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Training and Education in Psychology

Training & education in psychology (tepp) is the appic official journal and is published by the american psychological association. tepp impact factor = 2.263.

The APPIC Board highly values our collaboration with APA in the development of TEPP: Training and Education in Professional Psychology, and will highlight an article from each published volume of the Journal.

2022, Volume 16:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Training Issues and Innovations , Education and Training Across the Lifespan , Special Section: Diversity and Inclusion in Education and Training , Special Section: Education and Training Through COVID-19
• Issue 2 (May): Special Issue: Competency in Education and Training: 20 Years of Progress , Articles

2021, Volume 15:

• Issue 1 (Feb): TEPP in 2021: Welcoming opportunities and rising to challenges. , Training to Practice Pipeline: Financial & Regulatory Issues , Special Section: Innovations in Education and Training , Special Section: Diversity and Inclusion in Education and Training , Special Section: COVID-19 Impacts on Education and Training
• Issue 2 (May): Science-Based Education and Training , Trainee Health and Self-Care
• Issue 3 (Aug): Education and Training Across Practice Areas , Training Sequence and Career Transition , Special Section: Diversity and Inclusion in Education and Training , Special Section: Innovations in Education and Training
• Issue 4 (Nov): Special Section: Education and Training Through COVID-19 , Supporting Trainees , Special Section: Diversity and Inclusion in Education and Training

2020, Volume 14:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Special Issue: Education and Training in Substance Use Disorders and Addictions: Coordinated Special Issue With Professional Psychology: Research and Practice , Introduction , Commentary , Articles
• Issue 2 (May): Special Issue: Social Justice Training in Health Service Psychology , Introduction , Articles
• Issue 3 (Aug): Expanding Training Opportunities to Meet Current and Emerging Needs , Special Section: Innovations in Education and Training , Special Section: Diversity and Inclusion in Education and Training
• Issue 4 (Nov): Technology in Education and Training , Special Section: Diversity and Inclusion in Education and Training , Special Section: Innovations in Education and Training

2019, Volume 13:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Editorial , Advancing the Science of Education and Training , Expanding Training Opportunities to Meet Current and Emerging Needs , Special Section: Diversity and Inclusion in Education and Training
• Issue 2 (May): Special Section: Master's Level Accreditation in Health Service Psychology , Special Section: Diversity and Inclusion in Education and Training , Innovations and Professional Issues in Education and Training
• Issue 3 (Aug): Special Issue: Supervisee Perspectives on Supervision Processes: Coordinated Special Issue With the Journal of Psychotherapy Integration
• Issue 4 (Nov): Competency Development , Supervision and Training Issues , Special Section: Diversity and Inclusion in Education and Training , Special Section: Innovations in Education and Training

2018, Volume 12:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Editorial , Mentoring in Health Service Psychology , Developing Evidence Base in Training and Education
• Issue 2 (May): Special Section: Postdoctoral Training in Health Service Psychology , Professional Issues of Supervision Assessment and Competence
• Issue 3 (Aug): Professional Competencies , Training Program Innovations , Ethics and Professionalism
• Issue 4 (Nov): Special Section: Evidence-Based Training , Special Section: Diversity in Professional/Health Service Psychology

2017, Volume 11:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Articles , Brief Report
• Issue 2 (May): Multicultural Education and Training of Professional Psychologists , Issues Facing the Training Community
• Issue 3 (Aug): The Competency Assessment Project of the Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers , Initial Evaluation of Training and Implementation of a New Technology for Psychological Assessment , Issues in Professional Training and Education , Other
• Issue 4 (Nov): Standards of Accreditation in Health Service Psychology , Psychotherapy Training , Student Perspectives in Education and Training

2016, Volume 10:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Articles
• Issue 2 (May): Internships and Postdoctoral Training , Competence and Training
• Issue 3 (Aug): Articles
• Issue 4 (Nov): Articles

2015, Volume 9:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Special Section: Pre-Practicum Education and Training , Issues in Supervision
• Issue 2 (May): Special Section: Postdoctoral Training in Professional Psychology , Training in Health Policy , Issues for the Education Community , Supervision in Education for Professional Psychology
• Issue 3 (Aug): Regular Articles , Forum on Innovative and Creative Training Strategies
• Issue 4 (Nov): Special Section: Education and Training Issues Related to the Conscience Clause , Articles

2014, Volume 8:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Editorial , Special Series: Blueprint for Health Service Psychology Education and Training , Articles
• Issue 2 (May): Articles
• Issue 4 (Nov): Special Section: Ethical Issues in Education and Training , Special Topics in Education and Training in Professional Psychology

2013, Volume 7:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Competency Issues , Training Issues
• Issue 2 (May): Next Steps in Competency Models , Professional Issues
• Issue 3 (Aug): Tele-issues , Internship Imbalance , Critical Thinking, Values, Multicultural Case Conceptualization
• Issue 4 (Nov): Competency , Clinical Training , Other

2012, Volume 6:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Licensure , Training , Competency , Graduate Students
• Issue 2 (May): Training , Competence and Coping
• Issue 4 (Nov): Special Section: When Trainee Beliefs Collide with Care , Professional Training , Supervision , Internship Demand , Other

2011, Volume 5:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Special Section: Broad and General Education in Professional Psychology , Training Issues: Culture, Competence, and Disclosures
• Issue 2 (May): The Future of Psychology Education and Training , Education and Training , Other
• Issue 3 (Aug): Special Section: The Internship Imbalance Problem: Redefining the Paradigm To Implement Effective Change , Nondisclosures, Google, and Faculty Experiences , Competency
• Issue 4 (Nov): Special Section: Struggling To Resolve the Internship Imbalance , Licensure and Training

2010, Volume 4:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Introduction , Narratives , Theoretical Perspectives , Research
• Issue 2 (May): Special Section: Building a Geropsychology Workforce , Understanding Academic and Internship Program Admission , Enhancing Training
• Issue 3 (Aug): Special Section: Social Justice in Training , Training Environments and Experiences

2009, Volume 3:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Supervision and Training , Scales , Training Programs , Other
• Issue 2 (May): Supervision Process , Diversity , Advocacy , Treatment Expectations
• Issue 3 (Aug): Internship Match , Supervision , Training
• Issue 4 (Nov): Clinical Health Psychology , Issues in Teaching and Training
• Issue 4, Suppl (Nov): Supplemental Issue

2008, Volume 2:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Clinical Supervision and Training , Research Training
• Issue 2 (May): Training Psychologists to Respond to Disaster , Competence-Adherence-Disclosure
• Issue 3 (Aug): Competency Issues , Recruiting, Funding, Social Justice
• Issue 4 (Nov): Special Section: Systemic Approaches to Trainees with Professional Competence Problems , Examining Practice Competencies

2007, Volume 1:

• Issue 1 (Feb): Articles , An Overview of Psychology Education and Training , Practicum and Internship Training
• Issue 2 (May): Training for Practice , Research Training
• Issue 3 (Aug): Internship Issues , Research Issues , Other Training Issues
• Issue 4 (Nov): Special Issue: The Psychology Internship Match: Changing the Paradigm to Move Beyond the Status Quo , Other

2006, Special Volume:

• Issue 1 (Aug): Articles
• Issue 2 (Nov): Articles

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VIEW VIRTUAL TOWN HALL PRESENTATION  

The CoA hosted a virtual town hall presentation titled: Master’s Accreditation Update and Brief Overview of Key Points for Programs on Friday, January 12, 2024.

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Psychology in Professional Education and Training

• Reference work entry
• First Online: 17 December 2022
• Cite this reference work entry

• Christoph Steinebach 5  

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE))

1146 Accesses

Psychology plays a special role in vocational education in many respects. In the course of rapidly developing professional and educational worlds, its importance continues to grow. This change corresponds to a new understanding of psychological courses in vocational education and training. For individuals, as well as for institutions and organizations, the changes in the world of work can lead to orientation crises. Interest in psychological content is increasing.

Psychological reflection of the vocational biography, psychological training offers, as well as the psychological career-related counseling are of special importance here. From this, recommendations can be derived to offers, to their goals, and to their didactics. Psychological theories help to grasp the meaning of the offers. From a psychological point of view, vocational training is a learning, development, and socialization process. Learning opens up opportunities for personality formation and optimal development in a changing professional world.

The reflection of psychological competences offers the possibility for a competence-oriented description of programs. It also shows that the usual focus of psychological competences on social skills falls short. Psychology in academic studies and further education requires a didactic approach that enables self-determined learning in formats that are independent of time and place. This results in special tasks for didactics and the monitoring of learning processes. This is also associated with special challenges for teachers. The impact of psychological offerings in higher and further education can be seen, among other things, in the extent to which “psychological literacy” promotes personal development, innovation in the workplace, and social participation.

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Steinebach, C. (2023). Psychology in Professional Education and Training. In: Zumbach, J., Bernstein, D.A., Narciss, S., Marsico, G. (eds) International Handbook of Psychology Learning and Teaching. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28745-0_43

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The set of journals have been ranked according to their SJR and divided into four equal groups, four quartiles. Q1 (green) comprises the quarter of the journals with the highest values, Q2 (yellow) the second highest values, Q3 (orange) the third highest values and Q4 (red) the lowest values.

The SJR is a size-independent prestige indicator that ranks journals by their 'average prestige per article'. It is based on the idea that 'all citations are not created equal'. SJR is a measure of scientific influence of journals that accounts for both the number of citations received by a journal and the importance or prestige of the journals where such citations come from It measures the scientific influence of the average article in a journal, it expresses how central to the global scientific discussion an average article of the journal is.

Evolution of the number of published documents. All types of documents are considered, including citable and non citable documents.

This indicator counts the number of citations received by documents from a journal and divides them by the total number of documents published in that journal. The chart shows the evolution of the average number of times documents published in a journal in the past two, three and four years have been cited in the current year. The two years line is equivalent to journal impact factor ™ (Thomson Reuters) metric.

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Evolution of the number of total citation per document and external citation per document (i.e. journal self-citations removed) received by a journal's published documents during the three previous years. External citations are calculated by subtracting the number of self-citations from the total number of citations received by the journal’s documents.

International Collaboration accounts for the articles that have been produced by researchers from several countries. The chart shows the ratio of a journal's documents signed by researchers from more than one country; that is including more than one country address.

Not every article in a journal is considered primary research and therefore "citable", this chart shows the ratio of a journal's articles including substantial research (research articles, conference papers and reviews) in three year windows vs. those documents other than research articles, reviews and conference papers.

Ratio of a journal's items, grouped in three years windows, that have been cited at least once vs. those not cited during the following year.

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28 Professionalism: Professional Attitudes and Values in Psychology

Catherine L. Grus, American Psychological Association

Nadine J. Kaslow is Professor and Vice Chair for Faculty Development, Chief Psychologist (Grady), and Director of Postdoctoral Fellowship Training at Emory University School of Medicine Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences. Dr. Kaslow is the 2014 President of the American Psychological Association (APA).

• Published: 04 August 2014
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Professionalism is a multifaceted construct, making it difficult to develop a consensus definition of the term. This lack of an agreed-upon definition poses challenges to the development of this competency in psychology education and training, as well as to its assessment. Despite these barriers, development of professionalism in psychology trainees serves a critical societal function. This chapter describes the construct of professionalism in professional psychology and in the broader health professions context. Attention is paid to effective strategies for assessing and teaching professionalism. Consideration is given to addressing trainees with competence problems that are manifested in the professionalism domain. Future directions are offered with regard to defining, assessing, and training for this competency.

Professionalism is a construct that for many years has received considerable attention in other health professions in North America and Europe ( Passi, Doug, Peile, Thistlethwaite, & Johnson, 2010 ). It is only recently that professionalism has emerged as an independent construct and core competency within professional psychology. Professionalism is a necessary, albeit not sufficient, competency for effective and high-quality practice and the protection of the pubic in the twenty-first century ( Lesser et al., 2010 ; Pellegrino, 2002 ). It is critical to psychologists’ social contract with the public ( Cruess, Cruess, & Steinert, 2009 ; Cruess, Cruess, & Steinert, 2010 ). More than an innate character trait or virtue, professionalism is a complex and multifaceted competency that incorporates a broad array of essential components. This competency can be taught, and it is imperative that psychologists make a lifelong commitment to refining this competency over the course of their professional development ( Lesser et al., 2010 ). Further, the values that fall under the rubric of professionalism must be espoused and modeled in all educational and training endeavors as professionalism is context dependent and thus systems-level issues influence its manifestation and assessment ( Lesser et al., 2010 ; Wear & Kuczewski, 2004 ). As professional psychologists, it is imperative that we create a culture of professionalism within our discipline.

This article represents one of the first systematic efforts to review the pertinent literature on professionalism for the professional psychology literature. Given the dearth of information about professionalism within psychology, most of what will be discussed will draw upon the literature from other health professions. Specifically, attention will be paid to the definitions and history of the construct of professionalism. Strategies for assessing professionalism will be reviewed. There will be a discussion of a variety of techniques for teaching and enhancing the professionalism competency. In addition, approaches for addressing problems in the competency domain of professionalism will be shared. As the field of professional psychology evolves, the role of professionalism will shift, and thus consideration will be given to the ways in which this construct is relevant to psychologists’ efforts to effectively address such shifts (e.g., social networking). Throughout the article, we will gear our comments to ways in which this literature can be applied within professional psychology.

Definitions

Professionalism is a multidimensional construct that includes interpersonal, intrapersonal, and public elements ( Van de camp, Vernooij-Dassen, Grol, & Bottema, 2004 ). According to Merriam-Webster, professionalism is defined as “the conduct, aims, or qualities that characterize or mark a professional or a professional person” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). Thus it is a way of acting, rather than a way of being ( Cohen, 2007 ). Humanism, an overlapping and mutually enriching construct, is the term that refers to the associated way of being ( Cohen, 2007 ; Swick, 2007 ). Despite the aforementioned dictionary definition, within the health professions broadly as well as individually, there is no consensus definition of professionalism ( Hafferty, 2006 ). Rather the definitions of this construct vary according to the profession, underlying philosophical perspective, the culture, and the context. It is worth noting that discussion in the literature this competency’s definition sometimes defines the construct and at other times offers descriptions of behavior that fall within the bounds of this construct.

Over the millennium and more specifically in the last decade, the concept of professionalism has undergone major changes within medicine ( Van Mook, De Grave, Wass et al., 2009 ). As such, multiple definitions have been put forward. The following are some well-known examples. According to the Accreditation Council of Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) Outcomes Project, professionalism entails the demonstration of: compassion, integrity, and respect for others; responsiveness to patient needs that supersedes self-interest; respect for patient privacy and autonomy; accountability to patients, society, and the profession; excellence in ongoing professional development; adherence to ethical principles; and sensitivity and responsiveness to diverse patient populations, including but not limited to diversity in gender, age, culture, race, religion, disabilities, and sexual orientation ( Swing, 2007 ).

A later definition of medical professionalism was proffered in 2000 by Swick, who stated that the construct was comprised of the following set of physician behaviors:

subordinating own interests to the interests of others

adhering to high ethical and moral standards

responding to societal needs, with behaviors reflecting a social contract with the communities served

evincing core humanistic values, including honesty and integrity, caring and compassion, altruism and empathy, respect for others, and trustworthiness

exercising accountability for themselves and for their colleagues

demonstrating continued commitment to excellence

exhibiting a commitment to scholarship and to advancing their field

dealing with high levels of complexity and uncertainty

reflecting upon their actions and decision ( Swick, 2000 )

These behaviors were adopted by multiple groups ( Hilton & Soutgate, 2007 ), including the Association of American Medical Colleges for their undergraduate medical student outcomes work ( Medical School Objectives Writing Group, 1999 ), accreditation and reaccreditation processes, and the American Board of Internal Medicine in its Project Professionalism ( American Board of Internal Medicine, 2001 ).

According to Stern, who edited the book, Measuring Medical Professionalism ( Stern, 2006 ), “professionalism is ”demonstrated through a foundation of clinical competence, community skills, and ethical and legal understanding, upon which is built the aspiration to and wise application of the principles of professionalism: excellence, humanism, accountability, and altruism” (p. 19).

The following are the key themes, listed alphabetically, that are associated with the definitions of the construct of professionalism within medicine: altruism, accountability, benevolence, caring and compassion, courage, ethical practice, excellence, honesty, honor, humanism, integrity, reflection/self-awareness, respect for others, responsibility and duty, service, social responsibility, team work, trustworthiness, and truthfulness ( American Board of Internal Medicine, 2001 ; Hafferty, 2006 ; Hilton & Soutgate, 2007 ; Van Mook, Van Luijk, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ).

Other health professions.

Within dentistry, professionalism has been defined by six value-based statements: competence, fairness, integrity, responsibility, respect, and service-mindedness ( American Dental Education Association; ADEA, 2009 ). Descriptions and behaviors associated with each of these values are provided by the ADEA in their Statement on Professionalism in Dental Education.

Within nursing, “professionalism and professional values” are constructs that encompass fourteen behaviors such as: adhering to professional standards; being accountable; modeling the values and articulating the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the nursing profession; demonstrating professionalism; appreciating the history of and contemporary issues in nursing; engaging in self-reflection; identifying risks that impact personal and professional choices and behaviors; communicating personal bias in difficult decisions to the health care team; recognizing the impact of attitudes, values, and expectations on the care of vulnerable populations; protecting privacy and confidentiality; using interprofessional and intraprofessional resources to resolve ethical and other practice dilemmas; acting to prevent unsafe, illegal, or unethical care practices; articulating the value of pursuing practice excellence, lifelong learning, and professional engagement; and valuing self-care ( American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2008 ). Using Q-methodology with nursing faculty and students, it was shown that individuals with different perspectives varied in the ways in which they defined professionalism ( Akhtar-Danesh et al., 2013 ). For example, those classified as humanists highlighted the professional values associated with the construct, such as respect for human dignity, personal integrity, protection of patient privacy, and the protection of patients from harm. For those categorized as portrayers , professionalism was manifested by one’s image, attire, and expression. For those termed facilitators , the construct incorporated standards and policies, as well as personal beliefs and values. Finally, those categorized as regulators asserted that professionalism is fostered in a work context in which suitable beliefs and standards are communicated, accepted, and implemented.

Psychology.

Within professional psychology, professionalism as defined in the revised benchmarks model encompasses a number of specific competencies, one of which is professional attitudes and values ( Hatcher et al., 2013 ). The specific competency of professional attitudes and values, which is the competency most germane to this article, has the following agreed upon definition within professional psychology: “behavior and comportment that reflect the values and attitudes of psychology” ( Found et al., 2009 ; Hatcher et al., 2013 ). The essential components include: (1) integrity—honesty, personal responsibility, and adherence to professional values; (2) deportment; (3) accountability; (4) concern for the welfare of others; and (5) professional identity.

History of Professionalism

The following is a brief recent history of efforts focused on professionalism within medicine ( Kirk, 2007 ; Passi et al., 2010 ; Thistelethwaite & Spencer, 2008 ). In the mid-1990s, Project Professionalism was commissioned by the American Board of Internal Medicine. Project Professionalism was designed to promote integrity within the specialty of internal medicine, in the educational context, and among all internists and subspecialists within medicine. It defined six components of professionalism: altruism, accountability, excellence, duty, honor/integrity, and respect ( American Board of Internal Medicine, 1995 , 2001 ). A parallel process occurred in Canada, CANMEDS , which was sponsored by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada ( Thistelethwaite & Spencer, 2008 ). CANMEDS articulated a competency-based framework and delineated roles that should define a competent specialist: medical expert, communicator, collaborator, manager, health advocate, scholar, and professional.

In 1999, the ACGME defined general competencies that each specialty within medicine is expected to impart to its residents during training; professionalism was listed as one of these six core competencies. In that same year, the American Board of Internal Medicine Foundation, in partnership with the American College of Physicians Foundation and the European Federation of Internal Medicine, initiated the Medical Professionalism Project. This effort resulted in the creation of a physician’s charter published in 2002, entitled “Medical professionalism in the new millennium,” which states, “Professionalism is the basis of medicine’s contract with society. It demands placing the interests of patients above those of the physician, setting and maintaining standards of competence and integrity, and providing expert advice to society on matters of health” ( Project of the ABIM Foundation, ACP-ASIM Foundation, & European Federation of Internal Medicine, 2002 ). The fundamental principles that undergird this charter are the primacy of patient welfare (altruism), respect for patient autonomy, and commitment to social justice ( Smith, Saavedra, Raeke, & O’Donell, 2007 ). Based upon these principles, this charter delineates a set of professional responsibilities for the physician that serve as indicators of professionalism. The charter articulates ten commitments: professional competence, honesty with patients, patient confidentiality, maintaining appropriate relations with patients, improving quality of care, improving access to care, just distribution of finite resources, scientific knowledge, maintaining trust by managing conflicts of interest, and professional responsibilities. It also notes actions that physicians should take associated with each of these commitments.

In addition to the definition of professionalism and its attributes, recent years have witnessed a growing focus on assessing professionalism within medicine using multiple methodologies ( Stern, 2006 ). This reflects the expectation by the accreditation body that graduate medical education and residency programs assess the attainment of professionalism, along with other core competencies. Further, attention has been paid to strategies for teaching professionalism, which also is an expectation of the accreditation process. Both topics are discussed in more detail later in this article.

There has been a burgeoning effort within medicine to promote the development and implementation of campus-wide efforts designed to apply the fundamental principles of the professionalism component of the Physician’s Charter in order to ensure meaningful cultural change. Some but not all of these efforts were funded by grants from the Medical Professionalism Project to academic health centers. The following are some medical schools that recently have developed pertinent activities to promote professionalism in trainees and have implemented a program to transform the culture of their academic institution to one in which professionalism is central: Indiana University School of Medicine, University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, University of Washington School of Medicine ( Brater, 2007 ; Christianson, McBride, Vari, Olson, & Wilson, 2007 ; Fryer-Edwards et al., 2007 ; Goldstein et al., 2006 ; Humphrey et al., 2007 ; Smith et al., 2007 ; Wasserstein, Brennan, & Rubenstein, 2007 ). We now summarize these strategies for promoting professionalism. Some of these approaches have targeted primarily medical students, whereas others have been more comprehensive and have focused on medical students, housestaff (i.e., residents), faculty, and staff. The key activities include: developing a value statement that incorporates professionalism; creating professionalism committees and vertically integrated advisory groups; focusing on various cultures (e.g., organizational, safety) within the system and instituting efforts to enhance the level of professionalism within these contexts; encouraging more effective community efforts (i.e., use of appreciative inquiry); evaluating their admissions criteria to ensure they were making selections in a fashion that valued professionalism; offering various educational programs and experiential workshops; developing and providing a professionalism curriculum for medical students and/or modifying their curriculum to be patient-centered; ensuring that professionalism was a component of the performance evaluation for trainees at all levels of professional development, faculty, and staff; instituting interdisciplinary rounds; implementing an informal and confidential intervention for students, staff, and faculty for whom there were concerns about professionalism; introducing mechanisms for reporting of unprofessional behavior; and recognizing, including in their compensation, individuals whose behavior reflects and/or promotes the values of professionalism. Many of the leaders of these institutional initiatives have offered thoughtful strategies for overcoming the challenges associated with such culture transformation.

The Mayo Clinic may be the academic health science center most regarded for the high degree of professionalism manifested by its health care professionals ( Viggiano, Pawlina, Lindor, Olsen, & Cortese, 2007 ). Their core value is “putting the needs of the patient first,” and this signifies their emphasis on professionalism and informs their approach to leadership, management, and day-to-day practice. All clinic staff embrace this core value in all of their efforts and interactions and view doing so as their “professionalism covenant”—that is, a collective, tacit agreement that each person who works at the institution will actively and sincerely collaborate to put the patients’ needs and welfare at the forefront. This covenant, which is part of the institution’s mission statement, is shared with patients and trainees in two seminal documents, the Mayo Clinic Model of Care and the Mayo Clinic Model of Education .

One significant element of professionalism’s history within medicine pertains to the ways in which this competency has been viewed as key to physicians’ social contract with society ( Cruess et al., 2010 ). Proponents of professionalism have argued that physicians need to reassert their professionalism in order to redefine their contract with society ( Cruess, Cruess, & Johnston, 1999 ; Cruess & Cruess, 1997 ). Given cultural and societal differences, attention has begun to be paid in medical education to the ways in which professionalism should be taught and must be manifested with respect to local customs and values ( Cruess et al., 2010 ).

Within dentistry, professionalism is one of six required competencies. The American Dental Education Association has argued that graduates must be competent to apply ethical and legal standards in the provision of dental care and practice within the scope of their competence and consult with or refer to professional colleagues when indicated ( American Dental Education Association, 2009 ). In terms of nursing, professionalism is identified as one of ten competencies that will inform future nursing practice and curricula, although the focus is at the baccalaureate, rather than masters or doctoral, level ( American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2008 ). According to the American Association of Colleges of Nursing, the nurse of the future will demonstrate accountability for the delivery of standards-based nursing care that is consistent with moral, altruistic, legal, ethical, regulatory, and humanistic principles ( American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2008 ).

In 2011, a document was published that articulated the core competencies for interprofessional collaborative practice ( Interprofessional Education Collaborative Expert Panel, 2011 ). Nursing, osteopathic and allopathic medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, and public health collaborated in this endeavor. Although professionalism as a term is not used to describe one of the four competency sets in this document, one of the competency sets clearly incorporates elements of professionalism and is entitled “values/ethics for interprofessional practice.” In addition, growing attention has been paid to the importance for interprofessional education of teaching health care trainees about professionalism ( McNair, 2005 ). Health care professionals in some countries have worked across health care specialties to collaboratively develop and implement models for evaluating and teaching professionalism ( Van Luijk, Gorter, & Van Mook, 2010 ).

In general, psychology has been slower than other health professions in identifying and agreeing upon core competencies. The 2002 Competencies Conference was first time in which professionalism was noted to be a competency within professional psychology ( Kaslow, 2004 ; Kaslow et al., 2004 ; Rodolfa et al., 2005 ). It was conceptualized at that time as the outcome of professional development, which was conceived as being a foundational competency ( Elman, Illfelder-Kaye, & Robiner, 2005 ). Attention was given to two elements of professionalism—interpersonal functioning and thinking like a psychologist. It was only more recently, as competency models evolved within professional psychology, that professionalism itself has been viewed as a core foundational competency. It was articulated as such for the first time in the Benchmarks document ( Fouad et al., 2009 ). Recently, professionalism has been conceptualized more broadly as an overarching competency cluster that includes four specific competencies: (1) professional attitudes and values; (2) individual and cultural diversity; (3) ethical and legal standards and policy; and (4) reflective practice, self-assessment, and self-care ( Hatcher et al., 2013 ).

Within professional psychology, steps have been taken to delineate strategies for the formative and summative assessment of this competence at multiple stages of professional development ( Kaslow et al., 2009 ). Of note, although the Commission on Accreditation incorporates a competency-based focus to the accreditation process of graduate, internship, and post-doctoral residency programs, they have yet to focus on professional attitudes and values as one of the competencies on which they evaluate training programs’ educational efforts or outcomes.

Rationale for assessing professionalism.

There are multiple reasons to assess professionalism in trainees. First, the assessment of this foundational competency is critical for providing meaningful and valuable formative and summative feedback that assists trainees in continuing to improve and grow developmentally in this domain. Second, evaluating professionalism can enable trainers to identify trainees with problems of professional competence. This is particularly important given the link between unprofessional behavior in school and future performance and disciplinary action, at least as shown to be the case in medicine ( Murden, Way, Hudson, & Westman, 2004 ; Papadikis, Hodgson, Teherani, & Kohatsu, 2004 ; Papadikis et al., 2005 ; Teherani, Hodgson, Banach, & Papadakis, 2005 ). Third, an accurate and comprehensive assessment of professionalism can be useful to trainers in guiding the documentation and implementation of remediation efforts for trainees who evidence problems of professional competence related to professionalism. Fourth, when remediation efforts fail, assessment processes that yield specifics about ways in which the trainee’s performance falls below benchmark expectations set by the program for this competency domain can be helpful in informing decision makers and gatekeepers. Finally, the assessment of this competency guarantees greater accountability of psychologists, which ensures quality service delivery, and as a result, protects and benefits the public.

Assessment approach.

It is important that training programs employ both formative and summative assessments of professionalism ( Kaslow et al., 2009 ; Van Mook, Van Luijk, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ). When assessing professionalism, multiple subjective and objective methods that provide complementary information should be utilized ( Stern, 2006 ; Van Mook, Gorter, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ). For example and specific to psychology, the Competency Assessment Toolkit for Professional Psychology recommends that the following techniques be utilized for assessing the overall broad competency of professionalism: 360-degree evaluations, annual/rotation performance reviews, Competency Evaluation Rating Forms, client/patient process and outcome data, and consumer surveys ( Kaslow et al., 2009 ). Evaluations should attend to the various components of the construct and should be based on observations within realistic contexts whenever possible. Such evaluations should focus not just on an understanding of professionalism and professional behavior, but also on the attitudes that underlie professionalism ( Rees & Knight, 2007 ; Van Mook, Gorter, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ). It is advisable for numerous trainers to assess this construct in each trainee and that this construct be assessed longitudinally. It is essential that trainers be transparent to trainees that they are being evaluated on this domain of professional functioning.

The value of peer assessments of professionalism is a recent focus for trainers ( Arnold, 2002 ; Arnold, Shue, Kritt, Ginsburg, & Stern, 2005 ; Ginsburg et al., 2000 ). There is some evidence that peer evaluations may provide useful information about trainees’ professional behaviors ( Arnold, 2002 ). There are mixed feelings among trainees vis-à-vis peer assessments ( Arnold et al., 2005 ). A number of factors promote and/or discourage this process, including personal challenges with peer feedback, the nature of the assessment approach, and the context in which the evaluations take place. Trainees often are afraid to raise concerns about professionalism with a peer or other colleague. However, such assessment feedback can be invaluable if offered in a thoughtful, specific, and compassionate fashion. In general, effective peer assessment systems of professional attitudes and values are anonymous, offer input in a timely fashion, address both professional and unprofessional attitudes and behaviors, are part of a formative evaluation, and take place in a supportive context ( Arnold et al., 2007 ).

There also is some evidence that patient ratings of professionalism are reliable and valid, including with psychiatrists, especially when used in the context of a 360-degree evaluation ( Lelliott et al., 2008 ; Wood et al., 2004 ). However, not all studies have found these ratings to be reliable ( Ginsburg et al., 2000 ). In addition, there are concerns about the use of patients to evaluate psychology trainees and psychologists. These concerns include power differentials, ways in which personality pathology might influence perceptions, and the nature of the transference relationship. Thus it may be more appropriate to use standardized patients to evaluate this competency ( Ginsburg et al., 2000 ).

Assessment tools.

A number of different instruments can be useful for assessing professionalism within health care ( Lynch, Surdyk, & Eiser, 2004 ; Van Mook, Gorter, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ; Veloski, Fields, Boex, & Blank, 2005 ). Some of these tools offer a comprehensive assessment of the construct, whereas others assess one facet or a specific attribute(s) of the construct. The most commonly cited of these attributes are: ethics, ethical decision making, moral reasoning, and humanism. Additional components of this construct that may be assessed include multiculturalism, empathy, values, attitudes toward deception in patient relationships, care for the indigent, and trust.

Unfortunately, at present, there are no well-accepted or commonly used assessment devices for professionalism. Furthermore, few of the available instruments meet the minimal validity and reliability criteria to support their operational use for formative or summative assessments of for academic decision-making ( Jha, Bekker, Duffy, & Roberts, 2007 ; Veloski et al., 2005 ). However, assessment tools have begun to appear in the literature to assess the fundamental concept of professionalism. Indeed, a 2007 paper found a total of 55 different measures of professionalism and related elements ( Jha et al., 2007 ).

The following represent some of the most frequently used tools developed for use with physicians and medical students. The Evaluation of Professional Behavior in General Practice is a scale developed to assess professional behavior in primary care physicians ( Van de camp, Vernooij-Dassen, Grol, & Bottema, 2006 ). The Nijmegen Professionalism Scale, which was developed to evaluate professional behavior in primary care physicians, has been used with trainers and trainees alike ( Tromp, Vernooij-Dassen, Kramer, Grol, & Bottema, 2010 ). The Professionalism Mini-Evaluation Exercise is an assessment tool with some psychometric support in which trained faculty observe and rate behaviors associated with professionalism in medical students ( Cruess, McIlroy, Cruess, Ginsburg, & Steinert, 2006 ). Recently, a tool was created to assess medical students’ perceptions of professionalism in their learning environment, the Learning Environment for Professionalism Survey ( Thrush, Spollen, Tariq, Williams, & Shorey, 2011 ). Until these tools are used either in their current format or in a revised format, their utility for psychologists is an empirical question.

Measures also have been created to assess professionalism in other health professions. For example, the nursing literature reports on assessment tools of professionalism, such as Hall’s Professionalism Inventory Scale ( Hall, 1968 ). Although developed more than 40 years ago, it is still used today ( Wynd, 2003 ). One of the more commonly used scales to assess this construct in nursing has been the Professionalism in Nursing Behaviors Inventory ( Adams & Miller, 2001 ; Miller, Adams, & Beck, 1993 ) that covers nine categories of behavior representing professionalism and is based on the model that is reflected in the Wheel of Professionalism in Nursing. The Professionalism and Environmental Factors in the Workplace Questionnaire encourages nurses to reflect upon their behavior; offers a framework for discussing, planning, and implementing strategies to encourage professionalism in practice; and is associated with productive work environments ( Baumann & Kolotylo, 2009 ). Once again, the relevance of these tools for psychologists has yet to be determined.

Assessment challenges.

There are myriad challenges associated with assessing professionalism. There is a general lack of consensus about the definition and manifestation of this construct. Our assessment armamentarium specific to this construct is weak to relatively nonexistent. Lapses in professionalism often are subtle, and trainees’ behavior is not consistent across contexts. Factors such as these make the assessment of this competency questionable in terms of their reliability, validity, and fidelity ( Schwartz, Kotwicki, & McDonald, 2009 ).

Teaching Professionalism

As far back as the Greek philosophers Plato and Socrates, the question of whether virtue can be taught has been debated. Socrates did not answer this question definitively. Today, trainers debate whether professionalism can be taught, and the answer appears to be both yes and no. We believe that there are three groups of trainees for whom professionalism can be taught. The first group is comprised of individuals with a high level of natural competence in professionalism. They developed this competency even before entering the formal psychology educational and training sequence, and thus simply require that it be honed and made more psychology-specific. The second group can be defined as “good-enough” trainees in the professionalism domain. These are people for whom solid training and experience can enable them to meet or exceed the benchmarks in this domain. The third group consists of the subgroup of trainees with problems of professional competence within the professionalism domain who are motivated to address these difficulties.

The following section offers a framework and strategies for teaching professionalism to these subgroups of trainees. For the teaching of this competency to be effective, professionalism must be treated carefully and comprehensively throughout the educational and training sequence within professional psychology ( Ginsburg & Stern, 2004 ). An effective approach for teaching professionalism entails offering myriad learning opportunities for gaining experience in and reflecting upon professionalism ( Passi et al., 2010 ). These opportunities should include a mixture of formal experiences and informal opportunities to examine issues related to professionalism ( Stern & Papadakis, 2006 ; Van Mook, De Grave, Van Luijk, et al., 2009 ; Van Mook, Van Luijk, De Grave, et al., 2009 ). It is also optimal that the education and teaching of this construct be guided by relevant educational theory and principles of adult learning ( Cruess et al., 2009 ).

Training the trainers.

Trainer development is a prerequisite for the teaching of professionalism ( Cruess et al., 2009 ). Before trainers can teach professionalism to trainees they must themselves be trained and competent in this domain of functioning ( Cruess et al., 2009 ). Systematic, integrated faculty development programs and workshops need to be created, disseminated, and implemented. Such programs must be devised in a manner that takes into account the institutional/organizational culture, targets diverse stakeholders, uses diverse formats and strategies that are guided by educational theory and principles of effective instructional design, and communicates in a transparent fashion its goals and priorities ( Cruess et al., 2009 ). These programs must be evaluated in an ongoing fashion and revised in accord with the feedback and outcomes.

Faculty development programs optimally entail defining professionalism, focusing on its ecology, attending to the hidden curriculum (i.e., unintended problematic behaviors modeled in the culture), modeling professionalism, examining teaching strategies, evaluating professional behavior accurately and comprehensively with a high degree of fidelity, creating action plans associated with assessment outcomes, providing techniques for addressing competence problems in the professionalism domain, promoting reflection and self-awareness in trainers and trainees alike, and considering institutional responsibility for professionalism ( Gabbard et al., 2012 ; Gaiser, 2009 ; Goldstein et al., 2006 ; Larkin, 2003 ; Stark, Korenstein, & Karani, 2008 ; Steinert, Cruess, Cruess, & Snell, 2005 ; Sutkin, Wagner, Harris, & Schiffer, 2008 ). In general, these programs should be experiential and discussion oriented in nature. Participation in such programs is associated with self-reported changes in teaching and practice and a perception that such programs serve as an instrument of change ( Steinert, Cruess, Cruess, Boudreau, & Fuks, 2007 ; Steinert et al., 2005 ). In addition, training faculty in professionalism has a significant positive impact on the behavior and performance of trainees in this competency domain ( Joyner & Vemulakonda, 2007 ). Trainers should be evaluated in this competency domain and given ongoing feedback to ensure attainment and maintenance of competence in professionalism ( Larkin, 2003 ). Measurement tools to do so need to be created and evaluated.

It is important that we train the trainers to be attentive to indicators of professionalism in selecting trainees ( Passi et al., 2010 ). It behooves trainers to avoid choosing those who appear to exhibit unprofessional personal characteristics that are likely to negatively impact their capacity to effectively carry out the functions of being a psychologist. In other words, the focus should be more on “de-selection,” rather than selection ( Passi et al., 2010 ). Unfortunately, there are limited empirical data with regard to the characteristics that are predictive of unprofessional behavior, as well as a lack of psychometrically sound measures to tap the capacity to develop and manifest professionalism. As psychologists, we may be particularly competent to develop such selection methods.

Creating a climate of professionalism.

The first step that trainers must take when teaching this competency is to create a climate of professionalism. Such a climate fosters professional attitudes and values in the individuals within the culture ( Ratanawongsa et al., 2006 ). This entails a number of steps. Trainers must convey to everyone what is expected and what is valued and underscore the point that professionalism is critical to effective practice and professional functioning. It is essential that they communicate that professionalism is a dynamic and lifelong practice that entails ongoing self-reflection and ethical engagement.

It is imperative that the training climate supports people in talking about their own lapses in professionalism, that they acknowledge such difficulties, and apologize for their errors. It is also is beneficial to the community if there are mechanisms in place for making complaints about the unprofessional behavior of colleagues and if such concerns are handled sensitively and seriously.

A climate of professionalism is one in which bidirectional feedback is commonplace. Trainers must be open to feedback about their own level of professionalism. It is important that trainees’ views of their trainers’ performance in this competency domain be solicited and that such information be considered seriously in trainers’ evaluations and promotion/retention decisions. For example, teaching portfolios should include an assessment of the trainer’s professionalism, as well as a philosophy and/or plan with regard to how they will maintain and enhance both their own and their trainee’s level of professionalism ( Seldin & Associates, 1993 ; Seldin & Miller, 2009 ; Seldin, Miller, & Seldin, 2010 ). Similarly, the climate should be one in which trainees welcome feedback from multiple people about their performance in the professionalism domain. Trainers should pass along feedback about trainees’ levels of professionalism using a “forward feeding” process ( Cleary, 2008 ; Cox, 2008 ; Pangaro, 2008 ). “Forward feeding” refers to the freely communicating information about trainees across all levels of the system, a process that is particularly crucial when there are concerns regarding the trainees’ professionalism.

Finally, for a climate of professionalism to be pervasive within an educational system or organization, the community norms often need to be altered. The norms should be ones that reinforce appropriate social and subjective elements of professional attitudes and values throughout the institutional culture. Unfortunately, at the present time, deficiencies in our learning environments, which include unprofessional conduct by trainers, in conjunction with the subjective nature of the assessment of professional attitudes and values, often leaves trainees feeling vulnerable, confused, and unjustly evaluated and treated ( Brainard & Brislen, 2007 ). As a result, trainees are less likely to exhibit developmentally normative levels of professional attitudes and values ( Cruess & Cruess, 2006 ). A climate of professionalism is one that is transparent, has clear communication and expectations, treats trainees and trainers alike with respect and compassion, and includes trainers that model professional behavior ( Brainard & Brislen, 2007 ).

Role modeling.

One critical component of a culture of professionalism is role modeling, a process that involves both conscious and unconscious activities ( Cruess et al., 2009 ). Positive role models are central to professional character development and serve as an effective means for imparting professional values, attitudes, and behaviors ( Cruess, Cruess, & Steinert, 2008 ; Kenny, Mann, & MacLeod, 2003 ). Role models manifest positive professional behaviors and characteristics. As Aristotle said, “we learn by practice and the best practice is to follow the model of the virtuous person.” Thus all trainers, from the most senior to the most junior, must serve as role models ( Wear & Aultman, 2010 ).

There are a number of qualities associated with the effective role modeling of professionalism. These include, but are not limited to, clinical competence and the provision of quality care, teaching skills, capacity for and willingness to share their self-reflections, sensitivity to diversity, and personal attributes reflective of good character ( Cruess et al., 2008 ; Weissman, Branch, Gracey, Haidet, & Frankel, 2006 ; Wright & Carrese, 2003 ). These trainers prioritize providing feedback and articulating what they are modeling ( Wright, Kern, Kolodner, Howard, & Brancati, 1998 ). In addition, positive role models demonstrate a commitment to improving their competence as role models ( Cruess et al., 2008 ). Further, they have minimal tolerance for unprofessional behavior ( Duff, 2004 ) and, when such behavior does occur, they address it promptly and with all seriousness.

Trainers must model professionalism, which entails working together collaboratively to establish group norms for professional behavior and to personally behave in accord with such standards ( Larkin, 2003 ). With regard to teaching professionalism, role models need to exemplify virtue in their interactions with patients, trainees, colleagues, and the community at large; demonstrate a humanistic perspective; communicate honestly and directly with trainees, who get the message because the trainer’s words come from the heart; and convey the value of self-reflection ( Coulehan, 2005 ). They also need to be models for coping adaptively with the myriad stressors associated with professional practice ( Mareiniss, 2004 ). Effective role modeling fosters professional attitudes and behaviors and serves a preventive function vis-à-vis inappropriate professional behavior ( Mareiniss, 2004 ; Ratanawongsa et al., 2006 ). It is useful if mentoring systems are created to support trainers in developing as role models and teachers of professionalism. Clearly, we need virtuous psychologists as teachers and role models at every stage of the education and training sequence.

Devising and implementing a curriculum.

A systematic curriculum should be implemented in professional psychology training programs. It is ideal if this curriculum is developmentally informed, multifaceted, and comprehensive and includes didactics and situational learning. Both the curriculum and the participants should be evaluated in an ongoing fashion ( Verderk, de Bree, & Mourits, 2007 ).

For trainees, the didactics optimally include a combination of coursework, readings, lectures, discussions, vignettes, case presentations, skills trainings, and activities ( Boenink, De Jonge, Smal, Oderwald, & Van Tilburg, 2005 ; Passi et al., 2010 ). Didactics programs should focus on a review of the history and literature related to professionalism, with attention paid to historical figures as role models; a discussion of professionalism knowledge, skills, and attitudes; an examination of pertinent ethics, morals, and human values; and a list of what and what not to do in clear behavioral terms ( Archer, Elder, Hustedde, Milam, & Joyce, 2008 ; Eggly, Brennan, & Wiese-Rometsch, 2005 ; Ginsburg, Regehr, Stern, & Lingard, 2002 ).

While didactics are valuable and associated with positive changes in relationships with patients, cultural issues, ethics, humanism, and professional values ( Jha et al., 2007 ), the most effective teaching of professionalism is based in both situational and experiential learning ( Cruess & Cruess, 2006 ; Roberts, Hammond, Geppert, & Warner, 2004 ). There are a number of productive methods for situational teaching, including but not limited to case review and analysis, experiential training, self-awareness training, narrative competence development, collaborative interactions, community service activities, supervision and mentoring, individual or group coaching, peer supervision consultation, and Balint training.

Case review and analysis is an increasingly popular approach for teaching professionalism and typically should occur in small group discussions with trainers who serve as role models and who engage trainees in a Socratic dialogue ( Duff, 2004 ; Stern, Frohna, & Gruppen, 2005 ). These efforts usually involve goal-directed problem solving and problem-based learning to increase the knowledge-skill-attitude link. In these small group discussions, the principles of professionalism should be tied to the cases being analyzed.

A variety of experiential exercises can be used to teach professionalism. These exercises afford trainers and trainees the opportunity to discuss and develop positive professionalism attitudes, as well as to describe, model, and practice professionalism ( Archer et al., 2008 ; Eggly et al., 2005 ; Ginsburg et al., 2002 ). One activity that appears promising is using trigger films, a brief vignette depicting an interaction between a provider and a patient, to facilitate a discussion about various aspects of professional behavior ( Ber & Alroy, 2002 ). A second exercise entails encouraging trainees to share observations of unprofessional behavior that they witnessed and having them compare the behavior to articulated principles of professionalism. A third activity includes asking trainees to discuss or write essays about their experiences with professional and unprofessional behavior (i.e., critical events), both their own and those of others. This affords them the opportunity to reflect upon the challenges of behaving in a professional fashion ( Ginsburg, Regehr, & Lingard, 2003 ). Discussing these critical event analyses with a trainer can enhance the self-reflection process, particularly when the trainer provides a safe and nonjudgmental context, offers a framework for understanding the events and associated emotional reactions, underscores the fact that there often is no right or wrong way to engage in a significant event analysis, and shares his/her own significant event analyses to model such exploration ( Henderson, Berlin, Freeman, & Fuller, 2002 ; Stark, Roberts, Newble, & Bax, 2006 ). A fourth exercise is the establishment of an online professional development portfolio. The creation of such portfolios facilitates self-awareness, narrative competence, goal setting, and structured mentorship related to professionalism ( Kalet et al., 2007 ).

Self-awareness training is critical to ensuring that psychologists engage in a process of self-reflection throughout the course of their careers. To begin this process, trainers must provide a training environment that is a safe venue for trainees to share their experiences; understand their own beliefs, feelings, attitudes, and response patterns; and engage in personal psychotherapy if desired ( Coulehan, 2005 ). They must underscore the fact that self-assessment is critical to lifelong learning and ongoing performance enhancement ( Duffy & Holmboe, 2006 ). There are multiple techniques for teaching enhanced self-assessment, such as mindful practice in action training ( Epstein, 2003a , 2003b ). One-on-one interviews with a faculty mentor are a particularly effective mechanism for eliciting personal reflections on professionalism ( Baernstein & Fryer-Edwards, 2003 ).

One very important facet of professionalism competence is evidencing the capacity for narrative competence. To be competent in professionalism, the construct has to be meaningful to the individual, and this occurs through having the construct become personally relevant through the process of stories (i.e., narrative competence) ( Coulehan, 2005 ). To assist trainees in narrative competence development, trainers should encourage trainees to acknowledge, absorb, interpret, and act on the stories and lives of others; place a value on clinical empathy in establishing and maintaining therapeutic relationships; connect with the stories and experiences of those persons not immediately known to them; and use their own life experiences, molded by positive role modeling and reflective practice, or through indirect experiences such as films and stories to develop personal narratives about professionalism.

Engaging in and giving back to the community is a key indicator of professionalism, especially if it comes from an altruistic place ( Wear & Bickel, 2000 ). Thus it is essential that the curriculum include socially relevant, service-oriented learning efforts so that students view community service as integral to their professional role and responsibility ( Coulehan, 2005 ). In addition, such curricula train people to respond to society’s changing needs ( Wear & Bickel, 2000 ).

A professional approach also can be inculcated in trainees through the process of engaging in productive collaborative endeavors with other trainees. Activities reflective of such collaboration include co-interviewing patients, co-therapy, and co-authorship.

Supervision related to professionalism is optimal when it capitalizes on the teaching moment ( Coulehan, 2005 ). Supervision is an ideal venue to promote professionalism, as through the supervision process, trainers can assist trainees in connecting their knowledge, skills and attitudes to the experiences of their patients and promote awareness of relevant professional policies and organizations ( Spruill & Benshoff, 1996 ). In addition, competency based supervisors can instill professional attitudes and values by offering the essential tools to ensure the attainment of continuous professional development and growth ( Falender & Shafranske, 2007 ). In a related vein, coaching can occur in either an individual or a group format. Coaching sessions can be used to review feedback on trainees’ performance related to professionalism with the trainee, raise awareness of their strengths and weaknesses, discuss both the costs and benefits of addressing their weaknesses, develop behavioral goals, and make plans to meet these goals ( Brinkman et al., 2007 ). Mentoring, often a logical outgrowth of a supervisory or coaching relationship, also can be an effective way to promote reflective experiences and competence in professionalism ( Wear & Aultman, 2010 ). Mentors assist trainees in identifying their personal calling or mission. Professionalism is fostered through the alignment of these identified interests and goals with one’s work activities ( Larkin, 2003 ).

Peer supervision and consultation can be helpful methods for learning professionalism ( De Haan, 2005 ). Peer feedback is often very honest and direct with regard to professionalism, and trainees often are more open to input from their peers than from authority figures ( Spruill & Benshoff, 1996 ). However, such feedback is valuable only if it occurs in a context that supports mutual learning and respect.

Balint training increasingly is used in residency training programs, particularly family medicine programs. It consists of a small group of individuals meeting together on a regular basis to reflect about their own interactions and relationships with their patients ( Balint, 1957 ). The method involves exploring interactions with patient in depth in order to gain insight into one’s own reactions to patients. Balint groups in medical training have been proposed as one vehicle for teaching professionalism through enhancing listening and observational skills; encouraging integrative, creative, and divergent perspectives; valuing empathy; and supporting the reflective process and ongoing self-assessment. Trainees who participate in such groups have found them to be useful tools for enhancing self-reflection and gaining insight into self- and patient-care issues ( Adams, O’Reilly, Romm, & James, 2006 ).

Problems of Competence in the Professional Attitudes and Values Competency Domain

There may be subgroups of trainees for whom professional attitudes and values may not be teachable. Some are individuals who manifest serious problems in this competency domain overall and in one/or more of its essential components. Others are trainees with serious problems related to professional attitudes and values who also exhibit problems of professional competence in one or more other competency clusters or domains. Examples of competency problems related to professional attitudes and values may include an inability/unwillingness to self-reflect, acknowledge problems, and/or be open to formative and summative input including remediation plans. Unfortunately, at times, no matter how effective the educational and training system may be, it is not possible to assist the trainee in making the requite progress to meet developmentally appropriate benchmarks in this competency domain. However, there are other trainees with problems in this competency domain that can benefit from more focused remediation efforts.

A number of strategies have been recommended for addressing competency problems vis-à-vis professional attitudes and values. First, there needs to be an organized approach for monitoring and addressing unprofessional behavior that is clearly delineated and communicated to all parties ( Papadakis, Loeser, & Healy, 2001 ). Second, it is necessary to acknowledge the importance and seriousness of the issue ( Schwartz et al., 2009 ). Professional attitudes and values need to be addressed from the outset of any training experience or relationship and such attention must be ongoing. The threshold for attending to lapses in professionalism should be kept low ( Van Mook et al., 2010 ). Links should be made between professional attitudes and values and patient care, as well as with disciplinary action.

Third, when giving feedback, problems of professional attitudes and values need to be linked to performance in the other competencies in the professionalism cluster, as well as to the specific competencies that fall under all of the other competency clusters. In this feedback process, the essential components of the professional attitudes and values competency that are of particular concern need to be clearly operationalized, with clear behavioral indicators of developmentally appropriate levels of performance. Such information should be included in a thoughtfully crafted remediation plan ( Kaslow et al., 2007 ). The plan should incorporate goals, expectations, and strategies for meeting the goals; a timeline for review of progress; and information about when more severe actions will be taken ( Cruess et al., 2009 ). Formative feedback should be provided related to this remediation plan, using multiple methods of assessment ( Cruess et al., 2009 ). However, if at a summative evaluation point performance in this competency domain does not meet developmentally expected levels, gatekeeping efforts may be indicated.

Fourth, a trainee’s competence problems related to professional attitudes and values must be conceptualized in the broader ecological system ( Cruess et al., 2009 ; Forrest, Shen-Miller, & Elman, 2008 ). To this end, rather than just considering the individual trainee, trainers must examine problems related to professional attitudes and values that are manifested in the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem in which the individual trainee is embedded and, if such difficulties are noted, systemic strategies for addressing them must be implemented.

Finally, one of the most effective approaches for addressing problems of professional competence in the professionalism domain is prevention ( Gabbard et al., 2012 ). Prevention efforts include selecting students based on their capacity for professionalism, providing role models who value professionalism, creating institutional policies related to all elements of professionalism, offering ongoing feedback regarding trainees’ strengths and areas for improvement, and recognizing publically trainees who are high achievers in professionalism ( Cruess et al., 2009 ; Gabbard et al., 2012 ; Van Mook et al., 2010 ; Wear & Aultman, 2010 ).

Concluding Comments

Professionalism is a core element of personal identity and character that develops over the course of one’s professional life ( Passi et al., 2010 ). The way that we desire others to experience us as psychologists and as human beings is the cornerstone of professionalism ( Gabbard et al., 2012 ).

Professionalism is a complex construct, which has led to challenges vis-à-vis its definition, assessment, and teaching ( Wear & Aultman, 2010 ). It is not just the definitions of this core competency that vary, but there are differences of opinion regarding its essential components. Such differences may reflect, at least in part, the various perspectives that individuals bring to bear in conceptualizing this multifaceted construct ( Akhtar-Danesh et al., 2013 ). We recommend that a group of knowledgeable, interested parties within psychology collaboratively build upon the existing work on professional psychology competencies to craft a more comprehensive definition of professionalism and specify the essential components of this competency and how they should be manifested at various stages of professional development. This document should then go out for public comment, and the feedback received should be incorporated such that a final product can be created and shared with the education, training, practice, and credentialing communities. While it will be valuable to articulate the characteristics or behaviors that fall under the rubric of professionalism, a conceptualization of this construct must attend to the social, political, and economic contexts within which professionalism is embedded ( Passi et al., 2010 ).

For the assessment of professionalism to be effective, clear and measureable standards need to be determined via consensus by the profession ( Schwartz et al., 2009 ). In addition, there needs to be greater agreement with regard to clear benchmarks for performance in this competency domain for each developmental stage, as well as the behaviors and attitudes that reflect and underlie this construct ( Ginsburg, Regehr, & Lingard, 2004 ; Rees & Knight, 2007 ). Once there is a clear definition of professionalism and corresponding essential components at various stages of the professional life cycle, psychologists must conduct in-depth psychometric evaluations of various available assessment tools to determine which ones are optimal for use and/or modification. Such determination will be based in part on their predictive validity of actual professional attitudes and behaviors and clinical outcomes ( Epstein & Hundert, 2002 ; Lynch et al., 2004 ; Stern et al., 2005 ). We also need to create new tools that assess more comprehensively this complex and multidimensional construct ( Hodges et al., 2011 ) and that do so specifically for psychologists. Ultimately, psychologists should create a professionalism toolkit for formative and summative evaluations that includes self- and other-rated scales (including multisource assessments or 360-degree evaluation methodologies), observational methodologies, high-fidelity simulations (e.g., clinical vignettes, Objective Structured Clinical Examinations, standardized patients, multiplayer/virtual games), critical incident reports, and portfolios (including self-reflections and journals) ( Brinkman et al., 2007 ; Cruess et al., 2009 ; Epstein & Hundert, 2002 ; Kaslow et al., 2009 ; Passi et al., 2010 ; Van Mook, Gorter, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ; Veloski et al., 2005 ; Wilkinson, Wade, & Knock, 2009 ; Wood et al., 2004 ). This toolkit should include both quantitative and qualitative assessment methods, as the triangulation of such information is likely to be critical to the meaningful evaluation of this construct and the valuable provision of feedback with regard to this competency domain ( Arnold, 2002 ; Van Mook, Gorter, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ; Van Mook, Van Luijk, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ). Measures in this toolkit must be set in real-life contexts so that we can observe trainees resolving relevant value conflicts associated with professionalism ( Epstein & Hundert, 2002 ; Ginsburg et al., 2000 ; Van Mook, Van Luijk, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ). In addition, measures of professionalism in the learning environment need to be created ( Baumann & Kolotylo, 2009 ; Thrush et al., 2011 ), as feedback on such tools can help guide improvements in the learning context, which in turn will result in psychology trainees and psychologists who exhibit high levels of professionalism. Until a state-of-the-art toolkit is established, combinations of the existing methodologies will need to suffice ( Van Mook, Van Luijk, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ).

Further, there is a need to assess professionalism not only at the individual level, but also at the interpersonal and societal-institutional levels ( Hodges et al., 2011 ). Training of those who will be conducting the assessment is also critical to ensuring the quality of the results ( Van Mook, Gorter, O’Sullivan, et al., 2009 ). The ways in which this assessment data can be used to assist trainers in offering formative and summative feedback related to professionalism require greater delineation ( Schwartz et al., 2009 ). Moreover, with growing attention to maintenance of competence within our profession, strategies for assessing professionalism over the lifespan need to be created, and formal implementation efforts need to get underway.

To date, there has been a dearth of empirical studies with regard to interventions that are effective for teaching professionalism ( Jha et al., 2007 ). The limited extant research has not yielded specific or promising protocols ( Jha et al., 2007 ). Despite this, the data and conceptual literature shed light on a variety of promising teaching methods. It is essential that a wide array of approaches be integrated in the teaching of professionalism and that trainees be afforded multiple learning opportunities for gaining experience in and reflecting upon the concepts and principles of professionalism ( Passi et al., 2010 ). These approaches should take into account the developmental stage of the trainee, diversity factors, and the context in which the training occurs ( Cruess et al., 2009 ). In addition, the overall teaching of professionalism optimally will involve setting expectations, providing experiences, and evaluating outcomes ( Stern & Papadakis, 2006 ).

One overarching framework for teaching professionalism within medicine is the Professionalism Cycle ( Passi et al., 2010 ); this framework easily could be adopted for psychology. It includes four key components: (1) Professional action—knowledge, skills, and attitudes; (2) Component methods—problem-based learning, consultation, observation tools, case-based discussions, bedside teaching, videotaped consultations, role-playing exercises, and interactive lectures; (3) Tutor feedback—educational portfolios, one-on-one teaching, group teaching, and written feedback; and (4) Action plan—remediation plan to improve professionalism. This cycle also underscores the importance of lifelong learning and continuing professional development.

It is imperative that we create and disseminate best practices for addressing trainees or trainers who exhibit competency problems related to professional attitudes and values. Managing such difficulties in a systematic and respectful fashion is associated with more positive work environments, greater satisfaction and productivity among trainers and trainees alike, enhanced reputation of the educational/training program, and improved educational and patient-care outcomes ( Hickson, Pichert, Webb, & Gabbe, 2007 ). New ways to frame problems in this competency domain may offer a fresh outlook, which appears to have occurred to some extent in the medical literature with the reframing of professionalism problems as a form of a medical error ( Lucey & Souba, 2010 ). Indeed, strategies for dealing with medical errors may provide a useful template for efforts to address problems related to professional attitudes and values ( Lucey & Souba, 2010 ).

As society evolves, the construct of professionalism can be a useful guide for addressing new trends. For example, social networking, commonly used by the current generation of trainees, along with other aspects of the cyber-revolution, presents psychologists with new ethical, legal, and professional dilemmas ( Chretien, Greysen, Chretien, & Kind, 2009 ; Guesh II, Brendel, & Brendel, 2009 ; Thompson et al., 2008 ). Professionalism can help us frame our conceptualization of boundaries in cyberspace including e-mail, Google, social networking sites, blogs, and others. ( Gabbard et al., 2012 ). Unfortunately, there are few formal guidelines or blueprints at present to inform decision making related to social media presence and the managing of cyberspace boundaries ( Gabbard et al., 2012 ; Kind, Genrich, Sodhi, & Chretien, 2010 ). This is problematic given evidence of cyberspace-related unprofessional behavior by students, such as inappropriate online postings ( Chretien et al., 2009 ). The development of such guidelines and policies should be informed by an appreciation of professionalism. In addition, our educational efforts related to the teaching of professionalism must include dialogues related to preparing future psychologists for appropriately engaging in cyberspace activities. These discussions should cover such topics as the challenges of applying principles of professionalism to the online environment, the potential impact of one’s online content to patients and the public, the ways in which lapses in professional judgment or negligence in online postings reflects negatively on the institution and the profession, and the positive applications of social media for professional practice ( Greysen, Kind, & Chretien, 2010 ).

In closing, a call for a culture of professionalism within professional psychology is vital and timely. Professionalism should be inculcated as a value within all of our training programs and should be viewed as relevant to trainers and trainees alike ( Passi et al., 2010 ). A culture of professionalism involves clear and consistent messages within our community about the behaviors and attitudes that define highly professional psychologists ( Papadakis, Arnold, Blank, Holmboe, & Lipner, 2008 ; Schwartz et al., 2009 ). Acting in a fashion that is reflective of professionalism would be considered a salient value within this culture. The assessment of professionalism would be considered integral to the evaluation of not only trainees, but also of practicing psychologists. This active transfer of professionalism self-assessment beyond the training years and into one’s professional life would benefit not only the individual psychologist, but also those he/she serves, the institution in which he/she practices, and society ( Van Mook, Gorter, de Grave, et al., 2009 ). Individuals would engage in lifelong learning activities related to professionalism, just as they do with other competencies that define our profession. Moreover, individuals would not only be responsible for acting professionally themselves, but would assume a communitarian stance, such that they would feel responsible for ensuring that all members of our psychological community present themselves in a fashion indicative of a high level of professionalism ( Johnson, Barnett, Elman, Forrest, & Kaslow, 2012 ). Finally, we would communicate to the public the high value placed on professionalism within our profession ( Cruess et al., 2009 ).

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What Can You Do With a Master's Degree in Psychology?

Nalea J. Ko

Contributing Writer

Learn about our editorial process .

Updated April 12, 2024 · 4 Min Read

Joey Morris

Contributing Editor

Reviewed by

Megan Pietrucha

Contributing Reviewer

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Are you ready to discover your college program?

A master's in psychology prepares you for various careers, from working in schools and organizations to providing counseling services. If your goal is to practice as a psychologist, you'll need a doctoral degree . However, a master's degree offers versatile and rewarding opportunities not available to bachelor's degree holders.

Popular Online Psychology Master's Programs

Learn about start dates, transferring credits, availability of financial aid, and more by contacting the universities below.

Advantages of Earning a Master's in Psychology

A master's in psychology degree takes about 2-5 years to complete and offers many advantages, including:

• Meets prerequisites for doctoral programs to become a licensed psychologist
• Prepares you for new career opportunities that require advanced study
• Allows you to specialize in areas of psychology to pursue careers in your chosen field
• Provides opportunities to contribute to research and the advancement of the psychology field
• Requires coursework that allows you to better understand yourself

Jobs with a Master's in Psychology

Psychology majors can pursue careers in counseling, social work, education, human resources and organizational development, law, and social and community services.

Psychology majors can find work in many sectors. A master's in psychology can prepare you to provide counseling services or pursue other psychology jobs where you never meet with clients.

Psychology majors report career satisfaction. A 2017 national survey found that psychology master's degree holders reported satisfaction with their job's intellectual challenge and level of responsibility, albeit less satisfaction with their salaries.

"Many entry-level positions are generally low-paying, especially until you are independently licensed," said Megan Pietrucha, Psy.D. Pietrucha is a licensed clinical sport psychologist and has taught psychology at the graduate level. "Make sure to find work experiences that maximize your hours towards licensure so you can increase your earning potential."

Mental Health, Substance Use, or Behavioral Counselor

There are about 388,200 mental health, substance use, and behavioral counselor jobs in the United States as of 2022, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Demand is expected to grow much faster than average. In fact, the BLS projects these occupations to increase by more than 18% in the next decade.

These counselors evaluate clients seeking help for addiction or behavioral health issues. They work at outpatient mental health, individual and family services, practitioner offices, and hospitals. You need at least a bachelor's degree to become a mental health counselor .

Median Annual Salary: $53,710

Marriage and Family Therapist

The BLS projects marriage and family therapist positions to grow 15% from 2022-2032, much faster than other occupations in the U.S. Marriage and family therapists provide education and assistance to families and couples as they work through the healing process. They collaborate with treatment teams to provide support to groups and individual patients. This career requires at least a master's degree and state licensure.

Median Annual Salary: $58,510

Industrial-Organizational Psychologist

Industrial-organizational psychologists get to the root of the problems in the workplace and resolve conflicts. Companies rely on industrial organizational psychologists for recruitment and training needs. Most of these psychologists work in scientific research and development services, colleges and universities, and for the state government. The BLS estimates there are less than 1,300 industrial organizational psychologists currently employed, but average salaries are high in the field.

Median Annual Salary: $147,420

School Psychologist

Most school psychologists see students in elementary, middle, and high schools. School psychologists often work on teams to support children with special education needs. You must earn a master's degree to become a school psychologist. While some jobs may only require a master's, many school psychologists hold a doctoral degree or specialty graduate degree.

Median Annual Salary: $84,940

Human Resources Manager

Psychology majors can become human resources managers after getting at least a bachelor's degree. Human resource managers help to coordinate and oversee an organization's administrative functions, including hiring, employee benefits, and resolving employee grievances.

Median Annual Salary: $136,350

Educational, Guidance, and Career Counselor or Advisor

Educational, guidance, and career counselors help scholars achieve their academic and career goals. The BLS reports that this occupational group employs roughly 308,000 people. Most of these counselors work in elementary and secondary schools, colleges, and junior colleges.

Median Annual Salary: $61,710

Is a Master's Degree in Psychology Right for Me?

A master's degree in psychology is a versatile choice, whether you intend to pursue further education and licensure or dive straight into a career in psychology. Master's-degree holders can pursue rewarding opportunities in counseling , organizational psychology, and research.

If you want to pursue doctoral studies, a master's in psychology prepares you for dissertation research, strengthening your advanced writing, research, and communication skills. Doctoral degree holders can go on to pursue careers as licensed psychologists, clinical health administrators, and psychology professors or supervisors.

Psychology master's degree holders also earn about 20% more than psychology bachelor's degree holders, according to the American Psychological Association (APA). They also report higher work satisfaction. The APA's 2019 survey found that 87% of master's degrees in psychology majors reported being satisfied with their level of responsibilities and 91% with their contribution to society.

Frequently Asked Questions About What You Can Do With a Master's in Psychology

• Collapse All

What are the highest-paying careers with a master's in psychology?

The highest-paying career with a master's in psychology is an industrial-organizational psychologist . These professionals make an average annual wage of $144,610, according to the BLS.

How long does it take to get a master's in psychology?

You can graduate from a master's in psychology program in 2-3 years. Part-time learners must graduate within five years. The program typically includes coursework, practicum hours, and a thesis.

What types of psychology jobs have the highest demand?

Substance use, behavioral disorder, and mental health counseling jobs are in high demand. The BLS projects the occupation to grow by 18% from 2022-2032, much faster than average.

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Office Hours: M-F 8 a.m. - 5 p.m.

Postgraduate taught

MSc Psychology in Education

Conversion programme Develop the knowledge and skills to begin training for a career as a practising psychologist or a psychological researcher

Year of entry: 2024 (September)

1 year full-time

Department of Education

September 2024 ( semester dates )

Apply for this course

Join us online or in person to find out more about postgraduate study at York.

Learn to apply psychological methods and approaches to educational policy and practice.

This BPS-accredited conversion course is ideal if you want to pursue a career in psychology, but didn't study Psychology at undergraduate level, or studied on a non-accredited programme.

You'll study core areas of psychology and key debates in the psychology of education, while developing your research skills.

Accreditation

This MSc is a conversion course which provides  Graduate Basis for Chartered Membership  (GBC) of the British Psychological Society (BPS).

GBC is a prerequisite for many BPS-accredited postgraduate and doctoral programmes which lead to full  Chartered Psychologist  status.

Highly-rated staff

​In the latest Postgraduate Taught Experience Survey, 90% of the Department of Education's respondents agreed that 'staff are good at explaining things' and 92% agreed that 'staff are enthusiastic about what they are teaching' (PTES 2018)

We're ranked 9th in the UK and World Top 50 for Education (QS World Rankings by Subject, 2023)

Course content

This course will develop your understanding, knowledge and skills in a variety of theoretical and applied approaches to psychology and educational psychology.

You'll study compulsory modules to equip you with foundational knowledge of topics such as cognitive development, neuropsychology, differential psychology and psychology in society. In your second term you'll choose an option module to develop a specialism or explore a new avenue of learning.

Throughout your course you'll develop essential research skills, which you'll draw on later in the year when you design and carry out an empirical research project leading to a final 12,000-word dissertation.

• Dissertation

Core modules

• Development and Cognition
• Individuality and its Roots
• Research Methods for Psychology in Education I
• Research Methods for Psychology in Education II
• Psychology in Society

Option modules

You will also study one option module:

• Child & Adolescent Mental Health
• Embodied Cognition in Learning & Development
• Genetics & Education
• Has Neuroscience Entered the Classroom?
• Intelligence
• Positive Psychology in Education

The options available to you will be confirmed after you begin your course. For further information please get in touch .

Our modules may change to reflect the latest academic thinking and expertise of our staff.

In the Summer Term and summer vacation you'll focus on an independent research project, leading to a 12,000-word dissertation. You'll identify a research question and construct an empirical investigation to address it. This is the chance to put your psychological knowledge and skills into practice and, potentially, to make an original contribution to knowledge in your area of expertise.

You'll be able to take advantage of dissertation workshops which cover study design, ethical approval, data collection, and extended academic writing. You'll draw on the skills you've learned from the Research Methods module, and receive bespoke training from your personal supervisor in techniques that are specific to your project.

The York approach

Every course at York is built on a distinctive set of learning outcomes. These will give you a clear understanding of what you will be able to accomplish at the end of the course and help you explain what you can offer employers. Our academics identify the knowledge, skills, and experiences you'll need upon graduation and then design the course to get you there.

Students who complete this course will be able to:

• Explain and recommend the most appropriate psychological approaches for addressing specific educational questions, based on rigorously evaluating competing techniques and research in terms of their validity, reliability and utility.
• Make decisions about the most appropriate experiments, psychometric tests or surveys to apply to specific educational situations based on focused evaluation of contextual factors and a broad knowledge of educational psychology practice.
• Plan and implement effective and efficient research processes - from defining precise research questions and selecting methodologies to presenting data-supported conclusions.
• Identify and apply appropriate techniques to analyse and present different types of data using conceptual and methodological knowledge of statistics, approaches to qualitative analysis and data visualisation strategies.
• Operate in an ethical and reflective manner with regard to complex psychological and educational practice, based on knowledge of pertinent debates and adherence to ethical approval processes.
• Communicate complex ideas confidently, effectively and in a professional manner, making use of oral, written and visual formats.

Fees and funding

Annual tuition fees for 2024/25.

Students on a Student Visa are not currently permitted to study part-time at York.

Fees information

UK (home) or international fees?  The level of fee that you will be asked to pay depends on whether you're classed as a UK (home) or international student.  Check your fee status .

Find out more information about tuition fees and how to pay them.

• Postgraduate taught fees and expenses

Additional costs

There are no mandatory additional fees, but we do recommend that you set aside some money for photocopying. Course books will be available from the Library and online reading packs are available for most modules, but you may wish to buy your own copies. Each book typically costs £20 to 40.

Funding information

Discover your funding options to help with tuition fees and living costs.

We'll confirm more funding opportunities for students joining us in 2024/25 throughout the year.

If you've successfully completed an undergraduate degree at York you could be eligible for a  10% Masters fee discount .

Funding opportunities

• UK government Masters loans
• Funding for UK students
• Funding for international students

Departmental scholarships

We offer a number of departmental scholarships and funding opportunities. View our departmental funding options .

Living costs

You can use our  living costs guide  to help plan your budget. It covers additional costs that are not included in your tuition fee such as expenses for accommodation and study materials.

Teaching and assessment

You’ll work with world‐leading academics who’ll challenge you to think independently and excel in all that you do. Our approach to teaching will provide you with the knowledge, opportunities, and support you need to grow and succeed in a global workplace.

Teaching format

You will be taught through a combination of formal lectures, seminars, practical exercises and workshops.

You will spend time working on your own, reading assigned texts and researching supporting materials, as well as working with others in seminars to discuss and present your work.

There will also be opportunities to attend  seminars  from visiting scholars on a wide variety of topics in Education.

A member of teaching staff will act as your supervisor throughout the degree to help guide your studies and monitor your progress.

Teaching location

You will be based in the Department of Education on Campus West. Teaching for this course takes place at various locations on Campus West, including Alcuin and Derwent Colleges, the Department of Biology, the Library and the Spring Lane teaching building.

About our campus

Our beautiful green campus offers a student-friendly setting in which to live and study, within easy reach of the action in the city centre. It's  easy to get around campus  - everything is within walking or pedalling distance, or you can always use the fast and frequent bus service.

Assessment and feedback

We use a number of assessment types including: 

• Research reports
• Online exams
• Poster presentation

Throughout your course you'll complete assignments and exercises which don't count towards your final grade. The marks and feedback you receive for these will help you understand your strengths and identify areas for improvement.

• Dr Beth Bell
• [email protected]
• +44 (0)1904 326450

Related courses

• MSc in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
• MA in Education

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Lively, full of culture and beautiful, York is regularly voted one of the best places to live and visit in the UK.

Find out more about York. Chat to staff and students and take the tour, on campus or online.