen Beard, 18, a friend and teammate of Deshaun Hill Jr., stands by the football field at school. Beard plans to attend St. Olaf College.

Studies have shown the presence of police can criminalize the school space and serve as a pipeline into the criminal justice system, says Rajan, the Columbia researcher. Still, she says, the need for real physical safety is valid.

"We can't necessarily employ a cookie cutter approach to gun violence prevention," Rajan says. "There are 51 million children in our public school system right now. So there is a lot of nuance here we have to contend with."

"What are we doing to prevent that violence from happening at all?"

Every morning, Principal Friestleben stations herself in the hallway to greet students. She says that's intentional: Structure and consistency communicate to students that they're safe.

"My children are walking in with generational and personal experience of not being protected and not being valued and centered," she says.

North Community High School Principal Mauri Friestleben stands in a newly renovated classroom on April 9. Caroline Yang for NPR hide caption

North Community High School Principal Mauri Friestleben stands in a newly renovated classroom on April 9.

Educators need to understand that even though they can't control what happens in the neighborhood, schools can make a real difference in student well-being, says Dan Flannery, a professor who researches gun violence at Case Western Reserve University.

"If you have a positive school climate and culture, if kids feel attached to the school, they're going to have a much more positive experience," Flannery says. "You need to have a commitment to that perspective. The staff and teachers and principals have to understand that this is an important thing to do."

The all-hands-on-deck approach is part of a larger way of thinking: treating gun violence as a disease.

"Public health is predicated on the notion that we should invest as much as we can in what we call primary prevention," Rajan says. "Prevention is saying 'What are we doing years and years before an individual is posing a potential threat to a school community? What are we doing to make it harder? What are we doing to prevent that violence from happening at all?'"

She says alongside stricter gun laws, strengthening communities at large — investing not just in school culture, but also in things like affordable housing and neighborhood green space — can act as a sort of vaccine against violence.

Friestleben wants to see that investment. And though she welcomes the funds, she isn't sure the latest federal grants will get at the root problems that can lead to gun violence.

Jalen Beard holds a pendant he wears in remembrance of his friend. Caroline Yang for NPR hide caption

Jalen Beard holds a pendant he wears in remembrance of his friend.

"It's no different than one of my kids being hungry and going to the corner store and getting chips. It's satisfying a teeny, tiny little bit of hunger, but not in a healthy, sustainable, longstanding way," she says.

This year Jalen Beard and Kahlil Brown will graduate and go on to college.

They'll attend St. Olaf College, a small liberal arts school about 45 miles from home. They're going to be roommates, and they'll both be playing football, something they talked about doing with their friend who's no longer here.

"He wasn't getting in trouble. He went to class. He had good grades," Beard says. "To me, he was doing everything right. He was doing everything he was supposed to be. And he still didn't get his opportunity."

Note: Meg Anderson was a teacher for Minneapolis Public Schools several years ago. Her spouse works for the district.

• school resource officers
• children's mental health
• school safety
• school shootings
• gun violence
• mental health

School board sues parent for $600,000 after dispute over son’s special needs education plan

BEDFORD COUNTY, Va. ( WDBJ /Gray News) - A legal battle is brewing between a Virginia school board and the parent of a student with special needs.

The Bedford County Public School Board is suing a parent for $600,000 because the parent, David Rife, has been verbally abusing and harassing school staff for three years with excessive communication, the lawsuit said.

The suit said Rife used profane language to threaten teachers and administration, with dates documenting when the alleged offenses happened.

The dispute stems from conversations about Rife’s son’s individualized education plan. The parent said the school is not following the plan.

Rife said he never made statements with malicious intent but was instead advocating for the school to follow his son’s education plan.

Rife said Staunton River High School does not provide direct reading instruction or accommodated notes for his son, among other items not followed in the plan. He filed a complaint, and the Virginia Department of Education found the district was in noncompliance with following certain aspects of the plan.

The complaint was filed at the end of January, and the lawsuit was filed at the end of March.

Rife’s attorney said the lawsuit looks like a retaliatory move by the school board.

“It at least raises the appearance that it could be retaliation,” said David Whitehurst, Rife’s attorney. “If they [the school district] had just provided the services they’re supposed to provide under law, he [Rife] wouldn’t have needed to contact [the Virginia Department of Education], there wouldn’t have been any issues with communication.”

The school board recently filed an emergency injunction, requesting the court to stop Rife from using harassing language against school staff. Rife’s attorney made a motion to dismiss that emergency injunction.

Rife and his attorney have also filed a counter lawsuit, demanding the school implement his son’s education plan.

Bedford County Public Schools said they are unable to comment on the matter.

Copyright 2024 WDBJ via Gray Media Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

La. Supreme Court hands down ruling on St. George becoming its own city

USS KIDD temporarily moving to Houma for restoration

Police provide update on investigation of 2-year-old girl’s death

Fentanyl, other drugs seized during drug bust; 2 arrested

Latest news.

Midwest tornadoes flatten homes in Nebraska suburbs and leave trails of damage in Iowa

People remain split about St. George Incorporation

Biden administration indefinitely postpones rule that would have banned menthol-flavored cigarettes

Woman accused of stealing from several stores by ‘skip scanning’ at self-checkouts

Columbia protesters say they’re at an impasse with administrators and will continue anti-war camp