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Literature Review: Conducting & Writing

• Sample Literature Reviews
• Steps for Conducting a Lit Review
• Finding "The Literature"
• Organizing/Writing
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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process. 

Table of Contents

• What is the purpose of literature review? 
• a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction: 
• b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes: 
• c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs: 
• d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts: 
• How to write a good literature review 
• Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question: 
• Decide on the Scope of Your Review: 
• Select Databases for Searches: 
• Conduct Searches and Keep Track: 
• Review the Literature: 
• Organize and Write Your Literature Review: 
• Frequently asked questions 

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2  

• Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge. 
• Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field. 
• Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research. 
• Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered. 
• Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research. 
• Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature. 

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic. 

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies: 

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements. 

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources. 

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. 

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning. 

How to write a good literature review

Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements. 

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review. 

• Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field. 
• Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address. 
• Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research. 
• Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic. 
• Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review. 

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria. 

• Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement. 
• Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic. 
• Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature. 
• Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps. 
• Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review. 

Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research. 

• Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective. 
• Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field. 
• Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice. 
• Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field. 
• Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community. 

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1  

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

• Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study. 
• Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore? 

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

• Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview? 
• Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region? 
• Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude? 

Select Databases for Searches:

• Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. 
• Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic. 

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

• Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques. 
• Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability. 
• Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references. 

Review the Literature:

• Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies. 
• Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research. 
• Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives. 
• Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions. 
• Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research? 

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

• Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches. 
• Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered. 
• Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). 
• Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research. 

The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. 

Frequently asked questions

A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.  

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic. 

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods. 

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers.  Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved.  Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic.  Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings.  Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject.  It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review:  Introduction:   Provide an overview of the topic.  Define the scope and purpose of the literature review.  State the research question or objective.  Body:   Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology.  Critically analyze and evaluate each source.  Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.  Highlight any methodological limitations or biases.  Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research.  Conclusion:   Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review.  Highlight the research gap.  Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction.  Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows: 

References 

• Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234. 
• Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis. 
• Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center . 

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Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

• An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
• A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
• Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
• Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

• Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
• Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

• Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
• Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
• Qualitative versus quantitative research
• Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
• Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

• It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
• Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
• Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
• Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

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• What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

• Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
• Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your  dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

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How To Write A Literature Review - A Complete Guide

Table of Contents

A literature review is much more than just another section in your research paper. It forms the very foundation of your research. It is a formal piece of writing where you analyze the existing theoretical framework, principles, and assumptions and use that as a base to shape your approach to the research question.

Curating and drafting a solid literature review section not only lends more credibility to your research paper but also makes your research tighter and better focused. But, writing literature reviews is a difficult task. It requires extensive reading, plus you have to consider market trends and technological and political changes, which tend to change in the blink of an eye.

Now streamline your literature review process with the help of SciSpace Copilot. With this AI research assistant, you can efficiently synthesize and analyze a vast amount of information, identify key themes and trends, and uncover gaps in the existing research. Get real-time explanations, summaries, and answers to your questions for the paper you're reviewing, making navigating and understanding the complex literature landscape easier.

In this comprehensive guide, we will explore everything from the definition of a literature review, its appropriate length, various types of literature reviews, and how to write one.

What is a literature review?

A literature review is a collation of survey, research, critical evaluation, and assessment of the existing literature in a preferred domain.

Eminent researcher and academic Arlene Fink, in her book Conducting Research Literature Reviews , defines it as the following:

“A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated.

Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic, and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a larger field of study.”

Simply put, a literature review can be defined as a critical discussion of relevant pre-existing research around your research question and carving out a definitive place for your study in the existing body of knowledge. Literature reviews can be presented in multiple ways: a section of an article, the whole research paper itself, or a chapter of your thesis.

A literature review does function as a summary of sources, but it also allows you to analyze further, interpret, and examine the stated theories, methods, viewpoints, and, of course, the gaps in the existing content.

As an author, you can discuss and interpret the research question and its various aspects and debate your adopted methods to support the claim.

What is the purpose of a literature review?

A literature review is meant to help your readers understand the relevance of your research question and where it fits within the existing body of knowledge. As a researcher, you should use it to set the context, build your argument, and establish the need for your study.

What is the importance of a literature review?

The literature review is a critical part of research papers because it helps you:

• Gain an in-depth understanding of your research question and the surrounding area
• Convey that you have a thorough understanding of your research area and are up-to-date with the latest changes and advancements
• Establish how your research is connected or builds on the existing body of knowledge and how it could contribute to further research
• Elaborate on the validity and suitability of your theoretical framework and research methodology
• Identify and highlight gaps and shortcomings in the existing body of knowledge and how things need to change
• Convey to readers how your study is different or how it contributes to the research area

How long should a literature review be?

Ideally, the literature review should take up 15%-40% of the total length of your manuscript. So, if you have a 10,000-word research paper, the minimum word count could be 1500.

Your literature review format depends heavily on the kind of manuscript you are writing — an entire chapter in case of doctoral theses, a part of the introductory section in a research article, to a full-fledged review article that examines the previously published research on a topic.

Another determining factor is the type of research you are doing. The literature review section tends to be longer for secondary research projects than primary research projects.

What are the different types of literature reviews?

All literature reviews are not the same. There are a variety of possible approaches that you can take. It all depends on the type of research you are pursuing.

Here are the different types of literature reviews:

Argumentative review

It is called an argumentative review when you carefully present literature that only supports or counters a specific argument or premise to establish a viewpoint.

Integrative review

It is a type of literature review focused on building a comprehensive understanding of a topic by combining available theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence.

Methodological review

This approach delves into the ''how'' and the ''what" of the research question —  you cannot look at the outcome in isolation; you should also review the methodology used.

Systematic review

This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research and collect, report, and analyze data from the studies included in the review.

Meta-analysis review

Meta-analysis uses statistical methods to summarize the results of independent studies. By combining information from all relevant studies, meta-analysis can provide more precise estimates of the effects than those derived from the individual studies included within a review.

Historical review

Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, or phenomenon emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and identify future research's likely directions.

Theoretical Review

This form aims to examine the corpus of theory accumulated regarding an issue, concept, theory, and phenomenon. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories exist, the relationships between them, the degree the existing approaches have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested.

Scoping Review

The Scoping Review is often used at the beginning of an article, dissertation, or research proposal. It is conducted before the research to highlight gaps in the existing body of knowledge and explains why the project should be greenlit.

State-of-the-Art Review

The State-of-the-Art review is conducted periodically, focusing on the most recent research. It describes what is currently known, understood, or agreed upon regarding the research topic and highlights where there are still disagreements.

Can you use the first person in a literature review?

When writing literature reviews, you should avoid the usage of first-person pronouns. It means that instead of "I argue that" or "we argue that," the appropriate expression would be "this research paper argues that."

Do you need an abstract for a literature review?

Ideally, yes. It is always good to have a condensed summary that is self-contained and independent of the rest of your review. As for how to draft one, you can follow the same fundamental idea when preparing an abstract for a literature review. It should also include:

• The research topic and your motivation behind selecting it
• A one-sentence thesis statement
• An explanation of the kinds of literature featured in the review
• Summary of what you've learned
• Conclusions you drew from the literature you reviewed
• Potential implications and future scope for research

Here's an example of the abstract of a literature review

Is a literature review written in the past tense?

Yes, the literature review should ideally be written in the past tense. You should not use the present or future tense when writing one. The exceptions are when you have statements describing events that happened earlier than the literature you are reviewing or events that are currently occurring; then, you can use the past perfect or present perfect tenses.

How many sources for a literature review?

There are multiple approaches to deciding how many sources to include in a literature review section. The first approach would be to look level you are at as a researcher. For instance, a doctoral thesis might need 60+ sources. In contrast, you might only need to refer to 5-15 sources at the undergraduate level.

The second approach is based on the kind of literature review you are doing — whether it is merely a chapter of your paper or if it is a self-contained paper in itself. When it is just a chapter, sources should equal the total number of pages in your article's body. In the second scenario, you need at least three times as many sources as there are pages in your work.

Quick tips on how to write a literature review

To know how to write a literature review, you must clearly understand its impact and role in establishing your work as substantive research material.

You need to follow the below-mentioned steps, to write a literature review:

• Outline the purpose behind the literature review
• Search relevant literature
• Examine and assess the relevant resources
• Discover connections by drawing deep insights from the resources
• Structure planning to write a good literature review

1. Outline and identify the purpose of  a literature review

As a first step on how to write a literature review, you must know what the research question or topic is and what shape you want your literature review to take. Ensure you understand the research topic inside out, or else seek clarifications. You must be able to the answer below questions before you start:

• How many sources do I need to include?
• What kind of sources should I analyze?
• How much should I critically evaluate each source?
• Should I summarize, synthesize or offer a critique of the sources?
• Do I need to include any background information or definitions?

Additionally, you should know that the narrower your research topic is, the swifter it will be for you to restrict the number of sources to be analyzed.

2. Search relevant literature

Dig deeper into search engines to discover what has already been published around your chosen topic. Make sure you thoroughly go through appropriate reference sources like books, reports, journal articles, government docs, and web-based resources.

You must prepare a list of keywords and their different variations. You can start your search from any library’s catalog, provided you are an active member of that institution. The exact keywords can be extended to widen your research over other databases and academic search engines like:

• Google Scholar
• Microsoft Academic
• Science.gov

Besides, it is not advisable to go through every resource word by word. Alternatively, what you can do is you can start by reading the abstract and then decide whether that source is relevant to your research or not.

Additionally, you must spend surplus time assessing the quality and relevance of resources. It would help if you tried preparing a list of citations to ensure that there lies no repetition of authors, publications, or articles in the literature review.

3. Examine and assess the sources

It is nearly impossible for you to go through every detail in the research article. So rather than trying to fetch every detail, you have to analyze and decide which research sources resemble closest and appear relevant to your chosen domain.

While analyzing the sources, you should look to find out answers to questions like:

• What question or problem has the author been describing and debating?
• What is the definition of critical aspects?
• How well the theories, approach, and methodology have been explained?
• Whether the research theory used some conventional or new innovative approach?
• How relevant are the key findings of the work?
• In what ways does it relate to other sources on the same topic?
• What challenges does this research paper pose to the existing theory
• What are the possible contributions or benefits it adds to the subject domain?

Be always mindful that you refer only to credible and authentic resources. It would be best if you always take references from different publications to validate your theory.

Always keep track of important information or data you can present in your literature review right from the beginning. It will help steer your path from any threats of plagiarism and also make it easier to curate an annotated bibliography or reference section.

4. Discover connections

At this stage, you must start deciding on the argument and structure of your literature review. To accomplish this, you must discover and identify the relations and connections between various resources while drafting your abstract.

A few aspects that you should be aware of while writing a literature review include:

• Rise to prominence: Theories and methods that have gained reputation and supporters over time.
• Constant scrutiny: Concepts or theories that repeatedly went under examination.
• Contradictions and conflicts: Theories, both the supporting and the contradictory ones, for the research topic.
• Knowledge gaps: What exactly does it fail to address, and how to bridge them with further research?
• Influential resources: Significant research projects available that have been upheld as milestones or perhaps, something that can modify the current trends

Once you join the dots between various past research works, it will be easier for you to draw a conclusion and identify your contribution to the existing knowledge base.

5. Structure planning to write a good literature review

There exist different ways towards planning and executing the structure of a literature review. The format of a literature review varies and depends upon the length of the research.

Like any other research paper, the literature review format must contain three sections: introduction, body, and conclusion. The goals and objectives of the research question determine what goes inside these three sections.

Nevertheless, a good literature review can be structured according to the chronological, thematic, methodological, or theoretical framework approach.

Literature review samples

1. Standalone

2. As a section of a research paper

How SciSpace Discover makes literature review a breeze?

SciSpace Discover is a one-stop solution to do an effective literature search and get barrier-free access to scientific knowledge. It is an excellent repository where you can find millions of only peer-reviewed articles and full-text PDF files. Here’s more on how you can use it:

Find the right information

Find what you want quickly and easily with comprehensive search filters that let you narrow down papers according to PDF availability, year of publishing, document type, and affiliated institution. Moreover, you can sort the results based on the publishing date, citation count, and relevance.

Assess credibility of papers quickly

When doing the literature review, it is critical to establish the quality of your sources. They form the foundation of your research. SciSpace Discover helps you assess the quality of a source by providing an overview of its references, citations, and performance metrics.

Get the complete picture in no time

SciSpace Discover’s personalized suggestion engine helps you stay on course and get the complete picture of the topic from one place. Every time you visit an article page, it provides you links to related papers. Besides that, it helps you understand what’s trending, who are the top authors, and who are the leading publishers on a topic.

Make referring sources super easy

To ensure you don't lose track of your sources, you must start noting down your references when doing the literature review. SciSpace Discover makes this step effortless. Click the 'cite' button on an article page, and you will receive preloaded citation text in multiple styles — all you've to do is copy-paste it into your manuscript.

Final tips on how to write a literature review

A massive chunk of time and effort is required to write a good literature review. But, if you go about it systematically, you'll be able to save a ton of time and build a solid foundation for your research.

We hope this guide has helped you answer several key questions you have about writing literature reviews.

Would you like to explore SciSpace Discover and kick off your literature search right away? You can get started here .

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. how to start a literature review.

• What questions do you want to answer?

• What sources do you need to answer these questions?

• What information do these sources contain?

• How can you use this information to answer your questions?

2. What to include in a literature review?

• A brief background of the problem or issue

• What has previously been done to address the problem or issue

• A description of what you will do in your project

• How this study will contribute to research on the subject

3. Why literature review is important?

The literature review is an important part of any research project because it allows the writer to look at previous studies on a topic and determine existing gaps in the literature, as well as what has already been done. It will also help them to choose the most appropriate method for their own study.

4. How to cite a literature review in APA format?

To cite a literature review in APA style, you need to provide the author's name, the title of the article, and the year of publication. For example: Patel, A. B., & Stokes, G. S. (2012). The relationship between personality and intelligence: A meta-analysis of longitudinal research. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(1), 16-21

5. What are the components of a literature review?

• A brief introduction to the topic, including its background and context. The introduction should also include a rationale for why the study is being conducted and what it will accomplish.

• A description of the methodologies used in the study. This can include information about data collection methods, sample size, and statistical analyses.

• A presentation of the findings in an organized format that helps readers follow along with the author's conclusions.

6. What are common errors in writing literature review?

• Not spending enough time to critically evaluate the relevance of resources, observations and conclusions.

• Totally relying on secondary data while ignoring primary data.

• Letting your personal bias seep into your interpretation of existing literature.

• No detailed explanation of the procedure to discover and identify an appropriate literature review.

7. What are the 5 C's of writing literature review?

• Cite - the sources you utilized and referenced in your research.

• Compare - existing arguments, hypotheses, methodologies, and conclusions found in the knowledge base.

• Contrast - the arguments, topics, methodologies, approaches, and disputes that may be found in the literature.

• Critique - the literature and describe the ideas and opinions you find more convincing and why.

• Connect - the various studies you reviewed in your research.

8. How many sources should a literature review have?

When it is just a chapter, sources should equal the total number of pages in your article's body. if it is a self-contained paper in itself, you need at least three times as many sources as there are pages in your work.

9. Can literature review have diagrams?

• To represent an abstract idea or concept

• To explain the steps of a process or procedure

• To help readers understand the relationships between different concepts

10. How old should sources be in a literature review?

Sources for a literature review should be as current as possible or not older than ten years. The only exception to this rule is if you are reviewing a historical topic and need to use older sources.

11. What are the types of literature review?

• Argumentative review

• Integrative review

• Methodological review

• Systematic review

• Meta-analysis review

• Historical review

• Theoretical review

• Scoping review

• State-of-the-Art review

12. Is a literature review mandatory?

Yes. Literature review is a mandatory part of any research project. It is a critical step in the process that allows you to establish the scope of your research, and provide a background for the rest of your work.

But before you go,

• Six Online Tools for Easy Literature Review
• Evaluating literature review: systematic vs. scoping reviews
• Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review
• Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples

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Literature Review Guide: Examples of Literature Reviews

• What is a Literature Review?
• How to start?
• Search strategies and Databases
• Examples of Literature Reviews
• How to organise the review
• Library summary
• Emerald Infographic

All good quality journal articles will include a small Literature Review after the Introduction paragraph.  It may not be called a Literature Review but gives you an idea of how one is created in miniature.

Sample Literature Reviews as part of a articles or Theses

• Sample Literature Review on Critical Thinking (Gwendolyn Reece, American University Library)
• Hackett, G and Melia, D . The hotel as the holiday/stay destination:trends and innovations. Presented at TRIC Conference, Belfast, Ireland- June 2012 and EuroCHRIE Conference

Links to sample Literature Reviews from other libraries

• Sample literature reviews from University of West Florida

Standalone Literature Reviews

• Attitudes towards the Disability in Ireland
• Martin, A., O'Connor-Fenelon, M. and Lyons, R. (2010). Non-verbal communication between nurses and people with an intellectual disability: A review of the literature. Journal of Intellectual Diabilities, 14(4), 303-314.

Irish Theses

• Phillips, Martin (2015) European airline performance: a data envelopment analysis with extrapolations based on model outputs. Master of Business Studies thesis, Dublin City University.
• The customers’ perception of servicescape’s influence on their behaviours, in the food retail industry : Dublin Business School 2015
• Coughlan, Ray (2015) What was the role of leadership in the transformation of a failing Irish Insurance business. Masters thesis, Dublin, National College of Ireland.
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What is a literature review? [with examples]

What is a literature review?

The purpose of a literature review, how to write a literature review, the format of a literature review, general formatting rules, the length of a literature review, literature review examples, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, related articles.

A literature review is an assessment of the sources in a chosen topic of research.

In a literature review, you’re expected to report on the existing scholarly conversation, without adding new contributions.

If you are currently writing one, you've come to the right place. In the following paragraphs, we will explain:

• the objective of a literature review
• how to write a literature review
• the basic format of a literature review

Tip: It’s not always mandatory to add a literature review in a paper. Theses and dissertations often include them, whereas research papers may not. Make sure to consult with your instructor for exact requirements.

The four main objectives of a literature review are:

• Studying the references of your research area
• Summarizing the main arguments
• Identifying current gaps, stances, and issues
• Presenting all of the above in a text

Ultimately, the main goal of a literature review is to provide the researcher with sufficient knowledge about the topic in question so that they can eventually make an intervention.

The format of a literature review is fairly standard. It includes an:

• introduction that briefly introduces the main topic
• body that includes the main discussion of the key arguments
• conclusion that highlights the gaps and issues of the literature

➡️ Take a look at our guide on how to write a literature review to learn more about how to structure a literature review.

First of all, a literature review should have its own labeled section. You should indicate clearly in the table of contents where the literature can be found, and you should label this section as “Literature Review.”

➡️ For more information on writing a thesis, visit our guide on how to structure a thesis .

There is no set amount of words for a literature review, so the length depends on the research. If you are working with a large amount of sources, it will be long. If your paper does not depend entirely on references, it will be short.

Take a look at these three theses featuring great literature reviews:

• School-Based Speech-Language Pathologist's Perceptions of Sensory Food Aversions in Children [ PDF , see page 20]
• Who's Writing What We Read: Authorship in Criminological Research [ PDF , see page 4]
• A Phenomenological Study of the Lived Experience of Online Instructors of Theological Reflection at Christian Institutions Accredited by the Association of Theological Schools [ PDF , see page 56]

Literature reviews are most commonly found in theses and dissertations. However, you find them in research papers as well.

There is no set amount of words for a literature review, so the length depends on the research. If you are working with a large amount of sources, then it will be long. If your paper does not depend entirely on references, then it will be short.

No. A literature review should have its own independent section. You should indicate clearly in the table of contents where the literature review can be found, and label this section as “Literature Review.”

The main goal of a literature review is to provide the researcher with sufficient knowledge about the topic in question so that they can eventually make an intervention.

15 Literature Review Examples

Literature reviews are a necessary step in a research process and often required when writing your research proposal . They involve gathering, analyzing, and evaluating existing knowledge about a topic in order to find gaps in the literature where future studies will be needed.

Ideally, once you have completed your literature review, you will be able to identify how your research project can build upon and extend existing knowledge in your area of study.

Generally, for my undergraduate research students, I recommend a narrative review, where themes can be generated in order for the students to develop sufficient understanding of the topic so they can build upon the themes using unique methods or novel research questions.

If you’re in the process of writing a literature review, I have developed a literature review template for you to use – it’s a huge time-saver and walks you through how to write a literature review step-by-step:

Get your time-saving templates here to write your own literature review.

Literature Review Examples

For the following types of literature review, I present an explanation and overview of the type, followed by links to some real-life literature reviews on the topics.

1. Narrative Review Examples

Also known as a traditional literature review, the narrative review provides a broad overview of the studies done on a particular topic.

It often includes both qualitative and quantitative studies and may cover a wide range of years.

The narrative review’s purpose is to identify commonalities, gaps, and contradictions in the literature .

I recommend to my students that they should gather their studies together, take notes on each study, then try to group them by themes that form the basis for the review (see my step-by-step instructions at the end of the article).

Example Study

Title: Communication in healthcare: a narrative review of the literature and practical recommendations

Citation: Vermeir, P., Vandijck, D., Degroote, S., Peleman, R., Verhaeghe, R., Mortier, E., … & Vogelaers, D. (2015). Communication in healthcare: a narrative review of the literature and practical recommendations. International journal of clinical practice , 69 (11), 1257-1267.

Source: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/ijcp.12686  

Overview: This narrative review analyzed themes emerging from 69 articles about communication in healthcare contexts. Five key themes were found in the literature: poor communication can lead to various negative outcomes, discontinuity of care, compromise of patient safety, patient dissatisfaction, and inefficient use of resources. After presenting the key themes, the authors recommend that practitioners need to approach healthcare communication in a more structured way, such as by ensuring there is a clear understanding of who is in charge of ensuring effective communication in clinical settings.

Other Examples

• Burnout in United States Healthcare Professionals: A Narrative Review (Reith, 2018) – read here
• Examining the Presence, Consequences, and Reduction of Implicit Bias in Health Care: A Narrative Review (Zestcott, Blair & Stone, 2016) – read here
• A Narrative Review of School-Based Physical Activity for Enhancing Cognition and Learning (Mavilidi et al., 2018) – read here
• A narrative review on burnout experienced by medical students and residents (Dyrbye & Shanafelt, 2015) – read here

2. Systematic Review Examples

This type of literature review is more structured and rigorous than a narrative review. It involves a detailed and comprehensive plan and search strategy derived from a set of specified research questions.

The key way you’d know a systematic review compared to a narrative review is in the methodology: the systematic review will likely have a very clear criteria for how the studies were collected, and clear explanations of exclusion/inclusion criteria. 

The goal is to gather the maximum amount of valid literature on the topic, filter out invalid or low-quality reviews, and minimize bias. Ideally, this will provide more reliable findings, leading to higher-quality conclusions and recommendations for further research.

You may note from the examples below that the ‘method’ sections in systematic reviews tend to be much more explicit, often noting rigid inclusion/exclusion criteria and exact keywords used in searches.

Title: The importance of food naturalness for consumers: Results of a systematic review  

Citation: Roman, S., Sánchez-Siles, L. M., & Siegrist, M. (2017). The importance of food naturalness for consumers: Results of a systematic review. Trends in food science & technology , 67 , 44-57.

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092422441730122X  

Overview: This systematic review included 72 studies of food naturalness to explore trends in the literature about its importance for consumers. Keywords used in the data search included: food, naturalness, natural content, and natural ingredients. Studies were included if they examined consumers’ preference for food naturalness and contained empirical data. The authors found that the literature lacks clarity about how naturalness is defined and measured, but also found that food consumption is significantly influenced by perceived naturalness of goods.

• A systematic review of research on online teaching and learning from 2009 to 2018 (Martin, Sun & Westine, 2020) – read here
• Where Is Current Research on Blockchain Technology? (Yli-Huumo et al., 2016) – read here
• Universities—industry collaboration: A systematic review (Ankrah & Al-Tabbaa, 2015) – read here
• Internet of Things Applications: A Systematic Review (Asghari, Rahmani & Javadi, 2019) – read here

3. Meta-analysis

This is a type of systematic review that uses statistical methods to combine and summarize the results of several studies.

Due to its robust methodology, a meta-analysis is often considered the ‘gold standard’ of secondary research , as it provides a more precise estimate of a treatment effect than any individual study contributing to the pooled analysis.

Furthermore, by aggregating data from a range of studies, a meta-analysis can identify patterns, disagreements, or other interesting relationships that may have been hidden in individual studies.

This helps to enhance the generalizability of findings, making the conclusions drawn from a meta-analysis particularly powerful and informative for policy and practice.

Title: Cholesterol and Alzheimer’s Disease Risk: A Meta-Meta-Analysis

Citation: Sáiz-Vazquez, O., Puente-Martínez, A., Ubillos-Landa, S., Pacheco-Bonrostro, J., & Santabárbara, J. (2020). Cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease risk: a meta-meta-analysis. Brain sciences, 10(6), 386.

Source: https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10060386  

O verview: This study examines the relationship between cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Researchers conducted a systematic search of meta-analyses and reviewed several databases, collecting 100 primary studies and five meta-analyses to analyze the connection between cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease. They find that the literature compellingly demonstrates that low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels significantly influence the development of Alzheimer’s disease.

• The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research (Wisniewski, Zierer & Hattie, 2020) – read here
• How Much Does Education Improve Intelligence? A Meta-Analysis (Ritchie & Tucker-Drob, 2018) – read here
• A meta-analysis of factors related to recycling (Geiger et al., 2019) – read here
• Stress management interventions for police officers and recruits (Patterson, Chung & Swan, 2014) – read here

Other Types of Reviews

• Scoping Review: This type of review is used to map the key concepts underpinning a research area and the main sources and types of evidence available. It can be undertaken as stand-alone projects in their own right, or as a precursor to a systematic review.
• Rapid Review: This type of review accelerates the systematic review process in order to produce information in a timely manner. This is achieved by simplifying or omitting stages of the systematic review process.
• Integrative Review: This review method is more inclusive than others, allowing for the simultaneous inclusion of experimental and non-experimental research. The goal is to more comprehensively understand a particular phenomenon.
• Critical Review: This is similar to a narrative review but requires a robust understanding of both the subject and the existing literature. In a critical review, the reviewer not only summarizes the existing literature, but also evaluates its strengths and weaknesses. This is common in the social sciences and humanities .
• State-of-the-Art Review: This considers the current level of advancement in a field or topic and makes recommendations for future research directions. This type of review is common in technological and scientific fields but can be applied to any discipline.

How to Write a Narrative Review (Tips for Undergrad Students)

Most undergraduate students conducting a capstone research project will be writing narrative reviews. Below is a five-step process for conducting a simple review of the literature for your project.

• Search for Relevant Literature: Use scholarly databases related to your field of study, provided by your university library, along with appropriate search terms to identify key scholarly articles that have been published on your topic.
• Evaluate and Select Sources: Filter the source list by selecting studies that are directly relevant and of sufficient quality, considering factors like credibility , objectivity, accuracy, and validity.
• Analyze and Synthesize: Review each source and summarize the main arguments  in one paragraph (or more, for postgrad). Keep these summaries in a table.
• Identify Themes: With all studies summarized, group studies that share common themes, such as studies that have similar findings or methodologies.
• Write the Review: Write your review based upon the themes or subtopics you have identified. Give a thorough overview of each theme, integrating source data, and conclude with a summary of the current state of knowledge then suggestions for future research based upon your evaluation of what is lacking in the literature.

Literature reviews don’t have to be as scary as they seem. Yes, they are difficult and require a strong degree of comprehension of academic studies. But it can be feasibly done through following a structured approach to data collection and analysis. With my undergraduate research students (who tend to conduct small-scale qualitative studies ), I encourage them to conduct a narrative literature review whereby they can identify key themes in the literature. Within each theme, students can critique key studies and their strengths and limitations , in order to get a lay of the land and come to a point where they can identify ways to contribute new insights to the existing academic conversation on their topic.

Ankrah, S., & Omar, A. T. (2015). Universities–industry collaboration: A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 31(3), 387-408.

Asghari, P., Rahmani, A. M., & Javadi, H. H. S. (2019). Internet of Things applications: A systematic review. Computer Networks , 148 , 241-261.

Dyrbye, L., & Shanafelt, T. (2016). A narrative review on burnout experienced by medical students and residents. Medical education , 50 (1), 132-149.

Geiger, J. L., Steg, L., Van Der Werff, E., & Ünal, A. B. (2019). A meta-analysis of factors related to recycling. Journal of environmental psychology , 64 , 78-97.

Martin, F., Sun, T., & Westine, C. D. (2020). A systematic review of research on online teaching and learning from 2009 to 2018. Computers & education , 159 , 104009.

Mavilidi, M. F., Ruiter, M., Schmidt, M., Okely, A. D., Loyens, S., Chandler, P., & Paas, F. (2018). A narrative review of school-based physical activity for enhancing cognition and learning: The importance of relevancy and integration. Frontiers in psychology , 2079.

Patterson, G. T., Chung, I. W., & Swan, P. W. (2014). Stress management interventions for police officers and recruits: A meta-analysis. Journal of experimental criminology , 10 , 487-513.

Reith, T. P. (2018). Burnout in United States healthcare professionals: a narrative review. Cureus , 10 (12).

Ritchie, S. J., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2018). How much does education improve intelligence? A meta-analysis. Psychological science , 29 (8), 1358-1369.

Roman, S., Sánchez-Siles, L. M., & Siegrist, M. (2017). The importance of food naturalness for consumers: Results of a systematic review. Trends in food science & technology , 67 , 44-57.

Sáiz-Vazquez, O., Puente-Martínez, A., Ubillos-Landa, S., Pacheco-Bonrostro, J., & Santabárbara, J. (2020). Cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease risk: a meta-meta-analysis. Brain sciences, 10(6), 386.

Vermeir, P., Vandijck, D., Degroote, S., Peleman, R., Verhaeghe, R., Mortier, E., … & Vogelaers, D. (2015). Communication in healthcare: a narrative review of the literature and practical recommendations. International journal of clinical practice , 69 (11), 1257-1267.

Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K., & Hattie, J. (2020). The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 , 3087.

Yli-Huumo, J., Ko, D., Choi, S., Park, S., & Smolander, K. (2016). Where is current research on blockchain technology?—a systematic review. PloS one , 11 (10), e0163477.

Zestcott, C. A., Blair, I. V., & Stone, J. (2016). Examining the presence, consequences, and reduction of implicit bias in health care: a narrative review. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations , 19 (4), 528-542

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 5 Top Tips for Succeeding at University
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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 5. The Literature Review
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

A literature review surveys prior research published in books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have used in researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within existing scholarship about the topic.

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

• Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
• Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
• Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or
• Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

Given this, the purpose of a literature review is to:

• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2011; Knopf, Jeffrey W. "Doing a Literature Review." PS: Political Science and Politics 39 (January 2006): 127-132; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012.

Types of Literature Reviews

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally among scholars that become part of the body of epistemological traditions within the field.

In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.

Argumentative Review This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply embedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].

Integrative Review Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

Historical Review Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

Systematic Review This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research problem . Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social sciences.

Theoretical Review The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

NOTE : Most often the literature review will incorporate some combination of types. For example, a review that examines literature supporting or refuting an argument, assumption, or philosophical problem related to the research problem will also need to include writing supported by sources that establish the history of these arguments in the literature.

Baumeister, Roy F. and Mark R. Leary. "Writing Narrative Literature Reviews."  Review of General Psychology 1 (September 1997): 311-320; Mark R. Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-147; Petticrew, Mark and Helen Roberts. Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2006; Torracro, Richard. "Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples." Human Resource Development Review 4 (September 2005): 356-367; Rocco, Tonette S. and Maria S. Plakhotnik. "Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions." Human Ressource Development Review 8 (March 2008): 120-130; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Thinking About Your Literature Review

The structure of a literature review should include the following in support of understanding the research problem :

• An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature review,
• Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
• An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
• Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research.

The critical evaluation of each work should consider :

• Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings]?
• Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate? Were the results effectively interpreted and reported?
• Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
• Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least convincing?
• Validity -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

II.  Development of the Literature Review

Four Basic Stages of Writing 1.  Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? 2.  Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored. 3.  Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic. 4.  Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.

Consider the following issues before writing the literature review: Clarify If your assignment is not specific about what form your literature review should take, seek clarification from your professor by asking these questions: 1.  Roughly how many sources would be appropriate to include? 2.  What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly versus popular sources)? 3.  Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or issue? 4.  Should I evaluate the sources in any way beyond evaluating how they relate to understanding the research problem? 5.  Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history? Find Models Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of interest have composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or to identify ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read, such as required readings in the course syllabus, are also excellent entry points into your own research. Narrow the Topic The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to obtain a good survey of relevant resources. Your professor will probably not expect you to read everything that's available about the topic, but you'll make the act of reviewing easier if you first limit scope of the research problem. A good strategy is to begin by searching the USC Libraries Catalog for recent books about the topic and review the table of contents for chapters that focuses on specific issues. You can also review the indexes of books to find references to specific issues that can serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the history of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in mediating the conflict, or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in the text. Consider Whether Your Sources are Current Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. This is particularly true in disciplines in medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes obsolete very quickly as new discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be required. In other words, a complete understanding the research problem requires you to deliberately examine how knowledge and perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to explore what is considered by scholars to be a "hot topic" and what is not.

III.  Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronology of Events If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union. By Publication Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies. Thematic [“conceptual categories”] A thematic literature review is the most common approach to summarizing prior research in the social and behavioral sciences. Thematic reviews are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time, although the progression of time may still be incorporated into a thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it would still be organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The difference in this example between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: themes related to the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point being made. Methodological A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

Other Sections of Your Literature Review Once you've decided on the organizational method for your literature review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out because they arise from your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period; a thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue. However, sometimes you may need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. However, only include what is necessary for the reader to locate your study within the larger scholarship about the research problem.

Here are examples of other sections, usually in the form of a single paragraph, you may need to include depending on the type of review you write:

• Current Situation : Information necessary to understand the current topic or focus of the literature review.
• Sources Used : Describes the methods and resources [e.g., databases] you used to identify the literature you reviewed.
• History : The chronological progression of the field, the research literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.
• Selection Methods : Criteria you used to select (and perhaps exclude) sources in your literature review. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed [i.e., scholarly] sources.
• Standards : Description of the way in which you present your information.
• Questions for Further Research : What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

IV.  Writing Your Literature Review

Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each section. When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.

Use Evidence A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying is valid. Be Selective Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological. Related items that provide additional information, but that are not key to understanding the research problem, can be included in a list of further readings . Use Quotes Sparingly Some short quotes are appropriate if you want to emphasize a point, or if what an author stated cannot be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, is not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute for using your own words in reviewing the literature. Summarize and Synthesize Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each thematic paragraph as well as throughout the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to your own work and the work of others. Keep Your Own Voice While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice [the writer's] should remain front and center. For example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and wording. Use Caution When Paraphrasing When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still must provide a citation to that work.

V.  Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.

• Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
• You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem;
• Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies or data;
• Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
• Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to review;
• Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods; and,
• Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.

Cook, Kathleen E. and Elise Murowchick. “Do Literature Review Skills Transfer from One Course to Another?” Psychology Learning and Teaching 13 (March 2014): 3-11; Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . London: SAGE, 2011; Literature Review Handout. Online Writing Center. Liberty University; Literature Reviews. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2016; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012; Randolph, Justus J. “A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review." Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation. vol. 14, June 2009; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016; Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Writing a Literature Review. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra.

Writing Tip

Break Out of Your Disciplinary Box!

Thinking interdisciplinarily about a research problem can be a rewarding exercise in applying new ideas, theories, or concepts to an old problem. For example, what might cultural anthropologists say about the continuing conflict in the Middle East? In what ways might geographers view the need for better distribution of social service agencies in large cities than how social workers might study the issue? You don’t want to substitute a thorough review of core research literature in your discipline for studies conducted in other fields of study. However, particularly in the social sciences, thinking about research problems from multiple vectors is a key strategy for finding new solutions to a problem or gaining a new perspective. Consult with a librarian about identifying research databases in other disciplines; almost every field of study has at least one comprehensive database devoted to indexing its research literature.

Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Just Review for Content!

While conducting a review of the literature, maximize the time you devote to writing this part of your paper by thinking broadly about what you should be looking for and evaluating. Review not just what scholars are saying, but how are they saying it. Some questions to ask:

• How are they organizing their ideas?
• What methods have they used to study the problem?
• What theories have been used to explain, predict, or understand their research problem?
• What sources have they cited to support their conclusions?
• How have they used non-textual elements [e.g., charts, graphs, figures, etc.] to illustrate key points?

When you begin to write your literature review section, you'll be glad you dug deeper into how the research was designed and constructed because it establishes a means for developing more substantial analysis and interpretation of the research problem.

Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1 998.

Yet Another Writing Tip

When Do I Know I Can Stop Looking and Move On?

Here are several strategies you can utilize to assess whether you've thoroughly reviewed the literature:

• Look for repeating patterns in the research findings . If the same thing is being said, just by different people, then this likely demonstrates that the research problem has hit a conceptual dead end. At this point consider: Does your study extend current research?  Does it forge a new path? Or, does is merely add more of the same thing being said?
• Look at sources the authors cite to in their work . If you begin to see the same researchers cited again and again, then this is often an indication that no new ideas have been generated to address the research problem.
• Search Google Scholar to identify who has subsequently cited leading scholars already identified in your literature review [see next sub-tab]. This is called citation tracking and there are a number of sources that can help you identify who has cited whom, particularly scholars from outside of your discipline. Here again, if the same authors are being cited again and again, this may indicate no new literature has been written on the topic.

Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2016; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

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Literature Reviews

What this handout is about.

This handout will explain what literature reviews are and offer insights into the form and construction of literature reviews in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences.

Introduction

OK. You’ve got to write a literature review. You dust off a novel and a book of poetry, settle down in your chair, and get ready to issue a “thumbs up” or “thumbs down” as you leaf through the pages. “Literature review” done. Right?

Wrong! The “literature” of a literature review refers to any collection of materials on a topic, not necessarily the great literary texts of the world. “Literature” could be anything from a set of government pamphlets on British colonial methods in Africa to scholarly articles on the treatment of a torn ACL. And a review does not necessarily mean that your reader wants you to give your personal opinion on whether or not you liked these sources.

What is a literature review, then?

A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period.

A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant.

But how is a literature review different from an academic research paper?

The main focus of an academic research paper is to develop a new argument, and a research paper is likely to contain a literature review as one of its parts. In a research paper, you use the literature as a foundation and as support for a new insight that you contribute. The focus of a literature review, however, is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others without adding new contributions.

Why do we write literature reviews?

Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up to date with what is current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is essential to most research papers.

Who writes these things, anyway?

Literature reviews are written occasionally in the humanities, but mostly in the sciences and social sciences; in experiment and lab reports, they constitute a section of the paper. Sometimes a literature review is written as a paper in itself.

Let’s get to it! What should I do before writing the literature review?

If your assignment is not very specific, seek clarification from your instructor:

• Roughly how many sources should you include?
• What types of sources (books, journal articles, websites)?
• Should you summarize, synthesize, or critique your sources by discussing a common theme or issue?
• Should you evaluate your sources?
• Should you provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history?

Find models

Look for other literature reviews in your area of interest or in the discipline and read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or ways to organize your final review. You can simply put the word “review” in your search engine along with your other topic terms to find articles of this type on the Internet or in an electronic database. The bibliography or reference section of sources you’ve already read are also excellent entry points into your own research.

Narrow your topic

There are hundreds or even thousands of articles and books on most areas of study. The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to get a good survey of the material. Your instructor will probably not expect you to read everything that’s out there on the topic, but you’ll make your job easier if you first limit your scope.

Keep in mind that UNC Libraries have research guides and to databases relevant to many fields of study. You can reach out to the subject librarian for a consultation: https://library.unc.edu/support/consultations/ .

And don’t forget to tap into your professor’s (or other professors’) knowledge in the field. Ask your professor questions such as: “If you had to read only one book from the 90’s on topic X, what would it be?” Questions such as this help you to find and determine quickly the most seminal pieces in the field.

Consider whether your sources are current

Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. In the sciences, for instance, treatments for medical problems are constantly changing according to the latest studies. Information even two years old could be obsolete. However, if you are writing a review in the humanities, history, or social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be what is needed, because what is important is how perspectives have changed through the years or within a certain time period. Try sorting through some other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to consider what is currently of interest to scholars in this field and what is not.

Strategies for writing the literature review

Find a focus.

A literature review, like a term paper, is usually organized around ideas, not the sources themselves as an annotated bibliography would be organized. This means that you will not just simply list your sources and go into detail about each one of them, one at a time. No. As you read widely but selectively in your topic area, consider instead what themes or issues connect your sources together. Do they present one or different solutions? Is there an aspect of the field that is missing? How well do they present the material and do they portray it according to an appropriate theory? Do they reveal a trend in the field? A raging debate? Pick one of these themes to focus the organization of your review.

Convey it to your reader

A literature review may not have a traditional thesis statement (one that makes an argument), but you do need to tell readers what to expect. Try writing a simple statement that lets the reader know what is your main organizing principle. Here are a couple of examples:

The current trend in treatment for congestive heart failure combines surgery and medicine. More and more cultural studies scholars are accepting popular media as a subject worthy of academic consideration.

Consider organization

You’ve got a focus, and you’ve stated it clearly and directly. Now what is the most effective way of presenting the information? What are the most important topics, subtopics, etc., that your review needs to include? And in what order should you present them? Develop an organization for your review at both a global and local level:

First, cover the basic categories

Just like most academic papers, literature reviews also must contain at least three basic elements: an introduction or background information section; the body of the review containing the discussion of sources; and, finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations section to end the paper. The following provides a brief description of the content of each:

• Introduction: Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as the central theme or organizational pattern.
• Body: Contains your discussion of sources and is organized either chronologically, thematically, or methodologically (see below for more information on each).
• Conclusions/Recommendations: Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing literature so far. Where might the discussion proceed?

Organizing the body

Once you have the basic categories in place, then you must consider how you will present the sources themselves within the body of your paper. Create an organizational method to focus this section even further.

To help you come up with an overall organizational framework for your review, consider the following scenario:

You’ve decided to focus your literature review on materials dealing with sperm whales. This is because you’ve just finished reading Moby Dick, and you wonder if that whale’s portrayal is really real. You start with some articles about the physiology of sperm whales in biology journals written in the 1980’s. But these articles refer to some British biological studies performed on whales in the early 18th century. So you check those out. Then you look up a book written in 1968 with information on how sperm whales have been portrayed in other forms of art, such as in Alaskan poetry, in French painting, or on whale bone, as the whale hunters in the late 19th century used to do. This makes you wonder about American whaling methods during the time portrayed in Moby Dick, so you find some academic articles published in the last five years on how accurately Herman Melville portrayed the whaling scene in his novel.

Now consider some typical ways of organizing the sources into a review:

• Chronological: If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials above according to when they were published. For instance, first you would talk about the British biological studies of the 18th century, then about Moby Dick, published in 1851, then the book on sperm whales in other art (1968), and finally the biology articles (1980s) and the recent articles on American whaling of the 19th century. But there is relatively no continuity among subjects here. And notice that even though the sources on sperm whales in other art and on American whaling are written recently, they are about other subjects/objects that were created much earlier. Thus, the review loses its chronological focus.
• By publication: Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on biological studies of sperm whales if the progression revealed a change in dissection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies.
• By trend: A better way to organize the above sources chronologically is to examine the sources under another trend, such as the history of whaling. Then your review would have subsections according to eras within this period. For instance, the review might examine whaling from pre-1600-1699, 1700-1799, and 1800-1899. Under this method, you would combine the recent studies on American whaling in the 19th century with Moby Dick itself in the 1800-1899 category, even though the authors wrote a century apart.
• Thematic: Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. For instance, the sperm whale review could focus on the development of the harpoon for whale hunting. While the study focuses on one topic, harpoon technology, it will still be organized chronologically. The only difference here between a “chronological” and a “thematic” approach is what is emphasized the most: the development of the harpoon or the harpoon technology.But more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. For instance, a thematic review of material on sperm whales might examine how they are portrayed as “evil” in cultural documents. The subsections might include how they are personified, how their proportions are exaggerated, and their behaviors misunderstood. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point made.
• Methodological: A methodological approach differs from the two above in that the focusing factor usually does not have to do with the content of the material. Instead, it focuses on the “methods” of the researcher or writer. For the sperm whale project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of whales in American, British, and French art work. Or the review might focus on the economic impact of whaling on a community. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed. Once you’ve decided on the organizational method for the body of the review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out. They should arise out of your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period. A thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue.

Sometimes, though, you might need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. Put in only what is necessary. Here are a few other sections you might want to consider:

• Current Situation: Information necessary to understand the topic or focus of the literature review.
• History: The chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.
• Methods and/or Standards: The criteria you used to select the sources in your literature review or the way in which you present your information. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed articles and journals.

Questions for Further Research: What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

Begin composing

Once you’ve settled on a general pattern of organization, you’re ready to write each section. There are a few guidelines you should follow during the writing stage as well. Here is a sample paragraph from a literature review about sexism and language to illuminate the following discussion:

However, other studies have shown that even gender-neutral antecedents are more likely to produce masculine images than feminine ones (Gastil, 1990). Hamilton (1988) asked students to complete sentences that required them to fill in pronouns that agreed with gender-neutral antecedents such as “writer,” “pedestrian,” and “persons.” The students were asked to describe any image they had when writing the sentence. Hamilton found that people imagined 3.3 men to each woman in the masculine “generic” condition and 1.5 men per woman in the unbiased condition. Thus, while ambient sexism accounted for some of the masculine bias, sexist language amplified the effect. (Source: Erika Falk and Jordan Mills, “Why Sexist Language Affects Persuasion: The Role of Homophily, Intended Audience, and Offense,” Women and Language19:2).

Use evidence

In the example above, the writers refer to several other sources when making their point. A literature review in this sense is just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence to show that what you are saying is valid.

Be selective

Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the review’s focus, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological.

Use quotes sparingly

Falk and Mills do not use any direct quotes. That is because the survey nature of the literature review does not allow for in-depth discussion or detailed quotes from the text. Some short quotes here and there are okay, though, if you want to emphasize a point, or if what the author said just cannot be rewritten in your own words. Notice that Falk and Mills do quote certain terms that were coined by the author, not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. But if you find yourself wanting to put in more quotes, check with your instructor.

Summarize and synthesize

Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each paragraph as well as throughout the review. The authors here recapitulate important features of Hamilton’s study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study’s significance and relating it to their own work.

Keep your own voice

While the literature review presents others’ ideas, your voice (the writer’s) should remain front and center. Notice that Falk and Mills weave references to other sources into their own text, but they still maintain their own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with their own ideas and their own words. The sources support what Falk and Mills are saying.

Use caution when paraphrasing

When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author’s information or opinions accurately and in your own words. In the preceding example, Falk and Mills either directly refer in the text to the author of their source, such as Hamilton, or they provide ample notation in the text when the ideas they are mentioning are not their own, for example, Gastil’s. For more information, please see our handout on plagiarism .

Revise, revise, revise

Draft in hand? Now you’re ready to revise. Spending a lot of time revising is a wise idea, because your main objective is to present the material, not the argument. So check over your review again to make sure it follows the assignment and/or your outline. Then, just as you would for most other academic forms of writing, rewrite or rework the language of your review so that you’ve presented your information in the most concise manner possible. Be sure to use terminology familiar to your audience; get rid of unnecessary jargon or slang. Finally, double check that you’ve documented your sources and formatted the review appropriately for your discipline. For tips on the revising and editing process, see our handout on revising drafts .

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Jones, Robert, Patrick Bizzaro, and Cynthia Selfe. 1997. The Harcourt Brace Guide to Writing in the Disciplines . New York: Harcourt Brace.

Lamb, Sandra E. 1998. How to Write It: A Complete Guide to Everything You’ll Ever Write . Berkeley: Ten Speed Press.

Rosen, Leonard J., and Laurence Behrens. 2003. The Allyn & Bacon Handbook , 5th ed. New York: Longman.

Troyka, Lynn Quittman, and Doug Hesse. 2016. Simon and Schuster Handbook for Writers , 11th ed. London: Pearson.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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• CAREER FEATURE
• 04 December 2020
• Correction 09 December 2020

How to write a superb literature review

Andy Tay is a freelance writer based in Singapore.

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Literature reviews are important resources for scientists. They provide historical context for a field while offering opinions on its future trajectory. Creating them can provide inspiration for one’s own research, as well as some practice in writing. But few scientists are trained in how to write a review — or in what constitutes an excellent one. Even picking the appropriate software to use can be an involved decision (see ‘Tools and techniques’). So Nature asked editors and working scientists with well-cited reviews for their tips.

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doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-03422-x

Interviews have been edited for length and clarity.

Updates & Corrections

Correction 09 December 2020 : An earlier version of the tables in this article included some incorrect details about the programs Zotero, Endnote and Manubot. These have now been corrected.

Hsing, I.-M., Xu, Y. & Zhao, W. Electroanalysis 19 , 755–768 (2007).

Article   Google Scholar  

Ledesma, H. A. et al. Nature Nanotechnol. 14 , 645–657 (2019).

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Brahlek, M., Koirala, N., Bansal, N. & Oh, S. Solid State Commun. 215–216 , 54–62 (2015).

Choi, Y. & Lee, S. Y. Nature Rev. Chem . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-020-00221-w (2020).

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How to write a literature review introduction (+ examples)

The introduction to a literature review serves as your reader’s guide through your academic work and thought process. Explore the significance of literature review introductions in review papers, academic papers, essays, theses, and dissertations. We delve into the purpose and necessity of these introductions, explore the essential components of literature review introductions, and provide step-by-step guidance on how to craft your own, along with examples.

Why you need an introduction for a literature review

When you need an introduction for a literature review, what to include in a literature review introduction, examples of literature review introductions, steps to write your own literature review introduction.

A literature review is a comprehensive examination of the international academic literature concerning a particular topic. It involves summarizing published works, theories, and concepts while also highlighting gaps and offering critical reflections.

In academic writing , the introduction for a literature review is an indispensable component. Effective academic writing requires proper paragraph structuring to guide your reader through your argumentation. This includes providing an introduction to your literature review.

It is imperative to remember that you should never start sharing your findings abruptly. Even if there isn’t a dedicated introduction section .

Instead, you should always offer some form of introduction to orient the reader and clarify what they can expect.

There are three main scenarios in which you need an introduction for a literature review:

• Academic literature review papers: When your literature review constitutes the entirety of an academic review paper, a more substantial introduction is necessary. This introduction should resemble the standard introduction found in regular academic papers.
• Literature review section in an academic paper or essay: While this section tends to be brief, it’s important to precede the detailed literature review with a few introductory sentences. This helps orient the reader before delving into the literature itself.
• Literature review chapter or section in your thesis/dissertation: Every thesis and dissertation includes a literature review component, which also requires a concise introduction to set the stage for the subsequent review.

You may also like: How to write a fantastic thesis introduction (+15 examples)

It is crucial to customize the content and depth of your literature review introduction according to the specific format of your academic work.

In practical terms, this implies, for instance, that the introduction in an academic literature review paper, especially one derived from a systematic literature review , is quite comprehensive. Particularly compared to the rather brief one or two introductory sentences that are often found at the beginning of a literature review section in a standard academic paper. The introduction to the literature review chapter in a thesis or dissertation again adheres to different standards.

Here’s a structured breakdown based on length and the necessary information:

Academic literature review paper

The introduction of an academic literature review paper, which does not rely on empirical data, often necessitates a more extensive introduction than the brief literature review introductions typically found in empirical papers. It should encompass:

• The research problem: Clearly articulate the problem or question that your literature review aims to address.
• The research gap: Highlight the existing gaps, limitations, or unresolved aspects within the current body of literature related to the research problem.
• The research relevance: Explain why the chosen research problem and its subsequent investigation through a literature review are significant and relevant in your academic field.
• The literature review method: If applicable, describe the methodology employed in your literature review, especially if it is a systematic review or follows a specific research framework.
• The main findings or insights of the literature review: Summarize the key discoveries, insights, or trends that have emerged from your comprehensive review of the literature.
• The main argument of the literature review: Conclude the introduction by outlining the primary argument or statement that your literature review will substantiate, linking it to the research problem and relevance you’ve established.
• Preview of the literature review’s structure: Offer a glimpse into the organization of the literature review paper, acting as a guide for the reader. This overview outlines the subsequent sections of the paper and provides an understanding of what to anticipate.

By addressing these elements, your introduction will provide a clear and structured overview of what readers can expect in your literature review paper.

Regular literature review section in an academic article or essay

Most academic articles or essays incorporate regular literature review sections, often placed after the introduction. These sections serve to establish a scholarly basis for the research or discussion within the paper.

In a standard 8000-word journal article, the literature review section typically spans between 750 and 1250 words. The first few sentences or the first paragraph within this section often serve as an introduction. It should encompass:

• An introduction to the topic: When delving into the academic literature on a specific topic, it’s important to provide a smooth transition that aids the reader in comprehending why certain aspects will be discussed within your literature review.
• The core argument: While literature review sections primarily synthesize the work of other scholars, they should consistently connect to your central argument. This central argument serves as the crux of your message or the key takeaway you want your readers to retain. By positioning it at the outset of the literature review section and systematically substantiating it with evidence, you not only enhance reader comprehension but also elevate overall readability. This primary argument can typically be distilled into 1-2 succinct sentences.

In some cases, you might include:

• Methodology: Details about the methodology used, but only if your literature review employed a specialized method. If your approach involved a broader overview without a systematic methodology, you can omit this section, thereby conserving word count.

By addressing these elements, your introduction will effectively integrate your literature review into the broader context of your academic paper or essay. This will, in turn, assist your reader in seamlessly following your overarching line of argumentation.

Introduction to a literature review chapter in thesis or dissertation

The literature review typically constitutes a distinct chapter within a thesis or dissertation. Often, it is Chapter 2 of a thesis or dissertation.

Some students choose to incorporate a brief introductory section at the beginning of each chapter, including the literature review chapter. Alternatively, others opt to seamlessly integrate the introduction into the initial sentences of the literature review itself. Both approaches are acceptable, provided that you incorporate the following elements:

• Purpose of the literature review and its relevance to the thesis/dissertation research: Explain the broader objectives of the literature review within the context of your research and how it contributes to your thesis or dissertation. Essentially, you’re telling the reader why this literature review is important and how it fits into the larger scope of your academic work.
• Primary argument: Succinctly communicate what you aim to prove, explain, or explore through the review of existing literature. This statement helps guide the reader’s understanding of the review’s purpose and what to expect from it.
• Preview of the literature review’s content: Provide a brief overview of the topics or themes that your literature review will cover. It’s like a roadmap for the reader, outlining the main areas of focus within the review. This preview can help the reader anticipate the structure and organization of your literature review.
• Methodology: If your literature review involved a specific research method, such as a systematic review or meta-analysis, you should briefly describe that methodology. However, this is not always necessary, especially if your literature review is more of a narrative synthesis without a distinct research method.

By addressing these elements, your introduction will empower your literature review to play a pivotal role in your thesis or dissertation research. It will accomplish this by integrating your research into the broader academic literature and providing a solid theoretical foundation for your work.

Comprehending the art of crafting your own literature review introduction becomes significantly more accessible when you have concrete examples to examine. Here, you will find several examples that meet, or in most cases, adhere to the criteria described earlier.

Example 1: An effective introduction for an academic literature review paper

To begin, let’s delve into the introduction of an academic literature review paper. We will examine the paper “How does culture influence innovation? A systematic literature review”, which was published in 2018 in the journal Management Decision.

The entire introduction spans 611 words and is divided into five paragraphs. In this introduction, the authors accomplish the following:

• In the first paragraph, the authors introduce the broader topic of the literature review, which focuses on innovation and its significance in the context of economic competition. They underscore the importance of this topic, highlighting its relevance for both researchers and policymakers.
• In the second paragraph, the authors narrow down their focus to emphasize the specific role of culture in relation to innovation.
• In the third paragraph, the authors identify research gaps, noting that existing studies are often fragmented and disconnected. They then emphasize the value of conducting a systematic literature review to enhance our understanding of the topic.
• In the fourth paragraph, the authors introduce their specific objectives and explain how their insights can benefit other researchers and business practitioners.
• In the fifth and final paragraph, the authors provide an overview of the paper’s organization and structure.

In summary, this introduction stands as a solid example. While the authors deviate from previewing their key findings (which is a common practice at least in the social sciences), they do effectively cover all the other previously mentioned points.

Example 2: An effective introduction to a literature review section in an academic paper

The second example represents a typical academic paper, encompassing not only a literature review section but also empirical data, a case study, and other elements. We will closely examine the introduction to the literature review section in the paper “The environmentalism of the subalterns: a case study of environmental activism in Eastern Kurdistan/Rojhelat”, which was published in 2021 in the journal Local Environment.

The paper begins with a general introduction and then proceeds to the literature review, designated by the authors as their conceptual framework. Of particular interest is the first paragraph of this conceptual framework, comprising 142 words across five sentences:

“ A peripheral and marginalised nationality within a multinational though-Persian dominated Iranian society, the Kurdish people of Iranian Kurdistan (a region referred by the Kurds as Rojhelat/Eastern Kurdi-stan) have since the early twentieth century been subject to multifaceted and systematic discriminatory and exclusionary state policy in Iran. This condition has left a population of 12–15 million Kurds in Iran suffering from structural inequalities, disenfranchisement and deprivation. Mismanagement of Kurdistan’s natural resources and the degradation of its natural environmental are among examples of this disenfranchisement. As asserted by Julian Agyeman (2005), structural inequalities that sustain the domination of political and economic elites often simultaneously result in environmental degradation, injustice and discrimination against subaltern communities. This study argues that the environmental struggle in Eastern Kurdistan can be asserted as a (sub)element of the Kurdish liberation movement in Iran. Conceptually this research is inspired by and has been conducted through the lens of ‘subalternity’ ” ( Hassaniyan, 2021, p. 931 ).

In this first paragraph, the author is doing the following:

• The author contextualises the research
• The author links the research focus to the international literature on structural inequalities
• The author clearly presents the argument of the research
• The author clarifies how the research is inspired by and uses the concept of ‘subalternity’.

Thus, the author successfully introduces the literature review, from which point onward it dives into the main concept (‘subalternity’) of the research, and reviews the literature on socio-economic justice and environmental degradation.

While introductions to a literature review section aren’t always required to offer the same level of study context detail as demonstrated here, this introduction serves as a commendable model for orienting the reader within the literature review. It effectively underscores the literature review’s significance within the context of the study being conducted.

Examples 3-5: Effective introductions to literature review chapters

The introduction to a literature review chapter can vary in length, depending largely on the overall length of the literature review chapter itself. For example, a master’s thesis typically features a more concise literature review, thus necessitating a shorter introduction. In contrast, a Ph.D. thesis, with its more extensive literature review, often includes a more detailed introduction.

Numerous universities offer online repositories where you can access theses and dissertations from previous years, serving as valuable sources of reference. Many of these repositories, however, may require you to log in through your university account. Nevertheless, a few open-access repositories are accessible to anyone, such as the one by the University of Manchester . It’s important to note though that copyright restrictions apply to these resources, just as they would with published papers.

Master’s thesis literature review introduction

The first example is “Benchmarking Asymmetrical Heating Models of Spider Pulsar Companions” by P. Sun, a master’s thesis completed at the University of Manchester on January 9, 2024. The author, P. Sun, introduces the literature review chapter very briefly but effectively:

PhD thesis literature review chapter introduction

The second example is Deep Learning on Semi-Structured Data and its Applications to Video-Game AI, Woof, W. (Author). 31 Dec 2020, a PhD thesis completed at the University of Manchester . In Chapter 2, the author offers a comprehensive introduction to the topic in four paragraphs, with the final paragraph serving as an overview of the chapter’s structure:

PhD thesis literature review introduction

The last example is the doctoral thesis Metacognitive strategies and beliefs: Child correlates and early experiences Chan, K. Y. M. (Author). 31 Dec 2020 . The author clearly conducted a systematic literature review, commencing the review section with a discussion of the methodology and approach employed in locating and analyzing the selected records.

Having absorbed all of this information, let’s recap the essential steps and offer a succinct guide on how to proceed with creating your literature review introduction:

• Contextualize your review : Begin by clearly identifying the academic context in which your literature review resides and determining the necessary information to include.
• Outline your structure : Develop a structured outline for your literature review, highlighting the essential information you plan to incorporate in your introduction.
• Literature review process : Conduct a rigorous literature review, reviewing and analyzing relevant sources.
• Summarize and abstract : After completing the review, synthesize the findings and abstract key insights, trends, and knowledge gaps from the literature.
• Craft the introduction : Write your literature review introduction with meticulous attention to the seamless integration of your review into the larger context of your work. Ensure that your introduction effectively elucidates your rationale for the chosen review topics and the underlying reasons guiding your selection.

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How To Structure Your Literature Review

3 options to help structure your chapter.

By: Amy Rommelspacher (PhD) | Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | November 2020 (Updated May 2023)

Writing the literature review chapter can seem pretty daunting when you’re piecing together your dissertation or thesis. As  we’ve discussed before , a good literature review needs to achieve a few very important objectives – it should:

• Demonstrate your knowledge of the research topic
• Identify the gaps in the literature and show how your research links to these
• Provide the foundation for your conceptual framework (if you have one)
• Inform your own  methodology and research design

To achieve this, your literature review needs a well-thought-out structure . Get the structure of your literature review chapter wrong and you’ll struggle to achieve these objectives. Don’t worry though – in this post, we’ll look at how to structure your literature review for maximum impact (and marks!).

But wait – is this the right time?

Deciding on the structure of your literature review should come towards the end of the literature review process – after you have collected and digested the literature, but before you start writing the chapter. 

In other words, you need to first develop a rich understanding of the literature before you even attempt to map out a structure. There’s no use trying to develop a structure before you’ve fully wrapped your head around the existing research.

Equally importantly, you need to have a structure in place before you start writing , or your literature review will most likely end up a rambling, disjointed mess. 

Importantly, don’t feel that once you’ve defined a structure you can’t iterate on it. It’s perfectly natural to adjust as you engage in the writing process. As we’ve discussed before , writing is a way of developing your thinking, so it’s quite common for your thinking to change – and therefore, for your chapter structure to change – as you write. 

Need a helping hand?

Like any other chapter in your thesis or dissertation, your literature review needs to have a clear, logical structure. At a minimum, it should have three essential components – an  introduction , a  body   and a  conclusion . 

Let’s take a closer look at each of these.

1: The Introduction Section

Just like any good introduction, the introduction section of your literature review should introduce the purpose and layout (organisation) of the chapter. In other words, your introduction needs to give the reader a taste of what’s to come, and how you’re going to lay that out. Essentially, you should provide the reader with a high-level roadmap of your chapter to give them a taste of the journey that lies ahead.

Here’s an example of the layout visualised in a literature review introduction:

Your introduction should also outline your topic (including any tricky terminology or jargon) and provide an explanation of the scope of your literature review – in other words, what you  will   and  won’t   be covering (the delimitations ). This helps ringfence your review and achieve a clear focus . The clearer and narrower your focus, the deeper you can dive into the topic (which is typically where the magic lies). 

Depending on the nature of your project, you could also present your stance or point of view at this stage. In other words, after grappling with the literature you’ll have an opinion about what the trends and concerns are in the field as well as what’s lacking. The introduction section can then present these ideas so that it is clear to examiners that you’re aware of how your research connects with existing knowledge .

2: The Body Section

The body of your literature review is the centre of your work. This is where you’ll present, analyse, evaluate and synthesise the existing research. In other words, this is where you’re going to earn (or lose) the most marks. Therefore, it’s important to carefully think about how you will organise your discussion to present it in a clear way. 

The body of your literature review should do just as the description of this chapter suggests. It should “review” the literature – in other words, identify, analyse, and synthesise it. So, when thinking about structuring your literature review, you need to think about which structural approach will provide the best “review” for your specific type of research and objectives (we’ll get to this shortly).

There are (broadly speaking)  three options  for organising your literature review.

Option 1: Chronological (according to date)

Organising the literature chronologically is one of the simplest ways to structure your literature review. You start with what was published first and work your way through the literature until you reach the work published most recently. Pretty straightforward.

The benefit of this option is that it makes it easy to discuss the developments and debates in the field as they emerged over time. Organising your literature chronologically also allows you to highlight how specific articles or pieces of work might have changed the course of the field – in other words, which research has had the most impact . Therefore, this approach is very useful when your research is aimed at understanding how the topic has unfolded over time and is often used by scholars in the field of history. That said, this approach can be utilised by anyone that wants to explore change over time .

For example , if a student of politics is investigating how the understanding of democracy has evolved over time, they could use the chronological approach to provide a narrative that demonstrates how this understanding has changed through the ages.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself to help you structure your literature review chronologically.

• What is the earliest literature published relating to this topic?
• How has the field changed over time? Why?
• What are the most recent discoveries/theories?

In some ways, chronology plays a part whichever way you decide to structure your literature review, because you will always, to a certain extent, be analysing how the literature has developed. However, with the chronological approach, the emphasis is very firmly on how the discussion has evolved over time , as opposed to how all the literature links together (which we’ll discuss next ).

Option 2: Thematic (grouped by theme)

The thematic approach to structuring a literature review means organising your literature by theme or category – for example, by independent variables (i.e. factors that have an impact on a specific outcome).

As you’ve been collecting and synthesising literature , you’ll likely have started seeing some themes or patterns emerging. You can then use these themes or patterns as a structure for your body discussion. The thematic approach is the most common approach and is useful for structuring literature reviews in most fields.

For example, if you were researching which factors contributed towards people trusting an organisation, you might find themes such as consumers’ perceptions of an organisation’s competence, benevolence and integrity. Structuring your literature review thematically would mean structuring your literature review’s body section to discuss each of these themes, one section at a time.

Here are some questions to ask yourself when structuring your literature review by themes:

• Are there any patterns that have come to light in the literature?
• What are the central themes and categories used by the researchers?
• Do I have enough evidence of these themes?

PS – you can see an example of a thematically structured literature review in our literature review sample walkthrough video here.

Option 3: Methodological

The methodological option is a way of structuring your literature review by the research methodologies used . In other words, organising your discussion based on the angle from which each piece of research was approached – for example, qualitative , quantitative or mixed  methodologies.

Structuring your literature review by methodology can be useful if you are drawing research from a variety of disciplines and are critiquing different methodologies. The point of this approach is to question  how  existing research has been conducted, as opposed to  what  the conclusions and/or findings the research were.

For example, a sociologist might centre their research around critiquing specific fieldwork practices. Their literature review will then be a summary of the fieldwork methodologies used by different studies.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself when structuring your literature review according to methodology:

• Which methodologies have been utilised in this field?
• Which methodology is the most popular (and why)?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the various methodologies?
• How can the existing methodologies inform my own methodology?

3: The Conclusion Section

Once you’ve completed the body section of your literature review using one of the structural approaches we discussed above, you’ll need to “wrap up” your literature review and pull all the pieces together to set the direction for the rest of your dissertation or thesis.

The conclusion is where you’ll present the key findings of your literature review. In this section, you should emphasise the research that is especially important to your research questions and highlight the gaps that exist in the literature. Based on this, you need to make it clear what you will add to the literature – in other words, justify your own research by showing how it will help fill one or more of the gaps you just identified.

Last but not least, if it’s your intention to develop a conceptual framework for your dissertation or thesis, the conclusion section is a good place to present this.

Example: Thematically Structured Review

In the video below, we unpack a literature review chapter so that you can see an example of a thematically structure review in practice.

Let’s Recap

In this article, we’ve  discussed how to structure your literature review for maximum impact. Here’s a quick recap of what  you need to keep in mind when deciding on your literature review structure:

• Just like other chapters, your literature review needs a clear introduction , body and conclusion .
• The introduction section should provide an overview of what you will discuss in your literature review.
• The body section of your literature review can be organised by chronology , theme or methodology . The right structural approach depends on what you’re trying to achieve with your research.
• The conclusion section should draw together the key findings of your literature review and link them to your research questions.

If you’re ready to get started, be sure to download our free literature review template to fast-track your chapter outline.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Literature Review Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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27 Comments

Great work. This is exactly what I was looking for and helps a lot together with your previous post on literature review. One last thing is missing: a link to a great literature chapter of an journal article (maybe with comments of the different sections in this review chapter). Do you know any great literature review chapters?

I agree with you Marin… A great piece

I agree with Marin. This would be quite helpful if you annotate a nicely structured literature from previously published research articles.

Awesome article for my research.

I thank you immensely for this wonderful guide

It is indeed thought and supportive work for the futurist researcher and students

Very educative and good time to get guide. Thank you

Great work, very insightful. Thank you.

Thanks for this wonderful presentation. My question is that do I put all the variables into a single conceptual framework or each hypothesis will have it own conceptual framework?

Thank you very much, very helpful

This is very educative and precise . Thank you very much for dropping this kind of write up .

Pheeww, so damn helpful, thank you for this informative piece.

I’m doing a research project topic ; stool analysis for parasitic worm (enteric) worm, how do I structure it, thanks.

comprehensive explanation. Help us by pasting the URL of some good “literature review” for better understanding.

great piece. thanks for the awesome explanation. it is really worth sharing. I have a little question, if anyone can help me out, which of the options in the body of literature can be best fit if you are writing an architectural thesis that deals with design?

I am doing a research on nanofluids how can l structure it?

Beautifully clear.nThank you!

Lucid! Thankyou!

Brilliant work, well understood, many thanks

I like how this was so clear with simple language 😊😊 thank you so much 😊 for these information 😊

Insightful. I was struggling to come up with a sensible literature review but this has been really helpful. Thank you!

You have given thought-provoking information about the review of the literature.

Thank you. It has made my own research better and to impart your work to students I teach

I learnt a lot from this teaching. It’s a great piece.

I am doing research on EFL teacher motivation for his/her job. How Can I structure it? Is there any detailed template, additional to this?

You are so cool! I do not think I’ve read through something like this before. So nice to find somebody with some genuine thoughts on this issue. Seriously.. thank you for starting this up. This site is one thing that is required on the internet, someone with a little originality!

I’m asked to do conceptual, theoretical and empirical literature, and i just don’t know how to structure it

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Literature Reviews

• What is a literature review?
• Steps in the Literature Review Process
• Define your research question
• Determine inclusion and exclusion criteria
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What is a Literature Review?

A literature or narrative review is a comprehensive review and analysis of the published literature on a specific topic or research question. The literature that is reviewed contains: books, articles, academic articles, conference proceedings, association papers, and dissertations. It contains the most pertinent studies and points to important past and current research and practices. It provides background and context, and shows how your research will contribute to the field. 

A literature review should: 

• Provide a comprehensive and updated review of the literature;
• Explain why this review has taken place;
• Articulate a position or hypothesis;
• Acknowledge and account for conflicting and corroborating points of view

From  S age Research Methods

Purpose of a Literature Review

A literature review can be written as an introduction to a study to:

• Demonstrate how a study fills a gap in research
• Compare a study with other research that's been done

Or it can be a separate work (a research article on its own) which:

• Organizes or describes a topic
• Describes variables within a particular issue/problem

Limitations of a Literature Review

Some of the limitations of a literature review are:

• It's a snapshot in time. Unlike other reviews, this one has beginning, a middle and an end. There may be future developments that could make your work less relevant.
• It may be too focused. Some niche studies may miss the bigger picture.
• It can be difficult to be comprehensive. There is no way to make sure all the literature on a topic was considered.
• It is easy to be biased if you stick to top tier journals. There may be other places where people are publishing exemplary research. Look to open access publications and conferences to reflect a more inclusive collection. Also, make sure to include opposing views (and not just supporting evidence).

Source: Grant, Maria J., and Andrew Booth. “A Typology of Reviews: An Analysis of 14 Review Types and Associated Methodologies.” Health Information & Libraries Journal, vol. 26, no. 2, June 2009, pp. 91–108. Wiley Online Library, doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x.

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Home » Literature Review – Types Writing Guide and Examples

Literature Review – Types Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Literature Review

Definition:

A literature review is a comprehensive and critical analysis of the existing literature on a particular topic or research question. It involves identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing relevant literature, including scholarly articles, books, and other sources, to provide a summary and critical assessment of what is known about the topic.

Types of Literature Review

Types of Literature Review are as follows:

• Narrative literature review : This type of review involves a comprehensive summary and critical analysis of the available literature on a particular topic or research question. It is often used as an introductory section of a research paper.
• Systematic literature review: This is a rigorous and structured review that follows a pre-defined protocol to identify, evaluate, and synthesize all relevant studies on a specific research question. It is often used in evidence-based practice and systematic reviews.
• Meta-analysis: This is a quantitative review that uses statistical methods to combine data from multiple studies to derive a summary effect size. It provides a more precise estimate of the overall effect than any individual study.
• Scoping review: This is a preliminary review that aims to map the existing literature on a broad topic area to identify research gaps and areas for further investigation.
• Critical literature review : This type of review evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the existing literature on a particular topic or research question. It aims to provide a critical analysis of the literature and identify areas where further research is needed.
• Conceptual literature review: This review synthesizes and integrates theories and concepts from multiple sources to provide a new perspective on a particular topic. It aims to provide a theoretical framework for understanding a particular research question.
• Rapid literature review: This is a quick review that provides a snapshot of the current state of knowledge on a specific research question or topic. It is often used when time and resources are limited.
• Thematic literature review : This review identifies and analyzes common themes and patterns across a body of literature on a particular topic. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the literature and identify key themes and concepts.
• Realist literature review: This review is often used in social science research and aims to identify how and why certain interventions work in certain contexts. It takes into account the context and complexities of real-world situations.
• State-of-the-art literature review : This type of review provides an overview of the current state of knowledge in a particular field, highlighting the most recent and relevant research. It is often used in fields where knowledge is rapidly evolving, such as technology or medicine.
• Integrative literature review: This type of review synthesizes and integrates findings from multiple studies on a particular topic to identify patterns, themes, and gaps in the literature. It aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge on a particular topic.
• Umbrella literature review : This review is used to provide a broad overview of a large and diverse body of literature on a particular topic. It aims to identify common themes and patterns across different areas of research.
• Historical literature review: This type of review examines the historical development of research on a particular topic or research question. It aims to provide a historical context for understanding the current state of knowledge on a particular topic.
• Problem-oriented literature review : This review focuses on a specific problem or issue and examines the literature to identify potential solutions or interventions. It aims to provide practical recommendations for addressing a particular problem or issue.
• Mixed-methods literature review : This type of review combines quantitative and qualitative methods to synthesize and analyze the available literature on a particular topic. It aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research question by combining different types of evidence.

Parts of Literature Review

Parts of a literature review are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction of a literature review typically provides background information on the research topic and why it is important. It outlines the objectives of the review, the research question or hypothesis, and the scope of the review.

Literature Search

This section outlines the search strategy and databases used to identify relevant literature. The search terms used, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and any limitations of the search are described.

Literature Analysis

The literature analysis is the main body of the literature review. This section summarizes and synthesizes the literature that is relevant to the research question or hypothesis. The review should be organized thematically, chronologically, or by methodology, depending on the research objectives.

Critical Evaluation

Critical evaluation involves assessing the quality and validity of the literature. This includes evaluating the reliability and validity of the studies reviewed, the methodology used, and the strength of the evidence.

The conclusion of the literature review should summarize the main findings, identify any gaps in the literature, and suggest areas for future research. It should also reiterate the importance of the research question or hypothesis and the contribution of the literature review to the overall research project.

The references list includes all the sources cited in the literature review, and follows a specific referencing style (e.g., APA, MLA, Harvard).

How to write Literature Review

Here are some steps to follow when writing a literature review:

• Define your research question or topic : Before starting your literature review, it is essential to define your research question or topic. This will help you identify relevant literature and determine the scope of your review.
• Conduct a comprehensive search: Use databases and search engines to find relevant literature. Look for peer-reviewed articles, books, and other academic sources that are relevant to your research question or topic.
• Evaluate the sources: Once you have found potential sources, evaluate them critically to determine their relevance, credibility, and quality. Look for recent publications, reputable authors, and reliable sources of data and evidence.
• Organize your sources: Group the sources by theme, method, or research question. This will help you identify similarities and differences among the literature, and provide a structure for your literature review.
• Analyze and synthesize the literature : Analyze each source in depth, identifying the key findings, methodologies, and conclusions. Then, synthesize the information from the sources, identifying patterns and themes in the literature.
• Write the literature review : Start with an introduction that provides an overview of the topic and the purpose of the literature review. Then, organize the literature according to your chosen structure, and analyze and synthesize the sources. Finally, provide a conclusion that summarizes the key findings of the literature review, identifies gaps in knowledge, and suggests areas for future research.
• Edit and proofread: Once you have written your literature review, edit and proofread it carefully to ensure that it is well-organized, clear, and concise.

Examples of Literature Review

Here’s an example of how a literature review can be conducted for a thesis on the topic of “ The Impact of Social Media on Teenagers’ Mental Health”:

• Start by identifying the key terms related to your research topic. In this case, the key terms are “social media,” “teenagers,” and “mental health.”
• Use academic databases like Google Scholar, JSTOR, or PubMed to search for relevant articles, books, and other publications. Use these keywords in your search to narrow down your results.
• Evaluate the sources you find to determine if they are relevant to your research question. You may want to consider the publication date, author’s credentials, and the journal or book publisher.
• Begin reading and taking notes on each source, paying attention to key findings, methodologies used, and any gaps in the research.
• Organize your findings into themes or categories. For example, you might categorize your sources into those that examine the impact of social media on self-esteem, those that explore the effects of cyberbullying, and those that investigate the relationship between social media use and depression.
• Synthesize your findings by summarizing the key themes and highlighting any gaps or inconsistencies in the research. Identify areas where further research is needed.
• Use your literature review to inform your research questions and hypotheses for your thesis.

For example, after conducting a literature review on the impact of social media on teenagers’ mental health, a thesis might look like this:

“Using a mixed-methods approach, this study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes in teenagers. Specifically, the study will examine the effects of cyberbullying, social comparison, and excessive social media use on self-esteem, anxiety, and depression. Through an analysis of survey data and qualitative interviews with teenagers, the study will provide insight into the complex relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes, and identify strategies for promoting positive mental health outcomes in young people.”

Reference: Smith, J., Jones, M., & Lee, S. (2019). The effects of social media use on adolescent mental health: A systematic review. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(2), 154-165. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.03.024

Reference Example: Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page range. doi:0000000/000000000000 or URL

Applications of Literature Review

some applications of literature review in different fields:

• Social Sciences: In social sciences, literature reviews are used to identify gaps in existing research, to develop research questions, and to provide a theoretical framework for research. Literature reviews are commonly used in fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, and political science.
• Natural Sciences: In natural sciences, literature reviews are used to summarize and evaluate the current state of knowledge in a particular field or subfield. Literature reviews can help researchers identify areas where more research is needed and provide insights into the latest developments in a particular field. Fields such as biology, chemistry, and physics commonly use literature reviews.
• Health Sciences: In health sciences, literature reviews are used to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments, identify best practices, and determine areas where more research is needed. Literature reviews are commonly used in fields such as medicine, nursing, and public health.
• Humanities: In humanities, literature reviews are used to identify gaps in existing knowledge, develop new interpretations of texts or cultural artifacts, and provide a theoretical framework for research. Literature reviews are commonly used in fields such as history, literary studies, and philosophy.

Role of Literature Review in Research

Here are some applications of literature review in research:

• Identifying Research Gaps : Literature review helps researchers identify gaps in existing research and literature related to their research question. This allows them to develop new research questions and hypotheses to fill those gaps.
• Developing Theoretical Framework: Literature review helps researchers develop a theoretical framework for their research. By analyzing and synthesizing existing literature, researchers can identify the key concepts, theories, and models that are relevant to their research.
• Selecting Research Methods : Literature review helps researchers select appropriate research methods and techniques based on previous research. It also helps researchers to identify potential biases or limitations of certain methods and techniques.
• Data Collection and Analysis: Literature review helps researchers in data collection and analysis by providing a foundation for the development of data collection instruments and methods. It also helps researchers to identify relevant data sources and identify potential data analysis techniques.
• Communicating Results: Literature review helps researchers to communicate their results effectively by providing a context for their research. It also helps to justify the significance of their findings in relation to existing research and literature.

Purpose of Literature Review

Some of the specific purposes of a literature review are as follows:

• To provide context: A literature review helps to provide context for your research by situating it within the broader body of literature on the topic.
• To identify gaps and inconsistencies: A literature review helps to identify areas where further research is needed or where there are inconsistencies in the existing literature.
• To synthesize information: A literature review helps to synthesize the information from multiple sources and present a coherent and comprehensive picture of the current state of knowledge on the topic.
• To identify key concepts and theories : A literature review helps to identify key concepts and theories that are relevant to your research question and provide a theoretical framework for your study.
• To inform research design: A literature review can inform the design of your research study by identifying appropriate research methods, data sources, and research questions.

Characteristics of Literature Review

Some Characteristics of Literature Review are as follows:

• Identifying gaps in knowledge: A literature review helps to identify gaps in the existing knowledge and research on a specific topic or research question. By analyzing and synthesizing the literature, you can identify areas where further research is needed and where new insights can be gained.
• Establishing the significance of your research: A literature review helps to establish the significance of your own research by placing it in the context of existing research. By demonstrating the relevance of your research to the existing literature, you can establish its importance and value.
• Informing research design and methodology : A literature review helps to inform research design and methodology by identifying the most appropriate research methods, techniques, and instruments. By reviewing the literature, you can identify the strengths and limitations of different research methods and techniques, and select the most appropriate ones for your own research.
• Supporting arguments and claims: A literature review provides evidence to support arguments and claims made in academic writing. By citing and analyzing the literature, you can provide a solid foundation for your own arguments and claims.
• I dentifying potential collaborators and mentors: A literature review can help identify potential collaborators and mentors by identifying researchers and practitioners who are working on related topics or using similar methods. By building relationships with these individuals, you can gain valuable insights and support for your own research and practice.
• Keeping up-to-date with the latest research : A literature review helps to keep you up-to-date with the latest research on a specific topic or research question. By regularly reviewing the literature, you can stay informed about the latest findings and developments in your field.

Advantages of Literature Review

There are several advantages to conducting a literature review as part of a research project, including:

• Establishing the significance of the research : A literature review helps to establish the significance of the research by demonstrating the gap or problem in the existing literature that the study aims to address.
• Identifying key concepts and theories: A literature review can help to identify key concepts and theories that are relevant to the research question, and provide a theoretical framework for the study.
• Supporting the research methodology : A literature review can inform the research methodology by identifying appropriate research methods, data sources, and research questions.
• Providing a comprehensive overview of the literature : A literature review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge on a topic, allowing the researcher to identify key themes, debates, and areas of agreement or disagreement.
• Identifying potential research questions: A literature review can help to identify potential research questions and areas for further investigation.
• Avoiding duplication of research: A literature review can help to avoid duplication of research by identifying what has already been done on a topic, and what remains to be done.
• Enhancing the credibility of the research : A literature review helps to enhance the credibility of the research by demonstrating the researcher’s knowledge of the existing literature and their ability to situate their research within a broader context.

Limitations of Literature Review

Limitations of Literature Review are as follows:

• Limited scope : Literature reviews can only cover the existing literature on a particular topic, which may be limited in scope or depth.
• Publication bias : Literature reviews may be influenced by publication bias, which occurs when researchers are more likely to publish positive results than negative ones. This can lead to an incomplete or biased picture of the literature.
• Quality of sources : The quality of the literature reviewed can vary widely, and not all sources may be reliable or valid.
• Time-limited: Literature reviews can become quickly outdated as new research is published, making it difficult to keep up with the latest developments in a field.
• Subjective interpretation : Literature reviews can be subjective, and the interpretation of the findings can vary depending on the researcher’s perspective or bias.
• Lack of original data : Literature reviews do not generate new data, but rather rely on the analysis of existing studies.
• Risk of plagiarism: It is important to ensure that literature reviews do not inadvertently contain plagiarism, which can occur when researchers use the work of others without proper attribution.

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Literature review vs research articles: how are they different.

Unlock the secrets of academic writing with our guide to the key differences between a literature review and a research paper! 📚 Dive into the world of scholarly exploration as we break down how a literature review illuminates existing knowledge, identifies gaps, and sets the stage for further research. 🌐 Then, gear up for the adventure of crafting a research paper, where you become the explorer, presenting your unique insights and discoveries through independent research. 🚀 Join us on this academic journey and discover the art of synthesizing existing wisdom and creating your own scholarly masterpiece! 🎓✨

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• Efficacy of psilocybin...

Efficacy of psilocybin for treating symptoms of depression: systematic review and meta-analysis

Linked editorial.

Psilocybin for depression

• Related content
• Peer review
• Athina-Marina Metaxa , masters graduate researcher 1 ,
• Mike Clarke , professor 2
• 1 Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6GG, UK
• 2 Northern Ireland Methodology Hub, Centre for Public Health, ICS-A Royal Hospitals, Belfast, Ireland, UK
• Correspondence to: A-M Metaxa athina.metaxa{at}hmc.ox.ac.uk (or @Athina_Metaxa12 on X)
• Accepted 6 March 2024

Objective To determine the efficacy of psilocybin as an antidepressant compared with placebo or non-psychoactive drugs.

Design Systematic review and meta-analysis.

Data sources Five electronic databases of published literature (Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Medline, Embase, Science Citation Index and Conference Proceedings Citation Index, and PsycInfo) and four databases of unpublished and international literature (ClinicalTrials.gov, WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, and PsycEXTRA), and handsearching of reference lists, conference proceedings, and abstracts.

Data synthesis and study quality Information on potential treatment effect moderators was extracted, including depression type (primary or secondary), previous use of psychedelics, psilocybin dosage, type of outcome measure (clinician rated or self-reported), and personal characteristics (eg, age, sex). Data were synthesised using a random effects meta-analysis model, and observed heterogeneity and the effect of covariates were investigated with subgroup analyses and metaregression. Hedges’ g was used as a measure of treatment effect size, to account for small sample effects and substantial differences between the included studies’ sample sizes. Study quality was appraised using Cochrane’s Risk of Bias 2 tool, and the quality of the aggregated evidence was evaluated using GRADE guidelines.

Eligibility criteria Randomised trials in which psilocybin was administered as a standalone treatment for adults with clinically significant symptoms of depression and change in symptoms was measured using a validated clinician rated or self-report scale. Studies with directive psychotherapy were included if the psychotherapeutic component was present in both experimental and control conditions. Participants with depression regardless of comorbidities (eg, cancer) were eligible.

Results Meta-analysis on 436 participants (228 female participants), average age 36-60 years, from seven of the nine included studies showed a significant benefit of psilocybin (Hedges’ g=1.64, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.55 to 2.73, P<0.001) on change in depression scores compared with comparator treatment. Subgroup analyses and metaregressions indicated that having secondary depression (Hedges’ g=3.25, 95% CI 0.97 to 5.53), being assessed with self-report depression scales such as the Beck depression inventory (3.25, 0.97 to 5.53), and older age and previous use of psychedelics (metaregression coefficient 0.16, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.24 and 4.2, 1.5 to 6.9, respectively) were correlated with greater improvements in symptoms. All studies had a low risk of bias, but the change from baseline metric was associated with high heterogeneity and a statistically significant risk of small study bias, resulting in a low certainty of evidence rating.

Conclusion Treatment effects of psilocybin were significantly larger among patients with secondary depression, when self-report scales were used to measure symptoms of depression, and when participants had previously used psychedelics. Further research is thus required to delineate the influence of expectancy effects, moderating factors, and treatment delivery on the efficacy of psilocybin as an antidepressant.

Systematic review registration PROSPERO CRD42023388065.

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Introduction

Depression affects an estimated 300 million people around the world, an increase of nearly 20% over the past decade. 1 Worldwide, depression is also the leading cause of disability. 2

Drugs for depression are widely available but these seem to have limited efficacy, can have serious adverse effects, and are associated with low patient adherence. 3 4 Importantly, the treatment effects of antidepressant drugs do not appear until 4-7 weeks after the start of treatment, and remission of symptoms can take months. 4 5 Additionally, the likelihood of relapse is high, with 40-60% of people with depression experiencing a further depressive episode, and the chance of relapse increasing with each subsequent episode. 6 7

Since the early 2000s, the naturally occurring serotonergic hallucinogen psilocybin, found in several species of mushrooms, has been widely discussed as a potential treatment for depression. 8 9 Psilocybin’s mechanism of action differs from that of classic selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and might improve the treatment response rate, decrease time to improvement of symptoms, and prevent relapse post-remission. Moreover, more recent assessments of harm have consistently reported that psilocybin generally has low addictive potential and toxicity and that it can be administered safely under clinical supervision. 10

The renewed interest in psilocybin’s antidepressive effects led to several clinical trials on treatment resistant depression, 11 12 major depressive disorder, 13 and depression related to physical illness. 14 15 16 17 These trials mostly reported positive efficacy findings, showing reductions in symptoms of depression within a few hours to a few days after one dose or two doses of psilocybin. 11 12 13 16 17 18 These studies reported only minimal adverse effects, however, and drug harm assessments in healthy volunteers indicated that psilocybin does not induce physiological toxicity, is not addictive, and does not lead to withdrawal. 19 20 Nevertheless, these findings should be interpreted with caution owing to the small sample sizes and open label design of some of these studies. 11 21

Several systematic reviews and meta-analyses since the early 2000s have investigated the use of psilocybin to treat symptoms of depression. Most found encouraging results, but as well as people with depression some included healthy volunteers, 22 and most combined data from studies of multiple serotonergic psychedelics, 23 24 25 even though each compound has unique neurobiological effects and mechanisms of action. 26 27 28 Furthermore, many systematic reviews included non-randomised studies and studies in which psilocybin was tested in conjunction with psychotherapeutic interventions, 25 29 30 31 32 which made it difficult to distinguish psilocybin’s treatment effects. Most systematic reviews and meta-analyses did not consider the impact of factors that could act as moderators to psilocybin’s effects, such as type of depression (primary or secondary), previous use of psychedelics, psilocybin dosage, type of outcome measure (clinician rated or self-reported), and personal characteristics (eg, age, sex). 25 26 29 30 31 32 Lastly, systematic reviews did not consider grey literature, 33 34 which might have led to a substantial overestimation of psilocybin’s efficacy as a treatment for depression. In this review we focused on randomised trials that contained an unconfounded evaluation of psilocybin in adults with symptoms of depression, regardless of country and language of publication.

In this systematic review and meta-analysis of indexed and non-indexed randomised trials we investigated the efficacy of psilocybin to treat symptoms of depression compared with placebo or non-psychoactive drugs. The protocol was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (see supplementary Appendix A). The study overall did not deviate from the pre-registered protocol; one clarification was made to highlight that any non-psychedelic comparator was eligible for inclusion, including placebo, niacin, micro doses of psychedelics, and drugs that are considered the standard of care in depression (eg, SSRIs).

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Double blind and open label randomised trials with a crossover or parallel design were eligible for inclusion. We considered only studies in humans and with a control condition, which could include any type of non -active comparator, such as placebo, niacin, or micro doses of psychedelics.

Eligible studies were those that included adults (≥18 years) with clinically significant symptoms of depression, evaluated using a clinically validated tool for depression and mood disorder outcomes. Such tools included the Beck depression inventory, Hamilton depression rating scale, Montgomery-Åsberg depression rating scale, profile of mood states, and quick inventory of depressive symptomatology. Studies of participants with symptoms of depression and comorbidities (eg, cancer) were also eligible. We excluded studies of healthy participants (without depressive symptomatology).

Eligible studies investigated the effect of psilocybin as a standalone treatment on symptoms of depression. Studies with an active psilocybin condition that involved micro dosing (ie, psilocybin <100 μg/kg, according to the commonly accepted convention 22 35 ) were excluded. We included studies with directive psychotherapy if the psychotherapeutic component was present in both the experimental and the control conditions, so that the effects of psilocybin could be distinguished from those of psychotherapy. Studies involving group therapy were also excluded. Any non-psychedelic comparator was eligible for inclusion, including placebo, niacin, and micro doses of psychedelics.

Changes in symptoms, measured by validated clinician rated or self-report scales, such as the Beck depression inventory, Hamilton depression rating scale, Montgomery-Åsberg depression rating scale, profile of mood states, and quick inventory of depressive symptomatology were considered. We excluded outcomes that were measured less than three hours after psilocybin had been administered because any reported changes could be attributed to the transient cognitive and affective effects of the substance being administered. Aside from this, outcomes were included irrespective of the time point at which measurements were taken.

Search strategy

We searched major electronic databases and trial registries of psychological and medical research, with no limits on the publication date. Databases were the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials via the Cochrane Library, Embase via Ovid, Medline via Ovid, Science Citation Index and Conference Proceedings Citation Index-Science via Web of Science, and PsycInfo via Ovid. A search through multiple databases was necessary because each database includes unique journals. Supplementary Appendix B shows the search syntax used for the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, which was slightly modified to comply with the syntactic rules of the other databases.

Unpublished and grey literature were sought through registries of past and ongoing trials, databases of conference proceedings, government reports, theses, dissertations, and grant registries (eg, ClinicalTrials.gov, WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, and PsycEXTRA). The references and bibliographies of eligible studies were checked for relevant publications. The original search was done in January 2023 and updated search was performed on 10 August 2023.

Data collection, extraction, and management

The results of the literature search were imported to the Endnote X9 reference management software, and the references were imported to the Covidence platform after removal of duplicates. Two reviewers (AM and DT) independently screened the title and abstract of each reference and then screened the full text of potentially eligible references. Any disagreements about eligibility were resolved through discussion. If information was insufficient to determine eligibility, the study’s authors were contacted. The reviewers were not blinded to the studies’ authors, institutions, or journal of publication.

The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) flow diagram shows the study selection process and reasons for excluding studies that were considered eligible for full text screening. 36

Critical appraisal of individual studies and of aggregated evidence

The methodological quality of eligible studies was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 tool (RoB 2) for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. 37 In addition to the criteria specified by RoB 2, we considered the potential impact of industry funding and conflicts of interest. The overall methodological quality of the aggregated evidence was evaluated using GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation). 38

If we found evidence of heterogeneity among the trials, then small study biases, such as publication bias, were assessed using a funnel plot and asymmetry tests (eg, Egger’s test). 39

We used a template for data extraction (see supplementary Appendix C) and summarised the extracted data in tabular form, outlining personal characteristics (age, sex, previous use of psychedelics), methodology (study design, dosage), and outcome related characteristics (mean change from baseline score on a depression questionnaire, response rates, and remission rates) of the included studies. Response conventionally refers to a 50% decrease in symptom severity based on scores on a depression rating scale, whereas remission scores are specific to a questionnaire (eg, score of ≤5 on the quick inventory of depressive symptomatology, score of ≤10 on the Montgomery-Åsberg depression rating scale, 50% or greater reduction in symptoms, score of ≤7 on the Hamilton depression rating scale, or score of ≤12 on the Beck depression inventory). Across depression scales, higher scores signify more severe symptoms of depression.

Continuous data synthesis

From each study we extracted the baseline and post-intervention means and standard deviations (SDs) of the scores between comparison groups for the depression questionnaires and calculated the mean differences and SDs of change. If means and SDs were not available for the included studies, we extracted the values from available graphs and charts using the Web Plot Digitizer application ( https://automeris.io/WebPlotDigitizer/ ). If it was not possible to calculate SDs from the graphs or charts, we generated values by converting standard errors (SEs) or confidence intervals (CIs), depending on availability, using formulas in the Cochrane Handbook (section 7.7.3.2). 40

Standardised mean differences were calculated for each study. We chose these rather than weighted mean differences because, although all the studies measured depression as the primary outcome, they did so with different questionnaires that score depression based on slightly different items. 41 If we had used weighted mean differences, any variability among studies would be assumed to reflect actual methodological or population differences and not differences in how the outcome was measured, which could be misleading. 40

The Hedges’ g effect size estimate was used because it tends to produce less biased results for studies with smaller samples (<20 participants) and when sample sizes differ substantially between studies, in contrast with Cohen’s d. 42 According to the Cochrane Handbook, the Hedges’ g effect size measure is synonymous with the standardised mean difference, 40 and the terms may be used interchangeably. Thus, a Hedges’ g of 0.2, 0.5, 0.8, or 1.2 corresponds to a small, medium, large, or very large effect, respectively. 40

Owing to variation in the participants’ personal characteristics, psilocybin dosage, type of depression investigated (primary or secondary), and type of comparators, we used a random effects model with a Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman modification. 43 This model also allowed for heterogeneity and within study variability to be incorporated into the weighting of the results of the included studies. 44 Lastly, this model could help to generalise the findings beyond the studies and patient populations included, making the meta-analysis more clinically useful. 45 We chose the Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman adjustment in favour of more widely used random effects models (eg, DerSimonian and Laird) because it allows for better control of type 1 errors, especially for studies with smaller samples, and provides a better estimation of between study variance by accounting for small sample sizes. 46 47

For studies in which multiple treatment groups were compared with a single placebo group, we split the placebo group to avoid multiplicity. 48 Similarly, if studies included multiple primary outcomes (eg, change in depression at three weeks and at six weeks), we split the treatment groups to account for overlapping participants. 40

Prediction intervals (PIs) were calculated and reported to show the expected effect range of a similar future study, in a different setting. In a random effects model, within study measures of variability, such as CIs, can only show the range in which the average effect size could lie, but they are not informative about the range of potential treatment effects given the heterogeneity between studies. 49 Thus, we used PIs as an indication of variation between studies.

Heterogeneity and sensitivity analysis

Statistical heterogeneity was tested using the χ 2 test (significance level P<0.1) and I 2 statistic, and heterogeneity among included studies was evaluated visually and displayed graphically using a forest plot. If substantial or considerable heterogeneity was found (I 2 ≥50% or P<0.1), 50 we considered the study design and characteristics of the included studies. Sources of heterogeneity were explored by subgroup analysis, and the potential effects on the results are discussed.

Planned sensitivity analyses to assess the effect of unpublished studies and studies at high risk of bias were not done because all included studies had been published and none were assessed as high risk of bias. Exclusion sensitivity plots were used to display graphically the impact of individual studies and to determine which studies had a particularly large influence on the results of the meta-analysis. All sensitivity analyses were carried out with Stata 16 software.

Subgroup analysis

To reduce the risk of errors caused by multiplicity and to avoid data fishing, we planned subgroup analyses a priori and limited to: (1) patient characteristics, including age and sex; (2) comorbidities, such as a serious physical condition (previous research indicates that the effects of psilocybin may be less strong for such participants, compared with participants with no comorbidities) 33 ; (3) number of doses and amount of psilocybin administered, because some previous meta-analyses found that a higher number of doses and a higher dose of psilocybin both predicted a greater reduction in symptoms of depression, 34 whereas others reported the opposite 33 ; (4) psilocybin administered alongside psychotherapeutic guidance or as a standalone treatment; (5) severity of depressive symptoms (clinical v subclinical symptomatology); (6) clinician versus patient rated scales; and (7) high versus low quality studies, as determined by RoB 2 assessment scores.

Metaregression

Given that enough studies were identified (≥10 distinct observations according to the Cochrane Handbook’s suggestion 40 ), we performed metaregression to investigate whether covariates, or potential effect modifiers, explained any of the statistical heterogeneity. The metaregression analysis was carried out using Stata 16 software.

Random effects metaregression analyses were used to determine whether continuous variables such as participants’ age, percentage of female participants, and percentage of participants who had previously used psychedelics modified the effect estimate, all of which have been implicated in differentially affecting the efficacy of psychedelics in modifying mood. 51 We chose this approach in favour of converting these continuous variables into categorical variables and conducting subgroup analyses for two primary reasons; firstly, the loss of any data and subsequent loss of statistical power would increase the risk of spurious significant associations, 51 and, secondly, no cut-offs have been agreed for these factors in literature on psychedelic interventions for mood disorders, 52 making any such divisions arbitrary and difficult to reconcile with the findings of other studies. The analyses were based on within study averages, in the absence of individual data points for each participant, with the potential for the results to be affected by aggregate bias, compromising their validity and generalisability. 53 Furthermore, a group level analysis may not be able to detect distinct interactions between the effect modifiers and participant subgroups, resulting in ecological bias. 54 As a result, this analysis should be considered exploratory.

Sensitivity analysis

A sensitivity analysis was performed to determine if choice of analysis method affected the primary findings of meta-analysis. Specifically, we reanalysed the data on change in depression score using a random effects Dersimonian and Laird model without the Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman modification and compared the results with those of the originally used model. This comparison is particularly important in the presence of substantial heterogeneity and the potential of small study effects to influence the intervention effect estimate. 55

Patient and public involvement

Research on novel depression treatments is of great interest to both patients and the public. Although patients and members of the public were not directly involved in the planning or writing of this manuscript owing to a lack of available funding for recruitment and researcher training, patients and members of the public read the manuscript after submission.

Figure 1 presents the flow of studies through the systematic review and meta-analysis. 56 A total of 4884 titles were retrieved from the five databases of published literature, and a further 368 titles were identified from the databases of unpublished and international literature in February 2023. After the removal of duplicate records, we screened the abstracts and titles of 875 reports. A further 12 studies were added after handsearching of reference lists and conference proceedings and abstracts. Overall, nine studies totalling 436 participants were eligible. The average age of the participants ranged from 36-60 years. During an updated search on 10 August 2023, no further studies were identified.

Flow of studies in systematic review and meta-analysis

After screening of the title and abstract, 61 titles remained for full text review. Native speakers helped to translate papers in languages other than English. The most common reasons for exclusion were the inclusion of healthy volunteers, absence of control groups, and use of a survey based design rather than an experimental design. After full text screening, nine studies were eligible for inclusion, and 15 clinical trials prospectively registered or underway as of August 2023 were noted for potential future inclusion in an update of this review (see supplementary Appendix D).

We sent requests for further information to the authors of studies by Griffiths et al, 57 Barrett, 58 and Benville et al, 59 because these studies appeared to meet the inclusion criteria but were only provided as summary abstracts online. A potentially eligible poster presentation from the 58th annual meeting of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology was identified but the lead author (Griffiths) clarified that all information from the presentation was included in the studies by Davis et al 13 and Gukasyan et al 60 ; both of which we had already deemed ineligible.

Barrett 58 reported the effects of psilocybin on the cognitive flexibility and verbal reasoning of a subset of patients with major depressive disorder from Griffith et al’s trial, 61 compared with a waitlist group, but when contacted, Barrett explained that the results were published in the study by Doss et al, 62 which we had already screened and judged ineligible (see supplementary Appendix E). Benville et al’s study 59 presented a follow-up of Ross et al’s study 17 on a subset of patients with cancer and high suicidal ideation and desire for hastened death at baseline. Measures of antidepressant effects of psilocybin treatment compared with niacin were taken before and after treatment crossover, but detailed results are not reported. Table 1 describes the characteristics of the included studies and table 2 lists the main findings of the studies.

Characteristics of included studies

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Main findings of included studies

Side effects and adverse events

Side effects reported in the included studies were minor and transient (eg, short term increases in blood pressure, headache, and anxiety), and none were coded as serious. Cahart-Harris et al noted one instance of abnormal dreams and insomnia. 63 This side effect profile is consistent with findings from other meta-analyses. 30 68 Owing to the different scales and methods used to catalogue side effects and adverse events across trials, it was not possible to combine these data quantitatively (see supplementary Appendix F).

Risk of bias

The Cochrane RoB 2 tools were used to evaluate the included studies ( table 3 ). RoB 2 for randomised trials was used for the five reports of parallel randomised trials (Carhart-Harris et al 63 and its secondary analysis Barba et al, 64 Goodwin et al 18 and its secondary analysis Goodwin et al, 65 and von Rotz et al 66 ) and RoB 2 for crossover trials was used for the four reports of crossover randomised trials (Griffiths et al, 14 Grob et al, 15 and Ross et al 17 and its follow-up Ross et al 67 ). Supplementary Appendix G provides a detailed explanation of the assessment of the included studies.

Summary risk of bias assessment of included studies, based on domains in Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 tool

Quality of included studies

Confidence in the quality of the evidence for the meta-analysis was assessed using GRADE, 38 through the GRADEpro GDT software program. Figure 2 shows the results of this assessment, along with our summary of findings.

GRADE assessment outputs for outcomes investigated in meta-analysis (change in depression scores and response and remission rates). The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% CI) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). BDI=Beck depression inventory; CI=confidence interval; GRADE=Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation; HADS-D=hospital anxiety and depression scale; HAM-D=Hamilton depression rating scale; MADRS=Montgomery-Åsberg depression rating scale; QIDS=quick inventory of depressive symptomatology; RCT=randomised controlled trial; SD=standard deviation

Meta-analyses

Continuous data, change in depression scores —Using a Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman modified random effects meta-analysis, change in depression scores was significantly greater after treatment with psilocybin compared with active placebo. The overall Hedges’ g (1.64, 95% CI 0.55 to 2.73) indicated a large effect size favouring psilocybin ( fig 3 ). PIs were, however, wide and crossed the line of no difference (95% CI −1.72 to 5.03), indicating that there could be settings or populations in which psilocybin intervention would be less efficacious.

Forest plot for overall change in depression scores from before to after treatment. CI=confidence interval; DL=DerSimonian and Laird; HKSJ=Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman

Exploring publication bias in continuous data —We used Egger’s test and a funnel plot to examine the possibility of small study biases, such as publication bias. Statistical significance of Egger’s test for small study effects, along with the asymmetry in the funnel plot ( fig 4 ), indicates the presence of bias against smaller studies with non-significant results, suggesting that the pooled intervention effect estimate is likely to be overestimated. 69 An alternative explanation, however, is that smaller studies conducted at the early stages of a new psychotherapeutic intervention tend to include more high risk or responsive participants, and psychotherapeutic interventions tend to be delivered more effectively in smaller trials; both of these factors can exaggerate treatment effects, resulting in funnel plot asymmetry. 70 Also, because of the relatively small number of included studies and the considerable heterogeneity observed, test power may be insufficient to distinguish real asymmetry from chance. 71 Thus, this analysis should be considered exploratory.

Funnel plot assessing publication bias among studies measuring change in depression scores from before to after treatment. CI=confidence interval; θ IV =estimated effect size under inverse variance random effects model

Dichotomous data

We extracted response and remission rates for each group when reported directly, or imputed information when presented graphically. Two studies did not measure response or remission and thus did not contribute data for this part of the analysis. 15 18 The random effects model with a Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman modification was used to allow for heterogeneity to be incorporated into the weighting of the included studies’ results, and to provide a better estimation of between study variance accounting for small sample sizes.

Response rate —Overall, the likelihood of psilocybin intervention leading to treatment response was about two times greater (risk ratio 2.02, 95% CI 1.33 to 3.07) than with placebo. Despite the use of different scales to measure response, the heterogeneity between studies was not significant (I 2 =25.7%, P=0.23). PIs were, however, wide and crossed the line of no difference (−0.94 to 3.88), indicating that there could be settings or populations in which psilocybin intervention would be less efficacious.

Remission rate —Overall, the likelihood of psilocybin intervention leading to remission of depression was nearly three times greater than with placebo (risk ratio 2.71, 95% CI 1.75 to 4.20). Despite the use of different scales to measure response, no statistical heterogeneity was found between studies (I 2 =0.0%, P=0.53). PIs were, however, wide and crossed the line of no difference (0.87 to 2.32), indicating that there could be settings or populations in which psilocybin intervention would be less efficacious.

Exploring publication bias in response and remission rates data —We used Egger’s test and a funnel plot to examine whether response and remission estimates were affected by small study biases. The result for Egger’s test was non-significant (P>0.05) for both response and remission estimates, and no substantial asymmetry was observed in the funnel plots, providing no indication for the presence of bias against smaller studies with non-significant results.

Heterogeneity: subgroup analyses and metaregression

Heterogeneity was considerable across studies exploring changes in depression scores (I 2 =89.7%, P<0.005), triggering subgroup analyses to explore contributory factors. Table 4 and table 5 present the results of the heterogeneity analyses (subgroup analyses and metaregression, respectively). Also see supplementary Appendix H for a more detailed description and graphical representation of these results.

Subgroup analyses to explore potential causes of heterogeneity among included studies

Metaregression analyses to explore potential causes of heterogeneity among included studies

Cumulative meta-analyses

We used cumulative meta-analyses to investigate how the overall estimates of the outcomes of interest changed as each study was added in chronological order 72 ; change in depression scores and likelihood of treatment response both increased as the percentage of participants with past use of psychedelics increased across studies, as expected based on the metaregression analysis (see supplementary Appendix I). No other significant time related patterns were found.

We reanalysed the data for change in depression scores using a random effects Dersimonian and Laird model without the Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman modification and compared the results with those of the original model. All comparisons found to be significant using the Dersimonian and Laird model with the Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman adjustment were also significant without the Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman adjustment, and confidence intervals were only slightly narrower. Thus, small study effects do not appear to have played a major role in the treatment effect estimate.

Additionally, to estimate the accuracy and robustness of the estimated treatment effect, we excluded studies from the meta-analysis one by one; no important differences in the treatment effect, significance, and heterogeneity levels were observed after the exclusion of any study (see supplementary Appendix J).

In our meta-analysis we found that psilocybin use showed a significant benefit on change in depression scores compared with placebo. This is consistent with other recent meta-analyses and trials of psilocybin as a standalone treatment for depression 73 74 or in combination with psychological support. 24 25 29 30 31 32 68 75 This review adds to those finding by exploring the considerable heterogeneity across the studies, with subsequent subgroup analyses showing that the type of depression (primary or secondary) and the depression scale used (Montgomery-Åsberg depression rating scale, quick inventory of depressive symptomatology, or Beck depression inventory) had a significant differential effect on the outcome. High between study heterogeneity has been identified by some other meta-analyses of psilocybin (eg, Goldberg et al 29 ), with a higher treatment effect in studies with patients with comorbid life threatening conditions compared with patients with primary depression. 22 Although possible explanations, including personal factors (eg, patients with life threatening conditions being older) or depression related factors (eg, secondary depression being more severe than primary depression) could be considered, these hypotheses are not supported by baseline data (ie, patients with secondary depression do not differ substantially in age or symptom severity from patients with primary depression). The differential effects from assessment scales used have not been examined in other meta-analyses of psilocybin, but this review’s finding that studies using the Beck depression inventory showed a higher treatment effect than those using the Montgomery-Åsberg depression rating scale and quick inventory of depressive symptomatology is consistent with studies in the psychological literature that have shown larger treatment effects when self-report scales are used (eg, Beck depression inventory). 76 77 This finding may be because clinicians tend to overestimate the severity of depression symptoms at baseline assessments, leading to less pronounced differences between before and after treatment identified in clinician assessed scales (eg, Montgomery-Åsberg depression rating scale, quick inventory of depressive symptomatology). 78

Metaregression analyses further showed that a higher average age and a higher percentage of participants with past use of psychedelics both correlated with a greater improvement in depression scores with psilocybin use and explained a substantial amount of between study variability. However, the cumulative meta-analysis showed that the effects of age might be largely an artefact of the inclusion of one specific study, and alternative explanations are worth considering. For instance, Studerus et al 79 identified participants’ age as the only personal variable significantly associated with psilocybin response, with older participants reporting a higher “blissful state” experience. This might be because of older people’s increased experience in managing negative emotions and the decrease in 5-hydroxytryptamine type 2A receptor density associated with older age. 80 Furthermore, Rootman et al 81 reported that the cognitive performance of older participants (>55 years) improved significantly more than that of younger participants after micro dosing with psilocybin. Therefore, the higher decrease in depressive symptoms associated with older age could be attributed to a decrease in cognitive difficulties experienced by older participants.

Interestingly, a clear pattern emerged for past use of psychedelics—the higher the proportion of study participants who had used psychedelics in the past, the higher the post-psilocybin treatment effect observed. Past use of psychedelics has been proposed to create an expectancy bias among participants and amplify the positive effects of psilocybin 82 83 84 ; however, this important finding has not been examined in other meta-analyses and may highlight the role of expectancy in psilocybin research.

Limitations of this study

Generalisability of the findings of this meta-analysis was limited by the lack of racial and ethnic diversity in the included studies—more than 90% of participants were white across all included trials, resulting in a homogeneous sample that is not representative of the general population. Moreover, it was not possible to distinguish between subgroups of participants who had never used psilocybin and those who had taken psilocybin more than a year before the start of the trial, as these data were not provided in the included studies. Such a distinction would be important, as the effects of psilocybin on mood may wane within a year after being administered. 21 85 Also, how psychological support was conceptualised was inconsistent within studies of psilocybin interventions; many studies failed to clearly describe the type of psychological support participants received, and others used methods ranging from directive guidance throughout the treatment session to passive encouragement or reassurance (eg, Griffiths et al, 14 Carhart-Harris et al 63 ). The included studies also did not gather evidence on participants’ previous experiences with treatment approaches, which could influence their response to the trials’ intervention. Thus, differences between participant subgroups related to past use of psilocybin or psychotherapy may be substantial and could help interpret this study’s findings more accurately. Lastly, the use of graphical extraction software to estimate the findings of studies where exact numerical data were not available (eg, Goodwin et al, 18 Grob et al 15 ), may have affected the robustness of the analyses.

A common limitation in studies of psilocybin is the likelihood of expectancy effects augmenting the treatment effect observed. Although some studies used low dose psychedelics as comparators to deal with this problem (eg, Carhart-Harris et al, 63 Goodwin et al, 18 Griffiths et al 14 ) or used a niacin placebo that can induce effects similar to those of psilocybin (eg, Grob et al, 15 Ross et al 17 ), the extent to which these methods were effective in blinding participants is not known. Other studies have, however, reported that participants can accurately identify the study groups to which they had been assigned 70-85% of the time, 84 86 indicating a high likelihood of insufficient blinding. This is especially likely for studies in which a high proportion of participants had previously used psilocybin and other hallucinogens, making the identification of the drug’s acute effects easier (eg, Griffiths et al, 14 Grob et al, 15 Ross et al 17 ). Patients also have expectations related to the outcome of their treatment, expecting psilocybin to improve their symptoms of depression, and these positive expectancies are strong predictors of actual treatment effects. 87 88 Importantly, the effect of outcome expectations on treatment effect is particularly strong when patient reported measures are used as primary outcomes, 89 which was the case in several of the included studies (eg, Griffiths et al, 14 Grob et al, 15 Ross et al 17 ). Unfortunately, none of the included studies recorded expectations before treatment, so it is not possible to determine the extent to which this factor affected the findings.

Implications for clinical practice

Although this review’s findings are encouraging for psilocybin’s potential as an effective antidepressant, a few areas about its applicability in clinical practice remain unexplored. Firstly, it is unclear whether the protocols for psilocybin interventions in clinical trials can be reliably and safely implemented in clinical practice. In clinical trials, patients receive psilocybin in a non-traditional medical setting, such as a specially designed living room, while they may be listening to curated calming music and are isolated from most external stimuli by wearing eyeshades and external noise-cancelling earphones. A trained therapist closely supervises these sessions, and the patient usually receives one or more preparatory sessions before the treatment commences. Standardising an intervention setting with so many variables is unlikely to be achievable in routine practice, and consensus is considerably lacking on the psychotherapeutic training and accreditations needed for a therapist to deliver such treatment. 90 The combination of these elements makes this a relatively complex and expensive intervention, which could make it challenging to gain approval from regulatory agencies and to gain reimbursement from insurance companies and others. Within publicly funded healthcare systems, the high cost of treatment may make psilocybin treatment inaccessible. The high cost associated with the intervention also increases the risk that unregulated clinics may attempt to cut costs by making alterations to the protocol and the therapeutic process, 91 92 which could have detrimental effects for patients. 92 93 94 Thus, avoiding the conflation of medical and commercial interests is a primary concern that needs to be dealt with before psilocybin enters mainstream practice.

Implications for future research

More large scale randomised trials with long follow-up are needed to fully understand psilocybin’s treatment potential, and future studies should aim to recruit a more diverse population. Another factor that would make clinical trials more representative of routine practice would be to recruit patients who are currently using or have used commonly prescribed serotonergic antidepressants. Clinical trials tend to exclude such participants because many antidepressants that act on the serotonin system modulate the 5-hydroxytryptamine type 2A receptor that psilocybin primarily acts upon, with prolonged use of tricyclic antidepressants associated with more intense psychedelic experiences and use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors or SSRIs inducing weaker responses to psychedelics. 95 96 97 Investigating psilocybin in such patients would, however, provide valuable insight on how psilocybin interacts with commonly prescribed drugs for depression and would help inform clinical practice.

Minimising the influence of expectancy effects is another core problem for future studies. One strategy would be to include expectancy measures and explore the level of expectancy as a covariate in statistical analysis. Researchers should also test the effectiveness of condition masking. Another proposed solution would be to adopt a 2×2 balanced placebo design, where both the drug (psilocybin or placebo) and the instructions given to participants (told they have received psilocybin or told they have received placebo) are crossed. 98 Alternatively, clinical trials could adopt a three arm design that includes both an inactive placebo (eg, saline) and active placebo (eg, niacin, lower psylocibin dose), 98 allowing for the effects of psilocybin to be separated from those of the placebo.

Overall, future studies should explore psilocybin’s exact mechanism of treatment effectiveness and outline how its physiological effects, mystical experiences, dosage, treatment setting, psychological support, and relationship with the therapist all interact to produce a synergistic antidepressant effect. Although this may be difficult to achieve using an explanatory randomised trial design, pragmatic clinical trial designs may be better suited to psilocybin research, as their primary objective is to achieve high external validity and generalisability. Such studies may include multiple alternative treatments rather than simply an active and placebo treatment comparison (eg, psilocybin v SSRI v serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor), and participants would be recruited from broader clinical populations. 99 100 Although such studies are usually conducted after a drug’s launch, 100 earlier use of such designs could help assess the clinical effectiveness of psilocybin more robustly and broaden patient access to a novel type of antidepressant treatment.

Conclusions

This review’s findings on psilocybin’s efficacy in reducing symptoms of depression are encouraging for its use in clinical practice as a drug intervention for patients with primary or secondary depression, particularly when combined with psychological support and administered in a supervised clinical environment. However, the highly standardised treatment setting, high cost, and lack of regulatory guidelines and legal safeguards associated with psilocybin treatment need to be dealt with before it can be established in clinical practice.

What is already known on this topic

Recent research on treatments for depression has focused on psychedelic agents that could have strong antidepressant effects without the drawbacks of classic antidepressants; psilocybin being one such substance

Over the past decade, several clinical trials, meta-analyses, and systematic reviews have investigated the use of psilocybin for symptoms of depression, and most have found that psilocybin can have antidepressant effects

Studies published to date have not investigated factors that may moderate psilocybin’s effects, including type of depression, past use of psychedelics, dosage, outcome measures, and publication biases

What this study adds

This review showed a significantly greater efficacy of psilocybin among patients with secondary depression, patients with past use of psychedelics, older patients, and studies using self-report measures for symptoms of depression

Efficacy did not appear to be homogeneous across patient types—for example, those with depression and a life threatening illness appeared to benefit more from treatment

Further research is needed to clarify the factors that maximise psilocybin’s treatment potential for symptoms of depression

Ethics statements

Ethical approval.

This study was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Oxford Nuffield Department of Medicine, which waived the need for ethical approval and the need to obtain consent for the collection, analysis, and publication of the retrospectively obtained anonymised data for this non-interventional study.

Data availability statement

The relevant aggregated data and statistical code will be made available on reasonable request to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We thank DT who acted as an independent secondary reviewer during the study selection and data review process.

Contributors: AMM contributed to the design and implementation of the research, analysis of the results, and writing of the manuscript. MC was involved in planning and supervising the work and contributed to the writing of the manuscript. AMM and MC are the guarantors. The corresponding author attests that all listed authors meet authorship criteria and that no others meeting the criteria have been omitted.

Funding: None received.

Competing interests: All authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form at https://www.icmje.org/disclosure-of-interest/ and declare: no support from any organisation for the submitted work; AMM is employed by IDEA Pharma, which does consultancy work for pharmaceutical companies developing drugs for physical and mental health conditions; MC was the supervisor for AMM’s University of Oxford MSc dissertation, which forms the basis for this paper; no other relationships or activities that could appear to have influenced the submitted work.

Transparency: The corresponding author (AMM) affirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study being reported; that no important aspects of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as registered have been explained.

Dissemination to participants and related patient and public communities: To disseminate our findings and increase the impact of our research, we plan on writing several social media posts and blog posts outlining the main conclusions of our paper. These will include blog posts on the websites of the University of Oxford’s Department of Primary Care Health Sciences and Department for Continuing Education, as well as print publications, which are likely to reach a wider audience. Furthermore, we plan to present our findings and discuss them with the public in local mental health related events and conferences, which are routinely attended by patient groups and advocacy organisations.

Provenance and peer review: Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

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• Open access
• Published: 01 May 2024

The effectiveness of virtual reality training on knowledge, skills and attitudes of health care professionals and students in assessing and treating mental health disorders: a systematic review

• Cathrine W. Steen 1 , 2 ,
• Kerstin Söderström 1 , 2 ,
• Bjørn Stensrud 3 ,
• Inger Beate Nylund 2 &
• Johan Siqveland 4 , 5  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  480 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Virtual reality (VR) training can enhance health professionals’ learning. However, there are ambiguous findings on the effectiveness of VR as an educational tool in mental health. We therefore reviewed the existing literature on the effectiveness of VR training on health professionals’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes in assessing and treating patients with mental health disorders.

We searched MEDLINE, PsycINFO (via Ovid), the Cochrane Library, ERIC, CINAHL (on EBSCOhost), Web of Science Core Collection, and the Scopus database for studies published from January 1985 to July 2023. We included all studies evaluating the effect of VR training interventions on attitudes, knowledge, and skills pertinent to the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders and published in English or Scandinavian languages. The quality of the evidence in randomized controlled trials was assessed with the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool 2.0. For non-randomized studies, we assessed the quality of the studies with the ROBINS-I tool.

Of 4170 unique records identified, eight studies were eligible. The four randomized controlled trials were assessed as having some concern or a high risk of overall bias. The four non-randomized studies were assessed as having a moderate to serious overall risk of bias. Of the eight included studies, four used a virtual standardized patient design to simulate training situations, two studies used interactive patient scenario training designs, while two studies used a virtual patient game design. The results suggest that VR training interventions can promote knowledge and skills acquisition.

Conclusions

The findings indicate that VR interventions can effectively train health care personnel to acquire knowledge and skills in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. However, study heterogeneity, prevalence of small sample sizes, and many studies with a high or serious risk of bias suggest an uncertain evidence base. Future research on the effectiveness of VR training should include assessment of immersive VR training designs and a focus on more robust studies with larger sample sizes.

Trial registration

This review was pre-registered in the Open Science Framework register with the ID-number Z8EDK.

Peer Review reports

A robustly trained health care workforce is pivotal to forging a resilient health care system [ 1 ], and there is an urgent need to develop innovative methods and emerging technologies for health care workforce education [ 2 ]. Virtual reality technology designs for clinical training have emerged as a promising avenue for increasing the competence of health care professionals, reflecting their potential to provide effective training [ 3 ].

Virtual reality (VR) is a dynamic and diverse field, and can be described as a computer-generated environment that simulates sensory experiences, where user interactions play a role in shaping the course of events within that environment [ 4 ]. When optimally designed, VR gives users the feeling that they are physically within this simulated space, unlocking its potential as a dynamic and immersive learning tool [ 5 ]. The cornerstone of the allure of VR is its capacity for creating artificial settings via sensory deceptions, encapsulated by the term ‘immersion’. Immersion conveys the sensation of being deeply engrossed or enveloped in an alternate world, akin to absorption in a video game. Some VR systems will be more immersive than others, based on the technology used to influence the senses. However, the degree of immersion does not necessarily determine the user’s level of engagement with the application [ 6 ].

A common approach to categorizing VR systems is based on the design of the technology used, allowing them to be classified into: 1) non-immersive desktop systems, where users experience virtual environments through a computer screen, 2) immersive CAVE systems with large projected images and motion trackers to adjust the image to the user, and 3) fully immersive head-mounted display systems that involve users wearing a headset that fully covers their eyes and ears, thus entirely immersing them in the virtual environment [ 7 ]. Advances in VR technology have enabled a wide range of VR experiences. The possibility for health care professionals to repeatedly practice clinical skills with virtual patients in a risk-free environment offers an invaluable learning platform for health care education.

The impact of VR training on health care professionals’ learning has predominantly been researched in terms of the enhancement of technical surgical abilities. This includes refining procedural planning, familiarizing oneself with medical instruments, and practicing psychomotor skills such as dexterity, accuracy, and speed [ 8 , 9 ]. In contrast, the exploration of VR training in fostering non-technical or ‘soft’ skills, such as communication and teamwork, appears to be less prevalent [ 10 ]. A recent systematic review evaluates the outcomes of VR training in non-technical skills across various medical specialties [ 11 ], focusing on vital cognitive abilities (e.g., situation awareness, decision-making) and interprofessional social competencies (e.g., teamwork, conflict resolution, leadership). These skills are pivotal in promoting collaboration among colleagues and ensuring a safe health care environment. At the same time, they are not sufficiently comprehensive for encounters with patients with mental health disorders.

For health care professionals providing care to patients with mental health disorders, acquiring specific skills, knowledge, and empathic attitudes is of utmost importance. Many individuals experiencing mental health challenges may find it difficult to communicate their thoughts and feelings, and it is therefore essential for health care providers to cultivate an environment where patients feel safe and encouraged to share feelings and thoughts. Beyond fostering trust, health care professionals must also possess in-depth knowledge about the nature and treatment of various mental health disorders. Moreover, they must actively practice and internalize the skills necessary to translate their knowledge into clinical practice. While the conventional approach to training mental health clinical skills has been through simulation or role-playing with peers under expert supervision and practicing with real patients, the emergence of VR applications presents a compelling alternative. This technology promises a potentially transformative way to train mental health professionals. Our review identifies specific outcomes in knowledge, skills, and attitudes, covering areas from theoretical understanding to practical application and patient interaction. By focusing on these measurable concepts, which are in line with current healthcare education guidelines [ 12 ], we aim to contribute to the knowledge base and provide a detailed analysis of the complexities in mental health care training. This approach is designed to highlight the VR training’s practical relevance alongside its contribution to academic discourse.

A recent systematic review evaluated the effects of virtual patient (VP) interventions on knowledge, skills, and attitudes in undergraduate psychiatry education [ 13 ]. This review’s scope is limited to assessing VP interventions and does not cover other types of VR training interventions. Furthermore, it adopts a classification of VP different from our review, rendering their findings and conclusions not directly comparable to ours.

To the best of our knowledge, no systematic review has assessed and summarized the effectiveness of VR training interventions for health professionals in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. This systematic review addresses the gap by exploring the effectiveness of virtual reality in the training of knowledge, skills, and attitudes health professionals need to master in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders.

This systematic review follows the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis [ 14 ]. The protocol of the systematic review was registered in the Open Science Framework register with the registration ID Z8EDK.

We included randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, and pretest–posttest studies, which met the following criteria: a) a population of health care professionals or health care professional students, b) assessed the effectiveness of a VR application in assessing and treating mental health disorders, and c) reported changes in knowledge, skills, or attitudes. We excluded studies evaluating VR interventions not designed for training in assessing and treating mental health disorders (e.g., training of surgical skills), studies evaluating VR training from the first-person perspective, studies that used VR interventions for non-educational purposes and studies where VR interventions trained patients with mental health problems (e.g., social skills training). We also excluded studies not published in English or Scandinavian languages.

Search strategy

The literature search reporting was guided by relevant items in PRISMA-S [ 15 ]. In collaboration with a senior academic librarian (IBN), we developed the search strategy for the systematic review. Inspired by the ‘pearl harvesting’ information retrieval approach [ 16 ], we anticipated a broad spectrum of terms related to our interdisciplinary query. Recognizing that various terminologies could encapsulate our central ideas, we harvested an array of terms for each of the four elements ‘health care professionals and health care students’, ‘VR’, ‘training’, and ‘mental health’. The pearl harvesting framework [ 16 ] consists of four steps which we followed with some minor adaptions. Step 1: We searched for and sampled a set of relevant research articles, a book chapter, and literature reviews. Step 2: The librarian scrutinized titles, abstracts, and author keywords, as well as subject headings used in databases, and collected relevant terms. Step 3: The librarian refined the lists of terms. Step 4: The review group, in collaboration with a VR consultant from KildeGruppen AS (a Norwegian media company), validated the refined lists of terms to ensure they included all relevant VR search terms. This process for the element VR resulted in the inclusion of search terms such as ‘3D simulated environment’, ‘second life simulation’, ‘virtual patient’, and ‘virtual world’. We were given a peer review of the search strategy by an academic librarian at Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences.

In June and July 2021, we performed comprehensive searches for publications dating from January 1985 to the present. This period for the inclusion of studies was chosen since VR systems designed for training in health care first emerged in the early 1990s. The searches were carried out in seven databases: MEDLINE and PsycInfo (on Ovid), ERIC and CINAHL (on EBSCOhost), the Cochrane Library, Web of Science Core Collection, and Scopus. Detailed search strategies from each database are available for public access at DataverseNO [ 17 ]. On July 2, 2021, a search in CINAHL yielded 993 hits. However, when attempting to transfer these records to EndNote using the ‘Folder View’—a feature designed for organizing and managing selected records before export—only 982 records were successfully transferred. This discrepancy indicates that 11 records could not be transferred through Folder View, for reasons not specified. The process was repeated twice, consistently yielding the same discrepancy. The missing 11 records pose a risk of failing to capture relevant studies in the initial search. In July 2023, to make sure that we included the latest publications, we updated our initial searches, focusing on entries since January 1, 2021. This ensured that we did not miss any new references recently added to these databases. Due to a lack of access to the Cochrane Library in July 2023, we used EBMR (Evidence Based Medicine Reviews) on the Ovid platform instead, including the databases Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Cochrane Clinical Answers. All references were exported to Endnote and duplicates were removed. The number of records from each database can be observed in the PRISMA diagram [ 14 ], Fig.  1 .

PRISMA flow chart of the records and study selection process

Study selection and data collection

Two reviewers (JS, CWS) independently assessed the titles and abstracts of studies retrieved from the literature search based on the eligibility criteria. We employed the Rayyan website for the screening process [ 18 ]. The same reviewers (JS, CWS) assessed the full-text articles selected after the initial screening. Articles meeting the eligibility criteria were incorporated into the review. Any disagreements were resolved through discussion.

Data extracted from the studies by the first author (CWS) and cross-checked by another reviewer (JS) included: authors of the study, publication year, country, study design, participant details (education, setting), interventions (VR system, class label), comparison types, outcomes, and main findings. This data is summarized in Table  1 and Additional file 1 . In the process of reviewing the VR interventions utilized within the included studies, we sought expertise from advisers associated with VRINN, a Norwegian immersive learning cluster, and SIMInnlandet, a center dedicated to simulation in mental health care at Innlandet Hospital Trust. This collaboration ensured a thorough examination and accurate categorization of the VR technologies applied. Furthermore, the classification of the learning designs employed in the VP interventions was conducted under the guidance of an experienced VP scholar at Paracelcus Medical University in Salzburg.

Data analysis

We initially intended to perform a meta-analysis with knowledge, skills, and attitudes as primary outcomes, planning separate analyses for each. However, due to significant heterogeneity observed among the included studies, it was not feasible to carry out a meta-analysis. Consequently, we opted for a narrative synthesis based on these pre-determined outcomes of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. This approach allowed for an analysis of the relationships both within and between the studies. The effect sizes were calculated using a web-based effect size calculator [ 27 ]. We have interpreted effect sizes based on commonly used descriptions for Cohen’s d: small = 0.2, moderate = 0.5, and large = 0.8, and for Cramer’s V: small = 0.10, medium = 0.30, and large = 0.50.

Risk of bias assessment

JS and CWS independently evaluated the risk of bias for all studies using two distinct assessment tools. We used the Cochrane risk of bias tool RoB 2 [ 28 ] to assess the risk of bias in the RCTs. With the RoB 2 tool, the bias was assessed as high, some concerns or low for five domains: randomization process, deviations from the intended interventions, missing outcome data, measurement of the outcome, and selection of the reported result [ 28 ].

We used the Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies of Interventions (ROBINS-I) tool [ 29 ] to assess the risk of bias in the cohort and single-group studies. By using ROBINS-I for the non-randomized trials, the risk of bias was assessed using the categories low, moderate, serious, critical or no information for seven domains: confounding, selection of participants, classification of interventions, deviations from intended interventions, missing data, measurement of outcomes, and selection of the reported result [ 29 ].

We included eight studies in the review (Fig.  1 ). An overview of the included studies is presented in detail in Table  1 .

Four studies were RCTs [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ], two were single group pretest–posttest studies [ 23 , 26 ], one was a controlled before and after study [ 25 ], and one was a cohort study [ 24 ]. The studies included health professionals from diverse educational backgrounds, including some from mental health and medical services, as well as students in medicine, social work, and nursing. All studies, published from 2009 to 2021, utilized non-immersive VR desktop system interventions featuring various forms of VP designs. Based on an updated classification of VP interventions by Kononowicz et al. [ 30 ] developed from a model proposed by Talbot et al. [ 31 ], we have described the characteristics of the interventions in Table  1 . Four of the studies utilized a virtual standardized patient (VSP) intervention [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ], a conversational agent that simulates clinical presentations for training purposes. Two studies employed an interactive patient scenario (IPS) design [ 25 , 26 ], an approach that primarily uses text-based multimedia, enhanced with images and case histories through text or voice narratives, to simulate clinical scenarios. Lastly, two studies used a virtual patient game (VP game) intervention [ 19 , 24 ]. These interventions feature training scenarios using 3D avatars, specifically designed to improve clinical reasoning and team training skills. It should be noted that the interventions classified as VSPs in this review, being a few years old, do not encompass artificial intelligence (AI) as we interpret it today. However, since the interventions include some kind of algorithm that provides answers to questions, we consider them as conversational agents, and therefore as VSPs. As the eight included studies varied significantly in terms of design, interventions, and outcome measures, we could not incorporate them into a meta-analysis.

The overall risk of bias for the four RCTs was high [ 19 , 20 , 22 ] or of some concern [ 21 ] (Fig.  2 ). They were all assessed as low or of some concern in the domains of randomization. Three studies were assessed with a high risk of bias in one [ 19 , 20 ] or two domains [ 22 ]; one study had a high risk of bias in the domain of selection of the reported result [ 19 ], one in the domain of measurement of outcome [ 20 ], and one in the domains of deviation from the intended interventions and missing outcome data [ 22 ]. One study was not assessed as having a high risk of bias in any domain [ 21 ].

Risk of bias summary: review authors assessments of each risk of bias item in the included RCT studies

For the four non-randomized studies, the overall risk of bias was judged to be moderate [ 26 ] or serious [ 23 , 24 , 25 ] (Fig.  3 ). One study had a serious risk of bias in two domains: confounding and measurement of outcomes [ 23 ]. Two studies had a serious risk of bias in one domain, namely confounding [ 24 , 25 ], while one study was judged not to have a serious risk of bias in any domain [ 26 ].

Risk of bias summary: review authors assessments of each risk of bias item in the included non-randomized studies

Three studies investigated the impact of virtual reality training on mental health knowledge [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. One study with 32 resident psychiatrists in a single group pretest–posttest design assessed the effect of a VR training intervention on knowledge of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology, clinical management, and communication skills [ 26 ]. The intervention consisted of an IPS. The assessment of the outcome was conducted using a knowledge test with 11 multiple-choice questions and was administered before and after the intervention. This study reported a significant improvement on the knowledge test after the VR training intervention.

The second study examined the effect of a VR training intervention on knowledge of dementia [ 25 ], employing a controlled before and after design. Seventy-nine medical students in clinical training were divided into two groups, following a traditional learning program. The experimental group received an IPS intervention. The outcome was evaluated with a knowledge test administered before and after the intervention with significantly higher posttest scores in the experimental group than in the control group, with a moderate effects size observed between the groups.

A third study evaluated the effect of a VR training intervention on 299 undergraduate nursing students’ diagnostic recognition of depression and schizophrenia (classified as knowledge) [ 24 ]. In a prospective cohort design, the VR intervention was the only difference in the mental health related educational content provided to the two cohorts, and consisted of a VP game design, developed to simulate training situations with virtual patient case scenarios, including depression and schizophrenia. The outcome was assessed by determining the accuracy of diagnoses made after reviewing case vignettes of depression and schizophrenia. The study found no statistically significant effect of VR training on diagnostic accuracy between the simulation and the non-simulation cohort.

Summary: All three studies assessing the effect of a VR intervention on knowledge were non-randomized studies with different study designs using different outcome measures. Two studies used an IPS design, while one study used a VP game design. Two of the studies found a significant effect of VR training on knowledge. Of these, one study had a moderate overall risk of bias [ 26 ], while the other was assessed as having a serious overall risk of bias [ 25 ]. The third study, which did not find any effect of the virtual reality intervention on knowledge, was assessed to have a serious risk of bias [ 24 ].

Three RCTs assessed the effectiveness of VR training on skills [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. One of them evaluated the effect of VR training on clinical skills in alcohol screening and intervention [ 20 ]. In this study, 102 health care professionals were randomly allocated to either a group receiving no training or a group receiving a VSP intervention. To evaluate the outcome, three standardized patients rated each participant using a checklist based on clinical criteria. The VSP intervention group demonstrated significantly improved posttest skills in alcohol screening and brief intervention compared to the control group, with moderate and small effect sizes, respectively.

Another RCT, including 67 medical college students, evaluated the effect of VR training on clinical skills by comparing the frequency of questions asked about suicide in a VSP intervention group and a video module group [ 21 ]. The assessment of the outcome was a psychiatric interview with a standardized patient. The primary outcome was the frequency with which the students asked the standardized patient five questions about suicide risk. Minimal to small effect sizes were noted in favor of the VSP intervention, though they did not achieve statistical significance for any outcomes.

One posttest only RCT evaluated the effect of three training programs on skills in detecting and diagnosing major depressive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [ 22 ]. The study included 30 family physicians, and featured interventions that consisted of two different VSPs designed to simulate training situations, and one text-based program. A diagnostic form filled in by the participants after the intervention was used to assess the outcome. The results revealed a significant effect on diagnostic accuracy for major depressive disorder for both groups receiving VR training, compared to the text-based program, with large effect sizes observed. For PTSD, the intervention using a fixed avatar significantly improved diagnostic accuracy with a large effect size, whereas the intervention with a choice avatar demonstrated a moderate to large effect size compared to the text-based program.

Summary: Three RCTs assessed the effectiveness of VR training on clinical skills [ 20 , 21 , 22 ], all of which used a VSP design. To evaluate the effect of training, two of the studies utilized standardized patients with checklists. The third study measured the effect on skills using a diagnostic form completed by the participants. Two of the studies found a significant effect on skills [ 20 , 22 ], both were assessed to have a high risk of bias. The third study, which did not find any effect of VR training on skills, had some concern for risk of bias [ 21 ].

Knowledge and skills

One RCT study with 227 health care professionals assessed knowledge and skills as a combined outcome compared to a waitlist control group, using a self-report survey before and after the VR training [ 19 ]. The training intervention was a VP game designed to practice knowledge and skills related to mental health and substance abuse disorders. To assess effect of the training, participants completed a self-report scale measuring perceived knowledge and skills. Changes between presimulation and postsimulation scores were reported only for the within treatment group ( n  = 117), where the composite postsimulation score was significantly higher than the presimulation score, with a large effect size observed. The study was judged to have a high risk of bias in the domain of selection of the reported result.

One single group pretest–posttest study with 100 social work and nursing students assessed the effect of VSP training on attitudes towards individuals with substance abuse disorders [ 23 ]. To assess the effect of the training, participants completed an online pretest and posttest survey including questions from a substance abuse attitudes survey. This study found no significant effect of VR training on attitudes and was assessed as having a serious risk of bias.

Perceived competence

The same single group pretest–posttest study also assessed the effect of a VSP training intervention on perceived competence in screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment in encounters with patients with substance abuse disorders [ 23 ]. A commonly accepted definition of competence is that it comprises integrated components of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enable the successful execution of a professional task [ 32 ]. To assess the effect of the training, participants completed an online pretest and posttest survey including questions on perceived competence. The study findings demonstrated a significant increase in perceived competence following the VSP intervention. The risk of bias in this study was judged as serious.

This systematic review aimed to investigate the effectiveness of VR training on knowledge, skills, and attitudes that health professionals need to master in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. A narrative synthesis of eight included studies identified VR training interventions that varied in design and educational content. Although mixed results emerged, most studies reported improvements in knowledge and skills after VR training.

We found that all interventions utilized some type of VP design, predominantly VSP interventions. Although our review includes a limited number of studies, it is noteworthy that the distribution of interventions contrasts with a literature review on the use of ‘virtual patient’ in health care education from 2015 [ 30 ], which identified IPS as the most frequent intervention. This variation may stem from our review’s focus on the mental health field, suggesting a different intervention need and distribution than that observed in general medical education. A fundamental aspect of mental health education involves training skills needed for interpersonal communication, clinical interviews, and symptom assessment, which makes VSPs particularly appropriate. While VP games may be suitable for clinical reasoning in medical fields, offering the opportunity to perform technical medical procedures in a virtual environment, these designs may present some limitations for skills training in mental health education. Notably, avatars in a VP game do not comprehend natural language and are incapable of engaging in conversations. Therefore, the continued advancement of conversational agents like VSPs is particularly compelling and considered by scholars to hold the greatest potential for clinical skills training in mental health education [ 3 ]. VSPs, equipped with AI dialogue capabilities, are particularly valuable for repetitive practice in key skills such as interviewing and counseling [ 31 ], which are crucial in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. VSPs could also be a valuable tool for the implementation of training methods in mental health education, such as deliberate practice, a method that has gained attention in psychotherapy training in recent years [ 33 ] for its effectiveness in refining specific performance areas through consistent repetition [ 34 ]. Within this evolving landscape, AI system-based large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT stand out as a promising innovation. Developed from extensive datasets that include billions of words from a variety of sources, these models possess the ability to generate and understand text in a manner akin to human interaction [ 35 ]. The integration of LLMs into educational contexts shows promise, yet careful consideration and thorough evaluation of their limitations are essential [ 36 ]. One concern regarding LLMs is the possibility of generating inaccurate information, which represents a challenge in healthcare education where precision is crucial [ 37 ]. Furthermore, the use of generative AI raises ethical questions, notably because of potential biases in the training datasets, including content from books and the internet that may not have been verified, thereby risking the perpetuation of these biases [ 38 ]. Developing strategies to mitigate these challenges is imperative, ensuring LLMs are utilized safely in healthcare education.

All interventions in our review were based on non-immersive desktop VR systems, which is somewhat surprising considering the growing body of literature highlighting the impact of immersive VR technology in education, as exemplified by reviews such as that of Radianti et al. [ 39 ]. Furthermore, given the recent accessibility of affordable, high-quality head-mounted displays, this observation is noteworthy. Research has indicated that immersive learning based on head-mounted displays generally yields better learning outcomes than non-immersive approaches [ 40 ], making it an interesting research area in mental health care training and education. Studies using immersive interventions were excluded in the present review because of methodological concerns, paralleling findings described in a systematic review on immersive VR in education [ 41 ], suggesting the potential early stage of research within this field. Moreover, the integration of immersive VR technology into mental health care education may encounter challenges associated with complex ethical and regulatory frameworks, including data privacy concerns exemplified by the Oculus VR headset-Facebook integration, which could restrict the implementation of this technology in healthcare setting. Prioritizing specific training methodologies for enhancing skills may also affect the utilization of immersive VR in mental health education. For example, integrating interactive VSPs into a fully immersive VR environment remains a costly endeavor, potentially limiting the widespread adoption of immersive VR in mental health care. Meanwhile, the use of 360-degree videos in immersive VR environments for training purposes [ 42 ] can be realized with a significantly lower budget. Immersive VR offers promising opportunities for innovative training, but realizing its full potential in mental health care education requires broader research validation and the resolution of existing obstacles.

This review bears some resemblance to the systematic review by Jensen et al. on virtual patients in undergraduate psychiatry education [ 13 ] from 2024, which found that virtual patients improved learning outcomes compared to traditional methods. However, these authors’ expansion of the commonly used definition of virtual patient makes their results difficult to compare with the findings in the present review. A recognized challenge in understanding VR application in health care training arises from the literature on VR training for health care personnel, where ‘virtual patient’ is a term broadly used to describe a diverse range of VR interventions, which vary significantly in technology and educational design [ 3 , 30 ]. For instance, reviews might group different interventions using various VR systems and designs under a single label (virtual patient), or primary studies may use misleading or inadequately defined classifications for the virtual patient interventions evaluated. Clarifying the similarities and differences among these interventions is vital to inform development and enhance communication and understanding in educational contexts [ 43 ].

Strengths and limitations

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic review to evaluate the effectiveness of VR training on knowledge, skills, and attitudes in health care professionals and students in assessing and treating mental health disorders. This review therefore provides valuable insights into the use of VR technology in training and education for mental health care. Another strength of this review is the comprehensive search strategy developed by a senior academic librarian at Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences (HINN) and the authors in collaboration with an adviser from KildeGruppen AS (a Norwegian media company). The search strategy was peer-reviewed by an academic librarian at HINN. Advisers from VRINN (an immersive learning cluster in Norway) and SIMInnlandet (a center for simulation in mental health care at Innlandet Hospital Trust) provided assistance in reviewing the VR systems of the studies, while the classification of the learning designs was conducted under the guidance of a VP scholar. This systematic review relies on an established and recognized classification of VR interventions for training health care personnel and may enhance understanding of the effectiveness of VR interventions designed for the training of mental health care personnel.

This review has some limitations. As we aimed to measure the effect of the VR intervention alone and not the effect of a blended training design, the selection of included studies was limited. Studies not covered in this review might have offered different insights. Given the understanding that blended learning designs, where technology is combined with other forms of learning, have significant positive effects on learning outcomes [ 44 ], we were unable to evaluate interventions that may be more effective in clinical settings. Further, by limiting the outcomes to knowledge, skills, and attitudes, we might have missed insights into other outcomes that are pivotal to competence acquisition.

Limitations in many of the included studies necessitate cautious interpretation of the review’s findings. Small sample sizes and weak designs in several studies, coupled with the use of non-validated outcome measures in some studies, diminish the robustness of the findings. Furthermore, the risk of bias assessment in this review indicates a predominantly high or serious risk of bias across most of the studies, regardless of their design. In addition, the heterogeneity of the studies in terms of study design, interventions, and outcome measures prevented us from conducting a meta-analysis.

Further research

Future research on the effectiveness of VR training for specific learning outcomes in assessing and treating mental health disorders should encompass more rigorous experimental studies with larger sample sizes. These studies should include verifiable descriptions of the VR interventions and employ validated tools to measure outcomes. Moreover, considering that much professional learning involves interactive and reflective practice, research on VR training would probably be enhanced by developing more in-depth study designs that evaluate not only the immediate learning outcomes of VR training but also the broader learning processes associated with it. Future research should also concentrate on utilizing immersive VR training applications, while additionally exploring the integration of large language models to augment interactive learning in mental health care. Finally, this review underscores the necessity in health education research involving VR to communicate research findings using agreed terms and classifications, with the aim of providing a clearer and more comprehensive understanding of the research.

This systematic review investigated the effect of VR training interventions on knowledge, skills, and attitudes in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. The results suggest that VR training interventions can promote knowledge and skills acquisition. Further studies are needed to evaluate VR training interventions as a learning tool for mental health care providers. This review emphasizes the necessity to improve future study designs. Additionally, intervention studies of immersive VR applications are lacking in current research and should be a future area of focus.

Availability of data and materials

Detailed search strategies from each database is available in the DataverseNO repository, https://doi.org/10.18710/TI1E0O .

Abbreviations

Virtual Reality

Cave Automatic Virtual Environment

Randomized Controlled Trial

Non-Randomized study

Virtual Standardized Patient

Interactive Patient Scenario

Virtual Patient

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

Standardized Patient

Artificial intelligence

Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences

Doctor of Philosophy

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Mole Meyer, adviser at SIMInnlandet, Innlandet Hospital Trust, and Keith Mellingen, manager at VRINN, for their assistance with the categorization and classification of VR interventions, and Associate Professor Inga Hege at the Paracelcus Medical University in Salzburg for valuable contributions to the final classification of the interventions. The authors would also like to thank Håvard Røste from the media company KildeGruppen AS, for assistance with the search strategy; Academic Librarian Elin Opheim at the Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences for valuable peer review of the search strategy; and the Library at the Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences for their support. Additionally, we acknowledge the assistance provided by OpenAI’s ChatGPT for support with translations and language refinement.

Open access funding provided by Inland Norway University Of Applied Sciences The study forms a part of a collaborative PhD project funded by South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority through Innlandet Hospital Trust and the Inland University of Applied Sciences.

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CWS, KS, BS, and JS collaboratively designed the study. CWS and JS collected and analysed the data and were primarily responsible for writing the manuscript text. All authors contributed to the development of the search strategy. IBN conducted the literature searches and authored the chapter on the search strategy in the manuscript. All authors reviewed, gave feedback, and granted their final approval of the manuscript.

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Additional file 1: table 2..

Effects of VR training in the included studies: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and non-randomized studies (NRSs).

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Steen, C.W., Söderström, K., Stensrud, B. et al. The effectiveness of virtual reality training on knowledge, skills and attitudes of health care professionals and students in assessing and treating mental health disorders: a systematic review. BMC Med Educ 24 , 480 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05423-0

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Machine Learning for Predicting Corporate Violations: How Do CEO Characteristics Matter?

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• Ruijie Sun 1 ,
• Feng Liu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9367-049X 1 ,
• Yinan Li 1 ,
• Rongping Wang 1 &
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Based on upper echelon theory, we employ machine learning to explore how CEO characteristics influence corporate violations using a large-scale dataset of listed firms in China for the period 2010–2020. Comparing ten machine learning methods, we find that eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) outperforms the other models in predicting corporate violations. An interpretable model combining XGBoost and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) indicates that CEO characteristics play a central role in predicting corporate violations. Tenure has the strongest predictive power and is negatively associated with corporate violations, followed by marketing experience, education, duality (i.e., simultaneously holding the position of chairperson), and research and development experience. In contrast, shareholdings, age, and pay are positively related to corporate violations. We also analyze violation severity and violation type, confirming the role of tenure in predicting more severe and intentional violations. Overall, our findings contribute to preventing corporate violations, improving corporate governance, and maintaining order in the financial market.

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Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge insightful suggestions from the editors and the anonymous reviewers, which substantively improved this article. We also thank Mingjie Fang, Caixia Liu, Simon Shufeng Xiao, Gil Coombe, and Zongli Dai for their comments on earlier versions of this paper. We thank the members of Star-lights Research Team for research assistance.

This work was supported by the Humanities and Social Sciences Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China [Grant No. 21YJC630076].

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Sun, R., Liu, F., Li, Y. et al. Machine Learning for Predicting Corporate Violations: How Do CEO Characteristics Matter?. J Bus Ethics (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05685-0

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Received : 20 May 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05685-0

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