essay on natural hazards

Natural Disasters Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on natural disasters.

A Natural disaster is an unforeseen occurrence of an event that causes harm to society. There are many Natural disasters that damage the environment and the people living in it. Some of them are earthquakes , cyclones, floods, Tsunami , landslides, volcanic eruption, and avalanches. Spatial extent measures the degree or severity of the disaster.

Levels of Disaster

The severity or degree of damage can be further divided into three categories:

Small Scale Disasters: Small scale disasters are those that extend from 50 Kms. to 100 Kms. So this kind of disasters does not cause much damage.

Medium-scale disasters: Medium Scale disasters extend from 100 Kms to 500 Kms. These cause more damage than a small scale disaster. Moreover, they can cause greater damage if they occur in colonial states.

Large Scale Disasters: These disasters cover an area of more than 1000 Kms. These cause the most severe damage to the environment. Furthermore, these disasters can even take over a country if the degree is high. For instance, the wiping out of the dinosaurs was because of a large scale natural disaster.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Types of Disasters

Causes: These can cause of releasing of the energy. This release is from the core of the earth. Furthermore, the release of energy causes seismic waves. Rupturing of geological faults causes earthquakes. But other events like volcanic eruptions, landslides mine blasts can also cause it.

Landslides: Landslides is the moving of big boulders of rocks or debris down a slope. As a result, landslides occur on mountains and hilly areas. Moreover, landslides can cause destruction to man-made things in many ways.

Causes: Gravitational pull, volcanic eruptions , earthquakes can cause landslides. Moreover, soil erosion due to deforestation is also a cause of landslides.

Avalanches: Avalanches are like landslides. But instead of rocks thousand tons of snow falls down the slope. Moreover, this causes extreme damage to anything that comes in its way. People who live in snowy mountains always have fear of it.

Causes: Avalanches takes places when there is a large accumulation of snow on the mountains. Moreover, they can also occur from earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Furthermore, the chances of surviving an avalanche are very less. This is because people die of hypothermia in it.

Tsunami: Tsunami is the production of very high waves in oceans and seas. Moreover, the displacement of the ground causes these high waves. A tsunami can cause floods if it occurs near shores. A Tsunami can consist of multiple waves. Moreover, these waves have a high current. Therefore it can reach coastlines within minutes. The main threat of a tsunami is if a person sees a Tsunami he cannot outrun it.

Causes: Tsunami is unlike normal eaves that occur due to the wind. But Tsunami is waves that occur by ground displacement. Thus earthquakes are the main causes of Tsunamis.

FAQs on Essay on natural disaster

Q1.What are natural disasters?

A1. Natural Disasters are unforeseen events that cause damage to the environment and the people.

Q2.Name some Natural disasters.

A2. Some Natural Disasters are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, Landslides, floods, Tsunami, avalanches. Natural disasters can cause great damage to human society. But preventive measures can be taken to reduce the damage from these disasters.

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Natural Disaster Essay: How to Write, Topics, & Examples

What would you do if someone told you that a tsunami would wipe out your house tomorrow afternoon? You won’t believe them. It always seems that natural disasters happen in someone else’s life. But every year, millions of people worldwide suffer from various natural calamities. This article attempts to systemize the chaos of nature for you to write an impressive natural disasters essay. You will get acquainted with the seven types of disasters, get a long list of topics and examples of natural disaster essay in 200 words and 300 words.

• 🌪️ Natural Disaster: The Basics
• 💡 114 Essay Topics
• 📑 Outlining Your Essay
• 🌊 Essay Sample (200 Words)
• 🏜️ Essay Sample (300 Words)

🌪️ Natural Disaster Essay: What Is It About?

A natural disaster is a large-scale meteorological or geological event that can to cause loss of life or massive damage to people’s property. Floods and severe storms are the most reported acts of nature in the US, but other incidents also happen from time to time. That is why you can dedicate your essay on natural disasters to earthquakes, droughts, wildfires, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, or tornadoes.

💡 114 Natural Disasters Essay Topics

What could you write in a natural disaster essay? You can invent your own topic about various types of natural disasters, their causes, and aftermath, or their impact on human life and the economy. Depending on the discipline, you can also describe historic calamities that changed the direction of human civilization. Alternatively, choose one from our comprehensive list below.

• Why are the Great Plains of the central US ideal for tornado formation?
• Global Warming and Climate Change Legislation .
• Research the atmospheric parameters inside a tornado.
• Energy, Technology and Climate Change .
• Why are the boundaries of Tornado Alley in the US so debatable?
• The global climate change as a manmade disaster.
• Which actions should you never do when a tornado is nearby?
• Volunteers’ Role During Disasters .
• Suggest your opinion on the best action strategy in a hurricane.
• The Columbia Disaster and safety violations.
• What were the causes and effects of a flood?
• Analysis on Climate Change and Global Impact .
• Describe the most devastating wildfires in the US and find their common features.
• Earthquake Engineering Considerations and Methods .
• Brainstorm ideas to prevent wildfires.
• Global warming and the greenhouse effect.
• How can building dams cause earthquakes?
• Climate Change and Its Impact on Freshwater .
• Analyze the impact of droughts on tourism .
• Climate Change Effect on Coral Reef Communities .
• Describe the most extended droughts in human history.
• Marine and Coastal Climate Change in Australia .
• Write an essay on natural disasters and earthquakes in particular.
• Air pollution and mortality rates
• What are the distinctive features of droughts in third-world countries ?
• Global Warming, Climate Change, and Society’s Impact on the Environment .
• Study the relationship between global warming and droughts.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder After a Hurricane .
• Evaluate the damage caused by Hurricane Maria in 2017.
• Social Media’s Role in Disaster Response .
• Classify the effects of natural disasters in an essay.
• Sustainability and Climate Change .
• Describe the 1815 volcanic eruption of Mt. Tambora, Indonesia.
• Hurricane Katrina: Overview, Impact, Response .
• Each new leap of civilization causes new responses of nature.
• Animal Exploitation. Animal Agriculture and Climate Change .
• Think of any positive effects a volcanic eruption may have.
• In Arizona, Collaboration Averts Water Disaster .
• Children are the poorest victims of any disaster.
• A Solution to Remedy Climate Change .
• Which ways of disaster risk reduction do you know?
• An Emergency Operations Center During Hurricane Harvey .
• Research the current problems in disaster management.
• Disaster Recovery Plan for Information Technology Organizations .
• Analyze ineffective disaster management in an essay about hurricane Katrina.
• Nurse Competencies and Scope of Practice in Disaster .
• What should a household have at home in the case of a disaster?
• Hurricane Katrina: The Powerful Natural Disaster .
• Describe the humanitarian disaster during the drought in Somalia.
• Technology in Disaster Preparedness .
• Can man-made disasters entail natural calamities?
• Disaster Management in Philadelphia .
• Review the criteria for disaster classification.
• Jeddah Floods and Adaptation Strategies in the City of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia .
• Search for real examples of hybrid disasters.
• Natural Disasters Prevention: A Tabletop Exercise .
• Who is responsible for casualties after a natural disaster?
• The Sand Storms: Remote Sensing and Meteorological Variables .
• List the lessons we could learn from our past disaster experience.
• Fire Development, Growth, and Spreads .
• The ice storm and silver thaw: A gentle disaster.
• Fire Crisis Management in the UAE .
• Rockslides: A pressing issue for rural areas.
• 1d – 2d Flood Modeling Using PCSWMM .
• What are the psychological benefits of disaster preparedness?
• Structural Control and Origin of Volcanism in the Taupo Volcanic Zone .
• When does a blizzard become a disaster?
• Extreme Weather Events + Geographies of Globalization .
• Research the causes of dust storms and name the affected areas.
• Strategies for Sustainable Integrated Oil Disaster Management in West Africa .
• Why did the San Francisco earthquake (1906) cause devastating fires?
• Causes of Climate Change .
• What could be done to help people who lost their homes in an earthquake?
• Book Review: Energy and Global Climate Change .
• Analyze the role of World Vision in humanitarian aid after disasters.
• Tangshan earthquake of 1976 showed that high population density is disastrous.
• The Role of Carbon Dioxide in Climate Change .
• Rock avalanche: Why water is the most powerful geological agent.
• Aspects of Climate Change .
• When do extreme weather conditions turn into a disaster?
• Climate Change: Reasons, Kyoto Protocol .
• Write an article on shelter-providing organizations for disaster victims.
• Establishing an IT Disaster Recovery Plan .
• Describe earthquake cycles in Haiti.
• Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food .
• How can nature damage ecology in natural disasters?
• Climate Change. Problems. Effects .
• Disaster management should include psychological help to the survivors.
• Climate Change Causes: Position and Strategies .
• Suggest ways to prevent damage caused by debris flow.
• HAT 4: Disaster in Franklin Country .
• How did the lack of evacuation after the Bhola cyclone (1970) result in the massive death toll?
• The Effects of Climate Change .
• The most significant Yellow River flood: 2 million deaths in 1887.
• Resilience Building Against Natural Disasters in the Caribbean Islands .
• Sinkholes: A natural disaster or attraction for cavers and water-divers?
• Global Climate Change and Health .
• Describe the dynamics of landslides in California .
• Which early-warning systems to detect avalanches do you know?
• Los Angeles Regional Collaborative for Climate Action .
• Pyroclastic flow: The deadliest volcanic hazard.
• Communication During Disaster Response .
• Describe the volcano eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed the Herculaneum and Pompeii.
• Disaster Planning for Families .
• Disaster prevention measures: Investments that save millions of lives.
• Natural Disaster Management and Historical Prospective Study in the UAE .
• Research the PTSD in survivors of natural disasters.
• Are the latest disasters the nature’s fightback to humanity?
• Estimate the human impact on natural disasters.
• List the countries with the largest number of disasters and find their standard features.
• Everyday Communication on Climate Change .
• Insurance coverage against disasters: Our inevitable future.
• Emergency Planning Before and After Hurricane Katrina .
• One natural disaster could bring the world to its end.

Haven’t found a suitable topic in the list above? Use our essay topic generator to get more ideas.

📑 Natural Disaster Essay Outline

Outlines differ, depending on the assigned length and essay type. It is a reference sample. Feel free to modify it, extending some points and narrowing the others. Still, the overall structure should remain the same. We have chosen the “Causes of Earthquakes” essay topic for demonstrative purposes.

• Hook . There are millions of possible ways to start your essay, from a rhetorical question to any imaginable scenario. The point is to grab the reader’s attention, showing them that your writing is unique and creative. For example: We are always concerned with the consequences of a natural disaster. But what brought us into such a calamity in the first place?
• Concepts. Natural disasters can be studied in the framework of various disciplines. But in all cases, they are linked with geology, biology, chemistry, geography, and some other subjects with broad and complicated terminology. Explain the terms that could be elusive for your readers here. For example: For the purposes of this essay, an earthquake is a sudden displacement of the land surface.
• Background. How did you come to think of this problem? Why is it topical? The causes of earthquakes are numerous and often unrelated. To understand them as a system, we need a strict classification.
• Thesis statement . Clearly state the aim of your essay. This essay attempts to group the causes of earthquakes to determine which factors can be tackled by human forces.
• Transition sentence. It comes in the previous sentence (for paragraphs 2 and 3) and ensures smooth reading. E.g.: Tectonic movements are the most powerful causes of earthquakes, and we cannot influence them. But still, there is something we could do.
• Topic sentence . What will you explain in this paragraph? Human interference with nature can also cause earthquakes.
• Evidence. How can you confirm the topic sentence? Heavy clubbing of dam water can disturbance the crustal balance. Nuclear bombing causes shockwaves that penetrate the surface, changing the tectonic plates and their natural alignment. Mining can also cause earthquakes by removing extensive volumes of stone from under the ground.
• Warrant. Why does the reader need this information, and how does it relate to the thesis statement? Knowing these facts can help us change the old-fashioned approaches and lessen the ecological damage to our planet.
• Summary. Collect and summarize all your arguments here. Tectonic movements, volcano eruptions, and geological faults cause a significant part of earthquakes worldwide. But various man-made causes bring us to the same result.
• Rephrased thesis. We cannot stop the tectonic movements or hinder volcanic eruptions, but we can use natural resources with more care.

🌊 Natural Disaster Essay 200 Words

Below you will find a short natural disaster essay for 200 words. It explores the causes and effects of the tsunami in Japan in 2011.

Tsunami in Japan: Causes and Effects The proximity of the deadliest disasters is often unpredictable. As a result, the consequences of a tsunami can exceed any possible expectations. This essay looks for the decisive factors that caused the tsunami in Japan in 2011 and its results for the local population and other countries. The causes were out of human control and could not be predicted. The Pacific plate moved in the horizontal and vertical plane, advancing beneath the Eurasian Plate. It displaced the seawater above and entailed several destructive waves. The disaster had enormous consequences for the Japanese people and their economy. It killed almost 16,000 people, although the country had a sophisticated alarming system. Besides, the earthquake caused fires and explosions at oil factories. The cooling system of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant went out of service. Two people were lost, and many were injured. Nissan, like many other large corporations, had to suspend the operation of its four factories. The economic losses due to the catastrophe amounted to 300 billion dollars. But the disaster moved to other places. On 24 March 2011, the earthquake in the east of Myanmar claimed the lives of 60 people and destroyed 300 buildings. As we can see, everything is linked on our planet. Movements of the earth’ crust in any part of the world bring about earthquakes and tsunami in other countries. The series of waves in Japan was caused by the underwater earthquake and had horrible consequences.

🏜️ Natural Disaster Essay 300 Words

If your assignment is longer, you will have to provide your opinion in the essay. Or, you can make your argumentation more detailed. Below you can check our 300-word sample of a disaster essay.

The Economic Effects of the Dust Bowl Drought When someone says “a natural disaster,” we usually imagine an earthquake or a tsunami. Buildings are destroyed, and property is lost. But imagine a scenario of a devastating drought, which happened in the US in the 1930s. Its effect is less visible because it lies in the domain of the national economy. This essay reveals the economic consequences of the Dust Bowl drought. During the third decade of the XX century, strong winds raised choking dust in the southern states, from Texas to Nebraska. People and animals died as the crops failed in the area for several years in a row. The Dust Bowl lasted for almost a decade and was also called “the Dirty Thirties.” This drought intensified the impact of the Great Depression. Local farmers had to migrate to urban areas in search of better conditions and other sources of living. About 2.5 million people moved West from the worst-hit states, namely New Mexico, Texas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Kansas. But they found only discrimination, meager salaries, and inhuman working conditions. Many had to live in tents near irrigation ditches. They were called “Okies,” a disdainful name for migrants of any state. Regular rains returned to the southern states by the end of 1939, closing the drought. However, the economic aftermath persisted. The counties that suffered the most failed to recover the agricultural value of their land till the 1950s. Thus, the local population kept decreasing for twenty years. Although a drought does not ruin property, it can tangibly lower human life levels. The Dust Bowl threw people into a lose-lose situation. Their farms were unfit for gaining any profit, and the new places of living gave them no better opportunities. It took two decades to restore public wellbeing in the Southern States.

Researching the worst acts of nature can teach you to value what you have. We hope that this article has made your creative writing more manageable and pleasurable. You can write an essay of any length by simply following our outline. All you will need to do after that is make a cover page for it.

Please share your natural disaster essay ideas in the comments below.

❓ Natural Disaster Essay FAQ

How to write an essay about natural disaster.

Your approach should depend on the discipline. But in any case, you can discuss the types of disasters, their consequences, characteristics, and preconditions. The excellent idea is to select a past disastrous event and analyze it from the economic, social, or individual point of view.

What Is a Disaster Essay?

A disaster essay explores the stages of a natural or man-made calamity and seeks the possible ways to prevent similar emergencies in the future. An article on disaster management studies the correct and efficient activities to lower the casualties and property loss after a disaster.

What Is Disaster Preparedness Essay?

This type of writing analyzes the level of readiness of a region or municipality to an unexpected natural disaster. You can highlight the vulnerable groups of the population that will suffer the most. Or, you may invent measures that could reduce the disaster response and coping time. Such assignments teach you strategic thinking and a systematic approach to problem-solving.

How to Describe a Natural Disaster for an Essay?

You should specify that the event was unexpected and led to many deaths and property loss. The most critical things include the causes of the disaster, its progress and duration, and the negative consequences for the locals. You can also specify the negative effect on the economy and humanitarian condition of the area.

🔗 References

• Natural Disasters and Severe Weather | CDC
• Types of Disasters | SAMHSA
• Natural Disaster – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
• Natural Disasters – National Geographic
• What Is Disaster Management: Prevention and Mitigation

Essays About Natural Disasters: 5 Examples and Prompts

Essays about natural disasters teach us many things; read on to see examples and prompts you can use for your piece.

Natural disasters are the sudden occurrence of natural and severe hazards threatening human welfare and survival. These events can cause injuries, destroy assets such as homes and businesses, and even death. Some examples of natural disasters are tornadoes, floods, earthquakes, wildfires, and storms.

Although emergency protocols are in place to alleviate and prevent natural disasters’ impact on both humanity and the economy, there is still no guarantee that these will be able to protect and save everyone from these misfortunes. Therefore, writing essays about natural disasters helps spread awareness on how to act when one faces these mishaps properly.

Below are five examples you should read to create essays about natural disasters effectively:

1. Planning For a Safer Tomorrow by Jyotsana B

2. natural disasters are often not natural by sandra valdez, 3. natural disasters essay by pradeep, 4. equity during natural disasters by writer kip, 5. natural disasters: nature’s revenge by anonymous on loveliessays.com, 1. my experience with natural disasters, 2. natural disasters: a history, 3. natural disasters and the economy, 4. types of natural disasters, 5. my take on natural disaster management, 6. causes of natural disasters, 7. after effects of natural disasters, 8. recovery from a natural disaster.

“Natural disasters have a severe impact on the society, therefore it is important to plan and develop a safety programme and devise means to efficiently deal with natural disaster. Development programme that go into promoting development at the local level have been left to the general exercise of planning.”

The author shares tips on how to prevent calamities and be prepared in case these natural disasters occur. These steps include proper analysis and risk assessment, adequate information database, modern infrastructure, and networks of knowledge-based institutions. The essay further expounds on each point and gives specific directions on successfully implementing these precautions.

“The word ‘natural’ indicates that humans have not triggered the catastrophe. However, human activity can definitely interfere with nature, which in turn may either cause a natural disaster or make its impacts much worse.”

Although Valdez agrees that “natural disasters” means humans do not directly create them, she also considers human’s significant contributions to these tragedies. She offers an example of earthquakes and the fluid injection incident in the Rocky Mountain Arsenal in Denver, Colorado. She further lists more human activities that trigger earthquakes, blaming human engineering that stresses the Earth’s faults. Finally, she acknowledges human speeds up disasters and human elements are innate in these equations.

“There is no doubt that extending help to someone during tough times is paramount. Rich countries should support poverty-stricken nations with altruistic aid while calamities take place… Being rich, similar nations are in a position to support countries that suffer economically and emotionally during nature havoc. The result of this is, not only induces good relations between countries but also paves the way to commercial transactions with minimized taxes in the future.”

Pradeep supports that countries with more resources should aid those with lesser assets. It’s not only because of altruistic reasons but because it can also be the foundation for good relationships between governments. These relationships can result in successful transactions and give comfort and security to grief-stricken countries.

“Should we allow prices to increase during natural disasters or should we protect against price gouging?… No policy is best for everyone… In the grand scheme of things, the market will return to normal the quickest whenever the market prices are allowed to fluctuate.”

Kip criticizes the way businesses increase the goods’ prices when there is a natural disaster. He questions if it’s the right thing to do to consumers who are only trying to purchase what they need to be ready for catastrophes. 

He also includes business reviews that rationalize high prices by arguing increasing prices prevents product hoarding. He challenges this statement by asking the readers to consider those who don’t have the money to buy these overpriced essentials. The writer also mentions other terms to explain the economy during a natural disaster and even involves the government’s processes to mitigate its harmful effects.

“Our environment is our responsibility… Exactly who polluted our planet so much? There is only one answer: man. It is man’s actions that have caused the problem… Humanity must realize that if the current trends are allowed to continue unchecked, the future of life on Earth is at risk. it must be conserved.”

Is nature retaliating because of humans’ disregard for it? The author offers reports to present the unpredictability of these disasters brought by climate change. To further prove their points, the author lays down facts like the quick rising of the sea and changing rain patterns. 

At the end of the essay, the writer urges man to be an environmentalist because he depends on his surroundings for food and shelter. Therefore, to survive, humans must treat nature well.

A tip: Run your essay through essay writing apps to organize and help you with style and grammar.

8 Prompts on Essays About Natural Disasters

There are many aspects of natural disasters you can zero in on. Here are easy but compelling prompts to tackle:

Share your experience with a calamity, and narrate what happened before, during, and after. Are there certain things you wish you did or didn’t do? Include how it affected your life and how you understand things work, such as the importance of first responders and following authorities in times of panic and chaos.

Then, focus on your personal experience. For example, your family might have to move places because you lost your home. Or that today, you always have an emergency bag packed and ready. You might also be interested in these essays about nature .

List down notable natural disasters that changed the course of the world. This could include volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and hurricanes. Then, explain why they happened, how the government or country dealt with it, and discuss the precautions executed in case the disaster occurs again. Finally, include the lessons you learned from these tragedies.

Explain how natural disasters affect the economy. Then, to make it more relatable, you can relay the impact of these tragedies on your life. For example, did any of your relatives lose their job because of a natural disaster? Was your family forced to close down your business? Include personal anecdotes to create an engaging essay.

List the many natural disasters and discuss them in detail. In this essay, you can delve into the causes of each type of natural disaster and how it impacts nearby civilizations. What do you fear the most in these disasters? To make it easier, you can pick two natural disasters to compare and contrast.

Choose an incident where natural disaster management was applied and give your thoughts about it. Research a recent natural disaster and study how the local and national government managed it. If any failed initiatives or points could be improved upon, make sure to write your thoughts about this in your essay. Then, you can discuss what you believe will aid natural disaster management in the future.

For this prompt, you can split your essay into two sections. One section can discuss environmental causes, while the other delves into human activities that cause natural disasters. Topics can include pollution, climate change, and overpopulation of small areas. To create an emotive essay, write about your thoughts on what we can do as a society to mitigate these harmful activities.

Consider the short and long-term effects of these natural disasters. You can concentrate on a specific tragedy that the general public knows so your reader can easily imagine what you describe in your essay. To make your piece more interesting, you can list natural disasters’ negative and positive effects.

If you want your essay to focus on something positive, choose to discuss new beginnings. For example, you can center on a community and how its people helped each other recover. You can also include the assistance they received from different places and how it aided them in restarting their lives after the disaster.

If you are interested in learning more, check out our essay writing tips !

Maria Caballero is a freelance writer who has been writing since high school. She believes that to be a writer doesn't only refer to excellent syntax and semantics but also knowing how to weave words together to communicate to any reader effectively.

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Natural Disasters Essay

Natural disasters are not in the control of human beings. Like many other countries, India is also plagued with many natural disasters because of its geographical location and environment. In the past few decades, the temperature in the Indian subcontinent has risen. A natural calamity is called a disaster when it affects people or property on a large scale. Here are a few sample essays on the topic ‘Natural Disasters’.

100 Words Essay On Natural Disasters

Humans have been subjected to the impact of natural disasters for as long as they have been on Earth. Disasters, unfortunately, are happening all the time. Most of the Natural Disasters we see are caused by natural forces. Therefore, they are almost impossible to prevent from happening. Natural disasters like floods, drought, landslides, earthquakes, and cyclones frequently occur all throughout the world. Often, natural disasters leave mass effects and it can take years to control the damage. However, the negative effects and damages caused by these natural disasters can be reduced significantly if proper warning systems or policies are used.

200 Words Essay On Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are mostly naturally occurring events that greatly damage human lives and assets. Every year, many lives are lost due to natural disasters across the globe. Many people are left with no home or property. They suffer endlessly. Some natural disasters are floods, landslides, cyclones, hurricanes, drought, wildfires. This problem becomes far more severe when a natural disaster occurs in a densely populated place. Unfortunately, most natural disasters are unpreventable from happening. We can only forecast these events and take necessary measures to mitigate the loss.

India is one of the most vulnerable countries to natural disasters because of its unique geological position. Every year India witnesses nearly five cyclones of various intensities. Droughts in summer and mild to strong earthquakes are frequently experienced in many northern parts of India near the Himalayas. In India, wildfires are caused in the forest area during the autumn and summer seasons. Our country is also witnessing dramatic climate changes and massive global warming due to pollution and greenhouse gases. Due to this, natural disasters are becoming more frequent than before.

Coping Up With Natural Disasters

Most natural disasters are out of our control and can occur randomly. All we can do, however, is take necessary precautions as soon as we are able to predict when the disaster is going to take place. Global Warming is an important reason for all these things. Therefore, we must protect and preserve our natural environment. It is essential to warn people of upcoming disasters. A mandatory evacuation should be carried out if necessary. After the disaster, people should be provided financial help to recover from damages and losses from the disaster.

500 Words Essay On Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are events that occur due to either biological activity or human-made activity. Human lives and property are affected for a long time after it occurs. The number of cases is increasing worldwide every day. It is because of the over-exploitation of natural resources by mankind. India suffers significantly from natural disasters due to its vulnerable geographical location. Due to this, our country still needs a proper disaster management unit.

Types Of Natural Disasters

Different kinds of Natural Disasters in India occur very often and have major effects on people’s lives.

Earthquake | An earthquake is a natural event when the Earth's tectonic plates suddenly shift and cause the ground to shake. This shaking can damage buildings and other structures, as well as loss of life. Earthquakes can happen at any time and can strike without warning, making them a frightening and unpredictable phenomenon.

Cyclone | A cyclone is a type of storm characterised by a low-pressure centre and strong winds that spiral inward and upward. Cyclones are also typhoons or hurricanes, depending on the region in which they occur. Cyclones form over warm ocean waters and typically move toward land, where they can cause widespread damage and destruction. They are often accompanied by heavy rainfall and can spawn tornadoes. The destructive power of a cyclone comes from its strong winds, which can reach speeds of over 150 miles per hour. These winds can uproot trees, damage buildings, and create storm surges, large waves that can flood coastal areas.

Wildfire | A wildfire is a large, uncontrolled fire that occurs in a natural habitat, such as a forest, grassland, or prairie. Wildfires can happen due to various factors, including lightning, human activity, and extreme weather conditions. When a wildfire occurs, it can spread quickly, consuming everything in its path. Wildfires can have many adverse effects on the environment and people. For example, they can destroy homes and other buildings and critical infrastructures, such as roads and bridges. They can also cause air pollution and respiratory issues for people living in the area.

Human Activities And Natural Disasters

Human activities can contribute to the occurrence and severity of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and wildfires. For example, activities like deforestation, urbanisation, and climate change can increase the likelihood and impact of these events.

Deforestation, which removes vegetation from an area, can increase the risk of natural disasters. Trees and other vegetation hold the upper layer of soil in place, which prevents erosion and landslides. When these plants are removed, the ground becomes more vulnerable to being swept away by heavy rainfall or other natural forces.

Urbanisation, or the growth of cities and towns, can also contribute to natural disasters. As more and more people move into urban areas, the risk of earthquakes, wildfires, and other natural disasters increases. For example, the construction of buildings and other structures can alter the natural landscape, making it more susceptible to damage from earthquakes and other events.

Climate change, the long-term warming of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, can also increase the likelihood and severity of natural disasters. Higher temperatures can lead to more often intense heat waves, droughts, and wildfires. Rising sea levels can cause more severe flooding, particularly in coastal areas.

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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Natural Disasters — Natural Disasters: Causes and Impacts

Natural Disasters: Causes and Impacts

• Categories: Natural Disasters

About this sample

Words: 682 |

Published: Jan 31, 2024

Words: 682 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, definition of natural disasters, causes of natural disasters, environmental effects of natural disasters, economic effects of natural disasters, social effects of natural disasters, mitigation and preparedness measures.

• Callaghan, K., & Alexander, M. (2018). Hurricane Harvey on the Gulf Coast: A Comprehensive Analysis of Impacts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Kennedy School.
• IPCC. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Cambridge University Press.
• McMahon, J., & Keefer, J. (2016). Social Vulnerability and Tropical Cyclones in Sint Maarten. Journal of Water and Climate Change , 7(2), 396-408.
• UNDRR. (2017). Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. United Nations.
• Vos, F., Dykes, J., & Pierce, L. (2017). Flood Preparedness and Early-warning System Effectiveness in the Philippines. Disasters, 41(S1), S16-S37.

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Cause & Effect Essay: Natural Disasters and Their Causes

Natural disasters happen all over the world, and they can be utterly devastating for people’s lives and the environments in which they live. Although natural disasters are caused by nature and there is nothing that we can do to prevent them happening, there are many different natural causes that lead to natural disasters, and being aware of these causes enables us to be better prepared when such disasters do arrive.

One common natural disaster is flooding, which occurs when a river bursts its banks and the water spills out onto the floodplain. This is far more likely to happen when there is a great deal of heavy rain, so during very wet periods, flood warnings are often put in place. There are other risk factors for flooding too: steep-sided channels cause fast surface run-off, while a lack of vegetation or woodland to both break the flow of water and drink the water means that there is little to slow the floodwater down. Drainage basins of impermeable rock also cause the water to run faster over the surface.

Earthquakes are another common natural disaster that can cause many fatalities. The movements of the plates in the earth’s crust cause them. These plates do not always move smoothly and can get stuck, causing a build-up of pressure. It is when this pressure is released that an earthquake occurs. In turn, an earthquake under the water can also cause a tsunami, as the quake causes great waves by pushing large volumes of water to the surface.

Tsunamis can also be caused by underwater volcanic eruptions. Volcanic eruptions are another natural disaster, and they are caused by magma escaping from inside the earth. An explosion takes place, releasing the magma from a confined space, which is why there are often also huge quantities of gas and dust released during a volcanic eruption. The magma travels up the inside of the volcano, and pours out over the surrounding area as lava.

One of the most common natural disasters, but also one of the most commonly forgotten, is wildfires. These take place in many different countries all over the world, particularly during the summer months, and can be caused by a range of different things. Some of the things that can start the wildfires can be totally natural, while others can be manmade, but the speed at which they spread is entirely down to nature. The two natural causes of wildfires are the sun’s heat and lightning strikes, while they can also be caused by campfires, smoking, fireworks and many other things. The reasons that they spread so quickly are prolonged hot, dry weather, where the vegetation dries out, which is why they often take place in woodland.

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• Essay On Natural Disasters

Natural Disasters Essay

500+ words essay on natural disasters.

A natural disaster is defined as an event of nature, which overwhelms local resources and threatens the function and safety of the community. Natural disasters are the consequence of natural phenomena unleashing processes that lead to physical damage and the loss of human lives and capital. Earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, windstorms, floods and droughts are some examples of natural disasters. These disasters disrupt the lives of communities and individuals and the economic activity of the affected area. Students must go through this essay on Natural Disaster and gather ideas to write effective essays on topics related to them. Practising essays on such topics will improve the writing skills of the students and help them score better in the English exam.

Classification of Natural Disasters

Natural disasters result from forces of climate and geology. These are perhaps the most “unexpected” and costly overall in terms of loss of human lives and resources.

Disasters are classified into four categories depending on how they arise:

(1) Internal Earth Processes: It covers geophysical phenomena arising from the internal processes of the earth. It includes earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions etc., which human beings cannot usually predict or prevent.

(2) External Earth Processes: These comprise phenomena such as landslides, collapses, flooding, mudslides etc. These hazards can be avoided and are often associated with man-made alterations in the environment, such as deforestation on hillsides or excavations and many more such activities.

(3) Hydrometeorological Hazards: It is associated with changes in air and ocean temperature. This hazard is responsible for the formation of weather phenomena such as hurricanes and tornadoes, and the precipitation and climate variations that sometimes cause extreme flooding, storm surges, droughts and other hydrological phenomena.

(4) Biological Hazards: Biological disasters result from the proliferation of agents such as bacteria, viruses and toxins that can kill or disable people, harm animals, and crops and damage the environment. Some examples of biological hazards are cholera, dengue, yellow fever, Ebola virus and Marburg virus. The current pandemic situation due to Coronavirus is also an example of biological hazards.

Disaster Management

Disasters have massive human and economic costs. They may cause many deaths, severe injuries, and food shortages. Most incidents of severe injuries and deaths occur during the time of impact, whereas disease outbreaks and food shortages often arise much later, depending on the nature and duration of the disaster. Anticipating the potential consequences of disasters can help determine the actions that need to be started before the disaster strikes to minimize its effects.

Disasters are the ultimate test of a community’s emergency response capability. There are 3 major steps that can be taken to manage disaster which include pre-disaster management, during-disaster management and post-disaster management. The pre-disaster management involves generating data and information about the disasters, preparing vulnerability zoning maps and spreading awareness among the people about these. Apart from these, disaster planning, preparedness and preventive measures are other steps that need to be taken in vulnerable areas.

During disasters, rescue and relief operations such as evacuation, construction of shelters and relief camps, supplying of water, food, clothing and medical aids etc. should be done on an emergency basis. Post-disaster operations involve rehabilitation and recovery of victims. It should concentrate on capacity building in order to cope with future disasters, if any. These measures have special significance to India as about two-thirds of its geographical area and an equal proportion of its population are vulnerable to disasters. The Government of India has also taken some steps for disaster management such as passing the disaster management bill and the establishment of the National Institute of Disaster Management.

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Frequently Asked Questions on Natural disasters Essay

What are the types of natural disasters.

Floods/tsunamis, wildfires, drought, hurricane/storms and earthquakes are examples for common natural disasters.

How can we control the impact of a natural disaster?

Impact of natural disasters can be mitigated to an extent by creating awareness among the public about counter measures to be taken. Governments could use disaster prediction technology and install warning systems to alert people about impending disasters. Implementing and enforcing building codes is another measure to reduce the after-effects of disasters.

How do natural disasters affect the environment?

Wildfires, floods, and tornadoes cause structural changes to our ecosystem and also damage the natural inhabitation of that area.

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• Natural Disasters Essay for Students in English

Read Natural Disaster Essay on Vedantu

The planet earth has gone through many changes over these centuries. These changes are majorly due to natural disasters happening throughout time. When we talk about natural disasters, pollution, ozone depletion and global warming are the most common scenarios we witnessed.

Growing industrialisation and exploitation of natural resources have changed the echo system bringing on the verge of imbalance. However, over these decades, humans have also introduced many disaster warning systems helping to predict natural occurrence in advance. You can read more about Natural Disasters on Vedantu.

Different Faces of Natural Disasters

Nature possesses the character of a special balance in which all living beings live together in harmony with their environment. But whenever this balance is disturbed, we see the disastrous form of nature which wreaks havoc upon this world. Natural disasters come in various forms like earthquakes, Tsunami, Storms, Cyclones, droughts etc. These disasters have always occurred throughout history but the current threat of climate change has severely increased its risks. Man has to learn that he cannot control nature and his life should revolve around the conditions present in the environment and not the other way around.

We have tried to change the basic character of the Human-Nature relationship with every metric of development being centred on financial interest and the rise of global consumerism.  This way of life promotes greed and has fundamentally made human beings disoriented towards nature. Our festivals celebrate the intrinsic relationship between humans and the environment where we celebrate Mountains, Rivers, and Animals etc. Natural disasters are a reminder that humans must never take the gift of nature for granted and always reciprocate for the resources that we have received from the environment. Clean Air, Clean Water and harmony in the ecosystem is a prerequisite for Human well being.  

How to Deal with Natural Disasters?

India, due to its unique geographical character, faces natural disasters every year which cause massive harm to lives and property. Whether it be the floods of Uttarakhand in 2013 or the landslides in Western Ghats of Kerala. The cost of our blind exploitation of natural resources without showing reverence for the delicate balance of Nature has severely harmed us and we must learn lessons from these incidents.

One of the greatest stories of the Indian government in dealing with disaster readiness has been the story of the Indian state of Odisha. Odisha is a coastal state in eastern India that regularly faces cyclones that have caused great harm to the state. To deal with the menace of these cyclones the Odisha Government made an elaborate plan by taking the local communities in confidence and have successfully reduced the number of deaths in Odisha to a very small number which used to be in thousands earlier. Other Indian states should also learn from the experience of Odisha on how to improve disaster preparedness.

Keeping our environment safe and following the right process will help in bringing down the natural disasters. It is vital to learn about them.

FAQs on Natural Disasters Essay for Students in English

1.  What are natural disasters increasing?

Over the years, natural disasters have increased. Regular earthquakes, massive flooding, cyclones, etc. have increased. According to the office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) which maintains an emergency disaster database, if a natural disaster kills 10 people, then it leaves 100 people injured. Increase in hydro-meteorological disasters, the combination of natural and man-made factors is leading to an increase in natural disasters.

2. What are the natural disasters that happened in 2020?

From wildfires in the US to locusts attack in India and back-to-back cyclones in India, there are many natural disasters in 2020. According to the Global Catastrophe Recap’s First Half of 2020 report, there were more than 207 natural disasters in just the first six months of 2020, causing \[＄\]75 billion loss globally.

3. What natural disaster is the worst?

Every natural disaster causing the loss of both property and human lives is the worst. Be it the earthquake, wildfire or cyclone; each disaster can be the worst in its sense.

4. What are the causes of natural disasters?

Natural disasters are caused by a number of reasons which may or may not be linked to Human interference. Floods, for example, occur generally because of a sudden increase in water level which cannot be supported by the natural geography of the river, however, it has been observed that floods have also occurred due to human interference like encroachment of river banks, illegal sand mining and obstructions in the natural flow of the river. 

5. What are the agencies that deal with natural disasters?

On the National level, Natural disasters are dealt with by the National Disaster Relief Force or the NDRF. The NDRF has its own commissioned force which is highly experienced and trained to deal with situations when a disaster has occurred. Apart from the NDRF, there is also the SDRF which is present in every state. The central and state governments work in coordination during Natural disasters and saving lives along with restoration of normalcy is the primary concern of the relief operations.

6. What are the ways to deal with floods and droughts?

It may sound surprising to some people but India is a unique country where due to its vast geography, we have seen conditions where some parts of the country are facing floods while other parts suffer from drought in the same year. These are especially tough to deal with as the volume of water in floods just cannot be stored and once a region is facing drought, access to water becomes a question of survival. Linking rivers is a very grand scheme which can solve some of our problems but this also needs to be dealt with caution.

7. What can I do to contribute to disaster relief programmes?

The central and state governments carry out various programmes which are directly related to disaster relief work, coordinating with the agencies and donating to these relief operations are some things that we can do as citizens. There are various NGOs that provide relief material to people who are suffering from natural disasters. Creating awareness about such an important issue is also an essential activity. You can learn more about it on Vedantu website and download it in PDF format.

8. Which regions are the most affected by natural disasters in India?

Every part of the country has a unique geographical character and in some way or the other, they face the threat of natural disasters. Bihar and Assam are two such states which face floods on an annual basis, The Himalayan states have a very delicate ecology and save the menace of flash floods and landslides. Maharashtra has a problem of flooding in the Western Ghats while Vidarbha faces drought. Innovative ways must be discovered by states to deal with natural disasters.

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From the towering walls of water that sweep across coastlines to the ground-shaking tremors that ripple through the earth’s surface, natural disasters are a stark reminder of the immense power of nature and the fragility of our existence. These catastrophic events strike without warning, leaving in their wake a trail of destruction, displacement, and heartbreak.

Table of Content

Types of Natural Disasters

Causes of natural disasters, precautions and preparedness, 500 words essay on natural disasters.

Natural disasters can take many forms, each with its unique characteristics and consequences. Some of the most devastating types include:

1. Earthquakes: Triggered by the sudden release of energy within the Earth’s crust, earthquakes can cause massive structural damage, trigger tsunamis, and disrupt vital infrastructure.

2. Tsunamis: Towering waves generated by underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, tsunamis can inundate coastal regions with incredible force, sweeping away everything in their path.

3. Hurricanes and Cyclones: These powerful rotating storm systems, fueled by warm ocean waters, bring destructive winds, torrential rain, and storm surges that can devastate entire communities.

4. Floods : Caused by excessive rainfall, melting snow, or dam failures, floods can submerge vast areas, disrupting lives and destroying property.

5. Wildfires: Driven by dry conditions, high winds, and human activities, wildfires can consume vast swaths of land, threatening lives, homes, and natural habitats.

6. Volcanic Eruptions: The explosive release of molten rock, ash, and gases from the Earth’s interior can bury entire regions in a blanket of destruction.

7 . Droughts : Prolonged periods of abnormally low rainfall can lead to water scarcity, crop failures, and even famine in some regions.

While some natural disasters are triggered by geological processes deep within the Earth, others are influenced by human activities and the changing climate. Factors such as deforestation, urbanization, and the burning of fossil fuels can increase the risk and intensity of certain disasters.

Climate change, in particular, is playing an increasingly significant role in the frequency and severity of many natural disasters. Rising global temperatures are contributing to more intense hurricanes, prolonged droughts, and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, which can exacerbate coastal flooding.

The impact of natural disasters can be catastrophic, affecting every facet of human life and the environment. Some of the most significant effects include:

1. Loss of Life: Natural disasters can claim countless lives, leaving families and communities devastated by the loss of loved ones.

2. Destruction of Infrastructure: Roads, bridges, buildings, and critical infrastructure can be severely damaged or destroyed, hampering relief efforts and hindering recovery.

3. Economic Losses: The damage caused by natural disasters can result in staggering economic losses, affecting businesses, industries, and entire economies.

4. Displacement of Populations: Disasters often force people to abandon their homes and seek shelter elsewhere, leading to humanitarian crises and long-term displacement.

5. Environmental Degradation: Natural disasters can disrupt ecosystems, pollute water sources, and contribute to soil erosion and habitat loss, threatening biodiversity and natural resources.

6. Psychological Trauma: Survivors of natural disasters often grapple with the psychological toll, including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety.

While it is impossible to prevent many natural disasters, proactive measures can be taken to mitigate their impact and enhance preparedness. Some of these measures include:

1. Effective Early Warning Systems: Developing and implementing robust early warning systems can provide valuable lead time for evacuation and emergency response efforts.

2. Disaster Risk Reduction: Identifying and addressing vulnerabilities through measures such as land-use planning, building codes, and infrastructure improvements can minimize potential damages.

3. Community Preparedness: Educating and empowering communities on disaster preparedness, including emergency plans, evacuation routes, and survival skills, can save lives and facilitate quicker recovery.

4. Resilient Infrastructure: Investing in resilient infrastructure, such as earthquake-resistant buildings and flood control systems, can reduce the impact of natural disasters.

5. Environmental Protection: Conserving and restoring natural ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests, can act as natural buffers against certain disasters and mitigate their effects.

6. International Cooperation: Fostering global partnerships and collaborations can facilitate knowledge-sharing, resource allocation, and coordinated response efforts during disasters.

Throughout human history, civilizations have grappled with the unpredictable and often merciless power of nature. Natural disasters, ranging from earthquakes and tsunamis to hurricanes and wildfires, have left indelible scars on communities worldwide, reminding us of our fragility in the face of nature’s might.

At their core, natural disasters are events triggered by the Earth’s natural processes, such as tectonic shifts, atmospheric disturbances, or geological phenomena. However, their consequences extend far beyond the physical realm, profoundly impacting lives, livelihoods, and the very fabric of societies.

The destructive force of these events is unparalleled. Earthquakes can reduce towering structures to rubble in mere seconds, while hurricanes and cyclones unleash winds of incredible ferocity, capable of obliterating entire coastlines. Wildfires, fueled by dry conditions and strong winds, consume everything in their path, leaving smoldering landscapes and displaced communities in their wake.

The human toll of natural disasters is staggering. Lives are tragically lost, families are torn apart, and survivors are left to grapple with the psychological trauma of witnessing such overwhelming devastation. Beyond the immediate loss of life, the aftermath often brings a cascade of challenges, including displacement, lack of access to essential resources, and the daunting task of rebuilding shattered communities.

The economic impact of natural disasters is equally profound. Infrastructure is crippled, businesses are disrupted, and entire industries can be brought to a standstill. The ripple effects of these events can reverberate throughout local and global economies, hampering recovery efforts and exacerbating existing vulnerabilities.

Moreover, the environmental consequences of natural disasters are far-reaching. Ecosystems are disrupted, delicate habitats are destroyed, and biodiversity is threatened as species struggle to adapt to the altered landscapes. The long-term effects on the natural world can be felt for generations, further compounding the challenges faced by impacted communities.

Addressing the threat posed by natural disasters requires a multifaceted approach that spans prevention, preparedness, and resilience-building efforts. Investing in robust early warning systems, fortifying infrastructure, and promoting disaster risk reduction strategies are crucial steps in minimizing the impact of these events.

Furthermore, addressing the underlying drivers of climate change is paramount, as many natural disasters are exacerbated by the effects of global warming. By transitioning towards more sustainable practices and reducing our carbon footprint, we can mitigate the intensity and frequency of certain disasters, safeguarding both human and environmental well-being.

Ultimately, natural disasters serve as a humbling reminder of the immense power of nature and the fragility of our existence. While we cannot control the forces that give rise to these events, we can cultivate resilience, foster global cooperation, and prioritize preparedness efforts to better withstand their fury.

As we navigate the unpredictable landscape of natural disasters, let us embrace our shared responsibility to protect lives, safeguard communities, and forge a more sustainable relationship with the natural world. By doing so, we can forge a path towards a future where the devastating impacts of these events are minimized, and humanity emerges stronger and more resilient in the face of nature’s challenges.

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Natural disasters underscore our need for resilience and preparedness. By bolstering infrastructure, safeguarding the environment, and addressing climate change, we can lessen their impact. Emphasizing risk reduction and sustainable practices, we aim to protect lives, economies, and ecosystems. Together, through resilience and cooperation, we can build a future where communities coexist with nature’s forces.

Essay on Natural Disasters- FAQs

What is disaster 1 paragraph.

A disaster is a major disturbance in the operation of a community or society resulting in widespread human, material, economic, or environmental losses and impacts that surpass the afflicted community’s or society’s ability to manage using its own resources.

What are the 2 main types of disasters?

Disasters are typically divided into two categories: natural and man-made. Natural catastrophes are typically related with weather and geological occurrences such as severe temperatures, floods, storms, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and drought.

What are 5 man-made disasters?

A. Man-made disasters involve human intent, neglect, or error in the breakdown of a man-made system, as opposed to natural disasters caused by natural hazards. Such man-made calamities include crime, arson, civil unrest, terrorism, war, biological/chemical threats, cyber-attacks, and so on.

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Essay on Natural Disaster

Students are often asked to write an essay on Natural Disaster in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Natural Disaster

Introduction.

Natural disasters are extreme, sudden events caused by environmental factors that injure people and damage property. They include earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, wildfires, tsunamis, and other geologic processes.

Types of Natural Disasters

Earthquakes are sudden shaking of the ground. Floods occur when water overflows onto dry land. Hurricanes are intense wind storms. Tornadoes are violently rotating winds. Wildfires destroy forests and lands. Tsunamis are sea waves caused by underwater earthquakes.

Impact of Natural Disasters

Natural disasters can lead to loss of life, economic damage, and displacement of populations. They can also cause environmental damage, impacting biodiversity and ecosystems.

Understanding natural disasters and their effects can help us prepare and reduce their harmful impacts. It’s crucial to educate ourselves and take protective measures.

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250 Words Essay on Natural Disaster

Natural disasters are catastrophic events triggered by environmental factors that kill people and cause damage to property and natural resources. They include earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, wildfires, tsunamis, and other geologic processes.

The Cause and Effect of Natural Disasters

Natural disasters occur due to the movement of tectonic plates, weather changes, and geological processes. Earthquakes, for instance, are caused by the movement of tectonic plates. Floods and hurricanes are usually the result of extreme weather conditions. The effects are often devastating, leading to loss of life and property, displacement of people, and economic damage.

Human Interaction and Natural Disasters

Human activities can exacerbate the severity of natural disasters. Deforestation, urbanization, and climate change contribute to the frequency and intensity of these disasters. Climate change, driven by human activity, is causing more severe weather patterns, leading to increased instances of floods and hurricanes.

Prevention and Mitigation Measures

Prevention and mitigation of natural disasters involve predicting possible disasters and preparing for them. Technological advancements have made it possible to predict some disasters, enabling timely evacuations. Infrastructure can be designed to withstand natural disasters, and reforestation can help prevent landslides and floods.

Natural disasters are inevitable, but their impact can be reduced through innovative technology, proper planning, and sustainable practices. Understanding the causes and effects of these disasters is crucial for developing effective prevention and mitigation strategies.

500 Words Essay on Natural Disaster

Natural disasters are extreme, sudden events caused by environmental factors that injure people and damage property. Earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, and wildfires are examples of natural disasters, which nature’s forces have been known to disrupt lives and cause significant damage to communities worldwide.

The Science Behind Natural Disasters

Understanding the science behind natural disasters involves studying the Earth’s interacting systems. For instance, earthquakes occur due to the movement of tectonic plates. When these plates move, they cause the Earth’s crust to break and shake, leading to an earthquake. Similarly, hurricanes form over warm ocean waters and are fueled by the heat and water vapor they provide.

Impacts of Natural Disasters

The impacts of natural disasters are multifaceted and far-reaching. They not only cause immediate loss of life and destruction of infrastructure but also have long-term effects on the socio-economic fabric of the affected regions. Natural disasters can lead to economic losses due to the destruction of infrastructure like buildings, bridges, and roads, disrupting trade, and causing a decline in tourism.

Climate Change and Natural Disasters

Climate change is exacerbating the frequency and intensity of some natural disasters. Rising global temperatures mean more heat is available to drive weather systems, leading to more intense storms and rainfall. Similarly, warmer temperatures can increase the likelihood of more severe and frequent heatwaves and potentially exacerbate drought conditions, leading to more intense wildfires.

Disaster Management and Mitigation

Effective disaster management and mitigation strategies are crucial in reducing the impact of natural disasters. These strategies involve a combination of preparation, response, and recovery activities. Preparation includes activities such as developing early warning systems, creating evacuation plans, and constructing resilient infrastructure. Response involves immediate actions such as search and rescue operations, providing emergency relief supplies, and medical aid. Recovery focuses on rebuilding and rehabilitating the affected area.

In conclusion, natural disasters are a significant global issue, causing immense loss and damage. Understanding the science behind these disasters, their impacts, and the influence of climate change can help us develop effective disaster management strategies. As we move forward, it is crucial that we continue to improve our resilience to these events, not only through scientific and technological advances but also by fostering global cooperation and community preparedness. After all, natural disasters are a shared global risk, and addressing them effectively requires collective action.

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Natural Hazards Risk Management and Governance Essay

Introduction, climate change, society’s role in shaping risk governance and risk management of climate change, reference list.

The concept risk management and risk governance varies depending on the context under which it is looked at and the stakeholders involved. Scientists, politicians, entrepreneurs, and the general public all have different perceptions of the issue of risk management based on the risk factor in focus. Risks can be broadly classified as natural risks or manmade risks. Scientists will often focus on using technology to assess and address risks based on the empirical studies conducted (Gruyer 2002).

They believe in predicting the risks before they occur, determining their patterns, and coming up with effective solutions that will effectively overcome these risks. The government will often seek to come up with mitigation measures that are driven by political interests. The main focus of the government is often the political consequences of the approach that they use to manage risks that take place in the society (Marchi & Ravetz 1999). The entrepreneurs or the business class are often concerned about the need to maintain the profitability of their firms when addressing the risks.

Their golden rule is often to protect their firm’s profits as much as possible. The general public is often concerned about their safety and security. They want every measure taken to assure them of their security at all times when managing risks. These conflicting primary goals in risk management and governance often bring complications when handling major issues such as climate change. The world is facing a new threat of climate change that is not only affecting the developing nations but also the developed countries. The recent droughts in California, flash floods in Japan, and Cyclones in South America are all attributed to climate change (Ahrens & Rudolph 2006).

These episodes claimed many lives and led to massive destruction of properties. They continue posing a serious threat to the society all over the world. Having proper ways of managing these risks is, therefore, very important. In this paper, the researcher seeks to find out what risk management of natural hazards teaches us about the issues associated with risk governance.

Climate change has become a major concern in the global society as it has become apparent that the weather patterns and various natural factors are changing in a manner that poses a threat to the existence of humanity. According to Renn (2008, p. 56), climate change refers to “a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period. Scientists and environmentalists raised alarm several years ago about the unsustainable trend that the weather pattern was taking.

The scientists explained that the increasing temperatures all over the world caused by greenhouse gases (GHG) may lead to serious impacts on the global climate. However, their warnings were ignored by the business communities, the political class, and the general public. Beck (2006) says that many people could not understand what these scientists meant when they talked about global warming and climate change. They could not understand how the massive emission of carbon into the air had an impact on the climate.

However, the recent events around the world have demonstrated to the global society that indeed climate change is real and its threat to the global society can no longer be ignored. The recent reports show climate change has not spared any country. According to Gramelsberger and Feichter (2011), a string of destructive cyclones, polluted air, a change in the weather pattern, reduction of polar ice, and drought are some of the consequences of this climate change. The changing pattern of climate demonstrates that it is caused by excessive pollution from the industrial sectors, especially in the industrialized countries.

Scientists have reported that climate change is not only caused by the emissions of greenhouse gases and destruction of the vegetative cover, but also other natural causes which are beyond the control human. However, the activities that people engage in are largely considered to be speeding up this process at unprecedented rates (Hutter & Power 2005). Industrialization is one of the major causes of climate change because of the massive emission of carbon into the atmosphere.

The massive emission of carbon into the air causes a greenhouse effect which automatically increases the global temperatures. This means that the polar ice get to melt, increasing the level of water in the ocean. Deforestation is another problem that is directly linked with climate change. Nature knows how to regulate its elements. Trees are meant to take up excessive carbon released by other living organisms.

It is, therefore, very unfortunate that the forest cover all over the world has been reducing at alarming rates, especially in developing countries where wood fuel is still a major source of energy. It means that human activities have created a deliberate imbalance between carbon emission and carbon consumption in the natural environment (Demos 2004). More of the carbon is emitted, but only an insignificant amount is naturally taken up by the vegetative cover. The trend has had a devastating impact on the ozone layer, enhancing climate change.

The impact of climate change has been dire. According to Irwin, Jensen, and Jones (2010), for a long time, it was believed that it is only the developing countries that may get seriously affected by climate change because they have not developed strong systems and structures to deal with natural disasters such as drought, earthquakes, storms, floods, and such other risks associated with climate change. These developing countries are indeed the worst affected by climate change. Africa is now struggling with food insecurity because of the prolonged cases of drought. People are starving in horns of Africa and many others are left to rely on donations.

Climate change has also had a serious impact on energy security in Africa as forests become scarce and the continent is not yet prepared to use renewable sources of energy effectively (Lahsen 2005). However, the developed nations have not been spared either. Some of the most industrialized nations around the world have experienced some of the worst cases of natural calamities in the modern world’s history. It is, therefore, not a surprise that China, the country leading in the emission of greenhouse gases, has experienced some of the worst effects of climate change. There are instances when women and children are forced to stay indoors, especially in the morning and evening hours because of the high levels of pollutants in the air (Miller & Edwards 2001).

Major cities of China such as Shanghai and Beijing have been affected. The neighboring country of Japan recently registered one of the worst earthquakes to have ever been recorded. Buildings were destroyed, people were killed, and many others survived but with life-changing injuries. Japan has also witnessed some of the worst cases of cyclones which have also killed many people and destroyed many properties.

The United States of America is not spared from these negative consequences of climate change. One part of the country, the state of California, is currently experiencing one of the worst cases of drought in its history, a trend that is threatening to change the way of life in the entire state. The availability of clean water for domestic and industrial use is becoming an issue as some of the major dams start registering a significant reduction in their water levels. Water rationing and water recycling are now being considered as some of the steps that the state may have to take to address the current problem (Okereke, Bulkeley, & Schroeder 2008).

On the other hand, parts of the United States have experienced flash floods that have swept across some of the major cities causing death, destruction, and serious injuries for the survivors. Some small island countries have already registered complaints with the United Nations that they are chocking as a significant part of their land is claimed by the rising sea waters. There is no single country that is safe from the risk of climate change.

It is, therefore, very understandable that the global society has come to appreciate the need to address this problem. In 2015 COP 21, also known as the 2015 Paris Climate Conference, was held and is currently underway with the primary aim of achieving a legally binding and universal agreement on climate, to keep global warming below 2° C. Many countries, especially the developing nations which are worst hit by this problem of global warming, hope that there will be consensus this time around. This is just the latest of a series of other conferences that have brought together world leaders as they try to find solutions to the climate change problem that is affecting the global society (Perrow 1999). It is important to review how the global society and individual nations have been trying to deal with the problem of climate change to get some lessons about the issues associated with risk governance.

Risk governance and risk management issues

Risk governance is a complex process that involved identifying the source of the threat, analyzing the threat itself, determining its magnitude, coming up with ways of mitigating it, and passing relevant communications to the relevant stakeholders so that people and property do not get adversely affected (Walker, Whittle, & Tweed 2014). Different scholars have defined risk governance and risk management in different ways based on several factors.

The perspective of scientists in risk governance may be very different from that of a businessperson or a politician (Tierney 2011). Each of these stakeholders would often ensure that they approach risk governance from a perspective that is relevant to them and that which they understand best. Different risks may require different approaches to management. However, there are some conventional guidelines and principles that are often followed in risk management.

For instance, it is widely believed among the multidisciplinary stakeholders that risk governance involves the collection of data, conducting the relevant analysis, and communicating the information to the relevant parties to avoid any adverse effect on people and property. It is also believed that risk governance must embrace fundamental principles of transparency, accountability, effectiveness, efficiency, strategic focus, equity and fairness, sustainability, political and legal feasibility, and respect for the rule of law (Turner 2009).

Climate change, being one of the natural hazards that the global society has to deal with today, must be managed in a way that will make its impacts less devastating to the global community. Managing climate change is not a simple process. Finding the right solution requires a deliberate effort of a serious of stakeholders and participation of the global society (Wachinger, Renn, Begg, & Kuhlicke 2013). The United States, European Union, China, Japan, and India account for over 75% emission of greenhouse gases into the global atmosphere. However, when it comes to managing climate change, these countries need the support of the global society to achieve success.

They need Africa to stop the wanton destruction of the vegetative cover, Asia to engage actively in reforestation, Europe and Americas to reduce their emissions of carbon and the Oceanic to be involved in the fight against high levels of carbon in the air.

Managing the risk of climate change has for a long time taken a political approach, but it is apparent that this approach has yielded little fruits as witnessed in the way nations ignored the Kyoto Protocol that was meant to regulate the amount of greenhouse gases that each country emitted per given period. According to Cheng (2009), the policies developed at Kyoto were excellent in dealing with the problem of climate change. However, it was unfortunate that the implementation was so poor because of the vested political interests. The people who were trusted to implement the policy allowed themselves to be influenced by the corporate society and by the need to retain their political offices. As such, good policies that would have helped in dealing with the global problem of climate change were ignored, and the problem continued to get worse.

The recent international efforts to manage climate change have been shifting from the political approach to the legal approach. The lack of political goodwill in some of the state parties has left the stakeholders with no choice but to come up with legally binding policies. The 2015 Paris Climate Conference, also known as 2015 COP 21 was focused on finding legal solutions. The state parties were trying to come up with a maximum limit within which a country could emit greenhouse gases. The conference made a raft of recommendation which if implemented effectively, can help in fighting climate change and in making some of the climate change risks less devastating.

The conference, though dubbed the party of the willing, sought to come up with measures that will restrict the indiscriminate destruction of nature by the industrial sector. The massive emissions of GHG by the Chinese industrial sector are also affecting the rest of the world, not just the Chinese (Büthe & Mattli 2011). The same is the case with every other country around the world. The countries must, therefore, appreciate that they owe the world some sense of responsibility and that their activities must be in line with the global expectations in relevance to the protection of nature.

Managing climate change risks has followed the pattern described above of identifying the risks, analyzing it, and then communicating it to the global society in the pattern proposed above. The scientists have already collected the data needed, analyzed it, and made an informed conclusion about it. The information has been made available to the relevant stakeholders who need to act upon the decision presented to them (Marjolein & Ortwin 2011).

Other than the reduction of the emission of the greenhouse gases, which has been the main focus in the recent past, there has also been an effort to plant trees. The findings of the scientists made from the analysis of their collected data have shown that the wanton destruction of vegetative cover, especially in various parts of Africa, has worsened the problem of climate change. As a result, part of the solution to this problem has been to promote tree planting all over the world (Thompson & Rayner 2002). Restoring the natural balance has been determined to be one of the most effective ways of managing climate change hazards.

Developed countries such as the United States, Germany, Japan, and China can have disaster response and management mechanisms to deal with natural disasters that are associated with climate change. However, taking such initiatives will be unfair to other developing nations that are not capable of having such strong structures and systems of managing such threats. The recent drought in parts of the United States, massive air pollution in major cities of China, and the terrible cyclones that killed several people in Japan is also a clear message that having disaster response systems is not the solution to this problem (Berke 1998).

Climate change risks are serious, they are global, and have devastating impact that a country cannot easily deal with sustainable even if it is rich. As such, the only way of addressing the problem is to accept that we are a global society that faces a global problem and that the problem can only be solved from a united front.

Risk management of climate change requires the involvement of the entire society. According to Van and Renn (2011), climate change, unlike other natural and manmade hazards, cannot be addressed from a passive point of view where parties get prepared for a disaster to occur by putting various measures of managing it in place. As discussed above, even the richest countries in the world cannot effectively deal with the problem of climate change.

Taking a passive role will mean the elimination of the entire humanity if the recent trends are anything to go by, especially the effect of cyclones which are directly associated with climate change. Every stakeholder must be pragmatic and determined to find solutions that can permanently address this problem. According to Gidden (2008), managing climate change cannot be done overnight.

It is a systematic process that starts with the change of attitude among the stakeholders and moves to the deliberate effort of eliminating or reducing the environmental stressors, then having measures that can help protect the environment. Leiserowitz (2006) says that these measures must be taken concurrently. As society struggles to reduce emissions, the industrial sector must be committed to reducing its emissions into the environment by finding ways of using green energy in its operations. As such, every stakeholder has a specific role to play in climate management. These different roles must be done effectively to achieve the expected results. In this section, the researcher will look at the roles of individual stakeholders in the governance of risk of climate change.

Role of scientists in decision-making process around climate change

Scientists are the most critical stakeholders in risk management of climate change. According to Power (2004), climate change is a natural problem that is best understood by the scientists. Long before the current impact of climate change had started, scientists had started sounding a warning of the impending danger of environmental pollution and the expected change in climate patterns. It was not easy for the rest of the society to believe the arguments put forth by the scientists.

The corporate world dismissed their warnings. However, it has been proven that indeed what they had predicted is what is taking place and with the exact magnitude. These scientists have also predicted that if the current events are not controlled, then the natural environment will not be able to sustain life anymore. In this section, it will be important to critically analyze the role played by scientists in managing the risk of climate change.

Scientists play an important role in collecting data needed in making decisions about climate change. The problem of climate change is scientific and cannot be easily understood by the rest of society. It is the scientists who are capable of collecting data about the changing climate patterns, the possible causes of these changes, and agents involved. Data collection needs a team of experts from various fields who can study climatic conditions and how they are affected by various environmental patterns. According to Mills (2011), data collection of climate-related factors may take years.

The scientists may need to take time to monitor the trends and determine the actors that cause the trend when collecting data. One of the biggest advantages in data collection by scientists is that they are often guided by scientific facts and not personal opinions, views of the majority, or any other reasons that may make it necessary to hide the truth. When not influenced by other parties negatively, the data collected by the scientists are always accurate.

Once they collect the data, then they get to the complex task of analyzing it to come up with specific findings. Analysis of data often involves bringing various interrelated factors together to have an explanation of why a given trend is taking place the way it does. For instance, the analysis of the drought in California must involve an understanding of the actors, how they act collectively and individually to cause the drought, and what measures can be taken to mitigate it (Grabosky 2014). The analysis will also involve determining why other parts of the country are not affected by this problem and if they may face the same problem shortly.

When analyzing the dangerous cyclones that struck the coastal regions of Japan recently, the analysis will start by looking at the massive earthquakes in the high seas that caused the cyclone, what caused the earthquakes, whether or not such earthquakes may occur soon, and if the impact will most likely be the same. As Tierney (2012) says, the analysis must be broad and must involve various experts. Environmental experts, especially those that are involved with the natural habitats such as forests, must also be involved in the analysis so that comprehensive information can be obtained from the analysis.

Once the analysis of the data has been done, then the scientists must get into the final stage of communicating this information to the relevant audience. This may appear to be the easiest task because it does not involve complex data collection or analysis. However, Bartley (2003) warns that it is the most challenging task, but very important. When data has been collected, analyzed, and a report written, it is often the hope of the scientists that the information will be used by the policymakers to guide in their decision-making processes.

If the recommendations made by the scientists are not taken into consideration by the policymakers, then the entire work they did becomes meaningless (Chukwumerije, Bulkeley, & Schroeder 2009). It is, therefore, important for these scientists to come up with ways of breaking down their complex scientific findings into simple explanations that can be understood by their audience. The scientists must also ensure that their findings are presented in a very convincing manner.

The target audience must be convinced of the report to support it. This may be challenging because some of the important stakeholders who must always be convinced to support such findings are the corporate leaders. The scientists must explain to them why the trends may affect their sustainability shortly and what can be done to address the current problem to make their businesses sustainable (Gili & Meyer 2008). To the political class, the scientists must ensure that the reports meet present and future political needs. This delicate balancing of the report by the scientists when presenting their final findings must be based on truth. There must be no attempts to manipulate facts because this may affect the overall credibility of the report.

Ways in which political decisions can impact the decision-making process related to climate change

The politicians are very important stakeholders in the fight against global climate change because of their strategic positions as heads of governments. Politicians at various levels play an important role in influencing the final decisions made in addressing the problem of climate change. This is the case in countries having democratic and dictatorial governments. China and Russia are communists’ states that are still controlled by a few elites who dictate how things are governed.

China, for instance, controls a big share of the country’s economy through ownership of very large companies. The political class has massive control over the activities taking place in the country (Abbott & Snidal 2013). When the government makes a decision, then the other stakeholders may not easily resist, especially given the high-handedness that have been witnessed in the recent past when it comes to crushing dissenting voices in China. It means that the political class in countries such as China has absolute power in controlling activities related to climate change. The government has the power to give regulatory policies concerning the amount of greenhouse gases that each company can release.

In democratic countries like the United States, the political class is also powerful, only that the power is spread to various leaders. For instance, the presidency, the Senate, and the Congress control almost all the decisions made in the United States. These are institutions made of politicians and are very powerful in defining the policies that the country embraces (Bartley 2007). In the fight against climate change, these three institutions must be committed to the fight.

The Senate and the Congress are responsible for enacting laws in this country. The findings made by the scientists will be presented to the two Houses so that they can be debated and a possible piece of legislation made. It is in the interest of the scientists that their policy recommendations are transformed into pieces of legislation because it is only at that level that there will be an assurance that the implementation will be done.

The presidency must also be committed to fighting climate change, and therefore, must support the two houses by approving the bills presented to the presidency so that they can become laws. The close coordination, commitment, openness, and ethical practice is what most of the politicians are lacking in the fight against climate change (Bennie 1998). They may reject a bill not because it does not address environmental concerns, but simply because it does not effectively address their political interests. In other instances, they may support an environmental bill not because it offers the best solution, but because it appears to be politically relevant. Commitment and ethics are necessary to ensure that political solutions to climate change problems are fully addressed.

It is also important to note that unlike other stakeholders, the political class has a means of ensuring that policies that they set are implemented. They control instruments of enforcement, the authority as the rulers, and financial capacity, making them the most powerful players in the fight against climate change. Various government agencies are responsible for environmental protection (Black 2001). These agencies can be involved in implementing the policies and laws developed to help manage climate change at the national level. Every government must commit its instruments in the fight against climate change.

According to Black (2008), there is also the influence that the political class has on the general public. Most of the politicians often have a huge following in the areas where they are elected hence they can have an impact on the activities of the individual electorates. Their political utterance may heavily influence the decision-making process related to climate change. For instance, their constant support for tree planting can help in fighting deforestation, especially in the developing nations where wood fuel is still a primary source of energy.

Ways in which insurance acts as a contributor to enhancing the role of climate change

The business community such as the insurance companies also has a major role to play in the fight against climate change. According to Braithwaite (2008), the problems that have been witnessed in the fight against climate change are associated with deeply rooted business interests. India recently rejected some of the proposed policies at the COP 21 that were held in Paris, France in December 2015. The major argument that it gave was that some of the policies may affect the country’s industrial sector. China rejected the Kyoto Protocol because it felt that it would affect its industrial sector. It is, therefore, clear that the business sector has a major role to play in the fight against climate change. Corporate leaders must find ways of ensuring that they continue with their production without posing any threat to the environment.

The insurance sector is often involved in the mitigation of both natural and manmade hazards. According to Büthe (2010), the contribution of the insurance sector can be considered both negative and positive depending on the approach taken. On one end, insurance companies play a significant role in compensating individuals and organizations that are affected by climate change-related hazards, making it possible for them to continue operations afterward. However, having an assurance of compensation may make the stakeholders less committed to finding lasting solutions to the problem of climate change.

Lessons learned from risk management of climate change

Several lessons have been drawn about risk management of climate change that teaches us a lot on issues associated with risk governance. One of the most important lessons is that risk governance requires teamwork. All the involved stakeholders must come together and act as one in finding solutions and implementing policies based on the findings made. It is also clear that risk governance is a continuous process.

The parties involved must be committed to meeting the changing needs in addressing the problem. It is also clear that risk governance requires creativity. New challenges keep on emerging and it is only through creativity and innovation that proper solutions can be achieved (Brenkert 2010).

The parties should often treat every hazard as unique to develop unique ways of addressing it. The analysis also shows that it is better to put measures that can stop risks from taking place that having measures to deal with it when it occurs. The government can’t have measures that can mitigate some of the devastating natural hazards such as tornadoes. The best solution is to take little measures that will help normalize the climate and reduce the rate at which such events may occur. It is also clear from the study that risk governance needs sincerity among the involved stakeholders. It is easy to come up with effective plans for managing risks if all the parties involved are sincere and committed to finding lasting ways of addressing the problem.

Risks are events that cannot be precisely predicted because they often strike when least expected, and their consequences can sometimes be devastating based on their nature and magnitude. It is, therefore very important to come up with effective measures that can be used to manage risks at organizational, national, and even global levels. In this study, the focus was on how climate change can be managed to minimize the magnitude of its impact on the national and global society. It is clear from the critical analysis above that management of climate change as a natural hazard provides some lessons about risk governance in general. The analysis reveals that managing climate change requires a united approach and commitment by all the stakeholders in finding lasting solutions. The paper emphasizes the need for all the stakeholders to be involved in risk governance to find lasting solutions.

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'I am striving to prevent natural hazards from becoming disasters’

University of Kansas faculty are striving to advance knowledge, interpret our world, solve problems, spark innovation, create beauty and catalyze imagination through their research, scholarship and creative activity. Through the “I Am Striving” series, we’ll learn more about what inspires KU researchers, as well as the goals and impact of their work. 

Q&A with Elaina Sutley, associate professor of civil, environmental & architectural engineering and associate dean of diversity, equity, inclusion & belonging 

Explain your research as you would explain it to someone outside your field, such as your grandparents. 

I study disasters like floods, wildfires, hurricanes, tornadoes and earthquakes. I integrate engineering and social science disciplines to understand what happens during disasters— to buildings, to infrastructure systems, to businesses and organizations to households, and to social networks— and understanding how these things change across the disaster lifecycle. What happens immediately, during the disaster, right after and through long-term recovery.

What does your research look like? What methods do you use? 

My research uses experimental, field-based and computational methods and really tries to bring the three of those together. A lot of times, that’s our winning combination — integrating structural engineering with social science and data science methods as well. A lot of times the research is in a laboratory, so we might be doing full-scale testing on different subassemblies or components and connections, or even a full-scale building, exposing it and loading it with extreme loading. Other times, we might have scaled models, where we're trying to understand how extreme events affect those loads, then create forces on the structures. When we're able to couple that experimental research with the field-based research and numerical models of the structures, we can glean really good insights on how to better design structures to then withstand those loads and withstand those forces.

A lot of the field-based research that I do, though, is with people. We use surveys, interviews, focus groups to try to understand their lived experiences during and after disasters. And then we use that information, a lot of times just in and of itself, but then we couple that with numerical research or computational models to try to model social processes. What we get from interacting with people in the field we can use to inform the model or sometimes validate the model. One example I have is my research team developed a housing recovery model. It predicts how many times a household may have to move after a disaster if they're initially dislocated from their home, and how long it may take for them to secure permanent housing, considering their sociodemographics, the resources that they have access to, and their initial disaster experience.

What inspires your research? Why are you passionate about this work? 

When I was a graduate student at the University of Alabama, a superstorm of tornadoes came through Tuscaloosa and devastated parts of the city and had a tremendous impact on me. It was the first time that I learned … that the building codes did not have ways to consider tornadoes in the design of structures. They do now, and I got to be part of that group who wrote the provision; so that's exciting. It really opened my eyes to the differential impact that people experience with disasters and how long recovery can take for some — and how that can especially be true along racial and socioeconomic lines. Since then I've been inspired to really make sure that all of my research takes into account those differential experiences and is working to support people who are living at the margins.

How does your research directly impact your field, society, Kansas and the world? 

Translation and adoption of research is so important to me. I cannot let it just live in an academic journal article, for example. I'm on several national committees, several different boards. I integrate people's experiences into my research with community engaged research.

The piece I'm most proud of was being able to be a part of a small group of people who wrote provisions for tornado loads in Alabama that are currently in our building code now. The impact is that now guidance — and sometimes requirements — exists for how to design buildings to withstand tornadoes.

What is a recent study/example of work you’d like to share? 

There are so many different projects that I love, but I think the one that I have to share with you is the ARISE project . ARISE stands for Adaptive and Resilient Infrastructure driven by Social Equity. I love it because it's interdisciplinary, because it's driven by social equity. It puts people at the margin in the focus of the work. And I love it because it's research for Kansans by Kansans. It's really special that KU is teamed up with Kansas State University, Wichita State University, and almost a dozen other colleges and universities across the state of Kansas on research, education and workforce development initiatives.

A central goal of the project is to be able to develop this decision support tool that communities can use to inform resource investments, resource distribution, that can then be used to support more equitable and resilient infrastructure. I've had the opportunity, and many people on the team have had the opportunity, to engage and talk with local government representatives, representatives from community advocacy organizations, and individuals across the state. I'm learning so much in terms of what equity and resilience means in Kansas, and I'm learning so much about Kansas in general.

What do you hope are some of the outcomes of your research and work? 

The best outcome of my research would be that my research is no longer needed. Until that time comes, I think that some of the outcomes that I strive for are for engineers, in particular, to recognize that engineering systems have to be designed with more than just mechanics in mind. That we have to consider the capacity of people and communities to deal with when we have failed engineering systems. I think that would be a tremendous outcome of my work. More tangibly, I hope to incorporate more of my research findings on building code provisions into more equitable mitigation and recovery policies to support better equity and better resilience for all.

Natural hazards essay

Natural hazards and disasters are inevitable. The United States is frequently hit by different types of hazards and disasters and responds to each disaster accordingly. Disasters are not natural. There are natural hazards and man-made hazards in the world, but not every hazard becomes a disaster (Schwab, Eschelbach & Brower, 2007, p 2).

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has developed various programs to assist in identifying hazards before they turn into disasters, mitigating damages from these disasters including reducing the loss of life and property, and providing funds to States, Tribes, Territories who have been impacted by a disaster to assist them in the recovery process. Hazard Mitigation Grant Program Mitigation can be defined as “any sustained action to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to people and property from hazards and their effects,” (Schwab, Eschelbach & Brower, 2007, p 22).

The Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) was established to maximize mitigation and develop the most cost effective and efficient mitigation projects possible. HMGP is regulated by Section 404 of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act and provides grants to state and local governments to implement long term hazard mitigation programs after a disaster has occurred. The FEMA has authority over the HMGP. The purpose of the HMGP is to reduce the loss of life and property when a disaster occurs and to enable mitigation measures to be implemented immediately after the disaster has ended to assist in faster recovery.

The mitigation grants offered by HMGP are available to States, Tribes, and Territories. Those jurisdictions, if eligible, will apply for a grant through FEMA and if granted, will provide sub-grants to local governments within the disaster area on an as needed basis. Non-profit organizations may also be eligible to apply for a grant through the HMGP. HMGP funds may be used for a variety of projects, but those projects must serve to reduce the loss of life and property when future disasters occur.

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The project must provide a long term solution to a problem and the potential savings of a project must be greater than the cost of implementing the project. Projects may include acquisition of property, retrofitting structures, elevation of structures in flood zones, development and implementation of vegetative management programs, minor flood control projects that do not duplicate the flood control activities of other federal agencies, localized flood control projects, and post-disaster building code activities. The most cost-effective and appropriate projects must be selected for development with HMGP funds.

FEMA grants final approval on all projects that will be using HMGP funds. Local jurisdictions will submit their project applications to the State government (or the Tribe or Territory government). The State, Tribe, or Territory will then prioritize the projects received and forward the eligible projects to FEMA for approval. Since funding for the HMGP is limited, the projects selected must utilize the funds in the most effective way. The HMGP may provide a State, Territory, or Tribe with 7. 5% of the total disaster grants awarded by FEMA.

The Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000 allows States, Tribes, and Territories who meet higher mitigation planning criteria to qualify for a higher percentage of funding. The HMGP can fund up to 75% of the eligible costs of a project, and the State, Territory, or Tribe must provide a 25% match. The 25% match can not consist of funding received from other federal agencies with the exception of funding provided by the Community Development Block Grant program from the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Hazards and Mitigation Strategies

There are four different types of natural hazards that can occur (Schwab, Eschelbach & Brower, 2007, p 3): 1) Meteorological (hurricanes, tropical storms, tornadoes, snow, ice storms, and thunder storms); 2) Geological (earthquakes, landslides, volcanoes, and tsunamis); 3) Hydrological (floods, droughts, and wildfires); and 4) Extraterrestrial (meteorites). With each hazard a different mitigation strategy must be utilized. Each hazard comes with its own set of problems and a unique set of solutions must be developed to mitigate the damages resulting from each hazard.

Three hazards that have affected the United States in recent years are tornadoes, flooding, and drought. The mitigation strategies for each of these hazards will be unique and must address the specific problems that occur when each hazard strikes an area. Mitigation strategies are necessary in order to limit the amount of damage an affected area sustains. Without mitigation strategies, natural hazards can easily develop into disasters. Developing efficient mitigation strategies will allow emergency teams to maximize resources, establish control, and limit the loss sustained by the affected areas (Schwab, Eschelbach & Brower, 2007, pp.

222-231) Tornadoes A tornado is defined as a violently rotating column of air which is in contact with either a cumulonimbus cloud or a cumulus cloud base and the surface of the earth (Wikipedia, 2007). The average tornado will be 250 feet across, have wind speeds of 110 miles or less and only travel a few miles before dissipating. There are many different types of tornadoes. In the United States, the majority of tornadoes occur in a region called Tornado Alley. Tornado Alley consists of the region from Texas north through Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota.

Tornadoes have been known to strike in other states such as Iowa, Ohio, and Alabama, among others (although rare). Tornadoes occur year round in the United States, but migrate to and from different regions. During the winter months, the Southeastern United States receives the largest number of tornadoes. The Central United States will receive the largest number of tornadoes during the spring months, and the Northern United States will receive the largest number of tornadoes during the summer months.

In order to reduce the loss of life and property that occurs after a tornado strikes, the most effective mitigation strategies must be implemented. Early detection is a key mitigation strategy in reducing the loss of life. The United States National Weather Service (NWS) utilizes three different detection strategies to warn citizens living within a region prior to a tornado striking and with enough time for the region to be evacuated to reduce the loss of life. The NWS started training Storm Spotters in the mid 1970’s to spot key features of a storm which could indicate a tornado approaching.

The Storm Spotters were local police officers, firefighters, emergency medical technicians, and local citizens. There are more than 230,000 trained storm spotters in the United States. When the storm spotters see the key features of a storm approaching, they will alert their local agency who will activate the public warning systems for the region. The Storm Spotters are trained to recognize from a distance whether or not an approaching storm is considered a supercell, which will have a rain-free base under the updraft and form a rotating wall cloud. A supercell can be identified by its shape and structure.

Only wall clouds that rotate are considered tornadoes. Radar technology is also used in early detection of tornadoes. In the United States, Doppler Radars are used to detect tornadoes and alert the citizens living in the region about to be hit. Doppler Radars measure the velocity and radial direction of the winds of a storm and can identify rotation from more than 100 miles away. Tornadoes are also identified by using the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites. Flooding A flood is defined as an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land (Wikipedia, 2007).

Flooding is usually caused by a river or lake overflowing its banks, or by extreme storms and rain. In the United States, the most common cause of flooding is excessive rainfall, snowmelt, or dam failure. Floods can occur in almost any region in the country. The damages caused by flooding include damage to structures and buildings, loss of life by drowning (human or animal), contamination of water supply, diseases due to unhygienic conditions in the region, a shortage of food crops, economic hardship, and psychological trauma due to the loss of loved ones or property.

The best mitigation strategies that should be implemented to reduce the loss of life and property due to flooding are the development of levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs. These devices will assist in preventing rivers from rising above the bank lines. The early detection of storms methods discussed earlier can also assist in mitigating the damages from flooding by allowing the citizens in the region to prepare for a flood by sandbagging doorways, evacuating, and boarding up windows.

Drought A drought is defined as an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply (Wikipedia, 2007). A drought occurs when a region does not receive an average or above average amount of precipitation. The main causes of a drought are above average prevalence of high pressure systems, winds carrying continental air masses instead of oceanic air masses, oceanic temperature cycles such as El Nino, deforestation, and some speculate global warming.

In the United States the Southwestern states are affected most by drought such as Southern California, Arizona, Nevada, and New Mexico. The consequences of a drought include death of livestock, reduced crops, wildfires, desertification, dust storms, malnutrition and dehydration which can lead to disease, famine, social unrest, mass migration, war, reduced electricity, and an increase in snakes in the region. There are a number of mitigation strategies that can be used to reduce the consequences suffered by a drought.

Monitoring the drought can help to prevent a man made drought as well as predict any increased risk for wildfires. Desalinating the sea water will allow it to be used to irrigate crops and allow it to be used for consumption which will reduce the loss of crops and reduce the level of dehydration in the citizens of the region. Planning crop rotation in the region can reduce land erosion which will enable farmers to plant less water dependant crops. Collecting and storing rainwater from roofs and other catchments can assist with water supply during a drought.

One of the most effective strategies in mitigating the damages caused by a drought is by enforcing water restrictions such as the use of sprinklers, washing motor vehicles, filling swimming pools, and ensuring that indoor water sources such as shower heads and faucets contain conservation devices. Hazard Identification Techniques and Risk Assessment Strategies There are many hazard identification techniques available for use in the United States today. However, the effectiveness of each technique depends on the region and the type of disaster most likely to strike that region.

The NWS is one of six agencies that make up the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and is the main agency that implements hazard identification techniques, while FEMA’s role is to implement mitigation strategies. The NWS utilizes a four-tiered system to identify hazards and alert the public of impending hazardous weather: 1) Outlook; 2) Watch; 3) Warning; and 4) Advisory. These four tiers work together to reduce the loss of life and property that could result from hazardous weather.

The NWS issues a hazardous weather outlook on a daily basis that addresses any potentially hazardous weather or hydrologic event that could occur within the next seven days. This outlook includes information about severe thunderstorms, heavy rain, flooding, winter weather, extreme heat or extreme cold, etc. It assists citizens of a potentially affected region with preparedness and evacuation to reduce the loss of life and property. Outlooks are also issued on an event-driven basis.

Watches are used once the risk of hazardous weather has increased significantly, but the occurrence, location, and timing of the hazardous event is still uncertain. Watches also assist in providing citizens of a potentially affected area enough time to prepare for the hazardous event. A watch indicates that hazardous weather is possible, but not imminent. Warnings are issued when hazardous weather is occurring or imminent. This warning means that the hazardous weather will pose a threat to life or property and people in the affected region need to take protective action such as evacuation.

Like warnings, advisories are also issued when hazardous weather is occurring or imminent. Advisories are issued for hazardous weather that is less serious than conditions in which warnings have been issued. However, the advisory is issued when the hazardous weather may still cause a significant threat to life and property if caution is not taken. In order to reduce risk of hazardous weather, FEMA has developed a new software companion to the HAZUS-MH software called HAZUS-MH Risk Assessment Tool (RAT).

This new software will enable local governments to produce risk assessment reports for earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes. The software system pulls natural hazard data, inventory data, and loss estimate data into a preformatted summary table. This information can assist decision makers in developing and implementing the most effective mitigation plans for a specific region (FEMA, 2007). Conclusion The loss of life and property from hazardous conditions can be great. However, in order to reduce the loss of life and property early identification techniques and mitigation plans must be developed.

In the United States, FEMA with cooperation from the NWS, State and local governments, as well as other federal agencies, have developed comprehensive programs that assist the citizens of the United States affected by disaster to recover quickly. By developing programs such as the HMGP and utilizing effective mitigation strategies, hazard identification techniques, and risk assessment tools, the United States has reduced the number of casualties and the amount of property and life lost due to hazards.

Federal Emergency Management Agency. HAZUS: Risk Assessment Tool (2007). Retrieved on December 6, 2007 from http://www. fema. gov/plan/prevent/hazus/dl_rat. shtm Federal Emergency Management Agency. Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (2007). Retrieved on December 6, 2007 from http://www. fema. gov/government/grant/hmgp/index. shtm Schwab, A. J. , Eschelbach, K. , & Brower, D. J. (2007). Hazard Mitigation and Preparedness: Building Resilient Communities. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Wikipedia. (2007, December 6). Drought. Retrieved December 6, 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Drought Wikipedia. (2007, December 6). Flood. Retrieved December 6, 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Flooding Wikipedia. (2007, December 6). National Weather Service. Retrieved December 6, 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/National_Weather_Service Wikipedia. (2007, December 6). Tornado. Retrieved December 6, 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Tornado

Flood resilience: a review of evolving definitions

• Original Paper
• Open access
• Published: 30 April 2024

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• Sophie Laidlaw   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0004-1681-4057 1 &
• Sarah Percival 1  

Flooding is one of the most complicated and prolific natural hazards that communities face. Added to this, more people will be affected by this hazard than any other in the future. Within recent years, there has been a notable shift in flood risk management from risk-based approaches to resilience-based. Considered a novel and necessary approach, yet no single definition of flood resilience exists. Leading to confusion surrounding the applicability of the concept. A systematic review of flood resilience definitions was hence conducted, covering a 5-year period from 2017 to 2021, resulting in 65 papers, supplemented by a narrative review (to include papers outside of the scope of the study), which added a further 11 papers. Results indicated that whilst there is no singular definition for flood resilience, there are similarities between definitions through the use of synonymous language. Whilst there is evidence of these definitions evolving over time, there is still confusion over the definition. Further research is required to further comprehend the definitions of resilience, helping to develop the use of resilience within flood sciences and corresponding flood risk management practices.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

The severity of hydrological hazards is ever increasing across the globe, heavily impacting the livelihood of communities worldwide (Kundzewicz and Matczak 2015 ), with approximately 34.2 million people being affected between 1990 and 2020 (Salas 2023 ). It is expected by 2050 that 70% of the world’s population will live in urban areas vulnerable to flooding (da Silva et al. 2012 ). Increasing the likelihood of flood-related disasters due to sheer community exposure. This risk is further compounded by ever increasing climatological changes and population pressures, with flooding expected to affect more people in the future than any other natural hazard (Hallegatte et al. 2017 ). Furthermore, current levels of flood adaption are considered inadequate, especially within the UK (Committee on Climate Change 2016 ; Percival et al. 2019 ), where 1 in 6 houses are at risk from flooding (Environment Agency 2023 ). Hence, there is an urgent need for resilient flood risk management and the research to drive it. Ensuring vulnerable communities are prepared for flooding and understand the risks they potentially face. Leading to a reduction in flood impacts including the mental and economic burdens they can have.

Flooding is a complicated and prolific hazard and one the UK for example has experienced many times over the years resulting in varying levels of impact. This includes coincident flood events, which is a combination of several flood types at once, adding further layers of complexity to an already very complicated problem (Thorne 2014 ). This was especially the case in the UK 2007 floods, where a combination of heavy rainfall and high-water levels caused by unusual weather (Environment Agency 2007 ), led to around 48,000 households being affected, 13 deaths (Cabinet Office 2008 ), and an economic cost of around £3.2 billion (Penning-Rosswell, 2014 ). This was then followed in 2013/14, where a combination of pluvial, fluvial, coastal and groundwater flooding caused significant damage to the South West of the UK, costing the economy a further £1.3 billion (Environment Agency 2016 ). Worldwide, there have also been several major and complicated flood events, particularly in the last 2 years, including the 2021 floods in Germany and Belgium (Copernicus 2021 ), the devastating 2023 Pakistan floods that affected over 30 million people (The Guardian 2023 ), and finally the 2023 Greek and Libyan floods where a combination of extreme rainfall and multiple dam collapse caused more than 6000 deaths (Flemming 2023 ; UNICEF 2023 ). Alas, these types of flood disasters (complex, costly and life-changing) are expected to increase drastically in the future, and a real shift in flood management from risk- based to resilience-based approaches, is vitally needed (Aven 2019 ). This shift is crucial to ensure management of our complex systems and reduce vulnerability within areas most at risk to flooding (Morrison et al. 2018 ). It is widely accepted that floods cannot be stopped from occurring, therefore learning from previous experiences to help reduce hardship and community vulnerability (resilience) is essential to help us deliver effective flood risk management (Kuang and Liao 2020 ).

Whilst considered a novel approach in natural hazards and flooding, resilience is widely used in other disciplines, such as psychology, ecology, and medicine. Holling ( 1973 ) first introduced the term of resilience into ecology, providing a definition referring to the persistence of systems, their ability to absorb change whilst maintaining the same relationships, similar to an equilibrium. This has provided a backbone for other fields to build on, however, within flood resilience, it has created ambiguity surrounding a definitive application of the concept, with no single definition available (Adedeji et al 2018 ; McClymont et al 2020a , b ; Disse et al 2020 ), and with different branches within flood resilience (i.e., community flood resilience, urban flood resilience, climate resilience) produced, all utilising different definitions. Understanding the definitions of flood resilience is important in creating clarity within the field, which is currently lacking in several aspects of the term and the corresponding management (McClymont et al. 2020b ). Whilst risk-based approaches can consider resilience within vulnerability measurements (IPCC, 2014 ; Percival and Teeuw 2019 ; Biswas 2023 ), it may lead to generalisation or marginalisation of resilience, and therefore reduces its significance within flood risk analyses and the measures based on them. This creates irregularities that can lead to questions regarding the dependability of the measurements and the flood risk management established due to them.

Hence this paper explored the evolution of resilience definitions within the flooding sector, discussing how differences within the definitions may be influenced by the direction of research, as well as the field in which the research is based (i.e., disaster resilience, urban resilience, flood resilience). The aim of this review being to comprehend the current definitions of flood resilience within the sector in order to enhance the applicability of this desired outcome within flood risk management and associated policies.

2 Methodology

A systematic review was conducted over a 5-year period, followed up by a supplementary narrative review, including key papers known by the authors, that may fall outside of the systematic review margins. A total of 76 papers were reviewed, outlined in Fig.  1 .

Flow diagram of the search criteria used to identify papers including definitions of flood resilience

A systematic review was first deployed using a pre-determined eligibility criterion, including a key word search, using the terms “Disaster Resilience” and “Flood Resilience” on Scopus and Google Scholar. This provided an opportunity to review papers not previously known by the authors, providing a comprehensive cover of the data set (Petticrew and Roberts 2008 ). The review was conducted over a 5-year time frame which provided a data set of n  = 827 and resulted in a search from 1st January 2017 to 31st December 2021.

Initially during the screening stage, the key word searches provided over 200 results. A more enhanced search was then deployed to further hone these results. This limited the results to presence of key words in the title, abstract, key words, and highlights of search results, including:

Papers published within the Environmental or Social Sciences sector.

Papers and articles published in English.

Open access journals.

Article or conference papers.

Whilst these criteria potentially could have limited the search field, by limiting results to this specific criterion, it ensured results were focused within natural hazards, specifically resilience to flooding. A full text of each paper that met the criteria was then obtained and a final criterion was introduced (Fig.  1 ); contain a definition of resilience ( n  =  65 ). This was used to ensure that each of the papers were focused on resilience, and the definitions could be coded and categorised, dependent on the focus of the paper, the type of resilience discussed, and the focus of the definition.

To enhance the review dataset even further, a narrative review (Fig.  1 ) was conducted to provide further depth and integrity. This included papers previously known to the authors, that were outside of the search scope (i.e., outside of the 5-year timeframe) yet were seen as pioneering ideas within the resilience sector. This added an additional 11 papers to the review.

3 Results and discussion

Initial analysis of the papers indicated research within flood resilience is increasing; this is potentially due to shifts from risk-based approaches to more pragmatic resilience-based ways of thinking, with further increases expected in the future (Fig.  2 ). This change in perspective has also translated in the definitions of flood resilience, with over 30 definitions uncovered within this review. The previously mentioned definition provided by Holling ( 1973 ), is still assumed to be the pioneering definition, and used within multiple papers included within this review (Manyena 2006 ; Cutter et al. 2008 ). Creating a foundation for further definitions to be built upon, which is evident in many of the flood resilience definitions highlighted within this study.

Resilience papers published including a definition of flood resilience, 2017–2021 (n = 65)

A frequency analysis was also conducted during the review and showed similar language is used throughout the definitions of resilience within the dataset. The most common words were ‘absorb’ ( n  =  25 ), ‘recover’ ( n  =  25), and ‘adapt’ ( n  =  22) (Fig.  3 ). This language is synonymous within not only flood resilience but also flood risk and disaster risk in general. The majority of the dataset provided differing definitions of flood resilience, yet, the most common was stated in 6 papers (Atreya and Kunreuther 2016 ; Keating et al. 2017 ; Campbell et al. 2019 ; Rezende et al. 2019 ; Laurien et al 2020 ; Hochrainer-Stigler et al. 2020 ) and was provided by Keating et al., ( 2017 ) as “ the ability of a system, community, or society to pursue its social, ecological, and economic development and growth objectives, while managing its disaster risk over time, in a mutually reinforcing way ”. Suggesting there are different elements of flood resilience that need to be considered including aspects of our systems, our communities, and society. This definition is one of the only ones that reflects reality, as all aspects of life are considered within, this is not always the case in other definitions. Whilst some studies create diverse and well-rounded definitions, which are not specific to a singular source, this is not always the case. Haque and Doberstein’s ( 2021 ) definition of community flood resilience simplifies the term, only referencing a community’s ability to withstand external factors, with minimal support. Even though complex definitions (such as Keating et al., ( 2017 )), provide an in depth understanding of flood resilience, simple definitions usually provide a foundation that complex definitions can be built upon, which is vital for the evolution of definitions such as flood resilience.

TagCloud of key words observed in flood resilience definitions included within the study

Early definitions of flood resilience appear to encompass a broader concept of resilience, for example Wildavsky ( 1991 ), referred to it as ‘bouncing back’ after unanticipated dangers, which overtime, becomes more focused and branches into several disciplines within flood resilience, including community, socio-economic and systems resilience, with overlap between the disciplines, as shown in Fig.  4 . Papers were categorised by the focus of their definitions (Fig.  4 ), with systems equalling physical based approaches, community equating to definitions that consider how communities react to flooding, and socio-ecological definitions reflecting on the relationships between society and ecosystems. The ‘other’ category encompasses more generalised definitions, such as Xu et al ( 2021 ) ‘ The ability to prepare and plan for, absorb, recover from, and more successfully adapt to adverse event ’. These types of definitions are recorded throughout the review and are generally tautological.

Aspects of resilience included within flood resilience definitions from the review

McDonald-Harker et al. ( 2021 ) focused their research on resilience amongst children and youth in disasters and used a socio-economic definition of disaster resilience within the study: “ capacity to navigate to health-enhancing resources that nurture individual, relational and community assets, as well as the capacity of individuals to negotiate with others for these resources to be provided to them in culturally meaningful ways ", which also encompasses community resilience. However, He et al., ( 2021 ), who published just a month later, provided a definition of flood resilience predominantly relating to physical systems, their capacities, and the ability to function the same. This can be considered a systems-based definition. Even though this study is also based on social flood resilience, it uses a definition that is more engineering-based, to encompass multiple aspects of resilience. Highlighting the direction of the research/project affects how the definitions are established.

Further evidence of dichotomy can be observed between the different fields of research. Within this review, 57% of the papers were flood resilience based, with the remaining 43% split relatively equally between disaster resilience (10%), climate resilience (6%), community flood resilience (11%), urban flood resilience (9%) and other, uncategorised resilience (6%) (Fig.  5 ). Definitions of flood resilience between these categories differ, with some overlap between the fields. For example, there are differences between urban flood resilience and flood resilience, however, there is overlap when it comes to the socio-economic focus of the two. Wardekker et al., ( 2020 ) defines urban flood resilience as “ the ability of a city or urban system to withstand a wide array of shocks and stresses ”. A second definition was also provided which had a greater socio-economic base, referring to how communities, businesses and systems adapt and grow after a disaster. Within urban flood resilience, there is usually a single definition provided, sometimes combining physical and socio-economic definitions, that are not specific to just flooding, but also other natural hazards. For example, Agrawal et al., ( 2020 ), who defined resilience as “ the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate, adapt to, transform and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions through risk management. ” Highlighting, whilst there are differences between the definitions, urban flood resilience appears to be defined in a much simpler way than flood resilience, whilst at the same time conveying a similar message. This indicates that a complex definition of flood resilience may not be required for all aspects of flood resilience, and potentially a simple one, depending on the context, could be enough.

Papers included within the review split into resilience types (n = 109)

As a relatively new concept, there is a level of evolution expected within the term flood resilience, from simplistic definitions to more advanced and specific definitions, focusing on the different aspects of flood resilience. With increasing diversity over time, it is increasingly more difficult to define flood resilience. This has been widely observed within other fields, causing a lack of convergence (Monte et al. 2021 ), creating confusion in emerging topics or associated management. For example, Perry ( 2018 ) discussed the evolution of definitions within disaster resilience. Whilst there is a level of evolution expected within disaster resilience, since it is a relatively new concept, this increasing diversification of the definitions is making it increasingly difficult to define, however, this could be seen as a more accurate reflection of reality.

Due to the several branches of flood resilience, (i.e. urban flood resilience, community flood resilience, coastal flood resilience) the evolution of definitions is increasingly complex, and branches in many directions. However, there is evidence of evolvement, within all sectors of flooding. For example, Murdock et al., ( 2018 ), who focused on flood resilience, provided a simple definition, referring to coping with disturbances. This was then built on by Hemmati et al., ( 2020 ), who also focused on flood resilience, by suggesting that resilience is not only the ability to cope, but also to recover and adapt to any adverse effects. Whilst these are both systems based definitions, the evolution and addition to Murdock et al., ( 2018 ) definition has provided a richer definition, that not only focuses on coping, but also recovery, which is now viewed as a key part to flood resilience. This evolution suggests that as research develops, and a greater understanding of flood resilience is developed, the definitions become increasingly diverse, and include more key features (included in Fig.  3 ). Whilst this is expected within novel approaches, the continuation of divergence and inclusion of differing defining features can cause complications when trying to advance science (Quarentelli, 1995) and any management and/or policies related to that science.

There is further evidence of definitions becoming more well-rounded and inclusive of all aspects of flood resilience. Whilst earlier definitions (Klein et al. ( 2003 ), Pelling ( 2003 ) and Cutter et al., ( 2008 )) tend to focus on one aspect of flood resilience (i.e. systems or community), there is a notable increase of inclusion of 2 or more aspects of flood resilience, as early as 2005, with the UNISDR defining flood resilience as ‘The capacity of a system, community or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting or changing in order to reach and maintain an acceptable level of functioning and structure. This is determined by the degree to which the social system is capable of organising itself to increase this capacity for learning from past disasters for better future protection and to improve risk reduction measures’ (UNISDR, 2005 ; Manyena 2006 ). Whilst these definitions are still limited, it indicates that researchers are focusing more on the holistic element of flood resilience, with it not only being considered a social or physical component, but multi-dimensional. This idea has been adopted in other fields of resilience, such as Walker et al., ( 2002 ), who suggested that resilience could be defined using three key attributes: 1. maintenance of structure and function in the face of disturbance, 2. the ability to self-organise in response or anticipation to disturbance, 3. capacity for learning and adaptation (Bohensky and Leitch 2014 ). Whilst this incorporates different aspects of resilience, it could be considered as reductionist when defining flood resilience, due to the complexity/reality of its nature.

Within the UK public sector, there are also variations in the definitions, if one is even provided. Within the HM Government ( 2016 ) National Flood Resilience Review, the focus is still very much risk-based, focusing on infrastructure and defences. However, the Flood and Coastal Erosion Risk Management (FCERM) Scheme, set out by the Environment Agency, defines resilience in terms of flooding and coastal change, referring to the capacity of not only people but also places. Whilst it still refers to ‘protecting’ people and places, it also incorporates recovery and adaptation to coastal changes and climate changes (Environment Agency 2023 ). This shows there are further considerations of flood resilience within the governmental sector, and the understanding of the concept is developing, but not at the same rate as wider research.

Overall, whilst research into flood resilience is increasing and diversifying, there is still no one consensus on the definition of flood resilience. Due to the many branches of flood resilience, many of the definitions provided focus on different aspects of flooding, however, the flood resilience definitions can be grouped into community, socio-economic and systems resilience. These groupings provide organisation for the flood resilience definitions, with many encompassing more than one grouping (i.e. Heinzlef et al. ( 2019 ); Hochrainer-Stigler et al ( 2020 ); Slavíková, Hartmann, and Thaler, ( 2021 )). Whilst there is evident of diversification of flood resilience definitions over time, they appear to use synonymous language (Fig.  3 ), yet there is very few repeated throughout the review. Hence, whilst the language used is very similar between definitions, the focus of the paper it originated from influences the definition provided, increasing the complexity of the definitions. Although this is expected, it may not be necessary for future definitions. Furthermore, though complex definitions of flood resilience can provide a deeper understanding, a simple baseline definition may be enough and more effective, especially when the definitions are being provided to the general public or other non-expert stakeholders. This definition can then be built on depending on the direction of the study/project and the stakeholders involved.

Finally, whilst this study has indicated there is a level of evolution within definitions of flood resilience, there are limitations to this study. These include the scope of the systematic review. Conducted over a span of 5 years, only more recent publications were included within the analysis. This may have created a bias towards how the term has evolved within the field due to only including more recent research. Whilst this was supplemented with a narrative review, the research’s scope was still small. Whilst the focus of this review was directed towards flood resilience, there are many other fields within natural hazards that utilise the concept of resilience, which may provide a more comprehensive definition. By expanding the criteria and timespan of the research a more comprehensive review of resilience could take place. Not only furthering our understanding of flood and disaster resilience, but also resilience to other natural hazards. Utilising previous resilience research can aid in the creation of a base definition that can be built upon within multiple hazard-related fields. Leading to a more thorough understanding of the patterns of the use of the term resilience and the definitions provided. This will allow future research to further understand previous uses of the definition, with the aim to progress definitions of resilience, to help comprehend the idea further and provide a basis for new research and effective risk management.

4 Conclusion

The frequency and intensity of natural hazards, especially flooding, are expected to increase over the coming years. Previously, research has focused on risk, however, there is a need to shift to resilience-based approaches. However, resilience is widely used within the field of social sciences and psychology; and this has created ambiguity surrounding the definition of resilience particularly in the field of natural hazards. Hence a systematic and narrative review of flood resilience via 65 papers was presented in this article and found that whilst the frequency of flood resilience research is increasing, there is still no single definition for flood resilience, creating confusion, complexity and potentially misuse of the term. Currently, flood resilience definitions are split between several fields, however they can mostly be grouped into community, socio-economic and systems resilience, with many incorporating two or more of these. The language used between the definitions is similar, however very few definitions were repeated directly. Over time, the definition has evolved, with earlier definitions being considered simple and later ones increasing in complexity. Furthermore, overtime, there is also an element of dichotomy that has influenced the definition used.

Overall, whilst there currently is no single definition for flood resilience, many of them utilise similar language, and portray similar messages. The differences are expected to be due to the novel nature of the term within the field and has been witnessed in other fields. However, for the term to become more widely used, it needs to become more definitive and ideally with a general overarching definition, that will ultimately help understanding and application of the term. Providing a foundation for resilient flood risk management protocols to be built upon, leading to sustainable and resilient responses to flooding.

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Laidlaw, S., Percival, S. Flood resilience: a review of evolving definitions. Nat Hazards (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-024-06627-9

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Received : 09 October 2023

Accepted : 12 April 2024

Published : 30 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-024-06627-9

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