pet overpopulation essay

Position Statement

Animal population control, all cats and dogs adopted from animal care facilities should be spayed or neutered.

Pet “overpopulation” encompasses two primary factors: (1) allowing cats and dogs to reproduce with little chance to find homes for the offspring and (2) pets being relinquished by owners who can no longer keep their animals, or who no longer want them.

Every year, millions of cats and dogs are euthanized in our nation’s animal shelters because there are more pets than there are responsible homes for them. Until this issue is resolved, American Humane believes that all cats and dogs adopted from public or private animal care and control facilities should be spayed or neutered (i.e., sterilized). Such sterilization includes prepubertal spaying and neutering of kittens and puppies. American Humane supports the passage of laws and regulations mandating that all cats and dogs adopted from public or private animal care and control facilities be sterilized. It is less certain that community-wide mandatory spay/neuter laws are effective in addressing pet overpopulation. More information needs to be gathered on the benefit of prior legislative initiatives to determine long-term benefits.

American Humane encourages the veterinary profession to assist, whenever and however possible, in reducing the number of unwanted pets. This involvement includes supporting the neutering of cats and dogs adopted from public or private animal care and control facilities – thereby controlling the ongoing contribution of offspring to pet overpopulation. Veterinarians should continue to use their best judgment when recommending appropriate sterilization ages for individual cats and dogs owned by clients, especially those clients who are wellknown and likely to permit an unwanted pregnancy to occur prior to surgery. Short-term and long-term health risks for each animal should always be assessed. American Humane encourages research into the development and use of nonsurgical methods of sterilization.

American Humane also supports research to assess the causes for pet relinquishment. Prior research studies suggest that 7 to 20 percent of pets entering a home are no longer in that home six months after acquisition. These animals often end up at shelters, contributing to the pet “overpopulation” issue. Thus, American Humane wishes to understand individual, cultural and community issues that lead to pet relinquishment and to develop practical and effective intervention strategies.

What you can do to combat pet overpopulation:

• If you are adding a pet to your family, make sure the pet comes from a legitimate shelter, nonprofit rescue group or a responsible, humane breeder.
• Always spay and neuter your pets.
• Consider all the responsibilities and consequences of pet ownership before deciding to get a pet and always make a lifetime commitment to your pet.
• Educate your children, friends, family members and co-workers about pet overpopulation, adoption and the importance of spaying and neutering.

You can help stop generations of suffering. Have your female pet spayed and your male pet neutered. Don’t allow them to breed and add to the pet overpopulation problem.

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The Effectiveness of Dog Population Management: A Systematic Review

Lauren m. smith.

1 Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; ku.ca.sdeel@imslsb (L.M.S.); [email protected] (R.J.Q.)

Sabine Hartmann

2 VIER PFOTEN International, 1150 Vienna, Austria; [email protected] (S.H.); [email protected] (A.M.M.)

Alexandru M. Munteanu

Paolo dalla villa.

3 Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale”, 64100 Teramo, Italy; [email protected]

Rupert J. Quinnell

Lisa m. collins, associated data, simple summary.

Domestic dogs are abundant worldwide—as owned pets, unowned strays, and feral animals. High numbers of free-roaming dogs can be a concern because of the risks they pose to public health, animal welfare, and wildlife. Using a systematic review process, we investigated what the research published to date can tell us about the effectiveness of different dog population management methods. We found that management methods for dog populations have been researched in multiple countries worldwide, using a wide range of indicators to assess method effectiveness. We outline the results and suggest improvements to help guide future dog population management policy.

The worldwide population of domestic dogs is estimated at approximately 700 million, with around 75% classified as “free-roaming”. Where free-roaming dogs exist in high densities, there are significant implications for public health, animal welfare, and wildlife. Approaches to manage dog populations include culling, fertility control, and sheltering. Understanding the effectiveness of each of these interventions is important in guiding future dog population management. We present the results of a systematic review of published studies investigating dog population management, to assess: (1) where and when studies were carried out; (2) what population management methods were used; and (3) what was the effect of the method. We evaluated the reporting quality of the published studies for strength of evidence assessment. The systematic review resulted in a corpus of 39 papers from 15 countries, reporting a wide disparity of approaches and measures of effect. We synthesised the management methods and reported effects. Fertility control was most investigated and had the greatest reported effect on dog population size. Reporting quality was low for power calculations (11%), sample size calculations (11%), and the use of control populations (17%). We provide recommendations for future studies to use common metrics and improve reporting quality, study design, and modelling approaches in order to allow better assessment of the true impact of dog population management.

1. Introduction

1.1. the dog population.

Dogs ( Canis familiaris ) have a global distribution and an estimated total population size of around 700 million [ 1 ]. Dogs have one of two ownership states—either they are owned or they are unowned. The owned population is dependent upon humans for food, water, and shelter and may have one or more owner (e.g., “community dogs”). The owned dog population includes both dogs that are restricted in their movement to a limited area (e.g., within a fenced yard or under human supervision on walks), and those that are free to roam unrestricted, without human supervision [ 2 ]. Unowned dogs (often referred to as stray) do not have an owner but may still depend upon humans directly or indirectly for resources such as food, water, and shelter [ 2 ]. Similar to owned dogs, the unowned population’s movements may be restricted or unrestricted—dogs housed in shelters have restricted movement, but street-dwelling dogs have unrestricted movement. Unrestricted dogs are particularly important as the lack of restriction allows them to roam freely, to mate, and to reproduce. This group is commonly referred to as the free-roaming dog population and includes unrestricted owned and unrestricted unowned dogs [ 3 ].

Approximately 75% of dogs across the world fit into this free-roaming dog category [ 1 ]. Free-roaming dog abundance varies greatly between countries, relating to the habitat type (urban/rural) and human population (e.g., density and cultural/social factors) [ 2 ]. Although dog densities vary globally, they can exist in high numbers. For example, densities as high as 719 dogs km -2 have been estimated in Maharashtra in India [ 4 ]. Where free-roaming dogs exist in high densities, they can be considered an issue in terms of public health (e.g., transmission of rabies and other zoonotic pathogens) [ 5 , 6 , 7 ], the environment (e.g., threatening the survival of wildlife) [ 8 , 9 , 10 ], and the animals’ welfare state [ 2 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Population management therefore typically focusses on free-roaming dogs [ 14 ] to control the population size and—depending on the approach taken—to improve dog health and welfare and mitigate against public health and environmental problems [ 15 , 16 ].

1.2. Reasons for Managing Free-Roaming Dog Populations

1.2.1. the impact of free-roaming dogs on public health.

Free-roaming dogs are associated with the transmission of a number of zoonotic pathogens [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ], dog bite injuries [ 22 , 23 , 24 ], and road traffic accidents [ 2 , 25 ]. Dogs are responsible for transmitting over 300 zoonoses to humans [ 26 , 27 ]. They are perhaps best known for the role they play in the spread and maintenance of the rabies virus [ 28 ]. This virus is responsible for an estimated 60,000 human deaths per year amounting to an annual economic cost of 8.6 billion US dollars [ 29 ]. Dogs are a primary reservoir host of this virus and account for 99% of human-rabies transmissions [ 28 ]. Other notable zoonoses include Leishmania infantum , the causative agent of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis [ 30 ]; Echinococcus spp. ( E. granulosus and E. multilocularis ) [ 31 ], which causes echinococcosis; and Toxocara canis, which causes toxocariasis [ 32 ].

1.2.2. The Impact of Free-Roaming Dogs on Wild and Domestic Animals

Free-roaming dogs can compromise the conservation of wild animals through a combination of pathogen pollution (i.e., the spread of pathogens to naive hosts) [ 8 , 33 , 34 ], predation [ 35 ], competition [ 36 ], and hybridisation [ 9 , 37 , 38 ]. It is estimated that dogs have played a role in the extinction of 11 vertebrate species and threaten the survival of at least 188 more species [ 10 ]. In addition to the negative consequences that canine pathogens have on human health, these pathogens can have an important impact on the conservation of endangered species. For example, rabies spread by domestic dogs can threaten Ethiopian wolf ( Canis simensis ) [ 8 ] and African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ) [ 33 ] populations. The taxonomic relatedness of the domestic dog to other canids, such as dingoes ( Canis lupus dingo ) and wolves ( Canis lupus ssp.), is also of concern when dogs are free-roaming. Inter-species breeding can result in hybridisation and threaten species survival [ 9 , 37 , 39 ]. In addition, dogs have been responsible for the reduction of other species through predation and competition [ 1 , 40 , 41 ]. For example, predation by dogs resulted in the decrease of mountain gazelle ( Gazella gazella gazella ) in Israel [ 42 ], puda ( Puda puda ) in Chile [ 43 ], and kiwi ( Apteryx australis mantelli ) in New Zealand [ 44 ].

Domestic dogs can also be responsible for the killing of livestock [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ]; in particular, small-and medium-bodied livestock such as sheep, goats, and donkeys [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ]. The loss of livestock contributes to substantial economic losses [ 45 ]. For example, in the USA, this amounts to over $620 million US dollars annually [ 48 ]. The financial consequences can be particularly problematic in areas of low-income communities [ 45 ]. Additionally, the loss of livestock can increase human–wildlife conflict, as predation by dogs is often mistaken for that of other species, such as wolves [ 45 , 46 , 49 ] or snow leopards [ 45 ]. This can hinder local support for conservation programs.

1.2.3. Health and Welfare of Free-Roaming Dogs

Free-roaming dogs can often experience poor health and welfare conditions. In particular, unowned free-roaming dogs may have an inadequate diet and a high prevalence of starvation and dehydration [ 2 , 13 ]. For example, in India, around 49% of free-roaming dogs have an emaciated body condition [ 50 ]. Unowned free-roaming dogs can still be dependent on humans for resources, either directly through feeding or indirectly through the provision of food in human waste [ 51 ]. The high prevalence of emaciated body condition state in free-roaming dogs that occurs in some areas may be due to poor quantity or quality of food resources and a high disease burden [ 50 , 52 ]. Free-roaming dogs, particularly those that are unowned, lack veterinary care (such as vaccination or antiparasitics) and are therefore more susceptible to disease. High prevalence of skin conditions and ectoparasites have been reported in several populations [ 50 , 53 ]. Canine transmissible venereal tumour disease is also a welfare concern in free-roaming dog populations, with the prevalence estimated at around 1% in dog populations in Africa, Asia, South America, and Central America [ 54 ], although the prevalence has been estimated to be as high as 15% in female dogs in some free-roaming populations [ 55 ]. Additional health and welfare risks to free-roaming dogs include injury caused by road traffic accidents, abusive treatment by locals [ 3 ], and inhumane methods of removal (e.g., poisoning, electrocution, drowning, or carbon monoxide poisoning [ 56 ]).

1.3. Methods of Managing Dog Populations

1.3.1. responsible groups and motivations for dog population management.

Different groups (e.g., researchers, animal welfare organisations, or government agencies) are often responsible for setting up dog population management programs [ 15 ]. They manage the population in three main ways: culling, long-term sheltering, and fertility control of free-roaming dogs [ 14 , 15 ]. In addition, programs may include a focus on public education of responsible ownership and taxation of dog ownership. Different countries, as well as different regions within a country, may vary in their objectives for carrying out dog population management programs [ 14 , 15 ], such as: reducing the number of free-roaming dogs; increasing awareness of responsible ownership practices; or improving the health of the free-roaming dog population. These objectives may be underpinned by: dog-centric motives, such as improving dog health and welfare; human-centric motives, such as the control of zoonotic disease [ 14 ] and reduced prevalence of dog bite injuries; and wildlife-centric motives, such as reducing the risk to the conservation of other species.

1.3.2. Culling

Historically, culling has been the primary method used to reduce numbers of free-roaming dogs [ 57 ]. Culling is the episodic removal and killing of individuals for the purpose of population reduction. The World Health Organisation published guidelines in 1990 discouraging the use of culling and recommending alternative methods (e.g., registration and identification, vaccination, public education, and sterilisation) [ 58 ]. Despite these recommendations, many countries continue to use culling as a primary method of population control [ 15 ]. Injectable barbiturates are more commonly used in high- and upper-middle-income countries [ 15 ], whereas poisoning and shooting are often used in lower-middle- and low-income countries [ 15 ]. National law in some countries (e.g., Bulgaria [ 59 ], Italy [ 60 ], and Kosovo [ 61 ])) prohibits the killing of dogs for the purpose of population control.

1.3.3. Sheltering

In some countries, sheltering free-roaming dogs is the most common method of dog population control. Similar to culling, sheltering aims to reduce the free-roaming dog population size by removal of dogs. Ultimately, sheltered dogs may be: (i) euthanised; (ii) adopted; or (iii) permanently stay in the shelter. Shelters are commonplace globally and may be government-run (public shelters), privately-run, or operated by NGOs. The numbers of dogs coming into the shelter are often greater than the number of dogs going out, for example to be rehomed [ 62 , 63 , 64 ]. This results in either lifelong stays in the shelter or euthanasia [ 62 , 63 , 64 ]. As national law in some countries prohibits euthanasia of healthy animals, this can lead to long-term sheltering and overcrowding [ 65 ]. Moreover, the use of shelters to house dogs is costly and, as such, more commonly employed in high- and upper-middle-income countries [ 15 ]. Due to the expense, this method may be unsuitable in lower-middle- and low-income countries [ 15 ].

1.3.4. Fertility Control

Fertility control can be achieved through surgical or chemical sterilisation or contraception [ 66 ]. Surgical sterilisation through the catch-neuter-release (CNR) of free-roaming dogs is the predominant method of fertility control. This method involves collecting free-roaming dogs and carrying out spay or castration surgery in either a fixed-location or mobile clinic. CNR has been carried out in several countries and states, for example in Italy [ 67 ], India [ 68 , 69 , 70 ], Bangladesh [ 71 ], Sri Lanka [ 72 ], and Brazil [ 73 ]. Surgical sterilisation is generally more socially acceptable than culling. However, in some locations, there can be conflict between locals and the groups/agencies conducting CNR, as some owned free-roaming dogs are caught and neutered against their owner’s wishes [ 74 ]. In some communities, owners are against the surgical sterilisation of dogs due to their religious beliefs or the misunderstanding that neutering causes undesired behavioural changes [ 75 , 76 ]. In addition, CNR has associated expense, as it requires skilled staff, clinical facilities, and medicines.

1.4. Study Aims

We conducted a systematic review to synthesise the existing evidence of the effectiveness of different dog population management methods. In this review, we describe: (1) where and when the impact of dog population management has been assessed; (2) what management methods have been used; and (3) what effect the management method had on: (i) the dog population size; (ii) dog health and welfare; (iii) public health risk; (iv) public attitude; and (v) risk to wildlife populations. The effectiveness of dog population management depends upon the management intensity (coverage and length of management); therefore, we reported the effects in relation to these criteria wherever possible. In addition, we evaluated the reporting quality of the relevant published studies to allow weighting of evidence for future decision-making.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. search strategy.

We conducted an initial literature search in February 2017, using the following search engines: Web of Science; ProQuest (Applied Social Sciences Index & Abstracts, PAIS Index, Sociological Abstracts, and Worldwide Political Science Abstracts); LILACS; and Google Scholar (results from Google Scholar were limited to the first 50 pages, due to the high volume of returned literature and lack of relevancy). The search used key words relating to dog population management ( Table S1 ). We carried out a second search using the same search engines, keywords, and eligibility requirements in January 2019 to include any papers published in the interim period.

2.2. Eligibility Requirements

A single corpus of all returned literature was compiled across the searches and cleaned of any duplications prior to filtering. Entries were filtered in three stages, based on the relevance to the study aims. These stages involved assessing the paper’s: (1) title; (2) abstract; and (3) full text. At each stage, papers were included or excluded depending on their match to the following inclusion criteria: (i) one of the primary aims of the literature was to assess, describe, investigate, or compare the impact of unowned free-roaming dog population management, in terms of dog population demographics, dog health and welfare, public attitude, or public health risk; (ii) the study design was observational, intervention or modelling; and (iii) was primary literature. Papers were excluded from the review if: (i) they were not a primary research source; (ii) their study design was systematic review, meta-analysis, lab intervention, or case report; or (iii) they assessed, described, or compared only owned dogs that were not free-roaming (i.e., restricted, owned dogs). This was assessed at Stage (1) (title stage) depending on whether the title included the key words ( Table S1 ) indicating that the paper met the inclusion criteria. At Stages (2) (abstract) and (3) (full text), this was assessed by whether the text met the above-stated inclusion and exclusion criteria. Studies in all languages were considered, although searches were conducted with keywords in English only. There was no restriction on date of publication.

Papers that passed through all three filtering stages were included for review and are referred to as the final corpus. At Stages (1) and (2) of the filtering process, a second reviewer assessed 3% of the papers (Stage (1) = 150 of 4629 papers and Stage (2) = 30 of 923 papers) to check the level of inter-rater inclusion/exclusion agreement. Any papers that were disagreed upon were disputed and a decision reached jointly by both reviewers (details in the Supplementary Materials ).

To increase the possibility of capturing all relevant papers, references from papers in the final corpus were screened using the above three-stage filtering process. All references that matched the above inclusion/exclusion criteria were included in the final corpus.

2.3. Information Extraction

The following information was extracted from the final corpus: (i) year of publication, country of study, and its economic status (defined by The World Bank 2019 country income classification [ 77 ]); (ii) study impact category (dog health and welfare, dog demographics, public attitude, public health, or wildlife), and dog population management method (culling, sheltering, fertility control, or a combination of methods); and (iii) methods, measurements, and study reporting quality. Reporting quality was assessed based on guidelines from Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) [ 78 ] and Animals in Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments (ARRIVE) [ 79 ]. For the final corpus, we assessed quality based on: study design, reporting of aims/hypotheses, appropriate study outcome (as defined by [ 16 ]), and definition of study population. Study populations were classified into: (i) unowned, free-roaming; (ii) owned, free-roaming; (iii) unowned, restricted; (iv) owned restricted; (v) undefined (i.e., the paper did not report which population was under investigation); or a combination of the five categories.

2.4. Evaluating Study Design and Reporting Quality

Where appropriate for the study design, we assessed the study and reporting quality based on: the presence/absence of a power calculation, presence/absence of a sample size calculation, inclusion of a control population, accounting for inter-observer reliability, and reporting of baseline characteristics.

3.1. Year of Publishing, Country of Study and Economic Status

The systematic review resulted in an initial (pre-filtered) corpus of 4863 papers, which we reduced following the three-stage filtering process to 36 papers ( Figure 1 ). To ensure key papers were not missed, the references of included papers were reviewed using the same inclusion/exclusion criteria. This resulted in three additional papers and a final corpus of 39 papers. The final corpus comprised 36 peer-reviewed papers and three theses (two Masters of Science and one Masters of Veterinary Medicine). The papers were published between 1977 and 2018, with 82% published between 2008 and 2018.

Number of papers included and excluded at each stage of the systematic review process. Grey boxes indicate the number excluded at each stage and the green box indicates the number of papers included in the final corpus.

Most of the studies were carried out or used data from locations within a single country (87%). These were located in 15 different countries across Africa (3%), Asia (39%), Central America (3%), Europe (18%), North America (10%), and South America (15%), in countries that were high income (27%), upper-middle income (38%), lower-middle income (32%), and low income (3%). A high proportion of the studies was conducted in India (26%) ( Table S2 ). Three studies used data from multiple countries (8%) and two studies did not specify a country (5%).

3.2. Dog Population Management Methods and Impacts

3.2.1. dog population management methods.

The management methods studied in the final corpus included: fertility control through neutering and immunocontraceptives (13 papers, 33%); culling (indiscriminate culling and culling of infected dogs: (7 papers, 18%)); sheltering (2 papers, 5%); and taxation (1 paper, 3%) ( Table 1 ). Combinations of methods were also studied: fertility control and sheltering (9 papers, 23%); fertility control and culling (6 papers, 15%); and fertility control and movement restriction (1 paper, 3%) ( Table 2 ). Of the papers that involved fertility control, 79% (23 of 29 papers) controlled the fertility of both male and female dogs ( Table 3 and Table 4 ). Eight papers (21%) directly compared different methods of management: three compared fertility control and culling (8%); three compared fertility control and sheltering (8%); one compared fertility control and movement restriction (3%); and one compared different taxation methods (3%).

Impact categories and indicators of effect used in the final corpus to evaluate the effects of management methods. Study design is indicated with either O/I indicating an observational or intervention study, or M for a modelling study. Following the indication of study design is the number of papers (denoted = n , where n is the number of papers) adopting this design to test this combination of dog population management method, indicator, and measured impact, followed by the reference details for the relevant papers.

All final corpus papers by management factors (method and intensity), study design factors, and reporting quality. Management intensity is reported in terms of coverage and length. Length is reported as years of: (i) mgmt. = management (indicating the study and management method took place at the same time) or (ii) study (indicating the study took place after management began). NA = not applicable for the study design.

Results from papers in the final corpus (excluding modelling studies) of the effects of methods of dog population management on the indicators of impact and impact categories. ↑ indicates an increasing effect, ↓ a decreasing effect and n.e. no effect; combinations of different symbols indicate where evidence is conflicting. Where p -values were reported, this is included (e.g., p < 0.05), NR = p -value was not reported, NS = p -value not significant. NA = not applicable for the study design. The size of effect is extracted from papers and reported in terms of the years of: (i) mgmt. = management (indicating the study and management method took place at the same time) or (ii) study (indicating the study took place after management began). Where fertility control is included in the dog population management method, (M&F) indicates fertility control was applied to both males and females, (F) indicates only female fertility was controlled. Supporting evidence is provided in references.

a Contradictory result within paper, contacted author to confirm correct results. b Estimated by approximating numbers from figures in paper. c Alpha value for pairwise post-hoc adjusted to 0.005 to control for multiple comparisons.

Results from only modelling papers from the final corpus of the effects of methods of dog population management on the indicators of impact and impact categories. ↑ indicates an increasing effect, ↓ a decreasing effect, and n.e. no effect; combinations of different symbols indicate where evidence is conflicting. The size of effect is extracted from papers and reported in terms of the years of modelling simulation. Supporting evidence is provided in references.

* Estimated by approximating numbers from figures in paper.

3.2.2. Impact Category and Indicators of Effect

Dog population management methods were investigated in terms of the impact they have on: dog health and welfare (6 papers, 15%); dog demographics (13 papers, 33%); public attitude to free-roaming populations (3 papers, 8%); public health (16 papers, 41%); and risk to wildlife populations (1 paper, 3%) ( Table S3 ). To evaluate these impacts, the final corpus reported 19 different indicators of effect.

The majority of these were different indicators of dog health and welfare, and public health risk, and relatively few different indicators were used to assess dog demographics and public attitude. Considering all the reported indicators, studies used dog population size most frequently to evaluate impact (19 papers, 49%). Considering all management methods and indicators, studies most often evaluated the effect of fertility control and sheltering using dog population size as an indicator (8 papers, 21%).

3.3. Quality Evaluation

We assessed the quality of the intervention and observational studies in the final corpus. We split our measures into two categories: those that applied to all papers (including study design, reporting of aims/hypotheses, appropriate outcome studied, and definition of study population), and those that applied to papers depending on their study design (inclusion of power calculation, sample size calculation, control population, inter-observer reliability, and reporting of baseline characteristics).

3.3.1. Study Design and Study Populations

In the final corpus, 33 papers used only one study design and six papers used two different study designs within the paper ( Table 2 ). Papers in the final corpus used observational (i.e., observing dog population management, but not imposing the intervention themselves) (18 papers, 46%), intervention (1 paper, 3%), modelling (14 papers, 36%), a combination of observational study designs (3 papers, 8%), and a combination of observational and modelling study designs (3 papers, 8%). Of the observational study designs, seven papers used a retrospective cohort (33%), six papers used a longitudinal cross-sectional (29%), nine papers used a single time point cross-sectional approach (38%), two papers combined prospective cohort and retrospective cohort (10%), and one paper combined a single time point cross-sectional and retrospective cohort study design (5%). Papers reported various combinations of dog populations, including: free-roaming owned, free-roaming unowned, restricted owned, and shelter dogs ( Table 2 ). Of the various combinations, 36 papers (92%) investigated both free-roaming unowned and free-roaming owned dogs. Twenty-six of these papers (72%) grouped this population as one (e.g., the free-roaming dog population) and did not distinguish between owned and unowned dogs ( Table S4 ). Two papers did not define their study population (5%).

3.3.2. Study Reporting Quality Indicators

All papers in the final corpus reported their aims, with the majority aiming to understand the impact of dog population management as a primary objective and others describing methods of dog population estimation, model development, and guideline development. All papers in the final corpus used an appropriate outcome to measure the effect of dog population management (as defined by Hiby et al. (2017) [ 16 ]). In the observational/intervention studies, 35% of papers did not report the management coverage and 9% did not report the length of management ( Table 2 ). In general, study quality was low in the observational/intervention papers. Only one study used replication (4%), only six studies investigated different groups (26%) and only four included a control population (17%). Reporting was low for both power calculations (11%) (i.e., a calculation to determine statistical power: the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis) and sample size calculations (11%) (i.e., a calculation to determine the minimum sample size required to answer the study question). However, where appropriate, the reporting of inter-observer reliability (71%) and baseline characteristics was high (80%). Table S5 outlines the results of the reporting quality indicators. Reporting quality (RQ) scores are reported in Table 2 .

3.4. Effects of Management Methods on Impact Categories—Observational and Intervention Studies

The effects of the different methods of dog population management in observational and intervention studies are summarised in Table 3 .

3.4.1. Dog Health and Welfare

The impacts of fertility control alone, sheltering alone, and combined fertility control and sheltering were investigated on dog health and welfare in observational studies. No papers in the final corpus investigated the effect of culling or taxation on dog health and welfare.

Fertility control significantly increased body condition score in two of three papers. This was achieved when fertility control was implemented at an unreported coverage level over two years of management ([ 50 ] 100% RQ) and when an 80% coverage was applied to the female free-roaming dog population over both seven and 17 years of management ([ 70 ] 25% RQ). Fertility control was associated with reduced prevalence of injuries ([ 70 ] 25% RQ: 80% female coverage over seven and 17 years) and had few associated post-operative complications (between 5% and 7%, depending on the length of observation) ([ 82 ] 40% RQ). Yoak et al. (2014) ([ 70 ] 25% RQ) reported that fertility control (at an unreported coverage level over two years of management) had varying effects on the prevalence of pathogens, depending on the type of pathogen. This paper compared the prevalence of various pathogens between areas where varying levels of fertility control had been applied. Whilst fertility control significantly decreased viruses and most bacteria, it significantly increased the prevalence of ectoparasites (e.g., Rhipicephalus sanguineus ) and Brucella canis over the two years of management. Similarly, Totton et al. (2011) ([ 50 ] 100% RQ; unreported management coverage over two years of management) found that neutered dogs were 1.7 times more likely to have a visible skin condition compared to intact dogs.

One study investigated the impact of sheltering on the post-adoptive welfare of previously free-roaming dogs. This study found no significant differences in the prevalence of behavioural problems following adoption, using the behavioural indicators “destructiveness”, “hyperattachment to owner”, “fearfulness”, “aggressiveness”, and “excessive barking” ([ 80 ] 0% RQ).

One paper in the final corpus investigated the impact of combined fertility control and sheltering on dog health and welfare. Radisavljevic et al. (2017) ([ 81 ] 0% RQ) reported that neutering, transport, and housing in a new environment did not have a significant effect on physiological stress measures ( Table 3 ).

3.4.2. Dog Population Demographics

The effects of fertility control and combined fertility control and sheltering on dog population demographics were explored through observational studies. All applied fertility control to both male and female dogs at various intensities (see Table 3 ) and all reported a reduction in dog population size. Totton et al. (2010) ([ 69 ] 20% RQ) described different results between their study areas. These study areas had various levels of fertility control coverage. In three of their five study areas, they observed a decline in the dog population size ( p < 0.05) (at 62%, 66%, and 67% coverage), in one they found a decreasing trend ( p > 0.05), and in one study area they saw no effect of fertility control (87% coverage). Although different results were reported for the impact of fertility control and sheltering, one study reported a significant decrease in population size by 34% when fertility control and sheltering was applied at 43% over nine months of management ([ 93 ] 20% RQ). It is important to note that this is a particularly short period of management and these initial results may be the immediate effects of sheltering, rather than fertility control.

3.4.3. Public Attitude

The effect of fertility control alone and fertility control and sheltering on public attitude was explored in two papers. Costa et al. (2017) ([ 97 ] 80% RQ) reported no effect of fertility control on the public perception towards the effectiveness of different dog population management methods after three years of fertility control at an unspecified level of coverage. Public attitude, in this study, was quantified using a questionnaire with both open and closed questions. Boey (2017) ([ 94 ] 20% RQ) described a positive improvement of public attitude towards the presence of free-roaming dogs after fertility control and sheltering campaigns at an unspecified level of coverage and length. This was measured using qualitative data collected in interviews and discussion groups.

3.4.4. Public Health Risk

The effects of culling, fertility control, sheltering, combined fertility control and culling, and combined fertility control and sheltering on public health risk were explored in observational and intervention studies. Two papers in the final corpus investigated the effect of culling on public health risk. Both reported that culling decreased the prevalence of visceral leishmaniasis in dogs over short-term periods, but did not have a significant effect over long-term periods (at an unreported level of coverage over two years of management ([ 106 ] 50% RQ), and 8% coverage over 14 months of management ([ 105 ] 20% RQ). One study found that culling significantly decreased the prevalence of visceral leishmaniasis in children (decrease in incidence from 12 cases per 1000 people per year to 2 cases per 1000 people per year, at an unreported coverage level over four years of management) ([ 106 ]; 50% RQ). Papers were in agreement that fertility control can reduce public health risk, at the investigated management intensities (see Table 3 ). Fertility control of 65% of females over an unspecified length of management was associated with a significant reduction in human bite cases (a decrease of five bites per month) ([ 99 ] 50% RQ). Sheltering at an unspecified level of coverage over 11 years of management was associated with a reduction in Echinococcus granulosus prevalence in humans, livestock, and dogs, but significance was not reported ([ 5 ] 0% RQ). The combination of fertility control and culling on public health risk was explored in three observational studies. All studies reported a reduction in Echinococcus granulosus prevalence in dogs and in livestock at the reported management intensities (see Table 3 ), but did not report significant effects. There was no effect of this management method at an unspecified level of coverage on the number of people operated on for Echinococcus granulosus cysts over eight years of management ([ 103 ] 20% RQ). Combined fertility control and sheltering at various management intensities was associated with a decrease in public health risk. Schurer et al. (2015) ([ 93 ] 20% RQ) reported a decrease of 43% of dog parasite prevalence after nine months of population management intervention at 43% fertility control and 33% sheltering coverage.

3.5. Effects of Management Methods on Impact Categories—Modelling Studies

The effects of the different methods of dog population management in modelling studies are presented in Table 4 . The effects of methods that are directly compared within the final corpus papers are summarised in Table 5 .

Summary of methods directly compared within papers. All papers included in the final corpus directly comparing different methods of dog population management used a modelling study design.

3.5.1. Dog Population Demographics

The effects of culling, fertility control, sheltering, taxation, and combined fertility control and movement restriction on dog population demographics were investigated through modelling studies. All used dog population size as an indicator of effect. Three modelling studies investigated the effect of culling on dog population demographics. All reported that culling decreased dog population size at the intensity modelled (see Table 4 for management coverage and length). Yoak et al.’s (2016) [ 85 ] agent-based model simulated that culling would decrease population size by 13% over 20 years [ 85 ] at current capture rates, although the intensity required to achieve this reduction is not reported. All papers reported that fertility control reduced population size at the intensity modelled. The effect varied from a minimum decrease in population size of 14% over 20 years to 78% over 20 years, depending on the neutering coverage [ 89 ]. Sheltering at the modelled intensity had little or no effect on dog population size (population decrease of 3% in 10 years [ 90 ]), or no effect [ 87 , 90 ]). One paper in the final corpus [ 92 ] reported that taxation of dog buyers at various intensities decreased the free-roaming dog population size. Three papers [ 87 , 89 , 96 ] explored the effect of combined movement restriction and sheltering at various modelled intensities, all reported synergistic effects but this varied from a 5% population decrease in 30 years [ 96 ] to a 73% decrease in 20 years [ 89 ].

When sheltering was directly compared to fertility control, fertility control was more effective at reducing population size [ 87 , 90 ]. For example, Hogasen et al. (2013) [ 90 ] modelled that an increase in fertility control by 20–40% per year reduced the free-roaming dog population size by 34%, compared to only a 3% reduction where sheltering was increased by 10% each year. In studies that directly compared the effects of culling to fertility control on dog population size, culling was less effective at reducing the population size. Yoak et al. (2016) [ 85 ] reported that fertility control decreased population size by 75%, compared to approximately only 13% with culling when using model simulations with the same capture probability and intensity of intervention.

3.5.2. Public Health Risk

The effects of culling and fertility control on public health risk were investigated in modelling studies. All papers reported that, at various modelled intensities, culling decreased dog rabies prevalence (decreasing trend [ 100 , 101 , 102 ]) and rabies basic reproductive number (R0) (decreasing trend [ 91 , 107 , 108 ]). Fertility control at the modelled intensities also decreased public health risk. Fitzpatrick et al. (2016) [ 98 ] reported a reduction in the number of human rabies cases, estimating a 92% decrease in five years of model simulation when an intervention coverage between 25% and 50% was modelled. Carroll et al. (2010) [ 100 ] reported that fertility control decreased the prevalence of dog rabies. The modelled intensity of fertility control required to eradicate rabies varied from maintaining 100% coverage for one month to maintaining 25% coverage for over two years. Carroll et al. (2010) [ 100 ] directly compared culling to fertility control and reported culling to be just as effective at reducing dog rabies prevalence at the modelled intensities. However, when combined with rabies vaccination, fertility control was more effective than culling at eradicating dog rabies [ 100 ].

3.5.3. Wildlife

One modelling study investigated the effect of fertility control on disease risk to wild animal populations. Using an agent-based model, Belsare et al. (2015) [ 109 ] reported that fertility control (at unspecified intensities) reduced the risk to the Indian fox ( Vulpes bengalensis ) population, using the number of canine distemper spill over events as an indicator.

4. Discussion

4.1. limitations in assessing dog population management.

This systematic review synthesises research papers investigating different dog population management methods. We determined: (1) where and when the impact of dog population management has been described in the published literature; (2) what methods were assessed and at what intensity (coverage and length of management); and (3) what effects were reported. Furthermore, we evaluated the reporting quality of the studies. Papers in the final corpus suggest that most dog population management methods were associated with some effect on the impact of interest, and mostly in a favourable direction (such as decreasing public health risk or dog population size). The interpretation of these results and assessment of the effectiveness of dog population management methods is limited due to the following reasons:

• Few studies used a study design that would allow causation to be determined (such as intervention or certain observational studies), and many lacked an appropriate number of treatment and control groups ( Table S5 ) and replication ( Table 3 ). This therefore makes it challenging to distinguish between changes to a population that are caused by the management method, to incidental changes caused by other factors (e.g., reduction in population numbers over a few years caused by environmental or human related factors in the study area).
• Multiple indicators are used to assess the impact of dog population management ( Table 1 ). It is therefore difficult to compare the effect of the same population management method across different studies, and even more challenging to compare different methods across studies. This makes it difficult to carry out a formal synthesis of results, such as a meta-analysis, to report the combined evidence. For example, we found that different papers reporting on the evaluation of different management methods did not use the same measurement of dog health and welfare. In this example, it does not make substantive sense to compare whether an increase in normal body condition scores of 13% (with fertility control) indicates a greater impact on dog health and welfare compared to a decrease in leukocyte counts by 4 (×109 cell/L) (when fertility control and sheltering are combined). This therefore makes it difficult to directly compare effects between methods.
• Studies often investigated combinations of population management methods, such as fertility control and sheltering, and fertility control and culling. It is difficult to assess the impact of dog population management when methods are not used in isolation. Even where studies investigated one method alone, it is unclear whether other methods of dog population management were in place, such as sheltering or taxation. Culling might also be under-represented, as the method is often not reported due to lack of public acceptance (e.g., ad-hoc poisoning and drowning).
• To effectively review the results of dog population management intervention, it is important to not only consider what method was applied, but also how the method was implemented. This means in practice that information about the intensity of management and associated costs (logistics, training, and facilities) are required in order to fully appreciate and contextualise the results. Any management method has the potential to be effective if the intensity is large enough. For example, moving 100% of the dog population into shelters every week would be much more effective than to only 15% of the population once a year. It is therefore important to consider: (i) management coverage; (ii) length of management; and (iii) cost of management when assessing the effectiveness of different methods. Many papers in the final corpus did not provided information about the coverage of management and some did not report the length of management ( Table 2 ). Information about the cost of management was rarely provided, apart from where included as a parameter in modelling studies.

4.2. Investigated Methods and Reported Effects of Dog Population Management

The results of this systematic review highlight the scale and increasing interest in dog population management, which has been studied globally with an increase in the rate of publications in the last decade ( Figure S1 ). In particular, fertility control was often investigated, this aligns with increasing interest over recent years in the use of fertility control to manage animal populations in general [ 110 ]. Although interpretation of results from the final corpus is limited, we can still draw some tentative conclusions about the impact of the different management methods.

Overall, papers reported that fertility control had positive effects on dog health and welfare, including improved body condition score and reduced presence of injuries and some pathogens. However, this method increased skin conditions and prevalence of ectoparasites. The positive effects on body condition and presence of injuries could be explained by the lack of sex hormones caused by fertility control. This results in a reduced desire to seek out mates, as well as reduced sexual competition, which can cause weight gain [ 111 , 112 ] and decrease aggression between individuals, respectively [ 113 ]. Additionally, as fertility control methods (such as CNR) are often combined with vaccination and antiparasitic treatment, an improved health condition may be reflected in an improvement in body condition [ 50 ]. The negative effects of fertility control on the prevalence of skin conditions could relate to the specific protocols carried out by the different population management programs, such as the conditions the dogs are kept in pre- and post-surgery and the medical treatment provided (such as antiparasitics). It is therefore important that future groups carrying out dog population management through fertility control ensure they take measures to reduce pathogen transmission in clinical facilities.

The impact of different management methods on dog population demographics was measured solely through dog population size, allowing some level of comparison between papers. The comparison is still limited, however, as these effects were measured across different time scales, applied at different rates (e.g., neutering coverages), and to different populations of dogs (e.g., free-roaming owned and unowned or free-roaming unowned). For example, in the observational studies, the impact of fertility control varied from decreases in population size of 12% in 1.5 years to decreases in size of 40% over 12 years. Although all methods decreased population size, fertility control had the greatest effect in both observational studies [ 68 , 69 , 83 , 84 ] and modelling studies [ 69 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 ]. Fertility control decreases dog population size by preventing births, therefore allowing a reduction of numbers as natural deaths occur. This is in contrast with culling and sheltering, which reduce the population size through the removal of individuals, either through death or the moving of dogs into a shelter population. When fertility control was combined with other methods, such as movement restriction and sheltering, synergistic effects were reported [ 89 ]. By increasing the rate of fertility control and restriction status of dogs, this would both reduce the opportunities for reproduction and therefore potentially reduce the birth rate even greater than if fertility control had been used alone. Culling, by increasing the death rate of a population, may cause a rapid reduction in population numbers [ 85 , 88 ]. The culling method has been criticised as ineffective at reducing populations over longer periods of time [ 88 ]. This was supported by modelling studies that directly compared fertility control and culling. These papers found that, although culling resulted in an initial decrease in dog population size (e.g., a five-year period [ 88 ]), fertility control was more effective at reducing the population size over longer periods of time (e.g., a 20-year period) [ 85 , 88 ]. This may be because individuals removed through culling are replaced by new individuals through compensatory breeding or migration from other locations [ 114 ], therefore rendering the method less effective in the longer term. It is also important to note that there were no empirical studies investigating the impact of culling on population size, all were modelling studies, and therefore have limitations in the inferences that can be made to real dog populations.

Multiple different measures were reported to assess effects on public health risk, again making it difficult to compare methods directly. Culling had decreasing effects on the various indicators of public health risk in both observational [ 105 , 106 ] and modelling studies [ 91 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 107 , 108 ]. This contradicts previous literature suggesting that culling is ineffective at controlling disease in free-roaming dogs [ 115 , 116 ]. For the measurement “prevalence of visceral leishmaniasis”, culling only decreased prevalence over shorter study periods of up to two years (e.g., up to 69% over 14 months [ 105 ]), and had no effect over longer periods [ 106 ]. This is potentially due to other mammalian disease reservoirs that would allow continued transmission of Leishmania infantum to the remaining dog population [ 106 ] or by the number of free-roaming dogs recovering after culling, through immigration or compensatory breeding mechanisms [ 114 ]. In addition, culling decreased both dog rabies prevalence [ 100 , 101 ] and the basic reproductive number of rabies [ 91 , 107 , 108 ] in modelling studies. However, when disease control through vaccination was included in the analysis, all papers in the final corpus reported that culling was not as effective as vaccination alone [ 91 , 102 , 107 , 108 ] or combined vaccination and fertility control [ 100 ]. The prevalence of Echinococcus granulosus in humans, livestock, and dogs decreased where culling was combined with fertility control [ 103 , 104 ]. The two studies reported either large decline [ 104 ] in dog prevalence or complete eradication [ 103 ]. However, neither study uses experimental design or statistical analysis that would allow inference to the association between the management methods and the effect. All papers in the final corpus agreed that fertility control decreased the public health risk indicators [ 99 , 100 , 117 ]. The reduction in human bite cases can be linked to a reduction in sex hormones, which can in turn reduce the occurrence of aggression and dog bites [ 118 ]. The impact of sterilisation on owned dog aggression has long been debated within the literature, some studies finding a reduction in aggressive behaviour and others finding no effect, or increased aggression (see McKenzie (2010) [ 119 ] for review). In terms of free-roaming dogs, Garde et al.’s (2016) [ 120 ] behavioural observations in free-roaming dogs found no decrease in aggressive behaviour towards conspecifics or humans. The reduction in human bite cases reported in our findings may instead be due to an overall reduction in the free-roaming dog population size or a reduction in the number of puppies, therefore reducing protective behaviour of adult dogs [ 99 ].

4.3. Study Quality and Recommendations for Future Work

Good quality reporting of research methods and results is vitally important in understanding the validity and reliability of research findings. Additionally, research conclusions should be supported by appropriate study design and statistical modelling approaches. To improve reporting quality and study design, we suggest the following simple refinements for studies investigating the effectiveness of these dog population management approaches:

4.3.1. Increase Reporting Quality

Reporting guidelines are available for a number of biological areas (see [ 78 , 79 , 121 , 122 , 123 ]). In general, recommendations include reporting specific details about the experimental design, study subjects, statistical analyses, and modelling approaches. In particular, to increase reporting quality in studies investigating the impact of dog population management, we recommend reporting the following:

Power and Sample Size Calculations

We found the reporting of power calculations (11%) and sample size calculations (11%) to be low across the published papers. By not reporting this information, the value of the findings and recommendations resulting from the research are limited [ 79 ]. Therefore, power and sample size calculations should be clearly reported to increase reporting quality, replicability, and confidence in results.

Defined Target Dog Population under Investigation Using Clear Common Terminology

We suggest grouping dogs into: (i) unowned, free-roaming; (ii) owned, free-roaming; (iii) unowned, restricted; and (iv) owned restricted. Reporting which target dog population is under investigation would allow the effects of dog population management to be compared between different studies and between studies in different countries. This is particularly important where the definition of dog ownership might differ, for example in areas where there are community dogs that are loosely owned.

Management Intensity and Cost

Papers in the final corpus often did not explicitly state the length, coverage, and cost of the applied management method. As described above, to assess management effectiveness, it is important to report the length and coverage of management (e.g., the number of dogs neutered as a percentage of the total population). Reporting management coverage requires knowledge of the dog population size and this can be achieved through methods such as mark-recapture (see [ 124 ] for review of dog population estimation methods). Conducting population estimation requires time, manpower, and expertise in study design and analysis. Dog population management is often carried out by charities and government agencies ( Table S2 ) and these organisations may lack the financial and logistical power, as well as the expertise to conduct such ecological methods. This might partly explain the lack of reporting of management coverage. It is also important to consider and report the population management history in the study area, as previous management may impact the effectiveness of successive management. This information may also be difficult to access, but should be reported if available.

4.3.2. Improve Experimental and Statistical Modelling Approaches

Experimental approaches.

Where possible, researchers should consider their experimental approach and use an intervention (e.g., randomised control trials) or observational (e.g., cohort studies) study design that allows cause and effect to be determined, therefore allowing assessment of the true impact of dog population management. Where appropriate for the study design (i.e., intervention and analytical observational studies), appropriate numbers of groups and replication should be included, such as multiple treatment and control groups. This ensures that any effects reported are caused by the dog population management method and not by other causes (e.g., differences in population numbers between years due to differing mortality rates because of weather or other events).

Statistical Modelling Approaches

Due to practical, logistical, and financial constraints, studies that are observational (including cohort, cross-sectional, and case-control studies) are often the only feasible options for assessing dog population management. These studies may result in datasets that include large variability due to biological processes, sampling methods, and context (e.g., the specific country the study was conducted). Statistical modelling approaches can be used to deal with the limitations in inferring causal relationships using observational data. These include controlling for variables in statistical models, or matching of additional variables. We recommend using approaches such as directed acyclic graphs [ 125 , 126 ] to help to identify when controlling for variables in the statistical analysis is appropriate, and what variables to control for (see [ 127 ] for primer on creating acyclic graphs, dealing with measurement error, and statistically controlling for variables). For example, in a study investigating the impact of population management on dog health, it would be appropriate to control for age of dogs, as young dogs have a different probability of developing certain health conditions than older dogs. Therefore, if age were not controlled for in these analyses, the causal relationship between population management and dog health might not be observed. Additionally, process based modelling approaches have been developed to incorporate the underlying processes in the statistical analysis [ 128 ]. These modelling approaches incorporate both the sampling and biological processes that create the patterns observed in the data (e.g., hidden process models [ 129 ]), leading to better interpretation of complex causal relationships, where context creates differing outcomes. An example of datasets where hidden process models could be used includes data collected about dog population size through mark–recapture methods or citizen science [ 129 , 130 , 131 ]. This would therefore incorporate the processes involved in observing dogs (sampling process—e.g., detection probability) and the biological processes involved in the dogs being in the sampling area (biological process—e.g., the probability of migration, birth, or death). It is worth noting that these approaches require statistical and modelling knowledge that may be challenging for the organisations involved in dog population management to acquire/access.

5. Conclusions

Our systematic review found that dog population management is conducted in many countries globally [ 15 , 16 ], carried out by different groups (e.g., researchers and animal welfare or government agencies), applying different methods to different populations types (restricted and unrestricted) and using different indicators to monitor the impact of the intervention. It is therefore difficult to synthesise the evidence base and assess the true impact of dog population management techniques [ 3 , 16 ], despite the quantity of work being conducted. Very few of the reviewed studies allowed robust conclusions to be drawn. We recommend that future studies: (i) increase reporting quality; (ii) clearly define target populations; and (iii) increase the use of study design and modelling approaches that allow causality to be determined, in order that cross-study data synthesis and learning can be conducted for a stronger evidence base to support interventions.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Steven Sait, Helen Gray, and Mary Friel for their useful comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript. We would also like to thank the three anonymous reviewers for providing valuable feedback on the manuscript.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/9/12/1020/s1 , Figure S1: Cumulative number of publications in the final corpus per year between 1977 and 2018, Table S1: Key words and combinations, Table S2: Papers in the final corpus by subject, dog population management method, country, economic status of that country, and funding organisation. Table S3: Number (and ratio) of published articles from the final corpus that measure the impact of the management method(s) studied. Table S4: Number of papers investigating combinations of dog populations. Table S5: Summary of the reporting of study quality indicators in final corpus (excluding modelling studies).

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, L.M.S., L.M.C., and R.J.Q.; methodology, L.M.S., L.M.C., and R.J.Q.; formal analysis, L.M.S.; investigation, L.M.S.; data curation, L.M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, L.M.S.; writing—review and editing, L.M.S., L.M.C., S.H., A.M.M., P.D.V., and R.J.Q.; visualisation, L.M.S.; supervision, L.M.C. and R.J.Q.; and funding acquisition, L.M.C.

This research was funded by VIER PFOTEN International.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders were involved in the reviewing of the manuscript.

80 Overpopulation Topics & Essay Examples

Looking for interesting overpopulation topics for an essay or research paper? The issue is hot and definitely worth writing about!

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Here we’ve gathered a list of overpopulation essay examples, title ideas, and research questions related to the field. Get inspired with us!

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• Overpopulation: Causes, Effects and Consequences The primary objective is to highlight the deplorable consequences of overpopulation and thereby persuade people not to overpopulate. In the past, poor people gave birth to a lot of children to make up for high […]
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• Impacts of Overpopulation on the Environment Other primary causes of deforestation are construction of roads and residential houses to cater for the increasing population. As the natural habitats are destroyed, many wildlife species have been displaced and many died due to […]
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• Overpopulation and Homelessness in the Modern World According to the United Nations, more than half of the population resides in urban areas, making the problem of homelessness visible: cities cannot keep up with the high demand for housing, resulting in people living […]
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• Overpopulation and Food Production Problem Therefore, the issue explored in this paper is the decrease of Earth’s natural resources and capacity to produce food re decreasing, while the problem of hunger remains and the population continues to increase. 3% of […]
• Problem of Overpopulation: Proenvironmental Concerns It is necessary to find the ways to solve future problems as the situation is likely to worsen over time. The mentioned quotes prove that it is possible to correct people’s thinking about overpopulation and […]
• Human Overpopulation and Its Global Impact Overpopulation presents a huge threat to the future of the planet, as the resources of the Earth seem to be at the breaking point because of their overexploitation caused by enormous rates of population increase.
• The Problem of Overpopulation and How to Fix It It can be stated the confidence that the solution to this global challenge is the primary duty of present and future generations. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the overpopulation phenomenon and propose […]
• The Issue of the Overpopulation Particularly, the proponents of fertility control support their position by the fact that the degrading environment is no longer able to provide for the needs of so many people, and with the duration of time […]
• Does the Overpopulation of Our Planet Pose a Serious Problem? Another concern for the demographers is that while in certain developing nations the rate of population growth has been increasing, in the developed countries it has been found to be declining steadily.
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• Prison in the USA: Solutions to Reducing Overpopulation First of all, it is necessary to improve the justice system which is the reason of overpopulation in prisons. Secondly, it is necessary to rethink the life of inmates in prison.
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• The Challenges of Overpopulation: Vertical Cities The design of the building assumes that the structure will have a longer and sustainable life as compared to the degrading city and surroundings.
• The Problem of Global Overpopulation Insights gained from the chapters reveal that the main reason behind the problem of resource overconsumption which threatens the very future of the planet is the rampant overpopulation of humanity which threatens to drain the […]

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Overpopulation Essay

500 words essay on overpopulation.

Overpopulation refers to an undesirable condition in which the number of existing human being exceeds the actual carrying capacity of the earth. It has many causes which range from a decline in the death rate to early marriages and more. The overpopulation essay will throw light on this issue.

Ill-Effects of Overpopulation

The ill-effects of overpopulation are quite severe. The first one is that natural resources deplete at a faster level. Our planet can produce only a limited amount of water and food . Thus, overpopulation causes environmental damage including deforestation, pollution, etc.

Similarly, there is the degradation of the environment which happens because of the overuse of resources like coal, oil, natural gases and more. As a result, the quality of air also gets affected in this manner.

In developing countries, overpopulation puts a strain on resources. Thus, it gives rise to conflicts and tension. It also causes more diseases that become harder to control. Next up, we have the issue of unemployment.

Moreover, it rises due to overpopulation. There is more number of people than job opportunities. As a result, unemployment gives rise to crimes like theft and more. We also have pandemics and epidemics which happen due to overpopulation.

It is because overcrowded and unhygienic living gives rise to infectious diseases . Another ill-effect is malnutrition and starvation. When there are scarce resources, these diseases will likely to be on the rise.

Most importantly, we have a shortage of water which makes it tougher for people to get access to clean water. Similarly, lower life expectancy also happens because of the boom in population, especially in less-developed nations.

We also witness faster climate change as nations continue to develop their industrial capacities. Thus, they emit industrial waste which gives rise to global temperatures . It will keep getting worse if things are not checked immediately.

Solutions of Overpopulation

There are many solutions which we may take up to prevent overpopulation. The best measure is family planning to keep the overpopulation check. In order to do that, one can ensure proper spacing between the births of the children.

Further, limiting the number of children as per income and resources must also be important. Similarly, it is essential to increase resources. The government must make the horrors of overpopulation reach the public through the use of media.

Moreover, better education can help implement social change which can curb overpopulation. Next up, knowledge of sex education must be made mandatory in schools so students learn young about everything they need to know.

Most importantly, it is essential to empower women so they can break out of poverty. This way, they can learn about reproductive health and make better decisions. Another solution can be government incentives.

Many governments of countries already have various policies which relate to tax exemptions for curbing overpopulation. For instance, some waive a certain part of income tax for married couples with one or two children.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of Overpopulation Essay

All in all, overpopulation is no less than a curse that poses a permanent threat to the development of any country. It is essential to stop the flood of population. In order to do that, one must indulge in proper family planning and creating balance in society for a better world.

FAQ of Overpopulation Essay

Question 1: What is the main cause of overpopulation?

Answer 1: It is believed that the main cause of overpopulation is poverty. When there is a lack of education resource which coupled with high death rates, it results in impoverished areas witnessing large booms in population.

Question 2: How is overpopulation affecting the world?

Answer 2: Overpopulation is affecting the world as it is outpacing the ability of the planet earth to support it. It also has environmental and economic outcomes which range from the impacts of over-farming on global warming.

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Duolingo English Test 100問以上の練習問題（高得点の解答例付き）

Duolingo English Testのスコアアップを目指すなら 、練習問題に取り組んで模範解答をしっかり勉強することがポイントです。以下の暗記カードを使えば、この二つの学習方法を同時に実践できます！

この記事では、Duolingo English Testの練習問題を 100 問以上と、各問題に対して高得点の模範解答例を掲載しています。印刷して片側に質問、反対側に模範解答を記入してフラッシュカードを作ることもできます。もちろん、問題を解いてから下にスクロールして模範解答を確認する方法でも効果的です。どちらの方法でも、この暗記カードを使って独学英語テストの形式に慣れつつ、自分の解答と模範解答を直接比較することができます。

さらにもっと練習問題が欲しいという方は、ぜひArno for Dulingoに登録してみてください。Arno では、全ての種類の問題形式に対して無制限の練習問題を提供しています。それだけでなく、推定スコア、文法や語彙に関するフィードバック、そしてより高得点をとるために添削された解答文を瞬時に受け取ることができます。 今すぐ下のボタンをクリックして無料アカウントを作成しましょう！

(1-17) "Read and Complete"問題と模範解答

(18-34) "fill in the blanks" 問題と模範解答, (35-51) "read and select" 問題と模範解答, (52-68) "write about the photo"問題と模範解答, (69-85) "interactive reading" 問題と模範解答, (86-120) "writing sample" 問題と模範解答.

👉 質問形式に慣れてきたら、タイマーを使って実際のテストの制限時間内に答えられるように練習してみましょう。

"Read and Complete" 形式の問題はテスト中に 4-6 回出題され、読解力と理解力サブスコアにカウントされます。制限時間内に全ての空欄を埋めるように求められます。

• "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #1 🚀

2. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #2 👩‍✈️

3. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #3 🖼️

4.  "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #4 🇮🇹

5. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #5 👪

6. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #6 🌊

7. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #7 ⛰️

8. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #8 🖥️

9. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #9 🌌

10. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #10 🏭

11. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #11 🌾

12. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #12 🌎

13. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #13 🐨

14. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #14 ☕

15. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #15📚

16. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #16 ☃️

17. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #17 ❄️

18. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #1

19. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #2

20. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #3

21. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #4

22. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #5

23. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #6

24. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #7

25. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #8

26. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #9

27. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #10

28. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #11

29. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #12

30. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #13

31. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #14

32. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #15

33. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #16

34. "Fill in the Blanks" 暗記カード #17

Read and Select 問題 はテスト中に 4-6 回出題され、読解力と理解力サブスコアにカウントされます。提示された選択肢の中から全ての実際に存在する英単語を 1 分以内に選んでください。

35. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #1

36. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #2

37. "Read and Complete" 暗記カード #3

38. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #4

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44. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #10

45. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #11

46. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #12

47. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #13

48. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #14

49. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #15

50. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #16

51. "Read and Select" 暗記カード #17

👉もし、上記の中に知らない英単語があったら、つづりと意味をメモしておいて後で復習しましょう。

"Write about the photo"問題 は、画面に表示される写真を元に、１分で 説明文を書く 形式の問題です。読解力とプロダクションのサブスコアにカウントされ、テスト中に３回出題されます。ポイントとしては、必ず２文以上を書くように心がけましょう。

52. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #1 🐕

The woman appears to be walking her pet dog, and both parties seem to be gazing into the distance. Because there is a boat behind the woman and dog, it is likely that they are at a harbor, surveying a body of water. The dog has a fluorescent orange collar, thick grey fur, and a long snout . The woman has short, brown hair; a canary yellow raincoat ; and wears a stoic expression. The sky is light grey, suggesting that it is a cold, rainy morning.

53. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #2 ☀️

A smiling young woman poses for the photograph, with her arms outstretched, seemingly emphasizing the natural beauty of her surroundings . She sits cross- legged on a wooden boat sailing down a river. Given the camera around her neck, we can infer that she is sightseeing , perhaps on a vacation. Her shorts, the sunshine, and rich foliage indicate that it is a summer day, or perhaps that she is in a country with a hot climate.

54. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #3 🙏🏼

Two Buddhist monks, adorned in traditional orange and yellow robes and sandals , appear to be meandering through a park. Their tanquil demeanor suggests they are in no rush to get to their destination; perhaps they are leisurely making their way back to their monastery. They appear to be engaged in conversation because the monk on the right has his head turned towards the other, indicating that he is listening carefully.  As it is bright outside, and the leaves on the trees are green, it is likely a spring or summer morning.

55. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #4 💼

A man resplendent in a black suit and tie scrutinizes the time on his wristwatch . His formal clothing and briefcase suggest that he is a businessman en route to work and his concerned expression suggests that he is running late - probably due to the tardiness of the train pulling in behind him! The tightly grasped coffee, abundance of natural light, and sunglasses all signify that it is morning; despite the light, the wizened leafless trees reveal that the season is winter.

56. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #5 🎃

A young child is sprinting frenetically through a park or forest. The leaves on the ground and trees are ablaze with vibrant orange, suggesting that it's autumn -- the fading light indicates that dusk is swiftly approaching. Her open mouth,  urgent pace, and the absence of others denote a sense of eerie doom -- perhaps she is running away from a malevolent prescence or towards assistance.

57. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #6 🍷

A woman beams as she delicately adds a block to a precarious Jenga tower. There is a leg in the periphery of the frame, hinting that she is unwinding with a loved one, perhaps her spouse. Both individuals are dressed in comfy attire, perhaps pyjamas , and there is wine on the table, and cozy lamps light the room -- it is likely a laxadaisical Saturday night in. It's possible they are revelling in each others' company and completing the puzzle in order to recover from a hectic work week.

58. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #7 🐈

A young man is inquisitively surveying a greenhouse or botanical store with a fluffy kitten perched on his shoulder. The natural light streaming through the windows implies it is morning. As the young man contemplates his next purchase or decides the plant needs his nourishment next , he remains oblivious to the kitten's intentions! The adorable feline is curiously scrutinizing a nearby object just outside of the frame. Perhaps it is contemplating an audacious leap from his companion's shoulder, ready to wreak charming, but mischievous havoc on some greenery .

単語数 - 88 words

59. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #8 ✈️

A young woman and a skydiving instructor look up to the camera during their descent to document the experience. They are both smiling indicating that they are enjoying the experience, this is corroborated by the woman's "thumbs-up" gesture. The ground below them is rich green, indicating that they will be landing somewhere pastoral and bucolic .

60. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #9 🐶

A woman and her canine companion sit in a cozy, yellow armchair . The woman is casually perusing a magazine and the dog is looking directly at the camera - he has his mouth wide open and ears pricked suggesting he is enthused by the photographer. Because the woman and dog are intimately sharing the seat and in such close proximity we can infer they are tremendous companions to each other. The sunshine peeking through, informal attire, and bare feet indicate the woman and dog are in their home.

61. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #10 🏄‍♂️

A person is surfing a gargantuan wave at sunset. They are most likely riding ocean waves, given the turquoise hue and vast expanse of water in the distance. The person looks extremely focused, and their firm stance suggests they are an expert at the sport -- they might be at the beach to master or hone their skills further.

62. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #11 🕒

A professionally dressed woman gently massages her forehead and temples, her elbows resting on the table, likely located in a board room. She is encircled by paperwork, her countenance stern and stressed, despite the massaging; it's as if she is trying to remain composed. Besides her are two men clad in impeccable black suits, presumably her colleagues. It is implied that the woman is overburdened by work and the requests being made either side of her.

63. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #12 👧🏿

The image depicts two young girls communicating through a makeshift tin can telephone. The girl on the left is whispering into the cup while her companion is listening intently; given their solemn expressions and covert communication methods, perhaps they are exchanging secrets. Both girls are reclining on the grass denoting their intimate but casual relationship. The fact that they are outside and wearing sleeveless shirts suggests it is a spring or summer afternoon.

64. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #13 🧘🏽

The photo displays what looks to be the commencement of a yoga class. The two prominent women in the frame are looking ahead, perhaps towards an instructor, and listening actively. They have unwavering focus as if they are trying to absorb the instructor's every word so they can replicate the instructor's poses later. The clean hardwood floors, gym attire, and yoga mats suggest that this is taking place in an upscale studio during daylight hours.

65. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #14 🦷

A man and a woman are standing and brushing their teeth. Their intimate proximity, casual pajamas, and the private, pedestrian act they are performing imply they are a  cohabitating or married couple. Given that the scene is a reflection in a mirror illuminated by overhead light we can glean that they are in the bathroom at their shared home and that they are preparing for slumber as part of their nighttime regimen .

66. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #15 🐎

A young woman is feeding a horse from her hands amidst the woodland. She dons sturdy cowboy boots, indicating her awareness of appropriate attire and footwear for equestrian pursuits. The horse radiates tranquility , as does his counterpart, implying they have a pre-established,  comfortable relationship. Sunlight filters through the trees and the woman wears a gossamer pink dress suggesting that it is a refreshing spring or summer morning.

67. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #16 😴

A woman lays with her eyes shut in her bed. She is quite pallid hinting that she might be sick or melancholic . This is corroborated by the amount of natural light in the room, suggesting she is slumbering although it is day time. As her head is resting on her arm, it is possible she may be awake and just shutting her eyes to rest. The bedsheets, pillows, and her pyjamas are all pristine white showing that she meticulously takes care of her home.

68. "Write About the Photo" 暗記カード #17 ⛰️

A young man stands stoically atop a rock on a mountainside , seemingly enamored by the view. He holds a camera, suggesting that he was previously taking photos but is now stepping back to seep in Mother Nature's majesty. The mountain is dusted with snow and he is wearing a knitted hat, suggesting the mountain is in a place with a polar climate. He appears small and alone in the vast expanse , highlighting that this has been no small feat for him, but that he is determined to continue his voyage.

Interactive Reading 問題 は読解力と理解力サブスコアにカウントされます テスト中には 2 セットのInteractive Reading 問題が出題され、各問題には 6 問の質問が用意されています。

69. "Interactive Reading" 暗記カード #1

70. "Interactive Reading" 暗記カード #2

71. "Interactive Reading" 暗記カード #3

72. "Interactive Reading" 暗記カード #4

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76. "Interactive Reading" 暗記カード #8

77. "Interactive Reading" 暗記カード #9

78. "Interactive Reading" 暗記カード #10

79. "Interactive Reading" Cue Card #11

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84. "Interactive Reading" Cue Card #16

85. "Interactive Reading" Cue Card #17

「Writing Sample」問題はDuolingo English Testで 1 回のみ出題され、読解力とプロダクションのサブスコアにカウントされます。この問題は与えられた指示に沿って短いエッセイを書く形式です。最低でも 50 語 書くことが求められますが、高得点を目指すのであれば制限時間 5 分全てを使って、最低でも 150 語書くことをおすすめします。

86. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #1

The geography of the United States exerts a profound influence on its people and culture in many ways. Specifically, the fact that it is close to other countries, has a variety of landscapes, and contributes significiantly to global warming has shaped American culture.

Firstly , the USA’s immense size situates it in close proximity to a multitude of other countries. Consequently, the USA houses immigrants and expatriates from across the world and is frequently described as a “melting pot” of diverse cultures. For instance, the USA’s adjacency to Mexico has led to the incorporation of elements of Mexican culture in American culture: particularly Mexican cuisine and the Spanish language, in the states that border Mexico.

Secondly , the sheer size of the United States means it encompasses a wide variety of terrains and climates, which in turn forge a plethora of lifestyles. Alaska, for example, has polar climates, is geographically isolated from the continental US, and is surrounded by oceans and seas. As such, Alaskans are heavily involved in the fishing and tourism industry and lead a relatively subsistence lifestyle. This lifestyle contrasts drastically with the lifestyle in Nevada, which can be characterized by water conservation efforts, outdoor activities, and desert-themed arts and events – the result of its unique environment and scorching climate.

Lastly, in part due to the United States’ monumental size, it is one of the most significant contributors to global warming. The pernicious effects of climate change have led to floods, droughts, and forest fires in the USA, which substantially degrade its people’s quality of life and housing. Contributions to global warming have also bolstered the amount of research, funds, and studies dedicated towards protecting the earth. Arguably , global warming has also precipitated a culture of political division between citizens who are staunch supporters of policies reducing carbon emissions and those who gainsay them.

👉 どのように高得点の取れる回答を構成したらいいか分からないという方は こちらの記事 を参考にしてみて下さい。

87. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #2

Safeguarding the environment should be a priority for everyone. The importance of environment protection cannot be overstated because the depletion and pollution of our natural resources are already leading to disastrous effects on our climate, resulting in natural disasters that affect all of Earth's inhabitants.

One highly effective strategy to conserve natural resources and reduce waste is by taking short showers instead of lengthier ones or baths. Water is a finite resource, and by curbing the amount we use for personal hygiene, we take an important step towards a greener , more sustainable planet.

An equally vital strategy for waste reduction is to degrade or eliminate our meat consumption. The meat industry’s breeding practices are not only highly detrimental to animals but also pose significant environmental hazards. Too many people remain unaware of the CO2 emitted from cattle defecation , but the overpopulation of cattle for meat production has a lot to answer for regarding the depletion of the ozone layer.

Lastly , we can reduce waste and conserve resources by becoming mindful consumers, buying only what we need and using products entirely or attempting to repair them before purchasing another. Recycling materials when they are fully used also allows them to be repurposed into other objects.

The catastrophic effects of human life on Earth are growing more urgent by the day and will soon be irreversible ; it’s everyone’s responsibility to reduce their carbon footprint to ensure our Earth is inhabitable for the generations to come. As stated, a good start to individually reduce our waste and conserve resources is by taking shorter showers, reducing meat intake, and reevaluating purchasing and disposal habits.

88. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #3

Education not only opens opportunities that would otherwise be closed, but it also broadens one's mindset and understanding of the world around them.

The higher education system in the United States is typically governed by a liberal arts philosophy, the idea that one should explore multiple subjects in addition to their primary area of study. I appreciate this educational philosophy because the academic disciplines doesn’t just appear in a vacuum, they are highly interlinked. Learning in a way that appreciates the connection between subjects has been important for me for integrate and connect some of my more disparate interests and skills - allowing me to thrive in both areas without having to sacrifice one.

Education in the USA is extremely expensive, particularly high-quality tertiary education. This concerns me because everyone is deserving of an education, and education is often the only pathway out of poverty. Achieving a scholarship to study changed my life, giving me opportunities, networks, and knowledge that I wouldn't have otherwise gained.

Finally, the education system in the U.S. highly encourages and values extracurricular activities and sports which isn't the case in many other countries. I feel that this is a great mindset to have, because then admissions committees look at the "whole" person comprehensively , not just their scores on a test. Further, extracurriculars certainly foster social skills and skills that can be applied in the workplace , which is a great way to equip students for real-world scenarios and their future careers. I certainly found that my extra-curriculars helped to shape the social, leadership, and practical skills I needed in my line of work.

As such, education is important to me because it provides opportunities, helps to prepare me for the workplace and pursue multidisciplinary studies -- although the US education system isn't without its pitfalls .

89. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #4

Bike-sharing programs have recently been introduced to cities across the globe. Overall, I think they are a positive addition to urban life considering their low carbon emissions, inexpensive prices, and ability to elevate their users' health.

One benefit of bike-sharing programs in cities is that it is far better for the environment. Bikes, unlike cars and trains, do not require fossil fuels to run. As such, when citizens utilize shared bikes this can reduce the negative environmental impact that often comes with urban settings . In turn, bikers will also save more money than they would have using a car or public transport for their commutes .

Another benefit of bike-sharing programs is that it encourages exercise and healthy habits. Having easy access to a bike is likely to make a lot of city- dwellers engage in physical activity, helping citizens to improve their mental and physical wellbeing and potentially extend their lifespan .

A drawback of bike-sharing programs is that they may lead to more biking accidents. The more bikers on the road in a busy metropolis, the more opportunities for dangerous collisions with motor vehicles. In turn, pedestrians are also more likely to get hit by a bike if there are more of them available. As such, the city must ensure it creates plenty of bike lanes if they are implementing a bike-sharing program.

In conclusion, I believe that bike-sharing programs are a positive addition to urban life helping its inhabitants exercise more, save money, and reduce their carbon footprint. However, it's important to remember to bike safely and responsibly .

90. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #5

Team sports are advantageous because they are highly social. When young children engage in team sports, they will likely learn how to cooperate and work with others in ways that they wouldn't have from individual sports. Team sports are also a fantastic way to make friends and acquire social skills. Being on a team for your sport of choice is also extremely motivating because you have others who simultaneously rely on and inspire you. By contrast, in individual sports, all motivation must come from within. If you want to remain a valued member of the team becoming lax is not an option!

However, a favorable aspect of individual sports, and why I personally prefer it, is that you can train for competitions based on your own schedule and needs. In this way, sports can fit into your lifestyle more seamlessly and practice can be tailored to your own areas of weakness. In a team, everyone's needs have to be balanced. In individual sports, your training needs and goals are the only priority.

Individual sports also require self-reliance and mental resilience . When you can't rely on others to "carry" the team, then you end up working even harder and taking on failures more personally. This can make a person mentally tougher and more intrinsically motivated, which we know from sport psychology research makes it more likely they will succeed in their endeavors.

As such, while team sports are inherently more social and motivating, individual sports foster mental toughness and training can be tailored to the individual's preferences, needs, and schedules. Therefore, I would choose partaking in an individual sport over a team sport any day.

91. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #6

Music provides a distraction from the hustle and noise of everyday life. Whether I am working at my job, working out at the gym, traveling, or just relaxing, I always have my headphones in so that I can listen to my favorite music. Music has a big influence on me and my emotions in these moments, making duller moments more interesting. Part of the reason one of my favorite music genres is hair metal is because it is very lively and fast-paced, thus it can get my adrenaline pumping in otherwise mundane instances.

Music can also provide a bonding moment between friends, family, and acquaintances. Some of my favorite hair metal bands were introduced to me by my father. Overlaps in our music taste have become shared interest between us and we connect over it frequently. It also often encourages my dad to share memories and stories from when he was young and listening to these bands, which can be interesting and enjoyable for me to hear.

Finally, music can be matched to your emotions and a great way to mitigate negative feelings. If I am stressed due to an incoming deadline at work, I can put on relaxing music to balance out the stress I feel at work. If I am lifting weights, I can listen to energetic music so that I am motivated to lift more. Music can influence the way a person feels in a particular moment and balance out any negative emotions they may be feeling with positive ones.

92. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #7

Volunteering is a great way to gift one's time in order to help those less fortunate than them. Though volunteering contributes to helping other people, it also helps build character for the person who is volunteering their time. One of the main benefits of volunteering is to cultivate empathy . By volunteering one's time, one can learn of the many different obstacles that people suffer in their lifetimes that the volunteer may have not had to overcome in theirs. Meeting people who battle hunger, homelessness, or other financial hardships allows the volunteers to put themselves in the metaphorical footsteps of those in need.

Another benefit of volunteering that helps the volunteer grow is learning a strong work ethic. Working a full day at a young age in order to help others can teach young people responsibility before they enter the workforce . It is important to learn these skills and serving others who need the help is a great way to understand the importance and payoff of one's hard work. I volunteered to build homes in Kentucky when I was in high school. Meeting the people of an area where I was not from allowed me to empathize with people in hard situations as well as learn to work long hours towards a common goal.

Finally, and most importantly, volunteering has the power to transform the lives of the people in the community. By providing people less fortunate with your resources – be it time, money, energy or all three – you can make an invaluable difference.

93. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #8

There are a plethora of advantages and disadvantages to the popularization of social media platforms. Firstly , because most users only post images or videos themselves on their best days this has led to a society that constantly compares itself to perfection. Particularly for young women, who are subject to unattainable beauty standards, this can be extremely detrimental to one’s self-esteem. Indeed, it has been shown that social media usage can exacerbate various mental health disorders.

Another negative aspect of social media is that it reduces our attention span. Because we have a plethora of content now at our fingertips -- often emotionally salient media -- we have become somewhat addicted to mindless scrolling. Not only does this waste time, but as with any addiction, it makes it harder to go without one's phone for a significant portion of time. This has affected me personally because I found that, before becoming mindful of my social media usage, I spent any spare time I had scrolling on my phone particularly when I doing mundane tasks like waiting for a bus.

However, social media does allow individuals to find and join communities of like-minded individuals, supporting niche interests and hobbies. For example, there are plenty of accounts willing to support new dilettantes in learning arts and crafts skills and those users can provide a lot of support burgeoning artists -- I have benefitted from this first hand.

Another positive of social media is that it has been pivotal in raising awareness about various social, political, and environmental issues.  Without social media, movements like #BlackLivesMatter and #MeToo might not have made such significant traction so quickly. It's a great way to not only educate people on these matters but reach a lot of people with the potential for action all at once.

In summary, social media can be a great tool for learning a new skill or rallying support for a benevolent cause -- however, users should remain diligent of how it impacts their mental and cognitive health. If you find yourself comparing yourself to someone else on social media or turning to it whenever your brain is unoccupied it might be time to take a break!

94. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #9

Global warming is primarily caused by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial production. However, as humans cause global warming, we can also attempt to reverse it both on a micro and macro level.

As stated, one significant contributor to climate change is the burning of fossil fuels. Burning fossil fuels emits greenhouse gasses which trap heat from the sun, subsequently warming the earth. One potential solution to this is for countries to invest in and implement renewable energy sources such as wind and solar panels. On an individual level, someone might consider driving an eco-friendly car or walking/ biking to work. An ambitious person might also try to implement solar panels on their own property to generate energy!

Deforestation also hinders attempts to mitigate global warming as cutting down trees reduces the Earth’s ability to absorb carbon dioxide.  One potential solution to this is simply to stop chopping down these trees via conservation efforts, we might also consider reforestation . Given that it's usually larger institutions that are cutting down this natural resource, the best thing for an individual to do is to support reforestation and conservation efforts by becoming a stalwart proponent of such efforts through activism and voting.

Another cause of climate change is industrial processes. Factories in particular release greenhouse gasses at extortionate rates. One potential solution to this is an international agreement preventing emissions from companies reaching too high a level. On an individual level, we can also reduce our purchasing rates, only buying what we need and recycling what we don't.

As such, industrial processes, deforestation, and the burning of fossil fuels have seriously damaged the only planet we have. To fix the damage we've caused, politicians should seek to implement renewable energy sources, foster international industry agreements, and support reforestation/conservation efforts. As an individual, you can support these efforts by just being a conscious consumer, reconsidering your methods of transportation, and driving your efforts towards activism and voting campaigns.

95. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #10

Extracurricular activities are one of the most beneficial and enjoyable aspects of a college or high school education. Firstly , extracurriculars are highly social. This can aid young people in making friends, building important social skills, and even helping the wider community. I personally benefitted from this when I joined the school newspaper, before joining I was incredibly introverted and diffident -- after joining I had more friends and a newfound confidence.

Another benefit of extracurriculars is that they provide a safe space to explore your interests and develop your skills. Many people who join a club are merely dabbling in the subject, meaning that they are also on the same level as you, taking the pressure off. In turn, one can better understand what they do and don't enjoy and what they are and aren't good at. For example, I not only really honed my non-fiction writing skills at the school newspaper by learning from others, but I also learned that this would be a potential career path for me.

Finally, extracurriculars can provide college and career advancement. Having clubs on your resume can be a great way to show employers or admissions committees that you have the skills, leadership qualities, and teamwork abilities that they seek. It also shows that you are dedicated to learning and participating in your school’s culture. Many people find that their extracurricular activities in college not only provided them with the skills needed to excel in the workplace , but also interest and impress future employers.

As such, when debating joining an extracurricular club, consider all the benefits you will likely reap: new friends, new skills, and a boost in your career and education prospects.

96. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #11

A good friend is supportive, fun, and challenges you.

A few years ago, I had a difficult choice to make and was experiencing some emotional turmoil over the decision. I called my friend and she offered to house me for a week while I figured out what to do. Being reliable in this way, and willing to help at the time I needed it most was extremely meaningful to me and demonstrated just how supportive she was no matter what I chose. Support like this from friends is invaluable in times of need because it enables you to focus on what matters in that moment and feel like you have allies in your corner.

Another important, undervalued quality in friends is their ability to distract you with fun conversations and activities. During that hard time, I was fairly despondent and gloomy, but my friend was able to distract me by making me laugh and taking me to places she knew I'd enjoy. These fun moments shared with friends can be both enriching to life and incredibly important during challenging times.

Finally, a good friend teaches and challenges you. When I was making my decision, my friend didn't just give me "the right answer", but she questioned me intensely about the choices and offered her unique perspective on this situation. This inspired great self-reflection in myself, and I came away from that trip sure about what I was going to do and confident in my decision.

As such, reliable, challenging, fun friendships are integral to leading a fulfilling life. Not only do friends like this support and guide us through life's twists and turns, but they also elevate the good times making them more meaningful and joyful.

97. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #12

My favorite sport to engage in is long-distance running. This activity is important to me for countless reasons, but in this essay, I will outline the most important three. Firstly , going for a run or jog through my neighborhood helps to clear my mind. When I'm running, I find my mind is more focused and I can really think through the things that were plaguing me. On the same note, running is a great way to spend quality time with yourself, because usually I am alone and there aren't any distractions from my thoughts.

Secondly , going for a run is extremely enjoyable for me. The act itself releases endorphins , but also taking in the view as I run can elevate any bad mood. Running not only encourages me to go outside and enjoy my surroundings , but I also get the chance to listen to music and podcasts simultaneously. For these reasons, it becomes something that I look forward to, which is not the case for other sports!

Finally, running has really improved my physical and mental health. Before I started running, I often found that I didn’t have an outlet for my stress -- I was also not very fit! Through running, I have discovered a significant improvement in both areas. My stronger, slimmer build has also given me an invaluable boost of self-esteem, not to mention more energy and strength to partake in my daily activities.

As such, running is my favorite sport and will likely remain so for the forseeable future.

98. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #13

Studying alone and studying in groups each have their merits and drawbacks , and the most effective choice depends on the subject being studied and the nature of the pending assignment.

One benefit to studying alone is that you can customize the pace at which you study and the content you focus on. For instance, if you are someone who likes to take long breaks between chapters studying alone is probably the best method because you can determine your own break schedule. Additionally , being able to choose to study longer on areas of personal weakness to you and spend less time on subjects already mastered enables you to better target your study time. This might be the best choice for tests and subjects that involve a lot of memorizations, such as a science course, because you can dedicate your time to understanding and remembering the areas that are more challenging to you.

Another advantage of independent studying is that you won’t get distracted by your peers. When you are studying in isolation there isn't any temptation to chat to your peers or take a break when you don't need one. This can be beneficial and effective when you have a test coming up very soon and time is limited.

On the other hand, when studying in a group you can benefit from others' strengths. If you are weak in an area, but your study partner is strong in that area they can teach you valuable knowledge and skills. In a group, you can also work out the answers to problems that you wouldn't have been able to work out or would have taken a long time to figure out alone. In this way, we can save time and effort by studying in a group; you can also get other perspectives on a text, which can be helpful in classes that rely on interpretation.

Another advantage to studying in a group is that it provides social interaction and accountability. When we study with others, we have an external motivator as well as an intrinsic one and this can make us more determined to complete our outstanding tasks. Further, many people -- particularly extraverts – will find studying less dull and onerous when they are in company.

As such, I believe that studying alone and in a group are both highly beneficial, but should be selected based on the task and subject at hand.

99. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #14

Artists and scientists alike propel our society towards progression and innovation.

Since the dawn of intelligent civilization humans have used and viewed art as a form of understanding the world around them and expressing their emotions -- it is part of human nature. In modern day, artists contribute to society by entertaining us, inspiring us, and providing us with an escape from quotidian life . This was most noticeable during the COVID-19 pandemic . When people couldn't venture outside, they turned to their favorite movies and music. In turn, the absence of new art and the inability to go to in-person art-related events during the pandemic was sorely missed.

Another contribution artists make to society is through the social commentary they provide. One example is the way that Banksy, an artist, uses his art to demonstrate the absurdity of war and over consumerism . For example, when he sold a piece for a small fortune, he made sure that it self-shredded upon being sold -- a message against the uber-elite. In commenting on society in this way, artists also heighten our awareness to important issues that require our attention.

Scientists, of course, are equally important. Scientists’ work frequently culminates in medical breakthroughs that can save lives. Again, during the COVID-19 pandemic, scientists were the ones that banded together to create a vaccine in rapid time, this ultimately saved the lives of countless individuals and meant that we could eventually return to our normal daily lives.

Scientists also help to create technological advancements. The technology recently developed by scientists and engineers at NASA has made it possible to explore space, an unimaginable achievement a hundred years ago. Space exploration is perhaps one of the most important endeavors of humankind because it answers questions about who we are and where we came from.

However, whilst both are equally important, I think that artists are more valued in U.S society. Whilst its true many artists don't get compensated fairly and art/music students are often shunned by their STEM counterparts, the average person would be hard pressed to name 10 modern day scientists. By contrast, ask anyone to name 10 modern day singers, musicians, or artists, and they'd be able to do so in seconds. Further, artists frequently earn much more than our scientists, and reap a greater following. Furthermore , during the COVID-19 pandemic we found that celebrities' guidance was more often followed than that of the virologists!

100. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #15

A few years ago, I took a last-minute trip to Los Angeles. I had never been there before, and unexpectedly, it made a long-lasting personal and cultural impact on me.

Firstly , LA deviated from all my expectations. I expected to see glamour and flamboyance at every turn. Instead, there was a lot of homelessness and boarded up businesses, even along the Walk of Fame. This was shocking and almost paradoxical to me, that lavishness and prodigal waste could be in such close proximity to widespread poverty. This also showed me that, both personally and as a culture, humans often view times and places (sometimes times and places they have never lived in) with nostalgia . Whilst LA might have once been the glamorous place that is shown in movies fifty years ago, in one of the world’s wealthiest nations, now it is a place in dire need of resources.

Culturally , I did learn a lot about movies from the various cinema museums we attended. This gave me a greater veneration and appreciation for the USA’s enormous contributions to cinema and explained how movie magic was made throughout history. It was illuminating to discover why people watch American movies across the world, even when the films aren’t in their native language! The USA is certainly unique in this area, and as a movie buff, the knowledge I acquired was truly inspiring.

Finally, seeing LA's walk of fame did connect the dots for me on why people clamor to this city and devour all their resources to do so, despite the slim odds. Seeing the names of so many powerful, talented artists in one place helped me grasp why people sacrifice so much to "Make it" in LA, a place rife with financial risk and potential turmoil.

As such, the trip taught me a lot historically and culturally about LA specifically and the USA, but it also taught me personally about the dangers of nostalgia. Indeed, there is a reason the term 'nostalgia' derives from the Greek words nostos (return) and algos (pain).

101. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #16

Video games have a reputation for fostering violent behavior and distracting teenagers from their homework, but for the majority of people -- myself included -- they can be a great source of personal growth. Specifically, video games can bolster your hand-eye coordination, cognitive functioning, and creativity .

Firstly , video games frequently involve quickly using motor skills in reaction to visual input . In turn, it has been corroborated that hand-eye coordination improves significantly by playing video games. I have also found this to be the case personally. Prior to playing video games, I had quite a poor hand-eye coordination; now I am much more skilled in this area. In my youth, this also taught me that investing time in weaker areas leads to tremendous rewards.

Another area of personal growth I attribute to video games is in cognitive skills. Video games have been shown to boost your spatial navigation abilities, memory, and concentration. This is in part because a lot of video game maps require "cognitive mapping" to progress. Video games may also involve puzzles that require full attention and memory skills. Like hand-eye coordination, I have personally benefitted from honing these skills through video games; I am much better able to navigate my real-life surroundings , for instance.

Finally, video games encourage people to think outside the box. For example, if there is a hard puzzle in a game and your current strategy for completing it isn't working, you must utilize psychological flexibility in your approach and consider other options -- thus, using your imagination to problem-solve. Further, many games also involve a general sense of artistic creativity, for example, in designing characters and/or storylines . As such, video games have greatly improved mine and many others’ creativity.

In conclusion, whilst video games are often snubbed as a hobby, they can be instrumental in acquiring skills that can be applied to real-life settings such as adaptive thought and imagination, spatial navigation and memory, and of course, hand-eye coordination.

102. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #17

👌太文字になっている部分はより難しい単語で、高得点が狙える単語になっています。

While reading books and watching movies are both enjoyable and beneficial in their own right, I prefer reading for several reasons.

Firstly , books often include more intricacies , details, and information than their cinematic counterparts. Consider the Harry Potter series as an example: although the Harry Potter movies are captivating , the directors cut a plethora of subplots to keep the movies concise . As a result, certain aspects of the movies don't fully make sense as viewers lack the explanations and full character development acquired in the written series (i.e. the fate of Gildroy Lockhart).

Another advantage of books is that reading requires utilizing our imagination to fill in the gaps between words. As such, more cognitive skills are being honed when reading books compared to watching a movie which can be psychologically profitable in the long term. The use of imagination also means that more complex and fantastical plot lines can take place in books, as we can imagine literally anything. By comparison, the cinematic universe has physical and monetary constraints.

Lastly , reading a book takes a plethora of hours whereas a movie is usually only two hours. This means that books can keep you occupied for longer, making them more economically valuable.

In conclusion, I prefer reading books and find them more beneficial than watching movies due to their more detailed narratives, cognitive benefits, and long-lasting engagement.

☝️ 賢く要領よく勉強しよう! この記事で " I LAST メソッド " は詳しく説明していますが、"firstly" や "lastly" を使って具体例を交ぜていくと高得点が取りやすくなってきます。

104. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #18

While both teamwork and independent work have their advantages and disadvantages, I prefer working collaboratively over working individually for a multitude of reasons.

An advantage of working in a team is that you can leverage the expertise , skills, and knowledge of others. This is particularly beneficial when one is lacking proficiency in a specific area. For example, in a publishing company writers often work alongside editors because whilst writers likely excel in content creation, they may lack the grammatical finesse and training that editorial staff have, and vice versa. Another advantage of working in a team is that colleagues may notice an error in your work that you have overlooked. In the content of publishing , this might be a punctuation error or grammatical rule that the author is unaware of.

It's true that, when working independently, distractions from others are mitigated because you do not have to ensure everyone reaches consensus on an issue, unlike in a team setting. However, this benefit does not compensate for the increased workload when you are the sole employee. When just one person handles a project, all the work is done by one person resulting in a slower completion rate and an elevated risk of burnout.

Therefore, while there are pros and cons to both methods, working in a team is preferable because it means that the skills and insights of others can be incorporated and the burden of the workload is shared.

105. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #19

Personally, I favor in-store shopping over online shopping, but there are several advantages and disadvantages to both that are worth considering.

One considerable benefit of in-store shopping is the ability for consumers to physically examine the product. This means shoppers can better ascertain the fit and quality of items like clothes and furniture. However, in-store shopping is of limited convenience because stores often have restricted hours and are closed on national holidays; comparatively, online shopping is available around the clock!

In the same vein, online shoppers can make purchases from the comfort of their homes, with packages delivered right to their doorsteps . Subsequently, online shopping is far less time-consuming and effortful -  a tremendous bonus for busy individuals. However, it's worth noting that because packages are constantly being delivered to customers' doorsteps , the environmental impact of online shopping is egregious . Not only do the packages have to be shipped to consumers via an amalgamation of fossil-fueled transportation methods but they also have to be packaged in a way that they won't break during transit leading to increased usage of plastic-heavy containers and other shipping materials.

In conclusion, while online shopping is indisputably more convenient, its environmental impact alongside the inability to assess an item's quality/fit digitally means that I will remain partial to in-store shopping at least until online stores significantly ameliorate their carbon footprint.

106. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #20

International travel is replete with benefits including but not limited to, personal growth, heightened language proficiency , and a broader worldview.

Partaking in overseas excursions usually requires stepping outside of one's comfort zone. Consequently, sojourners typically undergo substantial personal development. This is because challenging oneself is the most effective way to gain self-insight, and travelers are bound to encounter numerous challenges along the way! I personally experienced this on a solo trip to Berlin. Initially, I was nervous about traveling alone for the first time, but being alone in a new country and city helped me gain independence and a more lucid understanding of where my interests lay now that others' preferences weren't part of the equation. Moreover , becoming lost in new territory -- whilst uncomfortable -- taught me vital navigation and self-advocacy skills.

The second advantage to a voyage abroad is that there is nothing more immersive than being in a country where the native language is the one you are learning. While in Berlin, I found that my German improved much quicker than it ever had in the classroom.

The final reason is that through traveling somewhere new one acquires a more global perspective through exposure to diverse viewpoints and unique experiences. Although I was familar with World War Two history from an American standpoint, in Berlin I was able to visit monuments, memorials, and museums, thereby developing a more comprehensive historical understanding, particularly of how post-war Germany influenced the modern world.

Whilst these are not all the benefits of studying abroad, one should remember the strides in personal development, language, and globalized knowledge, that they will likely make when contemplating international travel.

107. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #21

There are significant costs and benefits to both digital and face-to-face communication. However, in my personal view, the advantages of cybernetic contact outweigh the costs.

Digital correspondence is far more convenient than face-to-face interactions. To meet face-to-face, one has to travel, and this is nearly impossible if the other party is located far away or in a different country. The world is growing ever more globalized, and digital communication serves as both a catalyst and an ancillary to this trend. It is the quickest , easiest way for those who live away from their families, friends, and colleagues to nourish their pre-existing relationships and form new ones.

It's true that face-to-face communication makes it easier to read non-verbal and paraverbal cues. Perceiving tone of voice, body language, and facial expressions can be imperative to prevent the miscommunications that frequently occur in digital communications, such as text. However, astute individuals can quickly learn how to express themselves clearly in the digital realm or utilize video chat features.

Further, face-to-face interaction has a severe disadvantage: it can be distracting in some contexts and environments. Since many jobs transitioned to remote work post- pandemic , there is less distracting face-to-face conversation in the workplace, meaning that work can be completed more efficiently. Texts, emails, or chat pop-ups in the workplace can convey messages just as clearly, but don't require immediate response. As such, if one gets a digital message at work, they can prioritize finishing their current task before responding, a luxury that is practically impossible in face-to-face settings .

For these reasons and more, I prefer digital communication; not only is it more convenient and less distracting, but it also contributes to creating a more well-connected world.

108. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #22

A career demands long hours of concentration, including the time spent commuting to the workplace. Certain positions also involve a level of emotional labor, such as addressing individuals' concerns in a customer service or healthcare roles. On the other hand, maintaining a home, spending time with loved ones, and finding time to relax after long hours of work can also be challenging. This can be particularly difficult for working mothers who are often unfairly expected to work as many hours as their spouses, whilst also fully managing the domestic sphere.

One main strategy to maintain a good work-life balance is to prioritize certain responsibilities. If there is an essential task that needs to be done at work or home, one should focus on completing that above all else. Smaller, less time-sensitive tasks should be given less priority or delegated to a colleague/spouse.

Another strategy is to schedule recreational time where a person can fully rest. If someone struggles to relax, they might consider turning off distractions, such as work phones,  so they can focus on spending time outside of work doing things that they can enjoy or engaging in self-care. This helps to alleviate any stress caused by overwork and prevent burn-out.

Reducing commute time or working remotely may also help to relieve stress by increasing the amount of time that one is able to spend on other activities outside of a work environment.

In conclusion, maintaining a work-life balance can be difficult due to the numerous responsibilities involved in maintaining both aspects of one's life, but one can achieve a better balance via prioritization, scheduled relaxation time, and reducing commute time.  

109. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #23

Choosing a career path can be one of the most daunting choices of one's life because the majority of people spend a good proportion of their lives in the workplace . In order to make this important decision, one should consider three major factors: their values, their interests, and their strengths.

Discovering and identifying one's values is vital when selecting a career path; having a career that is meaningful to you and makes an impact in an area you are passionate about will provide you with a sense of purpose and  keep you determined for years to come. For instance, I am extremely passionate about health care and aim to make a difference in this field, as such I have dedicated my career to it.

Secondly , your interests should be imperative to your career selection. If you enjoy the work tasks you undertake and the topics fascinate you, you are far more likely to enjoy your job.  This is because its human nature to enter a state of "flow" when working on something you are wholly focused on. This is when we are most at peace and at our most creative. To achieve flow and be compensated for it should be the highest aspiration in a career search.

Finally, picking a job that sings to your strengths is crucial when picking a career. For example, someone might be extremely passionate about the way that art impacts their community and they may find "flow" when creating art, but if they aren't proficient in any art medium then they are unlikely to succeed in the field; it will be an uphill battle and they'd be best to improve their skills first at the very least.

In conclusion, when picking a career it's important to be discerning and engage in some honest self-discovery work. Specifically, one should ask themselves: what are my strengths, what are my values, and where do my interests lie?

110. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #24

There are several advantages and disadvantages to online and traditional education, but I personally prefer in-person classes because they foster networking and allow for hands-on learning.

Traditional classroom learning makes interactions with peers and professors seemless. When able to interact instantaneously with individuals in the class, they are bound to get to know you better and quicker. This can be a great way for students to make friends, which studies have shown is crucial in preventing drop-out.  The direct interaction provided by in-person classes also opens students up to extracurricular opportunities from professors, not to mention immediate feedback and help with challenging topics.

While an in-person education tends to be more costly, and online classrooms often provide the opportunity to complete tasks on your own time (freeing up the opportunity for low-income students to work, for example), there is one major cost of online classrooms that cannot be ignored...

When one is taught online they miss out on hands-on learning, such as laboratory classes for science majors or art studio work for art majors. This means that students may be deprived of the potential to utilize a campus' resources and gain experience that is applicable and translatable to the workplace . These experiences make someone stand out from the crowd as job candidates post-graduation.

As such, I recommend in-person classes if one can afford to attend, but online classes are still a great opportunity for those who cannot. One should deeply consider the pros and cons of each learning environment listed before choosing one or the other.

111. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #25

Working remotely has its advantages and disadvantages, but overall, I favor working from home for several reasons.

Firstly , working from home eliminates the need for commuting to the workplace, saving significant time and money otherwise spent on transportation.

Secondly , working from home promotes a better work-life equilibrium. When working from home, it's possible to do domestic tasks  simultaneously, for example, putting clothes in the washing machine prior to a long meeting. Subsequently, more time can be spent outside of work hours relaxing with family/friends and/or on recreational activities. Being able to spend more time on rest and recreation is undeniably beneficial preventing burn out and fostering a healthier lifestyle.

However, there are certain drawbacks to working remotely that should be considered. It can be challenging to maintain a work-life balance when working from home because your home is essentially your office and vice versa. Some people can find it tempting, for example, to check their work phone or email during their free time leading to blurred boundaries and half-hearted committment to both work and home life. Furthermore , one certainly misses out on the networking opportunities and social aspects of working in-person when remote. However, a highly determined individual is still able to network and socialize in their own time outside of the work sphere... indeed, as a remote worker they have more time for it!

As such, in my mind the pros of working remotely outweigh the cons. Before taking a remote job, however, you should consider your ability to create boundaries between work and home life and whether you are motivated enough to create connections outside of work.

112. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #26

Life in a small town is considerably more cost-effective than city life. The rent for minuscule apartments in many cities across the world is extortionate , whereas in a small town you can get a decadent home for a fraction of the cost. As such, many people looking to start a family will lean towards a more bucolic or suburban lifestyle. Despite this, I am still partial to living in a large metropolitan area for several reasons.

Small towns often have fewer career and recreational opportunities. By comparison, in a large city the opportunities are endless: there are a plethora of activities one can choose from on the weekend and a multitude of work experiences available because cities tend to have more people and more resources. An astute young professional can certainly use these opportunities to their advantage.

However, living in a big city isn't all sunshine and rainbows -- becoming cosmopolitan comes with a cost. The crime rates in large cities compared to small towns are exorbitant . Further, there is less of a neighbourly feel to big cities, meaning that one is less likely to be able to depend on their fellow city dwellers to mitigate a crisis.

As such, moving to the city is a great opportunity to broaden networks and horizons, particularly for young, unmarried individuals, but relocators must be prepared to spend much more money on rent and acquire some safety tools and street smarts before the move.

113. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #27

Incorporating regular physical exercise into your routine bolsters your sleep hygiene, mental health, and physical health. There are numerous  ways to engage in physical activity, from choosing to walk rather than drive to work or school, partaking in recreational sports with friends, or working out at home or in a gym.

One of the most underestimated benefits of physical exercise is the way it remediates sleep quality. Exercising before bed promotes a faster sleep onset and deeper REM sleep. This is because exercise triggers the release of endorphins in the brain, reducing our stress levels, and better equipping us for a good night's rest. One way someone might try to reap these benefits is by going to the gym and/or working out from home an hour or so before bedtime.

Another valuable benefit of exercise is its influence on mental health. As previously mentioned, the endorphins released during exercise help to demote stress and anxiety. Exercise can also be a great way to make or sustain friendships and bolster one's self-esteem. To gain these social benefits consider joining a sports team or participating in a sports-related activity with a friend.

Finally, exercise also enhances our physical health. Correlational studies show that just twenty minutes of exercise a day can prevent the evolution of diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. Exercise can also placate pernicious symptoms of pre-existing disorders such as arthritis, depression, endometriosis, and fibromyalgia. As such, if you wish to ameliorate a condition or prevent the development of one, you might try to incorporate exercise in your daily life by simply opting for a brisk walk to work, school, or the supermarket as opposed to driving.

In conclusion, physical exercise has monumental benefits and can be incorporated into one's lifestyle in plenty of ways, to suit the individual.

114. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #28

Whilst I am a dilettante in the area, crocheting has already significantly enriched my life by becoming a source of stress relief and social interaction. Crocheting has also taught me valuable skills, notably patience and creativity .

Crocheting is a form of needlework that involves looping yarn with a hook to create textile pieces. It is so intricate and time-consuming that there is no man-made machine that can replicate its work unlike other garment-making techniques such as knitting.

As the patterns are so convoluted , it requires endless patience to master. However, once mastered the creative opportunities are limitless , which is the main reason I enjoy it. Dealing with complex stitches also demands such high attention to detail that it focuses the mind and alleviates the stress of any bad day -- it is almost meditative !

Another aspect of crocheting that I enjoy and benefit from is the community surrounding it. Like any art form, there are lots of people on social media and in person who are eager to teach you new techniques and share their creations. Finding fellow crocheters always provides an instant bonding opportunity in my experience.

Subsequently, I recommend crocheting to anyone who wishes to develop their creativity skills, patience, and social network or simply reduce their stress levels. If that isn't enough to convince you - the unique, handmade items you can craft (exactly to your tastes) most definitely will!

115. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #29

Learning from failure can be even more valuable than learning from  success because it helps us to identify our weaknesses and adapt accordingly, build resilience and motivation, and develop empathy and humility toward others.

When we fail, we are presented with an opportunity for self-discovery; to examine what went wrong, how it went wrong, and why. Subsequently, self-exploration in the face of failure often leads us to target our flaws and prevent the recurrence of mistakes. For example, if someone were to take the Duolingo English Test and score lower than desired, this can be a great chance to identify and improve their skills in lower-scoring areas.

Failure also promotes resilience and motivation; when we fail we want to prove to ourselves that we can do better. As a result, we often become more driven to succeed. The author, Stephen King, is a paragon of self-determination. He, and many other authors, were rejected numerous times before a publisher accepted their work, but they responded to these failures with a more dogged drive. He is now exalted globally as the "King of Horror".

Finally, failure can make us more empathetic and humble. When we fail and overcome failure, we can better understand the failures of others and guide them towards their best selves. Some of the best leaders in the world are those that tried and failed before they succeeded; this is because they  use their experiences to relate to the people they supervise. By contrast, some of the worst bosses and leaders are those that demand perfection -- they will never be satisfied because it cannot be achieved, and their workers are more likely to seek superior mentorship elsewhere.

In conclusion, when you fail, try to see it as an opportunity to improve your skills, motivate yourself, and display empathy towards the shortcomings of others.

116. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #30

The rapid advancement in technology development and social media utilization has revolutionized human communication. A significant proportion of interactions now occur in the digital sphere, necessitating thorough examination of the positive and negative effects of social media on relationships.

Social media has nourished some relationships that would have otherwise withered. For instance, I have observed that social media is a tremendous ancillary for international students, enabling them to easily maintain communications with loved ones in their native countries in a way that wasn't achievable before social media.

Moreover , social media has transformed the job-seeking market. It is now considerably easier to broaden one's professional networks, via LinkedIn. This can be a game- changer when seeking employment because connections with potential employers can be established quickly and from anywhere in the world.

However, social media has led to decreased productivity and lost time. Like most young people, I find that a significant amount of time is squandered on fruitless social media browsing , time that would be much better spent fostering in-person interpersonal relationships.

Further, social media interactions are rife with misinformation . Anyone can share anything online, leading to non-experts perpetuating harmful inaccuracies both unknowingly and maliciously with the intent to misguide and prey on the vulnerable. Consequently, relationships can form or develop based on distorted judgment .

In conclusion, one should certainly leverage the benefits of social media interactions, such as global connectivity for leisure and business relationships, while remaining savvy to productivity loss and misinformation.

117. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #31

Technology has catalyzed globalization, and vice versa. While globalization has its advantages and disadvantages, I firmly believe its benefits surpass its detriments .

Firstly , globalization has facilitated the effortless exchange of ideas, technology, and research. When ideas can be shared in this way, it prevents repeating work that has already been done and instead directs efforts to novelty. Building upon the work of scientists and engineers globally has led to innovation and progress at unprecedented rates; this was evident in the swift, favorable development and dissemination of the COVID-19 vaccine.

However, COVID-19 and other pandemics would arguably not have occurred without globalization: when citizens are traveling between countries, diseases can spread rapidly without constraint. We will likely be untangling the repercussions of COVID-19 for decades to come.

A common argument against globalization is that it leads to culture loss. Proponents of this viewpoint argue that as people become "citizens of the world," the countries they visit become enmeshed with their native culture, as the "citizen" become enmeshed with their new culture in a synergy . As such, the concern is that each country then becomes homogenous leaving rich tapestries of culture to expire.

Whilst this might have some truth, I believe that exposure to different cultures and lifestyles propelled by globalization mostly leads to a greater understanding of the world alongside cultural sensitivity and awareness. Consequently, despite the potential for diseases  spread and culture loss,  the benefits of globalization outweigh the negatives.

118. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #32

"Friends are the family you chose" is a platitude that resonates with many people. Friendships not only provide us with enjoyable memories but also impact our personal growth and well-being in countless ways.

Medical studies have demonstrated that  loneliness is a killer. Hand-in-hand with this, evidence suggests that having a durable friendship network extends our lifespan and provides a buffer against mental health disorders and symptoms. This is in part because friendships reduce our stress  and cortisol levels and actually, neurobiologically, provide us with a boost of helpful hormones like oxytocin . So, the next time your mom tells you to do your homework instead of going to the movies, remind her that hanging out with friends is good for you!

In the same vein, friends can provide us with emotional and practical support in strenuous situations. When someone is undergoing a stressful life event, such as bereavement , a friend can provide a listening ear or help you navigate the crisis. Upon recognizing that a friend is in distress, a good friend will remind the person to engage in self-care and healthy habits and steer them away from bad choices – invaluable assistance. A friend is uniquely prepared for this given that most people share things with friends that they wouldn't with family, colleagues etc.

In terms of personal growth, friends can introduce us to new ideas, hobbies, and cultures. In getting to know a new friend, we often explore their interests and point of view, leading us to have a more comprehensive understanding of what we do and don't enjoy and believe in. As such, friendships can be the catalyst for broadening one's endeavors and mindset .

Finally, particularly in younger years, making and maintaining friendships can serve as a helpful model for future relationships. For example, a simple disagreement on the playground can be immensely beneficial for developing life-long social skills such as conflict resolution, theory of mind, and cooperation.

In conclusion, friends are indeed the family we choose and are key to our development and learning from youth right through to adulthood .

119. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #33

One significantly overlooked environmental issue that concerns me is the problem of free-roaming, domesticated cats. Not only does letting pet cats outdoors heighten their risk of injury and premature mortality, but it also severely damages the environment in three ways.

Firstly , it's no secret that domesticated cats have a natural instinct to chase prey, but you might not know that in recent years this has led to a drastic reduction in local wildlife , including already endangered birds. Such predatory behaviors are unnecessary and threaten entire ecosystems -- a highly avoidable problem given that we can instead give our furry companions all they need at home with cat toys and food.

Allowing cats to roam free, without neutering them, has culminated in an   overpopulation of felines - a majority of which are homeless. Not neutering cats is highly unethical given that most shelters are already overrun with unclaimed pets and sometimes euthanize perfectly healthy animals to make space. In turn, heightened consumption of the resources needed to power busy shelters contributes to carbon emissions. Consider this a reminder to adopt your next fluffy compatriot from a shelter rather than breeders and to neuter your cats (however much they sulk afterwards)!

Finally, when cats are free-roaming, they defecate anywhere and everywhere. Improper disposal of pet waste has been shown to lead to water contamination issues, which can cause a plethora of diseases and even death for the humans and animals who consume and rely on it as a water source.

In conclusion, it's highly recommended to keep your beloved cats safely inside. Your cat, the environment, and the little bird your cat chitters at every morning at 5 a.m. will thank you.

120. "Writing Sample" 暗記カード #34

この最後の問題は、実際にアルノを使用してみて下さい。 アルノ からもらえるフィードバックを丁寧に勉強すれば、きっと高得点が狙えるはずです。

まず duolingo.goarno.io にて無料でアカウント登録してみて下さい。登録後、練習問題の一覧ページから"Writing Sample"を選択してみて下さい。

以下のように、タイマーと共に問題が表示されるので、自分の回答を書き込んでください。

回答を書き終わったら、後はボタンを押すだけです。

🤟見て分かる通り、アルノでは推定スコアや間違いがわかるだけでなく、なぜ間違いなのかも分かるようになっています。

👉 さらに、あなたの回答をより高得点が取れるようにするには、どのように言い換えたらいいのかも示してくれます。

Being multilingual has become increasingly common in recent years due to globalization. There are numerous advantages to acquiring a second language, like gaining a competitive edge in the job market, enhancing travel experiences, and gaining a deeper understanding of both your native language and the culture associated with the language you are learning.

In the 21st century, employers prefer candidates with proficiency in a second language candidates who only speak their native language. This prediliction for bilingualism arises because immigration is more prevalent and companies frequently engage in international collaboratioons.  THus a multi-lingual employee is better equipped to provide for clients outside of the usual scope. In my own job search, I've found that some positions specifically require bilingual candidates and won't even consider individuals if they arent. There are also a plethora of careers out there specifically in this area such as medical translators, who relay messages back and forth between patients and there doctors.

Another compelling reason to attain a second language is that it enhances your travel experiences. Not only does it make navigating a new place easier by enabling you to read street signs, menus, and ask for assistance when needed but it can also make the experience more meaningful; knowing the local language allows you to engage you can interact with locals and get to know their culture more deeply.

Moreover through learning another language you can grasp a better understanding of your own language in contrast, bringing awareness to idiosyncrasies that previously escaped your notice.In the same vein, you will likely develop a rich insight into the culture underpinning e language you are trying to learn from linguistic nuances and expressions used.

In summary, learning a language has limitless benefits and opens the door for valuable opportunities. But learning a language has been shown to get harder the older you get, so be sure to start learning a second language as soon as you can.

👉 さらにもっとWriting Sampleで高得点をとるコツが知りたいという人はこの記事をチェックしてみて下さい。: 10 High-Scoring Writing Samples

ここまで読んだあなた、お疲れ様です！ 練習問題に取り組み、模範解答を確認するという作業こそがスコアアップの最良の方法の一つです。 全問終了したら、ぜひご褒美のスナックをどうぞ！ 冷蔵庫に向かう前に… これらのサンプル問題 (そして更に多くの問題) は全て アルノ で無料で利用できます。 下のボタンをクリックして今すぐ登録しましょう。 さらにこのブログでは各問題形式の 追加の模範解答 もご覧いただけますので、ぜひチェックしてみて下さい。

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To the Editor:

Re “ In Top Court, G.O.P. Prevails on Voting Map ” (front page, May 24):

The action of the conservative wing of the Supreme Court, anchoring the 6-to-3 decision to allow the South Carolina Legislature to go forward with redistricting plans that clearly marginalize African American representation in the state — and after a meticulous review by an appellate court to preclude the plan — is disturbing.

The persistent erosion of voting rights and apparent denial that racism is still part of the fabric of American society are troubling.

Surely there can be deference to decisions made by states; concocting “intent” to deny true representative justice in an apparent quest to return to the “Ozzie and Harriet” days of the 1950s seems too transparent an attempt to “keep America white again” — as they may perceive the challenge of changing demographics.

This particular ruling cries out for the need to expand court membership.

Raymond Coleman Potomac, Md.

Writing for the majority, Justice Samuel Alito presumes the South Carolina lawmakers acted “in good faith” in gerrymandering the voting district map for the purpose of favoring the Republicans, and not for racial reasons, an improbable rationale on its face.

Astoundingly, he further reasons that the gerrymander is acceptable because it was for partisan rather than race-based reasons (acknowledging that redistricting based on race “may be held unconstitutional.”)

Even though the gerrymander clearly moved a bloc of Black voters so as to deny them representation, Justice Alito accepted the G.O.P. claim that it was done for allowable partisan reasons and was not race-based. This was an obvious subterfuge because a person can vote Republican today and Democratic tomorrow, whereas one’s skin color is immutable.

Carl Mezoff Stamford, Conn.

Predictably, in writing for the Supreme Court, Justice Samuel Alito resorted to his accustomed verbal contortions. You can of course draw a neat distinction between the terms race and politics in the abstract, using a dictionary’s definition.

But given the history of South Carolina’s electoral politics, where the terms have been, practically speaking, interchangeable, surely the last thing to rely upon is a “presumption that the legislature acted in good faith.”

A presumption, implying a distinction already satisfactorily made, contradicts his call for the difficult task of disentangling the two terms, a burden apparently that, in this case, falls only on the plaintiffs.

If this is the voice of the U.S. Supreme Court, it is not the voice of justices but the voice of sophists.

T. Patrick Hill Winchester, Va. The writer is emeritus associate professor of ethics and law at Rutgers University and the author of “No Place for Ethics: Judicial Review, Legal Positivism and the Supreme Court of the United States.”

Re “ Accept Election Results? Republicans Won’t Say ” (news article, May 12):

People need to stop asking Republicans simply if they will accept the election results. The question that really needs to be asked is, “Will you accept the election results only if your candidate wins?”

And the follow-up question should be, “If Joe Biden wins in a state that you contest, are you also surrendering the wins your other candidates gain because you believe that the election was fraudulent?”

Elaine Edelman East Brunswick, N.J.

Re “ Has Dog Breeding Gone Too Far? ,” by Alexandra Horowitz (Opinion guest essay, May 19):

Ms. Horowitz’s takedown of grotesque dog breeding practices is spot on. As People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) has long said, “purebred” means “inbred.” Breeders not only exacerbate the animal overpopulation and homelessness crisis but — for profit and perceived “prestige” — also cost “purebred” dogs their health, happiness and even their lives.

Our nation’s shelters are overflowing with dogs in need of homes — purebreds and mutts alike. No one should be breeding more dogs of any type.

If you care about dogs, skip Westminster, breeders and pet stores and — when you are ready to welcome a dog to your family — adopt!

Daphna Nachminovitch Norfolk, Va. The writer is a senior vice president of the cruelty investigations department for PETA.

Kudos to Alexandra Horowitz for shining a light on inbreeding among purebred dogs. With limited exceptions, most families don’t need a purebred canine companion. There are over three million dogs entering U.S. animal shelters each year.

With the lives of so many shelter dogs on the line, purchasing a purebred indicates an unnerving level of vanity and discrimination. Here’s to those who make adoption their first option and give a second chance to homeless dogs (and cats).

Evan Goldman Fort Lauderdale, Fla.

Re “ Loneliness Is a Problem That A.I. Won’t Solve, ” by Jessica Grose (Opinion, nytimes.com, May 18):

Ms. Grose’s recent piece on loneliness and A.I. raises crucial concerns about A.I.’s potential to replace human connection. As a law professor who has researched the intersection of mental health, technology and the law, I agree that we must be cautious about overrelying on A.I. for emotional support. However, I believe that the conversation needs to expand beyond loneliness to encompass the broader mental health crisis facing our country.

Anxiety and depression, not just loneliness, are widespread problems that the pandemic has exacerbated. My research has reported on how chatbots have demonstrated promise in delivering cognitive behavioral therapy to individuals struggling with these conditions. This is particularly significant given the shortage of mental health professionals and the barriers many people face in accessing traditional therapy, such as cost and stigma.

In fact, some individuals may feel more comfortable discussing sensitive issues with a chatbot because of the technology’s perceived anonymity and lack of judgment. While A.I. is not a panacea for mental health, it’s essential to recognize its potential to complement existing treatments and reach those who might otherwise go untreated.

We must remain of two minds about A.I. — acknowledging its potential to help us, while also remaining vigilant about its limitations and the importance of preserving genuine human connection.

Michael Mattioli Bloomington, Ind. The writer is a professor of law at Indiana University.

Re “ School Leaders Struggle With Antisemitism Issues ” (news article, May 16):

It is disturbing to read that expressing criticism of Israel’s actions in Gaza in a classroom is automatically described as antisemitic. Israel is a political entity like any other. It should be acceptable to criticize its actions publicly, as one might criticize any other country for attacking civilians for months on end.

No one would deny a country the right to respond to a horrific attack on its people, as occurred on Oct. 7. Israel’s response, however, has been disproportionate, and teachers and students have a right to say so.

Linda Nathanson Brookline, Mass.

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Ielts essay # 832 - overpopulation in urban areas has led to numerous problems, ielts writing task 2/ ielts essay:, these days, overpopulation in many urban areas has led to numerous problems. , identify one or two serious problems associated with overpopulation in urban areas, and suggest ways that governments and individuals can tackle these problems..

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