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Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies

ISSN : 2044-0839

Article publication date: 3 July 2020

Issue publication date: 24 May 2021

New varieties of paddy are constantly being developed in India in order to sustain yield gains in the face of biotic and abiotic stresses. In this study, the authors attempt to identify the drivers for adoption of new varieties of paddy in India; the authors also estimate the impact on yield of the adoption of new paddy varieties.

Design/methodology/approach

Survey data consisted of the reported information from approximately 20,000 paddy farmers in India. The study employs Cragg's double-hurdle model to study the probability and intensity of adoption of new varieties; we use regression discontinuity design to estimate the change in yield due to adoption of new varieties.

The authors’ findings indicate that the adoption of new varieties of paddy in India varies significantly within and between regions; further, the adoption of new varieties is affected by a number of socioeconomic and demographic factors; the authors also find that the adoption of new varieties increases yield significantly.

Research limitations/implications

These are observational data and not based on the experiments. The authors relied on farmers' memory to recall the information.

Originality/value

The authors suggest the formulation of strategic policies that can cater to the needs of regions and states that are lagging behind in the adoption of new paddy varieties.

• New varieties

Acknowledgements

The authors grateful to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) for extending financial support to conduct this study. This study was undertaken as a part of ICAR-IFPRI workplan.

Kumar, A. , Tripathi, G. and Joshi, P.K. (2021), "Adoption and impact of modern varieties of paddy in India: evidence from a nationally representative field survey", Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies , Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 255-279. https://doi.org/10.1108/JADEE-11-2019-0198

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Comparison of Cloud-Mask Algorithms and Machine-Learning Methods Using Sentinel-2 Imagery for Mapping Paddy Rice in Jianghan Plain

• Huang, Jinliang

Southern China, one of the traditional rice production bases, has experienced significant declines in the area of rice paddy since the beginning of this century. Monitoring the rice cropping area is becoming an urgent need for food security policy decisions. One of the main challenges for mapping rice in this area is the quantity of cloud-free observations that are vulnerable to frequent cloud cover. Another relevant issue that needs to be addressed is determining how to select the appropriate classifier for mapping paddy rice based on the cloud-masked observations. Therefore, this study was organized to quickly find a strategy for rice mapping by evaluating cloud-mask algorithms and machine-learning methods for Sentinel-2 imagery. Specifically, we compared four GEE-embedded cloud-mask algorithms (QA60, S2cloudless, CloudScore, and CDI (Cloud Displacement Index)) and analyzed the appropriateness of widely accepted machine-learning classifiers (random forest, support vector machine, classification and regression tree, gradient tree boost) for cloud-masked imagery. The S2cloudless algorithm had a clear edge over the other three algorithms based on its overall accuracy in evaluation and visual inspection. The findings showed that the algorithm with a combination of S2cloudless and random forest showed the best performance when comparing mapping results with field survey data, referenced rice maps, and statistical yearbooks. In general, the research highlighted the potential of using Sentinel-2 imagery to map paddy rice with multiple combinations of cloud-mask algorithms and machine-learning methods in a cloud-prone area, which has the potential to broaden our rice mapping strategies.

• cloud-mask algorithms;
• machine-learning algorithms;
• paddy rice;
• Sentinel-2 imagery

Biochar: A Pyrolyzed Green Fuel from Paddy Straw

• First Online: 09 January 2024

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• Tanvi Sahni 6 ,
• Diksha Verma 6 &
• Sachin Kumar 7  

95 Accesses

Rice straw is a major by-product that possess significant environmental challenges due to its increasing production and the prevalent practice of open burning for disposal. This practice not only leads to air pollution but also hinders soil fertilization and crop establishment. To address these issues, the conversion of rice straw into biochar has emerged as a potential solution. Biochar is produced from rice straw through a thermochemical conversion known as pyrolysis. Due to the environmental benefits and energy efficiency of biochar, it has acquired great recognization. However, concerns regarding the greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential of biochar production need to be addressed. This chapter provides insights into the synthesis of biochar using agricultural waste. RSB (rice straw biochar) is considered a suitable amendment for the ecological and sustainable development of ecosystems. It offers several advantages, including carbon neutrality, slow-release effects of nutrients, and improved soil water content and porosity. Additionally, RSB has been found effective in wastewater and soil contamination treatment. It acts as a sorbent for inorganic and organic sorbents due to its cation exchange ability and wide surface area. The physical properties of rice straw, such as bulk density and moisture content, plays an important function in its handling as well as storage. Processing methods such as pelletization and briquetting can increase its density and reduce its volume for easier storage and transportation. The thermal properties of rice straw, including calorific value and volatile matter, influence its conversion into biofuels. Chemically, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are major components of lignocellulose found abundantly in biochar. These polymers vary quantitatively and qualitatively based on factors such as variety, season, and geographical location. Understanding the rice straw’s chemical composition is essential for the utilization of it as a feedstock and soil fertility enhancer. The biochar production from rice straw is carried out through thermochemical conversion technologies, including pyrolysis. However, the GHG mitigation potential of biochar production needs further investigation to optimize the process and enhance its environmental benefits. In nutshell, the utilization of rice straw as biochar offers a sustainable and efficient way to manage agricultural waste, improve soil fertility, and mitigate environmental issues. Further research and development are required to optimize the production process and explore the full potential of rice straw biochar in various applications.

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• Rice straw biochar

10.1 Introduction

Over 50% of the earth’s population hinge on rice as a staple crop, and 70–80% (600–800 t) is produced from 143 million hectares (Mha) in Asia (Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2021 ). In Asia, India possessed first rank for the area under rice cultivation (44.6 Mha) but was followed by China in rice production (Rani and Paul 2023 ). Most of India’s rice cropping land is located on the Gangetic and Punjab plains where 124 million metric tons rice was produced during 2021–2022 in states such as Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, etc. Rice straw is a major by-product formed during the harvesting of rice. In harvested crops, except grain, all the parts (stems, leaves, and spikelets) comprise rice straw (Rathour et al. 2023 ). This rate is increasing alarmingly due to shorter turnaround crop time and as a consequence leads to open burning for its disposal. Open burning creates oblivion in estimating rice straw production and also causes air pollution through the emission of CO 2 , CO, CH 4 , NO x , and SO x gases (Gadde et al. 2009a , 2009b ; Mendoza and Samson 1999 ). In intensive cropping systems, rice straw is usually grown two to three times a year, which provides a shorter period for decomposition (Palaniappan 2006 ). This results in poor soil fertilization and crop establishment. Rice straw is also used for mushroom plantation, activated charcoal, biodiesel, and ethanol production (Goodman 2020 ).

Due to its importance in agriculture, rice straw-derived biochar has gained attentiveness (Xu et al. 2020 ; Warnock et al. 2007 ; Vu and Nguyen 2011 ). The optimum temperature range for RSD production through pyrolysis was found to be 300–600 °C (Medha et al. 2023 ). It brings carbon neutrality to the agricultural system, but one of the major concerns toward biochar production is their corresponding GHG (greenhouse gases) mitigation potential (Xia et al. 2023 ). According to the 2018 Chinese census, 145 Mt/year of biochar are produced from different waste sources, representing GHG emissions. To mitigate GHG emissions, biochar should be prepared from crop residues, livestock manure, and food waste at pyrolysis temperatures of 300–500 °C (Xia et al. 2023 ). Adsorption and partitioning are commonly investigated mechanisms for their reported potential, and here biochar possesses wide surface area and CEC ratio (Ahmad et al. 2014 ; Cao et al. 2011 ). Biochar is structurally found similar to activated charcoal. These two materials are prepared by pyrolysis, and they are both used as sorbents to control contaminants in water and soil that includes inorganic and organic sludges (Enaime et al. 2020 ).

According to Ibrahim et al. ( 2016 ), rice husk biochar (RHB) is a beneficial soil amendment for contaminated soils. Lv et al. ( 2023 ) reported the use of RSB in rice-based cropping systems which results in the slow release of ammoniacal nitrogen and regulates the nitrogen uptake microbially. In one of the studies, an observation was noticed that when rice husk biochar and straw compost was applied for the second time, it caused hike in total carbon and exchangeable potassium in the upland rice and soybean cropping system. Along with this, biochar also provides significant improvement in soil water content: total porosity, micro-pores, and soybean yield (Barus et al. 2023 ). Biochar also helps in wastewater treatment and the removal of soil contaminants (Dai et al. 2020 ). Copper ions, one of the leading soil contaminants, were adsorbed by RSB in a batch experiment study by Mei et al. ( 2020 ). It also provides reactive sites for microbial action (Li et al. 2019 ). Thus, RSB is found as a suitable amendment for the efficient, ecological, and sustainable development of the ecosystem. The basic mechanism of RSB production is given below (Fig. 10.1 ).

Rice to biochar

10.2 Characteristics of Rice Straw

All living cells depend on atmospheric carbon dioxide for their growth. In rice straw, the concentrations of carbon, nitrogen, P 2 O 5 , K 2 O, and sulfur were (40–47%), (0.5–0.8%), (0.07–0.12%), (1.16–1.66%), and (0.05–0.1%), respectively (Dobermann and Fairhurst 2002 ; Nghi et al. 2020 ). Hence, biomass is known as a carbon neutral fuel precursor (Ahamer 2022 ). It has low sulfur and nitrogen content as compared to solid coal. Hence, carbon dioxide is more recoverable during biomass burning as compared to coal (Demirbas 2004 ). In the process of biofuel production, biomass physical properties, thermal properties, and chemical composition are mainly considered for thermal conversion.

10.2.1 Physical Properties

Physical properties are mainly considered for the handling and storage of rice straws. It includes bulk density and moisture content. Bulk density varies from 13–18 kg/m 3 in dry matter (dm) of loose rice straw (Migo 2019 ) to 50–120 kg/m 3 in chopped rice straw of length 2–10 mm (Liu et al. 2011 ). It varies from equipment to equipment. The density of rice husks varies between 84 and 114 kg/m 3 . Thus, loose rice straw has higher volume and lower density per kilogram. Thus, it is recommended to process rice straw via pellet mills (Pandey et al. 2023 ), roller presses (Das et al. 2023 ), piston presses (Wang et al. 2023 ), cubers (Abitha et al. 2023 ), briquette presses (Rathour et al. 2023 ), screw extruders (Cui et al. 2023 ), and agglomerators (Zeleke et al. 2023 ) to reduce rice straw volume and increase its density. Moisture content refers to the amount of water (%) present in a particular material. Rice straw’s moisture level is crucial in determining how it will be processed and what it will be used for. A straw’s moisture content can have an impact on its heating value, which is a factor that should be considered when the waste is intended to be used as a source of energy. Additionally, rice straw should be moist between 12% and 17% before compressing if it is to be reduced in volume (Kargbo et al. 2010 ).

10.2.2 Thermal Properties

The efficiency of biofuels produced from biomass was also evaluated by thermal properties. The calorific value is one of the thermal properties which express the amount of heat that can be produced by burning that fuel completely. CV of rice straw (14.6 MJ/kg) is one-third that of kerosene (46.2 MJ/kg). In terms of rice straw, we often expressed it in terms of heating value more conveniently than CV. This is further categorized into high heating value (HHV) and (LHV) low heating value. Rice straw’s HHV varies in the range of 14.08–15.09 MJ/kg (Van Hung et al. 2020 ). Volatile matter (VOM) refers to material that gets converted to a gaseous state once the right conditions are met. Rice straw is characterized by high VOM (60.55–69.70%) that leads to easier burning conditions; this also creates difficulty in causing controlled combustion conditions (Liu et al. 2011 ).

10.2.3 Chemical Properties

Agricultural biomass rice straw is composed of lignocellulose which quantitatively and qualitatively varies with geographical locations, climatic conditions, season, and variety. The chemical composition provides its significance as livestock feed and soil fertility. Thus, the chemical composition of rice straw along with the ultimate element analysis from different countries is mentioned in Table 10.1 .

Moreover, rice straw is rich in cellulose (30–45%), hemicellulose (20–25%), lignin (15–20%), and ash content (8.5–20.4%) (Binod et al. 2010 ; Takkellapati et al. 2018 ), while all other polymers are present in smaller amounts. It is an amalgam of the lignin-phenolics-carbohydrate complex that provides robustness to cell wall. Rice straw is dominated by glucose (41–43.4%) and pentose sugars like xylose (14.8–20.2%) (Maiorella 1985 ; Roberto et al. 2003 ), along with others like arabinose (2.4–4.5%), galactose (0.4%), and mannose (1.8%) (Kumar et al. 2023 ) (Fig. 10.2 ). It contains a higher amount of esterified and etherified forms of ferulic acid and p -coumaric acid (Fig. 10.2 ).

Major compounds in rice straw

10.2.3.1 Cellulose

D-Glucose subunits joined together to form cellulose. These are interlinked by inter- and intra-hydrogen bonding and β-1,4-glycosidic linkage to form a linear condense polymer known as cellulose. In rice straw, cellulose is crystalline in structure with a higher degree of polymerization (1820) which will provide mechanical strength to the cell wall (Yang et al. 2011 ; Abe and Yano 2009 ; Hallac and Ragauskas 2011 ).

10.2.3.2 Hemicellulose

Rice straw has xylan hemicellulose; it is the most reactive form of three polymers of lignocellulose which carbonize and are volatile at temperatures below 250 °C. It has an average weight molecular weight of 18,800–48,700 and an average number molecular weight of 8200–15,900. It has a lower arabinose/xylose ratio (0.17) which means a higher degree of polymerization in the range of 80–200 °C (Kausar et al. 2016 ) which means a lower arabinose/xylose ratio, i.e., 0.17 (Bezerra and Ragauskas 2016 ). It also has a high degree of polymolecularity, poly-diversity, and polydispersity. Xylan which is a heteropolysaccharide contains aliphatic acids like acetic acid, aromatic acids like ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, glucuronic acid, and its o-methyl ether too or sugars like arabinose. Their structures are drawn in Fig. 10.2 . The subunits shown above have D-xylopyranose units in their backbone which are joined by 1,4-linkage, viz., glycosidic bonding. The connection between cellulose and hemicellulose is via hydrogen bonding, while hemicellulose and lignin are via covalent and ester bonding (Bezerra and Ragauskas 2016 ). Isolation and characterization of hemicellulose were done by hydrogen peroxide method, through alkali, alcohols, and a combination of alcohol/alkali hydrolysis through cleavage of the ester linkage.

10.2.3.3 Lignin

In general lignin in biomass consists of aromatic subunits, namely, methoxylated phenyl propanoic subunits. These subunits are similar to aromatic compounds in fuels (Shuai et al. 2016 ). Rice straw lignin is a GSH type where G stands for guaiacyl, S stands for syringyl, and H stands for p-hydroxy phenyl subunits as shown in Fig. 10.1 . It also had β-O-4 linkage in alkyl aryl ether, β-5 linkage in phenyl coumarin compound (dehydrodiisoeugenol), β-β, α-O-4, and a minor amount of α,β-diarylether as shown in Fig. 10.3 . Various physical, chemical, and microbial treatments like enzyme/mild acidolysis lignin method (EMAL) and spectroscopic studies like FT-IR-XRD, 13 C-NMR, 1 H-NMR, 31 P-NMR, and GC-MS spectral analysis were performed to investigate its structure. X-ray fluorescence study revealed that ash mainly consists of silica oxide (69.2%), calcium oxide (3.46%), potassium oxide (6.4%), magnesium oxide (2.81%), aluminum oxide (5.3%), sodium oxide (3.43%), and iron oxide (0.9%) (Morsy et al. 2022 ).

Type of linkages in lignin

10.3 Production of Biochar

Bioenergy is an intermittent-free and stable source of energy with its ability to store biofuels from biomass in the character of solids, liquids, and gases. Biofuels are the fourth largest source of energy. They are the best alternative to decline anthropogenic CO 2 emissions, suppress deteriorated greenhouse gases, and mitigate global warming. Four main technologies are used to convert biomass into a green fuel: (i) physical, (ii) chemical, (iii) biological, and (iv) thermochemical. Physical conversion includes the drying of biomass, the separation of biomass, pulverization of biomass, and pelletization of biomass. Biodiesel production through trans-esterification is a notable chemical conversion. Biological conversions include biogas, biohydrogen, bioethanol, and biobutanol through fermentation, saccharification, or photosynthesis. It is noteworthy that thermochemical conversion is the most significant pathway for the production of biofuels, except for combustion, due to the production of heat as an end product. A variety of waste and blends can be processed with thermochemical conversion due to its efficient nutrient recovery, small footprint, and quick reaction time. Biochar can also be produced most efficiently using this method as cited in the literature (Table 10.2 ).

Production of biochar mainly proceeds through thermochemical conversion. Economically, four techniques are found operational with most of the researchers. These are (i) pyrolysis, (ii) hydrothermal carbonization, (iii) gasification, and (iv) torrefaction (Pang 2019 ; Lin et al. 2016 ). Depending upon the type of biomass, the abovementioned techniques were employed by optimizing conditions like heating rate, temperature, residence time, etc. For RSB production, all techniques were used wisely, and their instances were described in each section. The basic reactions occurring during these techniques are dehydration around 100 °C, followed by degradation of lignin, cellulose, and hemicelluloses above 220 °C. The other by-products obtained during these methods are syngas and bio-oil (Abdelaziz et al. 2016 ).

10.3.1 Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis involves the anaerobic decomposition of biomass within 250–900 °C (Osayi et al. 2014 ). Mainly depolymerization, fragmentation, and cross-linking reactions take place during this process at specific temperatures. The gaseous emission involves syngas (C 1 –C 2 hydrocarbons), hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. Commonly used reactors for pyrolysis are paddle kilns, wagons, agitated sand rotating kilns, and bubbling fluidized beds. In biochar production, the optimum temperature is key for the maximum yield of biochar, any increase after the optimum temperature will elevates the production of syngas and a decrease in product yield (Wei et al. 2019 ). Based on pressure, temperature, and rate of heating, pyrolysis is divided into i) slow pyrolysis and ii) fast pyrolysis.

10.3.1.1 Slow Pyrolysis

It involves pyrolysis at temperature of 5–7 °C with a longer residence time. This technique was found to be best in terms of biochar yield for production (Liu et al. 2015 ; Al Arni 2018 ).

10.3.1.2 Fast Pyrolysis

It involves moderate temperature pyrolysis (400–600 °C) for a shorter period (0.5–2 s) (Wang et al. 2014 ). In this process, applied energy converted solid biomass to biogas, biochar, and bio-oil among which bio-oil is the major end product. RSB is prepared by the solvothermal method at two optimum temperatures of 400 and 600 °C. Biochar thus obtained is combined with bentonite clay for reducing the leaching of phosphate and ammoniacal ions (Medha et al. 2023 ).

10.3.1.3 Catalytic Pyrolysis

This process proceeds at 350–650 °C with a sweep gas flow rate of 0.02–11.00 L min −1 . The most commonly used catalysts are zeolites (SiO Al 2 O 3, HZSM-5, ZSM-5), modified zeolites (Ni/ZSM-5, Zn/ZSM-5, Ga/ZSM-5), metal oxide catalysts (i.e., ZnO, MgO, CaO), etc.

10.3.1.4 Microwave Pyrolysis

During this process, the disintegration occurs at 250–800 °C with sweep gas flow rates of 0.05–20.00 L/min for 5–60 min.

10.3.1.4.1 Reactions Occurring in Paddy Straw Biochar During Pyrolysis: Cellulose Decomposition

Cellulose degradation involves a reduction in the degree of polymerization. An intermediate formed during fast pyrolysis includes levoglucosan. It also undergoes dehydration to form hydroxyl-methyl furfural which underwent aromatization, condensation, and polymerization resulting in biochar production.

10.3.1.4.2 Hemicellulose Decomposition

Hemicellulose decomposition leads to the formation of oligosaccharides by depolymerization. It also involves decarboxylation, intramolecular rearrangement, depolymerization, and aromatization (Huang et al. 2012 ).

10.3.1.4.3 Lignin Decomposition

Lignin is decomposed at higher temperatures. The β-O-4 linkage as shown in the diagrams above was broken down to form free radicals. These radicals further react with protons present in the surrounding as derived from other species. Thus, a chain propagation reaction starts in this decomposition process (Mu et al. 2013 ).

10.3.2 Hydrothermal Carbonization

It is a profitable method in which heating is done with temperature range of 180–250 °C (Lee et al. 2018 ). The solid product procured after gasification and pyrolysis is known as biochar, while the hydrothermal carbonization product is known as hydrochar (Fang et al. 2018 ). In a closed reactor, rice straw is blended with water, and the temperature will increase gradually. Biochar was obtained below 250 °C, and the process is known as hydrothermal carbonization (Zhang et al. 2017 ). Bio-oil was obtained within 250–400 °C known as hydrothermal liquefaction. The products such as CH 4 , H 2 , CO 2 , and CO, in their gaseous state, were obtained above 400 °C known as hydrothermal gasification (Khorram et al. 2016 ). Reactions that take place during heating are condensation, polymerization, and intramolecular dehydration, along with this products like 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, and their corresponding derivatives will be obtained (Bakraoui et al. 2020 ). Lignin is a complex matrix decomposed through reactions like dealkylation and hydrolysis. Phenol products like catechols and syringols were obtained during this decomposition (Jain et al. 2016 ). Hydrochar was obtained at last through re-polymerization and cross-linking which is much similar to the pyrolysis method.

10.3.3 Gasification

The aerobic combustion of biomass is commonly known as gasification. Gasification agents like oxygen, air, steam, etc. are used to decompose biomass. Depending upon the reaction temperature, two types of products were obtained, i.e., syngas and biochar. (i) Drying: this process involves drying if biomass is higher in moisture content without energy recovery. (ii) Combustion/oxidation: the second step is combustions/oxidation where gasifying agents like air, oxygen, sub-critical water, supercritical water, etc. react with combustible species to form products. Conventionally, gasification is classified into steam, conventional, and supercritical water gasification (Heidenreich and Foscolo 2015 ).

10.3.3.1 Conventional Gasification

In this method, the temperature ranges between 400 and 1200 °C using gasifying agent (air) with an equivalence ratio (ER) of 0.15–0.4 and pressure ranges of 0.1–1 MPa. Output carbon conversion (%) is 63–95, while cold gas efficiency (%) is 53–75.

10.3.3.2 Steam Gasification

In this method, the temperature ranges between 600 and 1000 °C using gasifying agent (steam) with an equivalence ratio (ER) of 0–0.37 and pressure ranges of 0.1–1 MPa. Output carbon conversion (%) is 42–124, while cold gas efficiency (%) is 33–80.

10.3.3.3 Supercritical Water Gasification

In this method, the temperature ranges between 374 and 800 °C using water as gasifying agent with pressure ranges of 22–50 MPa. Output carbon conversion (%) is 4–97, while cold gas efficiency (%) is 32–91.

Syngas was produced in higher amounts than biochar. It is comprised of H 2 , CO, CO, and traces of hydrocarbons. Increase in temperature CO 2 and H 2 production increases, while CH 4 , CO, and H 2 production decreases (Prabakar et al. 2018 ). During gasification, the biomass underwent reactions like water-gas reaction, complete oxidation, steam methane reforming, partial oxidation, water-gas shift reaction, water-gas reaction, and hydrocarbon reaction (Agarwal 2014 ; Young 2010 ). Researchers mainly aim to use these syngas as another efficient fuel for heating, drying, cooking, biofuel production, and electricity production. This is achieved by removing non-combustible gases and water from production. In one study from Young ( 2010 ), production of industrial chemical compounds like methanol, hydrogen, and ammonia can produce from CO and H 2 of syngas. Four types of gasifiers used in gasification are (i) fluidized bed, (ii) fixed bed, (iii) moving bed, and (iv) entrained-flow. Recent advancement in gasifiers is reported by Ngamchompoo ( 2018 ). In this research work, the characteristic of gasification of air of rice straw was evaluated in cyclone gasifiers. It was found that as gasifier temperature increases, equivalence ratio (ER) also increases which leads to improving gas quality and improved gasification performance. A smaller feedstock size with optimum moisture content is more favorable. Wang et al. ( 2020 ) studied air gasification with two-staging systems, i.e., medium-temperature bubbling fluidized gasifier and high-temperature swirl-flow gasifier in a pilot scale study using rice straw as biomass fuel. It was found that as gasification temperature increases, it improves the gasification efficiency, syngas quality, and carbon conversion with an increase in agglomeration. An increase in ER has declined syngas heating value, carbon conversion, tar yield, and tar concentration.

10.3.4 Torrefaction

Biochar is also produced through torrefaction, which is a relatively new technology. It employs a low heating rate, known as high temperature drying, roasting, slow and mild pyrolysis, and wood cooking. A variety of decomposition processes are used to remove the CO 2 , O 2 , and moisture present in biomass in the presence of inert atmospheric air and absence of oxygen under 200–300 °C for 15–60 min. These conditions should vary with different categories of biomass to accelerate the synthesis (Stępień et al. 2017 ). In torrefaction, based on substrate heating, reactors are mainly divided into two groups: direct and indirect. Indirect heating is found accompanied by auger and rotary reactors, while direct heating is accompanied by auger, microwave, moving bed, vibrating belt, multiple zone, rotary drum, and auger reactors. Usually, direct heating reactor works in anaerobic condition have a heating medium (Klimiuk et al. 2012 ; Koppejan et al. 2012 ). Rotary technologies mentioned earlier have been put into application successfully on a commercial scale in the Netherlands, the USA, Canada, Sweden, Germany, Spain, and France (Nhuchhen et al. 2014 ).

10.4 Applications of RSB

A pot experiment (2 years) was done for the validation of the impact of rice straw with varying combinations (5) of biochars on rice crops. Only an appropriate amount of biochar, viz., 20 t/ha, with straw 7 t/ha was found to provide authentic results in terms of alleviating N and P losses, increasing rice growth and yield, phosphorous availability, and nitrogen retention (Li et al. 2023 ).

Not only biochar, their modified versions like rice husk-derived silicon-rich biochar and their iron-rich modified versions were implemented to improve soil’s various characteristics to lighten the PTE accumulation in rice cultivated pot trials. RSB was employed for the removal of ciprofloxacin (CIP) antibiotic commonly found in river sediments, domestic sewage, and pharmaceutical wastewater. The adsorption mechanism of RSB was found maximum with pH = 5; maximum adsorption capacity is 747.64 mg/g through the carbonyl (C=O) bond. It also revealed the role of electrostatic interactions, π-π interactions, and hydrogen bond interactions. Functionalization of biochar surface with TiO 2 increases the photo-catalytic performance and degradation of CIP (Qu et al. 2023 ).

Sakhiya et al. ( 2023 ) reported heavy metal removal from groundwater through RSB. Biochar was produced at different temperatures, viz., 400–600 °C, through pyrolysis. RSB produced at 600 °C was found suitable for Manganese and arsenic removal from water due to wide surface area and adsorption capability. Electrostatic attractions between metalloid and surface functional groups like COOH and OH facilitate adsorption. Biochar applied at the rate of 0.1 g in 50 mL water had the highest removal efficiency and lowers cancer risks in the community.

Biochar application may possess adverse effects on environment, soil, and water. The overuse of biochar may disrupt soil structure by causing an imbalance in the soil’s liquid and gas phases (Castellini et al. 2015 ). Soil fauna and carbon content may get lowered and put adverse impact on wheat growth (Ji et al. 2022 ). Therefore, it is essential for conducting more research of how biochar application will interact with crop yielding parameters and its related mechanisms.

10.5 Conclusion

Rice straw, a by-product of rice harvesting, poses significant environmental challenges due to its increasing production and the prevalent practice of open burning for disposal. The conversion of rice straw into biochar has come out as a potential solution to address the environmental issues related with its disposal. Biochar production from rice straw through pyrolysis has gained attention for its energy efficiency and environmental benefits. RSB offers several advantages as a soil amendment, including carbon neutrality, slow-release effects of nutrients, and improved soil water content and porosity. It has the ability to come up with the ecological and sustainable development of ecosystems. Additionally, RSB has been found effective in treatment of wastewater and the elimination of soil contaminants. This dual functionality of RSB as both a soil amendment and a sorbent expands its potential applications in various environmental remediation processes. The physical properties like moisture and bulk density are important factors in its handling and storage. Processing methods like pelletization and briquetting can increase its density and reduce its volume, facilitating easier storage and transportation. The thermal properties of rice straw, including calorific value and volatile matter, influence its conversion into biofuels. Understanding these properties is crucial for optimizing the production of biochar and other energy applications.

Chemically, it is composed of lignocellulose, with cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin as major components. The quantitative and qualitative variations of these polymers in rice straw depend on factors such as variety, season, and geographical location. Understanding the chemical composition of rice straw is essential for its effective utilization as a feedstock for biochar production and as a soil fertility enhancer. While biochar production from rice straw shows promise, concerns regarding its greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential need to be addressed. Further research is desired to ameliorate the process of biochar production and enhance its environmental benefits. Understanding the life cycle assessment of biochar production from rice straw will provide valuable insights into its overall environmental impact and its potential role in mitigating climate change. In conclusion, the utilization of rice straw as biochar offers a sustainable and efficient way to manage agricultural waste, mitigate environmental issues, and improve soil fertility, and the multifunctional nature of rice straw biochar as a soil amendment and sorbent expands its potential applications in various environmental remediation processes. However, further research and development are required to optimize the production process, address GHG mitigation concerns, and explore the full potential of rice straw biochar in different applications.

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Sahni, T., Verma, D., Kumar, S. (2024). Biochar: A Pyrolyzed Green Fuel from Paddy Straw. In: Srivastava, N., Verma, B., Mishra, P.K. (eds) Paddy Straw Waste for Biorefinery Applications. Clean Energy Production Technologies. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8224-0_10

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