essay for physical fitness

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Good argumentative essay topics on health and fitness with prompts [+ outline], dr. wilson mn.

• August 1, 2022
• Essay Topics and Ideas , Samples

There are plenty of good argumentative essay topics on health and fitness to choose from. You can write about the benefits of a healthy lifestyle, or the importance of staying fit and active.

You can also argue for or against certain health and fitness practices, such as eating organic foods or using supplements. Whatever you choose to write about, make sure you back up your claims with evidence and research.

What You'll Learn

Argumentative Essay Topics On Health And Fitness

Personal Reflection on the Scriptural Basis for Physical Fitness & Wellness Practices

Essay prompt: Often, when people speak about physical fitness and wellness, they do it from the point of view of science and medicine in which physical fitness and wellness practices are supposed to improve our health outcomes.

Improving Fitness Practices And the Personal And Realistic Physical Fitness Plan

Essay prompt: The strategies to identify practical ways to enhance my fitness practices include personal training, outcome measurements, and wearable technology. Personal training is a strong trend that is

Do Fitness Trackers Improve Health?

Essay prompt: Fitness trackers are wearable devices that monitor physical activity, communicate with the smartphone, and pass information to it. These wearable devices monitor calories consumed and received by a person, as well as physical activity indicators, and are designed to help people move more and eat right.

How did you apply what you learned in your workouts within and outside of class and what were the outcomes? How will you continue to apply this knowledge in the future?

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Improving Health Related Fitness: Aerobic Conditioning Program

Essay prompt: The Aerobic condition program seeks to improve health-related fitness for freshmen. Aerobic exercising or “with oxygen” offers freshmen cardiovascular conditioning. The program aligns with the American heart association (AHA) minimum 30 minutes of cardiovascular exercise 5 to 7 days a week.

Field Observation Gender, Race & Fitness Written Paper & Presentation

Essay prompt: Students will visit a fitness centre not located on campus. Field notes will be taken noting the time and day of the visit and the approximate fee paid to use the facility.

Importance of Goal-Setting for Nutritional Clients And the Steps in the Goal-Setting Process

Essay prompt: It is important to set fitness goals before trying to achieve health goals because they help understand why such an initiative is essential. Better and practical results are always achieved when one has a specific, realistic goal instead of setting out without a plan.

Discuss the importance of goal-setting for nutritional clients

Argumentative Research Paper Topics On Health And Fitness with Prompts

The Role of Group Exercise Instructor

Ensuring Firefighters Maintain Proper Health Fitness During And After Training

Essay prompt: The article follows the status of the recruits’ essential health and physical fitness to fire academy training. The article demonstrates the changes that take place during training and the early probation period.

Evolutionary Biology Use In Future Work In Psychology

Elements of the Marketing Environments

The Main Problem with Anaerobic Training

Essay prompt: When it comes to matters concerning fitness, aerobics has always taken Centre stage. Tracing its name from the term ‘aerobic’ to mean oxygen, aerobics is a fitness regime that basically uses oxygen to burn body fat.

Effectiveness of Exercise-based Prediction in Determining Cardiorespiratory Fitness (CRF)

Essay prompt: The article’s main purpose is to explore the effectiveness of exercise-based prediction in determining cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). In such a case, it would be possible to assess their capability in classifying individuals. Argumentative Essay Topics On Health And Fitness

Injured Children During Exercise or Sports

Essay prompt: As much as exercise is important, fitness trainers also hold the same influence as they serve as the guide towards a more appropriate pattern of workout and diet for their clients.

Problems And Solutions Concerning Meeting Advancing Health Information Requirements

Essay prompt: Currently, hospital setups exhibit new Health Information Technology (HIT) innovations that help in monitoring healthcare and fitness improvement. Besides, this HIT improves health outcomes and ensures efficiency in workflow among others.

Find out more on 260+ Ethical Paper Topics – Types | Guide | Topics

Improving College Student Fitness Routine

Essay prompt: It is a well-known fact that people need to exercise to prevent being afflicted with diseases, especially those that are caused by an unhealthy lifestyles.

Physical Education Unit Plan: Fitness for Health And social awareness

SWOT Analysis of Physical Fitness Facility

Essay prompt: The Pure Barre franchise is a boutique gym line of studios that has branches across North America- the US and Canada.

The Benefits of Physical Activity for Physical & Mental Health

Essay prompt: Numerous studies have explored the benefits of physical activity to the physical and mental well-being of an individual. A literature review on the subject suggests that there is a positive relationship between physical activity, and physical and mental health.

Analysis Of Fitness And Health Claims In The Future

Essay prompt: How will you approach your analysis of fitness and health claims in the future? How will this help you in your future training endeavours?

Classroom-Based Physical Activity, Cognition, And Academic Achievement

Essay prompt: Evidence suggests that there is an observable association between cardiovascular fitness, cognitive function, and physical activity during early childhood and adolescence. The above variables are linked to the academic performance of an individual.

How the Covid-19 Regulations have Affected Students at the Gym

Essay prompt: The COVID-19 Pandemic has subjected the world to a life-threatening situation, judging by the mortality and morbidity rates. More than 6.2 million people have died of COVID-19, and over 505 million cases have been reported worldwide as of 2022 (de Abreu et al., 2022).

Argumentative Research Paper Topics

There is no shortage of ideas when it comes to writing an argumentative research paper . The key is to find a topic that is interesting to you and that you can make a strong case for. Here are some potential topics to get you started:

• Should the drinking age be lowered?
• Should the voting age be lowered?
• Should there be stricter gun control laws?
• Should the death penalty be abolished?
• Should abortion be legal?
• Should same-sex marriage be legal?
• Should marijuana be legalized?
• Are humans causing climate change?
• Is the welfare system effective?
• Do schools need to do more to prevent bullying?

Whether you’re a diehard sports fan or someone who doesn’t really follow any particular teams, there’s no denying that sports can be a great source of debate. From which sport is the most exciting to watch to whether certain players or teams are truly the best in their respective leagues, there are plenty of topics to choose from when it comes to sports debates.

To help you get started, we’ve compiled a list of some potential sports debate topics. Whether you’re looking for something lighthearted or something a little more serious, we’re sure you’ll find something on this list that gets your blood pumping.

So without further ado, here are 20 sports debate topics to get you started:

• Which sport is the most exciting to watch?
• Are certain players or teams overrated?
• Who are the best players in each sport?
• Who are the biggest busts in each sport?
• What are the best and worst moments in each sport?
• Are there too many teams in each league? Not enough?
• What changes would you make to each sport?
• Which teams are due for a championship

Sports Persuasive Speech Topics

When it comes to giving a persuasive speech, there are many different topics that you can choose from. However, one topic that always seems to be popular is sports. Sports persuasive speech topics can be about anything related to sports, from the benefits of playing a particular sport to the dangers of not playing any sport at all.

• Some good sports persuasive speech topics include:
• The benefits of playing team sports
• The importance of staying active and participating in physical activity
• The dangers of using performance-enhancing drugs in sports
• The negative effects of not playing any sport at all
• Why children should be encouraged to play sports
• How adults can benefit from playing sports

Informative Speech Topics about Sports

When it comes to choosing a topic for an informative speech, there are many directions you could go. You could choose to give a speech about a particular sport, or about the history of sports, or about some of the great athletes who have made their mark on the world of sports.

If you’re a fan of sports, then giving an informative speech about sports could be a great way to share your love of the game with others. There are so many different aspects to sports that you could focus on, from the rules of the game to the training and conditioning that athletes undergo. You could even give a speech about some of the great moments in sports history.

If you’re not a big sports fan, don’t worry – there are plenty of other topics you could choose for your informative speech. You could focus on the history of a particular sport, or on the evolution of sports over time. You could even choose to give a speech about some of the great athletes who have made their mark on the world of sports. No matter what angle you choose, there’s sure to be an informative speech topic about sports that will interest you and your audience

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Health and Fitness Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on health and fitness.

We have always heard the word ‘health’ and ‘fitness’. We use it ourselves when we say phrases like ‘health is wealth’ and ‘fitness is the key’. What does the word health really mean? It implies the idea of ‘being well’. We call a person healthy and fit when he/she function well physically as well as mentally.

Factors Affecting our Health and Fitness

Good health and fitness is not something which one can achieve entirely on our own. It depends on their physical environment and the quality of food intake. We live in villages, towns, and cities.

In such places, even our physical environment affects our health. Therefore, our social responsibility of pollution-free environment directly affects our health. Our day-to-day habits also determine our fitness level. The quality of food, air, water all helps in building our fitness level.

Role of Nutritious Diet on our Health and Fitness

The first thing about where fitness starts is food. We should take nutritious food. Food rich in protein, vitamins, minerals, and carbohydrates is very essential. Protein is necessary for body growth. Carbohydrates provide the required energy in performing various tasks. Vitamin and minerals help in building bones and boosting our immune system.

However, taking food in uneven quantity is not good for the body. Taking essential nutrients in adequate amount is called a balanced diet. Taking a balanced diet keep body and mind strong and healthy. Good food helps in better sleep, proper brain functioning and healthy body weight.

Include vegetables, fruits, and pulses in daily diet. One must have a three-course meal. Having roughage helps in cleaning inner body organs. Healthy food habit prevents various diseases. Reducing the amount of fat in the diet prevents cholesterol and heart diseases.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Impact of Exercise on our Health

Routine exercise helps improve our muscle power. Exercise helps in good oxygen supply and blood flow throughout the body. Heart and lungs work efficiently. Our bones get strong and joints have the pain free movement.

We should daily spend at least twenty minutes in our exercise. Daily morning walk improves our fitness level. We should avoid strenuous Gym activities. Exercise burns our fat and controls the cholesterol level in the body. Various outdoor games like cricket, football, volleyball, etc keeps our body fit. Regular exercise maintains our body shape.

Meditation, Yoga, and Health

Meditation and yoga are part of our life from ancient time. They not only make us physically fit but mentally strong as well. Meditation improves our concentration level. Our mind gets relaxed and thinking becomes positive.

A healthy mind is key for a healthy body. Yoga makes us stressfree and improves the endurance power of the mind. Yoga controls our blood pressure. With yoga, a strong bond with nature is established. Meditation is considered the best way to fight depression.

A person stays happier when he/she is fit and healthy. A fit and healthy person is less prone to chronic diseases. The healthy mind reacts better in a pressure situation. The self-confidence of a person is increased. Risk of heart failure is reduced drastically. With the increased immunity power body could fight cancerous cells. The intensity of the fracture is decreased with regular exercise.

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Physical Activity Is Good for the Mind and the Body

Health and Well-Being Matter is the monthly blog of the Director of the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.

Everyone has their own way to “recharge” their sense of well-being — something that makes them feel good physically, emotionally, and spiritually even if they aren’t consciously aware of it. Personally, I know that few things can improve my day as quickly as a walk around the block or even just getting up from my desk and doing some push-ups. A hike through the woods is ideal when I can make it happen. But that’s me. It’s not simply that I enjoy these activities but also that they literally make me feel better and clear my mind.

Mental health and physical health are closely connected. No kidding — what’s good for the body is often good for the mind. Knowing what you can do physically that has this effect for you will change your day and your life.

Physical activity has many well-established mental health benefits. These are published in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans and include improved brain health and cognitive function (the ability to think, if you will), a reduced risk of anxiety and depression, and improved sleep and overall quality of life. Although not a cure-all, increasing physical activity directly contributes to improved mental health and better overall health and well-being.

Learning how to routinely manage stress and getting screened for depression are simply good prevention practices. Awareness is especially critical at this time of year when disruptions to healthy habits and choices can be more likely and more jarring. Shorter days and colder temperatures have a way of interrupting routines — as do the holidays, with both their joys and their stresses. When the plentiful sunshine and clear skies of temperate months give way to unpredictable weather, less daylight, and festive gatherings, it may happen unconsciously or seem natural to be distracted from being as physically active. However, that tendency is precisely why it’s so important that we are ever more mindful of our physical and emotional health — and how we can maintain both — during this time of year.

Roughly half of all people in the United States will be diagnosed with a mental health disorder at some point in their lifetime, with anxiety and anxiety disorders being the most common. Major depression, another of the most common mental health disorders, is also a leading cause of disability for middle-aged adults. Compounding all of this, mental health disorders like depression and anxiety can affect people’s ability to take part in health-promoting behaviors, including physical activity. In addition, physical health problems can contribute to mental health problems and make it harder for people to get treatment for mental health disorders.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought the need to take care of our physical and emotional health to light even more so these past 2 years. Recently, the U.S. Surgeon General highlighted how the pandemic has exacerbated the mental health crisis in youth .

The good news is that even small amounts of physical activity can immediately reduce symptoms of anxiety in adults and older adults. Depression has also shown to be responsive to physical activity. Research suggests that increased physical activity, of any kind, can improve depression symptoms experienced by people across the lifespan. Engaging in regular physical activity has also been shown to reduce the risk of developing depression in children and adults.

Though the seasons and our life circumstances may change, our basic needs do not. Just as we shift from shorts to coats or fresh summer fruits and vegetables to heartier fall food choices, so too must we shift our seasonal approach to how we stay physically active. Some of that is simply adapting to conditions: bundling up for a walk, wearing the appropriate shoes, or playing in the snow with the kids instead of playing soccer in the grass.

Sometimes there’s a bit more creativity involved. Often this means finding ways to simplify activity or make it more accessible. For example, it may not be possible to get to the gym or even take a walk due to weather or any number of reasons. In those instances, other options include adding new types of movement — such as impromptu dance parties at home — or doing a few household chores (yes, it all counts as physical activity).

During the COVID-19 pandemic, I built a makeshift gym in my garage as an alternative to driving back and forth to the gym several miles from home. That has not only saved me time and money but also afforded me the opportunity to get 15 to 45 minutes of muscle-strengthening physical activity in at odd times of the day.

For more ideas on how to get active — on any day — or for help finding the motivation to get started, check out this Move Your Way® video .

The point to remember is that no matter the approach, the Physical Activity Guidelines recommend that adults get at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity (anything that gets your heart beating faster) each week and at least 2 days per week of muscle-strengthening activity (anything that makes your muscles work harder than usual). Youth need 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. Preschool-aged children ages 3 to 5 years need to be active throughout the day — with adult caregivers encouraging active play — to enhance growth and development. Striving toward these goals and then continuing to get physical activity, in some shape or form, contributes to better health outcomes both immediately and over the long term.

For youth, sports offer additional avenues to more physical activity and improved mental health. Youth who participate in sports may enjoy psychosocial health benefits beyond the benefits they gain from other forms of leisure-time physical activity. Psychological health benefits include higher levels of perceived competence, confidence, and self-esteem — not to mention the benefits of team building, leadership, and resilience, which are important skills to apply on the field and throughout life. Research has also shown that youth sports participants have a reduced risk of suicide and suicidal thoughts and tendencies. Additionally, team sports participation during adolescence may lead to better mental health outcomes in adulthood (e.g., less anxiety and depression) for people exposed to adverse childhood experiences. In addition to the physical and mental health benefits, sports can be just plain fun.

Physical activity’s implications for significant positive effects on mental health and social well-being are enormous, impacting every facet of life. In fact, because of this national imperative, the presidential executive order that re-established the President’s Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition explicitly seeks to “expand national awareness of the importance of mental health as it pertains to physical fitness and nutrition.” While physical activity is not a substitute for mental health treatment when needed and it’s not the answer to certain mental health challenges, it does play a significant role in our emotional and cognitive well-being.

No matter how we choose to be active during the holiday season — or any season — every effort to move counts toward achieving recommended physical activity goals and will have positive impacts on both the mind and the body. Along with preventing diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and the additional risks associated with these comorbidities, physical activity’s positive effect on mental health is yet another important reason to be active and Move Your Way .

As for me… I think it’s time for a walk. Happy and healthy holidays, everyone!

Yours in health, Paul

Paul Reed, MD Rear Admiral, U.S. Public Health Service Deputy Assistant Secretary for Health Director, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion

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Essay on Physical Health

Students are often asked to write an essay on Physical Health in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Physical Health

What is physical health.

Physical health means your body is working well. It’s when you are not sick and can do your daily activities without trouble. Eating good food, exercising, sleeping enough, and seeing a doctor regularly help keep you healthy.

Importance of Exercise

Moving your body makes you stronger and helps you feel good. When you play sports, run, or do yoga, you help your heart, muscles, and bones. Exercise also makes you happier and helps you sleep better.

Eating Healthy

Your body needs good food to work properly. Fruits, vegetables, grains, protein, and dairy give you energy and keep you well. Drinking water is also important. Try to eat less junk food.

Rest and Sleep

Sleeping enough is very important for health. When you sleep, your body fixes itself and gets ready for the next day. Kids should sleep for 9-12 hours every night.

Regular Check-ups

Going to the doctor even when you feel fine is a good idea. The doctor checks if everything in your body is okay and can help prevent sickness. It’s part of taking care of your health.

250 Words Essay on Physical Health

Physical health means having a body that works well and feels good. It’s not just about not being sick; it’s also about being strong, flexible, and full of energy. A body in good shape can play, learn, and do all sorts of activities without getting tired too quickly.

Eating Right

Eating healthy food is key to good health. Your body is like a machine that needs the right fuel to run smoothly. This means eating lots of fruits, vegetables, grains, and proteins. Drinking plenty of water is also important. Sweet snacks and fast food might taste good, but they don’t give your body what it needs to stay healthy.

Being Active

Exercise is another big part of staying healthy. When you move your body, you make your muscles stronger and help your bones grow. Activities like running, jumping rope, or playing sports are great for keeping your heart healthy. Even walking or riding a bike to school can help.

Your body needs to rest after working hard all day. Getting enough sleep every night helps your body repair itself and get ready for the next day. A well-rested body can fight off germs better and keep you from getting sick.

Staying Clean

Keeping clean is also part of being healthy. Washing your hands, taking showers, and brushing your teeth stop germs from making you sick. Good hygiene helps you stay fit and active.

Remember, taking care of your body helps you feel good and do your best every day!

500 Words Essay on Physical Health

Physical health is about how well our bodies work. It’s like when you have a toy that needs batteries to move. If the batteries are good, the toy moves well. Our bodies are like that toy, and we need to take care of them to stay active and strong. Eating good food, exercising, sleeping enough, and going to the doctor are some ways to keep our bodies in good shape.

Imagine your body is a car. Just like a car needs fuel to run, your body needs food to work. But not just any food – it needs healthy food. Fruits, vegetables, grains, protein, and dairy give you energy and help you grow. Eating too much candy or fast food is like putting the wrong fuel in a car. It can make your body run poorly and you might feel tired or sick.

Staying Active

Playing is not just fun, it’s also a way to keep your body healthy. When you run, jump, or play sports, you’re exercising. Exercise helps your muscles get stronger, your heart pump better, and it can even make you feel happier. Try to play or do some kind of exercise every day.

Getting Enough Sleep

Sleep is like a charger for your body. When you sleep, your body fixes any damage and gets ready for the next day. Kids need a lot of sleep because they’re growing. If you don’t sleep enough, you might have trouble thinking, learning, and playing. Most kids need about 9-12 hours of sleep every night.

Seeing the Doctor

Doctors are like body mechanics. They check to make sure everything is working right and fix any problems. Going to the doctor even when you feel fine is important. They can give you shots to stop you from getting sick and help you stay healthy.

Keeping clean is part of being healthy too. Washing your hands, brushing your teeth, and taking baths or showers help keep germs away. Germs can make you sick, so it’s good to wash them off.

Safety is also a part of physical health. Wearing helmets when riding bikes, seatbelts in cars, and sunscreen outside helps prevent injuries. It’s like being careful with your toy so it doesn’t break.

Feeling Good

When your body is healthy, you usually feel good. You can play with friends, learn new things, and enjoy life. Sometimes, you might get sick or hurt, but taking care of your body helps you get better faster.

In summary, physical health is taking care of your body so it can work its best. Eating healthy foods, playing and exercising, sleeping well, going to the doctor, staying clean, and being safe are all important. When you take good care of your body, you feel good and can have lots of fun. Remember, your body is like a favorite toy – you need to take care of it so it can last a long time.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Physical Fitness
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Benefits of Physical Activity

Obesity and Excess Weight Increase Risk of Severe Illness; Racial and Ethnic Disparities Persist

Food Assistance and Food Systems Resources

Immediate Benefits

Weight management, reduce your health risk, strengthen your bones and muscles, improve your ability to do daily activities and prevent falls, increase your chances of living longer, manage chronic health conditions & disabilities.

Regular physical activity is one of the most important things you can do for your health. Being physically active can improve your brain health , help manage weight , reduce the risk of disease , strengthen bones and muscles , and improve your ability to do everyday activities .

Adults who sit less and do any amount of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity gain some health benefits. Only a few lifestyle choices have as large an impact on your health as physical activity.

Everyone can experience the health benefits of physical activity – age, abilities, ethnicity, shape, or size do not matter.

Some benefits of physical activity on brain health [PDF-14.4MB] happen right after a session of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Benefits include improved thinking or cognition for children 6 to 13 years of age and reduced short-term feelings of anxiety for adults. Regular physical activity can help keep your thinking, learning, and judgment skills sharp as you age. It can also reduce your risk of depression and anxiety and help you sleep better.

Both eating patterns and physical activity routines play a critical role in weight management. You gain weight when you consume more calories through eating and drinking than the amount of calories you burn , including those burned during physical activity.

To maintain your weight:  Work your way up to 150 minutes a week of moderate physical activity, which could include dancing or yard work. You could achieve the goal of 150 minutes a week with 30 minutes a day, 5 days a week.

People vary greatly in how much physical activity they need for weight management. You may need to be more active than others to reach or maintain a healthy weight.

To lose weight and keep it off: You will need a high amount of physical activity unless you also adjust your eating patterns and reduce the amount of calories you’re eating and drinking. Getting to and staying at a healthy weight requires both regular physical activity and healthy eating.

See more information about:

• Getting started with weight loss .
• Getting started with physical activity .
• Improving your eating patterns .

Learn more about the health benefits of physical activity  for children, adults, and adults age 65 and older.

See these tips  on getting started.

The good news [PDF-14.5MB]  is that  moderate physical activity , such as brisk walking, is generally  safe for most people .

Cardiovascular Disease

Heart disease and stroke are two leading causes of death in the United States. Getting at least 150 minutes a week of moderate physical activity can put you at a lower risk for these diseases. You can reduce your risk even further with more physical activity. Regular physical activity can also lower your blood pressure and improve your cholesterol levels.

Type 2 Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome

Regular physical activity can reduce your risk of developing type 2 diabetes  and metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is some combination of too much fat around the waist, high blood pressure, low high-density lipoproteins (HDL) cholesterol, high triglycerides, or high blood sugar. People start to see benefits at levels from physical activity even without meeting the recommendations for 150 minutes a week of moderate physical activity. Additional amounts of physical activity seem to lower risk even more.

Infectious Diseases

Physical activity may help reduce the risk of serious outcomes from infectious diseases, including COVID-19, the flu, and pneumonia. For example:

• People who do little or no physical activity are more likely to get very sick from COVID-19 than those who are physically active. A CDC systematic review [PDF-931KB] found that physical activity is associated with a decrease in COVID-19 hospitalizations and deaths, while inactivity increases that risk.
• People who are more active may be less likely to die from flu or pneumonia. A CDC study found that adults who meet the aerobic and muscle-strengthening physical activity guidelines are about half as likely to die from flu and pneumonia as adults who meet neither guideline.

Some Cancers

Being physically active lowers your risk for developing several common cancers .  Adults who participate in greater amounts of physical activity have reduced risks of developing cancers of the:

• Colon (proximal and distal)
• Endometrium
• Esophagus (adenocarcinoma)
• Stomach (cardia and non-cardia adenocarcinoma)

If you are a cancer survivor, getting regular physical activity  not only helps give you a better quality of life, but also improves your physical fitness.

Learn more about Physical Activity and Cancer

As you age, it’s important to protect your bones, joints, and muscles – they support your body and help you move. Keeping bones, joints, and muscles healthy can help ensure that you’re able to do your daily activities and be physically active.

Muscle-strengthening activities like lifting weights can help you increase or maintain your muscle mass and strength. This is important for older adults who experience reduced muscle mass and muscle strength with aging. Slowly increasing the amount of weight and number of repetitions you do as part of muscle strengthening activities will give you even more benefits, no matter your age.

Everyday activities include climbing stairs, grocery shopping, or playing with your grandchildren. Being unable to do everyday activities is called a functional limitation. Physically active middle-aged or older adults have a lower risk of functional limitations than people who are inactive.

For older adults, doing a variety of physical activity improves physical function and decreases the risk of falls or injury from a fall . Include physical activities such as aerobic, muscle strengthening, and balance training. Multicomponent physical activity can be done at home or in a community setting as part of a structured program.

Hip fracture is a serious health condition that can result from a fall. Breaking a hip have life-changing negative effects, especially if you’re an older adult. Physically active people have a lower risk of hip fracture than inactive people.

See physical activity recommendations for different groups, including:

• Children age 3-5 .
• Children and adolescents age 6-17 .
• Adults age 18-64 .
• Adults 65 and older .
• Adults with chronic health conditions and disabilities .
• Healthy pregnant and postpartum women .

An estimated 110,000 deaths  per year could be prevented if US adults ages 40 and older increased their moderate-to-vigorous physical activity by a small amount. Even 10 minutes more a day would make a difference.

Taking more steps a day also helps lower the risk of premature death from all causes. For adults younger than 60, the risk of premature death leveled off at about 8,000 to 10,000 steps per day. For adults 60 and older, the risk of premature death leveled off at about 6,000 to 8,000 steps per day.

Regular physical activity can help people manage existing chronic conditions and disabilities. For example, regular physical activity can:

• Reduce pain and improve function, mood, and quality of life for adults with arthritis.
• Help control blood sugar levels and lower risk of heart disease and nerve damage for people with type 2 diabetes.
• Health Benefits Associated with Physical Activity for People with Chronic Conditions and Disabilities [PDF-14.4MB]
• Key Recommendations for Adults with Chronic Conditions and Disabilities [PDF-14.4MB]

Active People, Healthy Nation SM is a CDC initiative to help people be more physically active.

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Physical Exercise — Overview of the Benefits of Physical Fitness

Overview of The Benefits of Physical Fitness

• Categories: Physical Exercise

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Words: 1541 |

Published: Apr 8, 2022

Words: 1541 | Pages: 3 | 8 min read

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Weight control and reduce the risk of obesity, it can make you feel happier, it is good for muscles and bones and also increases energy levels, it can help reduce the risk of chronic diseases, it improves skin health, it boosts brain health and memory, increases relaxation and sleep quality and reduces pain of chronic diseases, ensures better sex life and improves quality of life.

• Caspersen, C. J., Christenson, G. M., & Pollard, R. A. (2018). Status of the 1990 physical fitness and exercise objectives--evidence from NHIS 1985. Public health reports, 101(6), 587.
• Pandolf, K. B., Burse, R. L., & Goldman, R. F. (2017). Role of physical fitness in heat acclimatisation, decay and reinduction. Ergonomics, 20(4), 399-408.
• Ekelund, L. G., Haskell, W. L., Johnson, J. L., Whaley, F. S., Criqui, M. H., Sheps, D. S., & Lipid Research Clinics Mortality Follow-up Study. (2016). Physical fitness as a predictor of cardiovascular mortality in asymptomatic North American men. New England Journal of Medicine, 319(21), 1379-1384
• Pohjonen, T. (2014). Age-related physical fitness and the predictive values of fitness tests for work ability in home care work. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 43(8), 723-730
• Rasmussen, F., Lambrechtsen, J., Siersted, H. C., Hansen, H. S., & Hansen, N. C. (2010). Low physical fitness in childhood is associated with the development of asthma in young adulthood: the Odense schoolchild study. European Respiratory Journal, 16(5), 866-870.

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152 Fitness Essay Topics to Write about & Examples

Looking for the most popular fitness topics to write about? Find them here! This list contains only the best essay questions about physical fitness, topic ideas for presentation, trending gym essay topics, and research titles. Check them out below!

🔝 Top 10 Fitness Topics to Write About

🏆 best fitness topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on fitness, 💡 interesting topics to write about fitness, ❓ essay questions about physical fitness, 🔥 popular gym essay topics to write about, ✅ health and fitness topics to write about.

• Evaluation of Popular Workouts
• Best Fitness Apps and Wearable Devices
• How to Create a Personalized Fitness Plan
• How Physical Activity Can Reduce Stress
• The Role of Nutrition in Achieving Fitness
• How Social Media Influences Fitness Culture
• Benefits of Regular Exercise on Mental Health
• How to Maintain Fitness and Mobility in Later Life
• Strength Training and Its Importance for Overall Fitness
• What Is the Link Between Fitness and Productivity?
• Importance of Physical Fitness Although swimming might fall under the banner of sports, most people swim to relax in the water and have a good time, and can exercise their body at the same time.
• Externalities Environment and Analysis for Australian Fitness Industry In addition, the report also analyses the main forces that determine the attractiveness of a fitness industry or otherwise the industrial economic perspective of the fitness industry.
• Business Plan of ABC Fitness Center In the content of advertise, the ABC center will highlight the positive sites, emphasis on the importance of fitness center in public health, environment of this center, and the advantages of the membership.
• Business Plan – Fitness Center The aim of this business is to curb the burgeoning problem of a sedentary lifestyle in Saudi Arabia. Close to 30% of the population fall within the criteria, the fitness center is interested in.
• Physical Fitness in Aviation Aviation is an aspect that highly depends on the judgment of the people on the crew and the pilot for any outcome therefore, necessitating the importance of one to be careful with the health state […]
• Strategic Management in Bally Total Fitness These were like friends’ opinions and recommendation, the nature of the place regarding the cleanliness standards, nature and friendliness of the staff, the consistent persuasiveness of marketers and sales pitches, and the convenience and location […]
• Bally Total Fitness: Sports Organizations Industry Once the Bally Fitness Center’s position was improved, the company used an acquisition strategy to expand and strengthen its hold in the industry.
• Fitness Trends: Group Exercising Provides Better Results Physical exercise is essential for the well being of the individual. The benefits of exercise are more comprehensive than simply physical gains.
• Zumba Fitness Strategic Business Plan Because of a communication error between Zumba business owners and Crunch gyms, the Zumba business ended up losing a lot of time and money in legal negotiations concerning the rights of the songs used in […]
• The Positive Effects of Physical Fitness It is essential to understand the components that contribute to proper training to ensure that the chosen program presents benefits. The factor impacts both the heart functioning and the metabolism of an individual.
• A Personalized Fitness Program for a 3-Month Period The type of exercise undertaken may vary with individuals but in all cases, the big muscles of the body like the biceps and triceps muscles should be involved in the exercise as they make the […]
• Fitness and Its Importance for Health In the multi-tasking world of the 21st century, Every person is expected to be some sort of super being who can manage to function on very little to no sleep in order to perform in […]
• Benefits of Exercise and Importance of Overall Fitness Being in the best of health means more than the absence of illness. The American Heart Association recommends keeping track of body composition: how much of your body are fat, bone, and muscle.
• Planet Fitness: Strategic Positioning According to the Porter’s Model This focus is the first compromise that Planet Fitness made, deliberately moving away from catering to affluent customers with high demands on the gym and the level of service.
• Physical Fitness Training Programs for Athletes In summary, the article provides a general guideline for athletes to build muscle and improve performance by focusing on compound exercises, progressive overload, core strength, and flexibility.
• Health and Fitness: Developing a Healthy Community The overall health, physical development, emotional health, and social and emotional maturation of young people can all be impacted by substance use.
• Negligence Area in Gyms: Fitness Center Business Sustainability In some cases, due to factors such as the cost of purchasing them, people may opt to improvise them and therefore ignore the standards required.
• The True Fitness Company’s Interventions in Singapore In 2019, the company opened the largest commercial fitness center in Singapore at the Millenia Walk to meet the growing fitness and wellness services demand.
• Identifying Proper Fitness Resources This online resource serves as a collection of fitness and nutrition advice, as well as posts news related to the well-being industry.
• Horned Melon: The Role in Promoting Health and Fitness The presence of dietary fiber in horned melon is beneficial to the digestion process. In conclusion, weight reduction is one of the strategies people use to maintain their fitness and live healthily.
• A Get-Real Guide to Building Mental Fitness in Sport and Life Fitzgerald tells stories of how athletes have had to return to the profession, facing the difficult stages of accepting their injuries and finding ways to cope.
• Army Soldier’s Fitness in the US and Saudi Arabia In the problem section, the inability of the Army to educate its subjects, along with some of the general trends regarding physical fitness in the US, Saudi Arabia, and the world’s militaries.
• Promoting Wellbeing in Homeless People: Group Fitness Intervention The authors of this article conducted the study to give insight into the importance of considering homeless people in the society they belong. The importance of the study was to encourage people to have inclusivity […]
• Fitness and Health Workforce Programs The first was the control group, used to compare results to the rest. This article can be used to inform the study about the potential options of intervention and affecting the target population.
• Gyms and Fitness Clubs’ Operation During the Covid-19 The best way to prevent the spread of COVID-19 is to take measures and create the necessary conditions for maintaining the health of both customers of fitness clubs and their employees.
• COVID-19 Influence on Fitness Industry For this reason, the aim of our study will be to examine the changes in sports habits of people, as well as their intention to visit fitness centers in the near future.
• E-Marketing Plan for Fast Fitness Since e- marketing is the procedure of business communication and value generation for the target customers with the purpose to establishing relationship with them and gaining profit from the venture.
• Budget for a Health and Fitness Program Medical practitioners have been and should be in the forefront of catering for the health needs of society as a whole as seen in the codes and ethos outlined in the practice e.g.the Hippocratic Oath.
• Infant Nutrition and Fitness Infancy is a critical stage in life since a person establishes healthy consumption patterns.This patterns can lead to the infants acquiring optimal growth and healthy development.
• Nutritional Needs of an Older Adult: Lifecycle Nutrition and Fitness As a rule, female nutritional needs are considerably lower than the ones of a man unless a woman is pregnant. Men also tend to have a considerably higher calorie requirement.
• Fitness First Company Analysis The importance of operations management in forecasting is essential in the fitness industry, where there is the threat of the changes in demand and the newsvendor challenge.
• Management Processes and Supply Chain in Fitness Plus According to the owners in the case research, as the popularity of fitness and health grew, so did the need for more people to register for membership at the club.
• Olympus Strength and Power Fitness Center’s Business Plan This is a prime location within the outskirts of the Aston metropolitan area and provides a serene, spacious environment for would-be patrons of the gym.
• Promotional Strategy for a Chain of Fitness Centers To attract the audience, these people should recite the message that First Fitness could help to “look like this” with a sense of humor.
• Small Business Idea for Fitness Workout Gym The advantages and disadvantages of the four different forms of business organization, which include the following: The business is very easy to form considering that no legal requirements are required, except a business license.
• Developing a Fitness Program The training will involve an extensive warm-up, a gradual increase of the load, and isolated joint exercises for avoiding inaccurate movements.
• Hillingdon Country House Fitness Centre Unfair Standard Terms According to the Office of Fair Trading, “a standard term is unfair if it creates a significant imbalance in the parties rights and obligations under the contract, to the detriment of the consumer, contrary to […]
• Exercise and Health Promotion: Chandler Fitness Center I came to recognize that the objectives and the philosophy of the facility were to change people’s lives through fitness enhancement.
• Nutrition and Fitness to Raise Healthy Children Ohio Action for Healthy Kids wants to establish a county-wide obesity prevention program for children ages 8-12 and requests a grant of $56,600 to meet this goal.
• The Development of a Web Portal Solution for Jupiter Fitness Center The portal will provide the customers of the company more value for the services received, which is expected to contribute to their retention and give the company a competitive advantage.
• The Brain Fitness Exercises Having said that we have a dependency also indicates that there is a certain part of our body that we tend to use a lot less because of it.
• Bally Total Fitness Accounting The portion of the one-time enrolment fee attributable to the periods occurring beyond the year of receipt should be reflected in the books of the company at the close of the respective accounting period as […]
• Genetic Basis of Fitness Differences in Natural Populations In the article to summarize, the authors recognized that one way genomics affect biology is the possibility of identifying and studying how the characteristics affecting fitness, a key issue in natural selection, are genetically based.
• Health and Fitness Workout Plan When I created my blog, I used this information to develop the plan and decide how I would explain my meal choices.
• Teaching Styles: Fitness Director Therefore, the paper aims to discuss the application of the command style, the practice style, and the divergent production as applied to the profession of a fitness director to demonstrate their usefulness for this specialist’s […]
• A Comparative Study of Mental Health Between Players and Non Players In this context, the International Journal of Sports Sciences and Fitness published a study titled “A comparative study of mental health status between players and non-players” to foster awareness regarding the importance of sports activities […]
• Fitness and Health Operations as the Chance of Improving Health The programs should be designed in a way that in the end, the customers can be able to see the results or some change as the program goes on.
• Motivation Through Holistic Fitness: A Cost-Benefit Analysis Specifically, the costs involved in the process will be discussed, and the projected profitability will be assumed. Since I will increase my team members’ motivation, I expect to receive at least a 20% increase in […]
• Employee Motivation Through Holistic Fitness By promoting the emotional, mental, spiritual, and physical fitness of the staff, I will be able to increase their productivity and dedication.
• Motivation Through Holistic Fitness: A Risk Analysis Prior to implementing the holistic fitness idea within the organization, it is necessary to conduct a risk analysis of the planned project. Hence, the primary risk of the plan is the resistance of employees to […]
• The Concept of Army Combat Fitness Test There is complex and dynamic nature of the modern military and combat activity of the army and navy, the use of the latest information technologies, weapons and military equipment, and the country’s security interests.
• Issues With the Army Combat Fitness Test and Why They Should Be Fixed This paper will review the drawbacks of the ACFT, including inadequate requirements for women, injuries associated with the test, the increased complexity of the trial, and the necessity to complete the two-mile run.
• The Relevance of the Army Combat Fitness Test for the U.S. Army The new Army Combat Fitness Test will be implemented by October 2020 and is considered as a better concept to forecast a soldier’s readiness for the pressure one will encounter on the modern battlefield.
• The Benefits of Fitness for Physical and Mental Health It is necessary to mention that I have been able to improve my sleep schedule and its quality because of exercise.
• Anytime Fitness vs. Jetts Firm’s Business Model The paper also analyses the business models of the two firms to determine the firm with a better business model. This is probably one of the strengths of the business that has enabled it to […]
• Fitness Training Programs for Men and Women The reason for assessment of client’s fitness is that by acknowledging needs of Steve, the trainer will be able to elaborate a dedicated workout plan.
• Fitness Marketing Programs: Key Issues First, the word “guaranteed” is prone to misinterpretation: while the results obviously depend on the human factor, such as the persistence of the customers, the wording of the advertisement will likely be ruled out as […]
• Marketing Law Issues in the Fitness Industry For instance, the marketing campaign of the fitness program may include claims of the advantage in time of achieving certain results.
• Fitness and Health Terms Definition Health denotes a condition of total physical, psychological, and social welfare and not just the absence of sickness or frailty while fitness represents the capacity to satisfy the requirements of the environment.
• Saudi Arabian Spinning Studio in Fitness Industry The trainers will ensure that the clients are safe when they are in the studio and that all the rules and guidelines are followed strictly.
• Cardiovascular Fitness Effect on the Rate of Heart Beat The rate of the heart beating is also called the pulse rate and simply refers to the speed at which the heart pumps blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body for […]
• The Benefit of Personal Fitness The importance of sports for the promotion of fitness and making one a better, more fulfilled person suggests both an explanation and a justification for the current and growing popularity of sports.
• Fitness Australia Organization Integrated Marketing Communication About 10 million people who need this sort of therapy and numbers of adult citizen of the country are classified as “clinically obese” for having the notable impact of stress and disability at a larger […]
• China’s Leading Companies Ethical Fitness The mention of corporate ethical responsibility in any part of China naturally draws attention to Adidas and Apple Inc.that had histories of child labor in the country.
• Fitness First Clubs Management and Strategy The main accents in the company are made on attracting the members to the clubs because of the company’s activity which is the leader in providing such kind of service.
• Australian Fitness Industry Marketing Analysis The industry needs to have fitness programs designed specifically for different segments of the market. Hence, the industry should collaborate with the media to make these programs core to the lives of Australians.
• Saudi Arabia Fitness Centre: Company Description The main promoters of the fitness centre comprise of a group of young individuals who are advocating on the importance of healthy living.
• Fitness First Clubs Strategies The development of the training programs meets the company’s orientation on the effective structure and rivalry and the peculiarities of market domination model according to which the work of managers is organized.
• The La Fitness Centre: Competition Effects on Performance The La Fitness Centre is one of the renowned fitness centres in the Hatfield region. RO4: To purchase and modify the facilities to enable the La Fitness Centre to be competitive in the market.
• Fitness Express Company: Progress and Problems The validation outcomes are promising to lead to increased interest of the owner to explore the business and results of the project.
• Fitness Express Ltd Business Plan Fitness and sporting market continues to grow in Australia and New Zealand. The vision of the company is premised on delivering fitness and sporting gears to customers as quickly and efficiently as possible in […]
• Fitness Obsession and Its Causes Apart from that, physical attractiveness is one of the factors that can contribute to their success in various areas of life.
• Analysis of the Fitness First Health and Fitness Centre The purpose of starting the club was to provide health and fitness training services to people belonging to different age groups and income levels under the directorship of the co-founders.
• Healthcare Issues: LA Fitness for Students and Healthy Living Through Fitness Programs Inclusion of sports and physical exercise classes in learning institutions justifies the significance of exercise to students. LA Fitness has physical exercise programs that are cost-friendly to college students.
• 24 Hour Fitness Worldwide Inc. Implementation Plan 24 Hour Fitness Worldwide Inc.is based in California and was established in the year 1983 for the purposes of providing fitness services to the population.
• Fitness and Sport Learning Most of the theoretical and practical perspectives during the course have expanded my outlook on the role of sport in my life, as well as how it can enhance my professional fulfillment.
• Business Plan for Star Fitness Center Those living and working in the city will have the opportunity to use the facility that is equipped with the latest technology for body fitness.
• Academic Achievement and Physical Fitness This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge, which identifies that there is a positive correlation between physical fitness and academic achievement.
• Fitness Shoes Marketing Strategy The company’s location in China has created many issues and changes in the company due to the laws and regulations, global changes, data protection and the legislation of the country.
• Body Fitness and Health Yuill and Barry argues that “both male and female do different types of exercises so that they can acquire their preferred body shapes and due to complex social relations, especially in the universities, females are […]
• Ethics and Professional Standards of Fitness Gym One area where ethics and professional responsibility apply to fitness gym is in the relationship between the trainer and the client in the gym.
• Marketing program for a health and fitness club It is the responsibility of the marketing agency of the company to investigate what goes on in the mind of the customers.
• The Impact of a Fitness Intervention on People with Developmental and Intellectual Disabilities This is one of the issues that should be singled out. This is one of the issues that should be considered.
• Fit and Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness In particular, the authors of the book tried to explain the causes of major diseases and to describe the necessary sport activities to prevent and overcome them.hey expressed the medical point of view in the […]
• Recreational Therapy: Fitness Impact on the Disabled The quarterly description has six basic components that guide recreational therapists in providing care and are entered in the patient’s chart: the goal of the treatment/intervention; the intervention plan; the RT practitioner’s views on the […]
• Strategies for 24 Hour Fitness However, each of the three kinds of value discipline relies on the type of service or product provided by the organization as well as the culture maintained by the given organization.
• Fitness for Use in Operation Management From this perspective, the notion of fitness for use is important when customers draw conclusions about usability of products and services because personal needs are different, and the quality and fitness of the product or […]
• Physical Fitness and Sport Policy in the Cold War Johnson presidential administration shifted the priorities in the sports national policy and vision of sports rivalry in the United States.”Addressing the subject in terms of federal initiatives during the 1960s, this article will argue that […]
• Fitness for Life: Program Analysis This condition prompted Lincoln University to introduce a ‘Fitness for life Program’, which endeavors to, peg physical fitness of students to academic merit in the attainment of diplomas.
• Fitness and Performance in Aviation The physical fitness and vigorous health of aviation workers are critical aspects in their performance, in aviation, because of the nature of some of their jobs that may be physically demanding.
• The Genesis Fitness Club The use of the website for information management also serve as an advantage since the company expenses due to the reduced number of personnel required as well as expenses required for stationeries and this in […]
• How Can Fitness Overcome Fast Food?
• What Does Your Fitness Assessment Tell You?
• Does Cardiorespiratory Fitness Influence the Effect of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function?
• How Can Fitness Clubs Leverage Social Media?
• Can Exercise Increase Fitness and Reduce Weight in Patients With Schizophrenia and Depression?
• How Do Health and Fitness Facilities Affect Communities?
• Does Cardiorespiratory Fitness Buffer Stress Reactivity and Stress Recovery in Police Officers?
• How Are Consumers Convinced That It Is Necessary to Take Fitness?
• Why Is Fitness Important in Our Daily Life?
• Does Fitness Bring People Together?
• How Does Physical Fitness Improve the Quality of Your Life?
• Does Higher Physical Fitness Protect Master Athletes From Consequences of COVID-19 Infection?
• How Reliable Are Wearable Fitness Tracking Devices?
• Does Physical Fitness Improve Academic Success?
• How Does Exercise Reduce Stress?
• What Can Regular Fitness Do for You?
• Do Warm-up Exercises Play a Role in Developing the Physical Fitness of Players?
• Is Physical Fitness Training Beneficial or Dangerous for Stroke Patients?
• In What Cases Are There Increases in Physical Activity but No Measurable Gains in Physical Fitness?
• Can Physical Fitness Impact Your Research Capabilities?
• Is There a Correlation Between Cardiorespiratory Fitness and the Incidence of Sudden Cardiac Death in Athletes?
• How to Assess the Stamina and Physical Fitness of an Individual?
• Is There a Difference Between Physical Activity and Physical Fitness?
• Can Yoga Enhance Both Mental and Physical Fitness?
• How Important Is It to Stick to a Routine for Maintaining Health?
• What Is the Importance of Fitness in Life?
• How Does Physical Activity Affect Your Fitness?
• Why Is Fitness Important to You as a Student?
• How Do You Stay Fit and Healthy?
• Why Are Fitness Standards Higher Than Health Standards?
• Pros and Cons of Regular Gym Attendance
• Effective Practices for Gym Safety and Injury Prevention
• Personal Trainers’ Role in Achieving Fitness Goals
• The Psychology of Gym Motivation: How to Overcome Barriers
• Social and Psychological Benefits of Group Fitness Classes
• Pros and Cons of Working Out at Home Instead of Gyms
• Gym Etiquette for a Positive Workout Environment
• How Gym Design and Atmosphere Influence Workout Experience
• Technological Advancements and Innovative Fitness Concepts
• The Evolution of Gym Culture from Greek Gymnasiums to Modern Fitness Centers
• Hydration and its Impact on Exercise
• Fitness for Different Age Groups
• Aerobic Exercise for Cardiovascular Fitness
• Pros and Cons High-Intensity Interval Training
• Why Physical Activity Is Important for Overall Health
• Nutrition and Fitness: How Diet Can Enhance the Effect of Exercise
• Exercise for Building Muscles and Increasing Bone Density
• How Stretching and Yoga Increase Flexibility and Mobility
• The Link Between Quality Rest and Exercise Performance
• Mindfulness, Yoga, and Meditation: Holistic Approaches to Health
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• Importance Of Exercises Essay

Importance of Exercise Essay

500+ words essay on the importance of exercise.

We all know that exercise is extremely important in our daily lives, but we may not know why or what exercise can do. It’s important to remember that we have evolved from nomadic ancestors who spent all their time moving around in search of food and shelter, travelling large distances on a daily basis. Our bodies are designed and have evolved to be regularly active. Over time, people may come across problems if they sit down all day at a desk or in front of the TV and minimise the amount of exercise they do. Exercise is a bodily movement performed in order to develop or maintain physical fitness and good health overall. Exercise leads to the physical exertion of sufficient intensity, duration and frequency to achieve or maintain vigour and health. This essay on the importance of exercise will help students become familiar with the several benefits of doing exercise regularly. They must go through this essay so as to get an idea of how to write essays on similar topics.

Need of Exercise

The human body is like a complex and delicate machine which comprises several small parts. A slight malfunction of one part leads to the breakdown of the machine. In a similar way, if such a situation arises in the human body, it also leads to malfunctioning of the body. Exercise is one of the healthy lifestyles which contributes to optimum health and quality of life. People who exercise regularly can reduce their risk of death. By doing exercise, active people increase their life expectancy by two years compared to inactive people. Regular exercise and good physical fitness enhance the quality of life in many ways. Physical fitness and exercise can help us to look good, feel good, and enjoy life. Moreover, exercise provides an enjoyable way to spend leisure time.

Exercise helps a person develop emotional balance and maintain a strong self-image. As people get older, exercise becomes more important. This is because, after the age of 30, the heart’s blood pumping capacity declines at a rate of about 8 per cent each decade. Exercise is also vital for a child’s overall development. Exercising helps to maintain a healthy weight by stoking our metabolism, utilizing and burning the extra calories.

Types of Exercise

There are three broad intensities of exercise:

1) Light exercise – Going for a walk is an example of light exercise. In this, the exerciser is able to talk while exercising.

2) Moderate exercise – Here, the exerciser feels slightly out of breath during the session. Examples could be walking briskly, cycling moderately or walking up a hill.

3) Vigorous exercise – While performing this exercise, the exerciser is panting during the activity. The exerciser feels his/her body being pushed much nearer its limit compared to the other two intensities. This could include running, cycling fast, and heavy-weight training.

Importance of Exercise

Regular exercise increases our fitness level and physical stamina. It plays a crucial role in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. It can help with blood lipid abnormalities, diabetes and obesity. Moreover, it can help to reduce blood pressure. Regular exercise substantially reduces the risk of dying of coronary heart disease and eases the risk of stroke and colon cancer. People of all age groups benefit from exercising.

Exercise can be effective in improving the mental well-being of human beings. It relieves human stress and anxiety. When we come back from work or school, we feel exhausted after a whole day of work. If we can go out to have a walk or jog for at least 30 minutes, it makes us feel happy and relaxed. A number of studies have found that a lifestyle that includes exercise helps alleviate depression. Those who can maintain regular exercise will also reduce their chances of seeing a doctor. Without physical activity, the body’s muscles lose their strength, endurance and ability to function properly. Regular exercise keeps all parts of the body in continuous activity. It improves overall health and fitness, as well as decreases the risk of many chronic diseases. Therefore, physical exercise is very important in our life.

Exercise can play a significant role in keeping the individual, society, community and nation wealthy. If the citizens of a country are healthy, the country is sure to touch heights in every facet of life. The country’s healthy generation can achieve the highest marks in various fields and thereby enable their country to win laurels and glory at the international level. The first step is always the hardest. However, if we can overcome it, and exercise for 21 days continuously, it will be a new beginning for a healthy life.

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Frequently Asked Questions on the Importance of Exercises Essay

What are the benefits of exercising regularly.

Regular exercise helps in the relaxation of the mind and body and keeps the body fit. It improves flexibility and blood circulation.

Which are some of the easy exercises that can be done at home?

Sit-ups, bicycle crunches, squats, lunges and planks are examples of easy exercises which can be done at home without the help of costly equipment.

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

4 Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance

Key messages.

• Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.
• Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.
• Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.
• Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.
• Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.
• Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.

Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.

Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.

Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.

• PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).

Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).

When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).

Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.

The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).

Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).

Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance

Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).

Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).

Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.

Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.

State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).

Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).

In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).

Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance

In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.

In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.

The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.

In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.

A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.

Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).

Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.

Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).

Single Bouts of Physical Activity

Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .

Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.

For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.

Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).

Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)

It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.

Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors

Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).

After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.

A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).

Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.

In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.

It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).

To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.

From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.

• THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH

The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.

The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults

Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).

Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.

Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.

Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).

With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.

Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.

In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.

In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.

Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).

Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function

Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.

In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function

Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.

Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).

Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.

Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.

Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health

A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.

Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.

Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.

• LIMITATIONS

Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.

Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.

Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.

From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.

Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.

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Physical: 100 Remains Gloriously Pointless

When our childhood recesses turned into gym classes and adolescent sports games, we lost the unstructured hang. Gone are the days of pinwheeling around vault bars, duking it out in sandy tetherball pits, and throwing ourselves off swings then counting the seconds of hang time. Some of us turned these movements into competitions, crowning winners based on senseless points systems and ever-changing rules before running into our classrooms; the glory would matter only until lunch when we would dream up new challenges. We could fit a whole quest into 20 minutes of recess as kids.

Don’t you miss that? I don’t mean the literal swings, rickety bridges, and monkey bars, but the joy in inventing inane games that test our physicality. Today the pursuit of fitness can make one feel like a hamster. Move to any metropolitan area and the only steady co-ed fitness options tend to be gym classes , hermetic adult obstacle courses in dilapidating indoor malls, and recreational sports leagues ranging from soccer to … dodgeball. At best they can become humdrum, and at worst, embarrassing.

Isn’t this why we revel in Physical: 100 ? In its second season, the popular Korean competition show welcomes 100 Korean-speaking competitors (one of whom returns from the first season) to compete in a series of new individual and team challenges to test their strength, agility, endurance, strategy, and spirit until there is one champion left standing. The winner leaves with around $280,000, but winning this show does not yield national esteem, a meeting with the nation’s leader, or a parade. There is no advancement in one’s athletic career after participating. Contestants are fueled by community, competition, and, perhaps most of all, a sense of fun in fitness. As a result, Physical: 100 gained its popularity from the contagious delight of watching people enjoy themselves like children competing on a playground.

As a former run-amoker, I now regularly lift weights as my sentient hamster exercise of choice. I love tearing away at my sinewy stabilizer muscles while working at a bench press, and the soreness that becomes a source of pride in my movement. However, there are not many spaces for me to show off what I gain from doing deadlifts and snatches because I am not a conventional athlete. Even after triumph, my personal records are simply just that — personal and contained to the four walls of my LA Fitness. Physical: 100 allows me to imagine a more joyful, less-structured fitness environment where competition and camaraderie serve my personal growth — even if parts of the series’ culture still too closely resemble our own.

Season two’s quests continue to be imaginative, ludic, and delightfully pointless. We have seen a combination maze run-sandbag haul, an elaborate mine set with monkey bars and more sandbags, an elimination round where players painfully hang on to a bulky wooden pole, and a race lugging giant 330 pound rollers. It strikes an impressive balance of dreaming up ridiculous challenges while also taking its competitors seriously. There is none of the slapstick of Wipeout or the obnoxious pyrotechnics of American Ninja Warrior . Physical: 100 means business.

In continuing the idea of fitness as play, Physical: 100 recruited more general fitness enthusiasts — the chosen hamsters! — this season. Alongside the increase in national teams (it’s an Olympic year, after all), the show welcomed unconventional competitors like a porter, a broadcaster, a cosplayer, and an arborist, all of whom arrived without a massive social following. Other competitors included MMA fighter Kim Dong Hyun and quadruple judo champion Lee Won Hee, both of whom have retired from their sports and make a livelihood as a television personality and the head coach of the Korean Women’s Judo National Team, respectively. After reaching a certain age, retired athletes have just as many outlets as generalists do to compete. I can only imagine how exciting Physical: 100 must be for them; they don’t typically have non-competitive spaces to show off after hanging up their hats. Season two makes a meaningful step forward in the show’s commitment to showcasing different types of athleticism and bodies. We’ve since learned that fitness enthusiasts are just as entertaining as professional athletes.

As imaginative as the quests are, however, Physical: 100 hasn’t figured out how to retain fitness enthusiasts past early rounds. New rules in season two allowed for an elimination round where the winner formed a new team from a pool of 24 other contestants who were eliminated after the first team quest. Unfortunately, the recruitment strategy for teams favored conventional strength and physique over skills and strategy, which ultimately resulted in the elimination of women and generalists without well-worn fitness accomplishments. It also allowed for five of the most feared competitors to band together after Greco-Roman wrestler Jung Ji Hyun won and opted to create the human Monstars . This team is easy to hate because the alliance belies the competition, and their combined strength and agility are overshadowed by their faux humility. Yet I wholly understand Hyun’s rationale to rebuild a stronger team out of spite (a very Korean trait) for almost being kicked out of the game so early by less physically muscular teams.

My irritation lies beyond the team’s makeup, though. Just one year ago,  Physical: 100  was a show about the all-encompassing range of our bodies. The first season didn’t always reward displays of brolic feats. Part of its appeal was that men like Kim Min Su (a.k.a. Thanos) may not be as good at pushing a minecart full of 90-pound sandbags as the considerably smaller rugby player Andre Jin was. Ultimately,  Physical: 100  stays true to its twists in rules and breaks up the Monstars by episode eight, when each team has to compete among their own teammates to secure a spot in the final four, but it’s already too late for many of the more exciting and less-conventional competitors who are gone much too soon.

I must be frank here: Physical: 100 has a sexism problem. Despite the admirable and jaw-dropping, chest-tightening, life-reevaluating-ly hot male contestants, season two would be a wash without players like Lee, who was the only team leader with some sense of wisdom and class in the game. He chose a woman first to be on his team, let alone a judoka that he currently coaches. It shouldn’t be heartwarming, but it is because the other male team leaders are not looking to build a well-balanced team in the Physical: 100 world. They don’t start to pick women until they “have” to. It’s an attitude that shortchanges viewers, but also the teams themselves since many of the women are incredible competitors. Take Lim Soo Jin, a well-decorated professional bodybuilder who hoisted nearly a ton’s worth of sandbags into her minecart through a series of intense cleans, then pushed it across a track with such grace that it wowed her male rivals. So far, the answer from Physical: 100 ’s producers seems to have been to say “Oh, well!” and then move on from profiling the female contestants after putting the majority of the women’s one-on-one matches in a sped-up compilation. These are the times when I feel pretty bummed about this season. I already come in jealous of these contestants and sad that play is noticeably absent from our discourse around fitness, but I see how even seemingly progressive fitness competitions can fail bodies that look like mine.

Thankfully, this season’s small triumphs are far more resonant than its fumbles. A year from now, I won’t remember how Jung’s strategically formed team tried to steamroll the competition (I will definitely get into kabaddi, though), but I will remember how female MMA fighter Shim Yu Ri challenged and defeated U.S. federal agent Hunter Lee in a cage match. Or how Kpop idol Lee Jang Jun — immediately dismissed by others as a pretty face — exhausted fan favorite Hong Beom Seok in the agility gym. Or how high school wrestler Jang Jun Hyuk went head-to-head with Jung, who won gold in the 2004 Olympics before Jang was even born. These matchups don’t happen outside of their own cages, gyms, and dojangs. As athletes and conventionally fit contestants discover their own limits in a new arena, we are equal witnesses to the thrilling range and depth to our bodies.

So despite it all, I’m still inspired. Here I am grittily hoisting groceries from the trunk of a car to the house in one go, or pushing furniture across apartment building hallways to avoid extra labor charges from the moving van, increasingly becoming hyper aware of how all my Sisyphean movements could make for exciting games, too. In the end, Physical: 100 ’s contestants seem most fulfilled completing challenges together when they would otherwise be spinning their hamster wheels in their respective individual sports and professions. It addresses a need in our fitness community for gathering grounds without the cultishness that comes from loving a singular sport or exercise. We love to be challenged and love plot twists even more. We embrace questions like, “Can the moving van guy do more pull-ups than me?” and then actually having the space to see. These are inquiries of imagination that take the movements that we already do in real life and put them in the context of play.

Just like how much we need “third spaces” for teens and young adults to hang outside of the house, I want fitness culture to find more spaces for low-stakes, unstructured movement, where people of all bodies are welcome to stretch, sprint through, or throw someone else around. Let’s repurpose parks and public spaces to install quests that are open to the public. Let’s put a Cybertruck in the middle of a parking lot and challenge people to put the largest dent in it. From there, let’s allow new rules to unfold, and let the winner go home and say that they were celebrated for accomplishing something dumb and pointless but giving everyone a good show. I’d rather do that than join a “just moved to L.A.!!” group cloaked as an intramural sports league.

Oh, God … did I just make a tiny case for CrossFit? Congratulations to Amotti, I GUESS.

• vulture section lede
• physical: 100
• reality competition

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