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Journal of Educational Psychology

Publishes psychological research pertaining to education across all ages and educational levels.

Impact Factor: 4.9

Journal of Diversity in Higher Education

Publishes empirical research focused on issues related to issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion in post-secondary environments.

Impact Factor: 2.4

A publication of the National Association of Diversity Officers in Higher Education

Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology

Publishes teacher-ready reviews of current research and contemporary theories as well as empirical research designed to foster systematic intentional changes to improve teaching and learning outcomes.

School Psychology

Formerly known as School Psychology Quarterly A publication of APA Division 16 (School Psychology), the journal publishes empirical studies and literature reviews of the psychology of education and services for children in school settings, encompassing a full range of methodologies and orientations, including educational, cognitive, social, cross-cultural, and more.

Impact Factor: 3.0

Formerly known as  School Psychology Quarterly

A publication of APA Division 16 (School Psychology), the journal publishes empirical studies and literature reviews of the psychology of education and services for children in school settings, encompassing a full range of methodologies and orientations, including educational, cognitive, social, cross-cultural, and more.

Impact Factor: 2.076

Impact Factor: 5.178

Impact Factor: 1.294

A publication of the National Association  of Diversity Officers in Higher Education

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What Is Educational Psychology?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

• Major Perspectives
• Topics of Study

Frequently Asked Questions

Educational psychology is the study of how people learn , including teaching methods, instructional processes, and individual differences in learning. It explores the cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and social influences on the learning process. Educational psychologists use this understanding of how people learn to develop instructional strategies and help students succeed in school.

This branch of psychology focuses on the learning process of early childhood and adolescence. However, it also explores the social, emotional, and cognitive processes that are involved in learning throughout the entire lifespan.

The field of educational psychology incorporates a number of other disciplines, including developmental psychology , behavioral psychology , and cognitive psychology . Approaches to educational psychology include behavioral, developmental, cognitive, constructivist, and experiential perspectives.

This article discusses some of the different perspectives taken within the field of educational psychology, topics that educational psychologists study, and career options in this field.

8 Things to Know About Educational Psychology

Perspectives in educational psychology.

As with other areas of psychology, researchers within educational psychology tend to take on different perspectives when considering a problem. These perspectives focus on specific factors that influence learning, including learned behaviors, cognition, experiences, and more.

The Behavioral Perspective

This perspective suggests that all behaviors are learned through conditioning. Psychologists who take this perspective rely firmly on the principles of operant conditioning to explain how learning happens.

For example, teachers might reward learning by giving students tokens that can be exchanged for desirable items such as candy or toys. The behavioral perspective operates on the theory that students will learn when rewarded for "good" behavior and punished for "bad" behavior.

While such methods can be useful in some cases, the behavioral approach has been criticized for failing to account for attitudes , emotions, and intrinsic motivations for learning.

The Developmental Perspective

This perspective focuses on how children acquire new skills and knowledge as they develop. Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development is one example of an important developmental theory looking at how children grow intellectually.

By understanding how children think at different stages of development, educational psychologists can better understand what children are capable of at each point of their growth. This can help educators create instructional methods and materials aimed at certain age groups.

The Cognitive Perspective

The cognitive approach has become much more widespread, mainly because it accounts for how factors such as memories, beliefs, emotions , and motivations contribute to the learning process. This theory supports the idea that a person learns as a result of their own motivation, not as a result of external rewards.

Cognitive psychology aims to understand how people think, learn, remember, and process information.

Educational psychologists who take a cognitive perspective are interested in understanding how kids become motivated to learn, how they remember the things that they learn, and how they solve problems, among other topics.

The Constructivist Approach

This perspective focuses on how we actively construct our knowledge of the world. Constructivism accounts for the social and cultural influences that affect how we learn.

Those who take the constructivist approach believe that what a person already knows is the biggest influence on how they learn new information. This means that new knowledge can only be added on to and understood in terms of existing knowledge.

This perspective is heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky , who proposed ideas such as the zone of proximal development and instructional scaffolding.

Experiential Perspective

This perspective emphasizes that a person's own life experiences influence how they understand new information. This method is similar to constructivist and cognitive perspectives in that it takes into consideration the experiences, thoughts, and feelings of the learner.

This method allows someone to find personal meaning in what they learn instead of feeling that the information doesn't apply to them.

Different perspectives on human behavior can be useful when looking at topics within the field of educational psychology. Some of these include the behavioral perspective, the constructivist approach, and the experiential perspective.

Topics in Educational Psychology

From the materials teachers use to the individual needs of students, educational psychologists delve deep to more fully understand the learning process. Some these topics of study in educational psychology include:

• Educational technology : Looking at how different types of technology can help students learn
• Instructional design : Designing effective learning materials
• Special education : Helping students who may need specialized instruction
• Curriculum development : Creating coursework that will maximize learning
• Organizational learning : Studying how people learn in organizational settings, such as workplaces
• Gifted learners : Helping students who are identified as gifted learners

Careers in Educational Psychology

Educational psychologists work with educators, administrators, teachers, and students to analyze how to help people learn best. This often involves finding ways to identify students who may need extra help, developing programs for students who are struggling, and even creating new learning methods .

Many educational psychologists work with schools directly. Some are teachers or professors, while others work with teachers to try out new learning methods for their students and develop new course curricula. An educational psychologist may even become a counselor, helping students cope with learning barriers directly.

Other educational psychologists work in research. For instance, they might work for a government organization such as the U.S. Department of Education, influencing decisions about the best ways for kids to learn in schools across the nation.

In addition, an educational psychologist work in school or university administration. In all of these roles, they can influence educational methods and help students learn in a way that best suits them.

A bachelor's degree and master's degree are usually required for careers in this field; if you want to work at a university or in school administration, you may need to complete a doctorate as well.

Educational psychologists often work in school to help students and teachers improve the learning experience. Other professionals in this field work in research to investigate the learning process and to evaluate programs designed to foster learning.

History of Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is a relatively young subfield that has experienced a tremendous amount of growth. Psychology did not emerge as a separate science until the late 1800s, so earlier interest in educational psychology was largely fueled by educational philosophers.

Many regard philosopher Johann Herbart as the father of educational psychology.

Herbart believed that a student's interest in a topic had a tremendous influence on the learning outcome. He believed teachers should consider this when deciding which type of instruction is most appropriate.

Later, psychologist and philosopher William James made significant contributions to the field. His seminal 1899 text "Talks to Teachers on Psychology" is considered the first textbook on educational psychology.

Around this same period, French psychologist Alfred Binet was developing his famous IQ tests. The tests were originally designed to help the French government identify children who had developmental delays and create special education programs.

In the United States, John Dewey had a significant influence on education. Dewey's ideas were progressive; he believed schools should focus on students rather than on subjects. He advocated active learning, arguing that hands-on experience was an important part of the process.

More recently, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom developed an important taxonomy designed to categorize and describe different educational objectives. The three top-level domains he described were cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning objectives.

Significant Figures

Throughout history, a number of additional figures have played an important role in the development of educational psychology. Some of these well-known individuals include:

• John Locke : Locke is an English philosopher who suggested the concept of tabula rasa , or the idea that the mind is essentially a blank slate at birth. This means that knowledge is developed through experience and learning.
• Jean Piaget : A Swiss psychologist who is best known for his highly influential theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget's influence on educational psychology is still evident today.
• B.F. Skinner : Skinner was an American psychologist who introduced the concept of operant conditioning, which influences behaviorist perspectives. His research on reinforcement and punishment continues to play an important role in education.

Educational psychology has been influenced by a number of philosophers, psychologists, and educators. Some thinkers who had a significant influence include William James, Alfred Binet, John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Benjamin Bloom.

A Word From Verywell

Educational psychology offers valuable insights into how people learn and plays an important role in informing educational strategies and teaching methods. In addition to exploring the learning process itself, different areas of educational psychology explore the emotional, social, and cognitive factors that can influence how people learn. If you are interested in topics such as special education, curriculum design, and educational technology, then you might want to consider pursuing a career in the field of educational psychology.

A master's in educational psychology can prepare you for a career working in K-12 schools, colleges and universities, government agencies, community organizations, and counseling practices. A career as an educational psychologist involves working with children, families, schools, and other community and government agencies to create programs and resources that enhance learning. 

The primary focus of educational psychology is the study of how people learn. This includes exploring the instructional processes, studying individual differences in how people learn, and developing teaching methods to help people learn more effectively.

Educational psychology is important because it has the potential to help both students and teachers. It provides important information for educators to help them create educational experiences, measure learning, and improve student motivation.

Educational psychology can aid teachers in better understanding the principles of learning in order to design more engaging and effective lesson plans and classroom experiences. It can also foster a better understanding of how learning environments, social factors, and student motivation can influence how students learn.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Education can shape an individual's life, both in the classroom and outside of it. A quality education can lay the groundwork for a successful career , but that's far from its only purpose. Education—both formal and informal—imparts knowledge, critical thinking skills, and, in many cases, an improved ability to approach unfamiliar situations and subjects with an open mind.

Some of the pressures of modern education, by contrast, are thought to contribute to the increased incidence of mental health challenges among today’s children and young adults. Examining current approaches to education—and identifying the ways in which they may be counterproductive—can help parents, teachers, and other stakeholders better support students’ well-being.

To learn more about helping kids succeed in school, see Academic Problems and Skills .

• The Purpose of Education
• What Makes Education Effective?
• How Can We Improve Education?

Scholars and philosophers have debated the purpose of education throughout history. Some have argued that education was necessary for an engaged citizenry; some felt its purpose was to promote obedience and indoctrinate youth to dominant cultural ideas; still others believed that the pursuit of knowledge was in itself a virtuous or even spiritual goal. Today, conversations around the purpose of education tend to center around child development and the economy—that is, how education can help children grow into healthy, competent adults who are able to support themselves financially and contribute to society. Some experts warn, however, that excessive focus on the economic and pragmatic benefits of education deprives the process of joy. Humans—especially children—are natural learners, they argue, and learning may be most valuable when it’s pursued for its own sake.

Education, broadly defined, is valuable for teaching children the social, emotional, and cognitive skills needed to function in society. Formal education is thought to facilitate social learning , build executive functioning skills, and allow children to explore subjects they may not naturally be exposed to. Informal education typically allows them to cultivate their own interests and learn self-direction , itself an important life skill.

Ideally, in the modern world, education will teach both the technical skills needed for future success and cultivate the critical thinking abilities that allow humans to creatively approach problems, engage new perspectives, and innovate in an ever-changing world. Whether the current system of formal education does that effectively, however, is a source of great debate among the public and policymakers alike.

Most policymakers and educational psychologists agree that some kind of formal education is necessary to function in the modern world. But many experts argue its hyperfocus on grades, testing, and following a set curriculum, rather than children’s interests, can actually be counterproductive and interfere with the natural learning process that more informal education approaches often provide. Excessively rigid schooling is also thought to contribute to heightened anxiety among children, especially those who fall behind or are otherwise non-normative.

Homeschooling —in which a child is not enrolled in a formal school, but instead is educated by their parents or with other homeschoolers—has both strengths and drawbacks. Some common benefits reported by families include increased flexibility in what is studied, the ability to pace the curriculum to a child’s needs, and a supportive learning environment. Potential cons include reduced opportunities for socialization, limited diversity in the opinions and subjects that a child may be exposed to, and an emotional and intellectual burden placed on parents, who may struggle to keep their child engaged or update their own knowledge to ensure they’re imparting useful, up-to-date information.

Grades can be valuable tools in determining which children grasp the material and which are struggling. But despite widespread myths that good grades are necessary to succeed in life , high school and college grades do not necessarily correlate with long-term success. And hyperfocus on grades can have profoundly negative effects, as students who pursue perfect grades at all costs often struggle with anxiety , depression , or feelings of burnout .

Highly-ranked colleges are widely assumed to confer lifelong benefits to attendees, including higher incomes and more prestigious, satisfying careers. But this isn’t necessarily true. Indeed, evidence suggests that, when controlling for prior socioeconomic status and academic achievement, attending an elite college makes little difference in someone’s later income. Other research suggests that the type of college someone attends has no effect on their later life satisfaction; instead, having supportive professors or participating in meaningful activities during college best predicts someone’s future well-being.

Teachers, parents, and society at large have debated at length the criteria that denote a "good" education. In recent years, many educators have attempted to develop their curricula based on research and data, integrating the findings of developmental psychology and behavioral science into their lesson plans and teaching strategies. Recent debates have centered on how much information should be tailored to individual students vs. the class at large, and, increasingly, whether and how to integrate technology into classrooms. Students’ age, culture, individual strengths and weaknesses, and personal background—as well as any learning disabilities they may have—all play a role in the effectiveness of particular teachers and teaching methods.

The idea that education should be tailored to children’s different “learning styles”—typically categorized as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic—has been around for decades. But research has not found that creating targeted lessons based on children’s learning styles helps them learn more effectively ; some has even suggested that characterizing children as having one particular learning style could be unfairly limiting, and may stop them from tackling tasks outside of their comfort zone.

Children are by nature highly active, and an inability to move throughout the day often triggers inattention and poor mood—neither of which are conducive to learning. And moving during learning, not just before or after it, has been shown to be similarly beneficial; children who are allowed to move in class learn better , research shows, paying more attention and achieving higher outcomes.

Whether homework is beneficial is the subject of debate. Proponents argue that homework reinforces lessons and fosters time management and organizational skills. Opponents argue that excessive homework has been correlated with lower scores in critical subjects, like math and science, as well as worsened physical and mental health. Most experts argue that if homework is assigned, it should serve a specific purpose —rather than just being busywork—and should be tailored to a child’s age and needs. 

In general, evidence suggests that online-only courses are less effective than courses where students are able to meet in person. However, when in-person learning is not possible—such as during the COVID-19 pandemic—well-designed  distance learning  programs can bridge the gap. Research indicates that online programs that mix passive instruction with active practice, and that allow students to progress at their own pace, tend to be most effective.

Depression, anxiety, and other mental health disorders appear to be significantly more common in today's college students than they once were. Nearly 1 in 5 university students suffer from anxiety or depression, research suggests, and many colleges—particularly larger ones—will face at least one student suicide per year. The reasons for this are complex, experts warn, but may be due to factors including the increased prevalence of social media , the financial and academic stress of college, reduced economic opportunity upon graduation, and decreased resilience among today's youth as a result of parental over-involvement.

The world is changing rapidly, and so are children’s educational needs. While many people agree that education should prepare children for a competitive global economy, there has also been a push to recognize that children's well-being should be taken into consideration when planning curricula and structuring the school day.

To this end, parents and educators are confronting pedagogical questions such as: What is the optimal time to start school to make sure students can learn effectively—and get enough rest? How many and what kind of breaks do students need during the day? What are the best ways for students to learn, and do they differ depending on the subject being taught—or the students themselves?

In some of these areas, big changes are already taking place. Some states, for instance, are considering or have already passed laws that would delay school start times, making them more conducive to children's sleeping schedules. Other states have passed laws requiring recess, ensuring that children have access to physical activity throughout the day. These reforms, along with others, aim to protect children's physical and mental health—in addition to making them better able to focus, learn, and grow.

Many experts now believe that starting school later—typically after 8:30 A.M.—is better for children than starting earlier. This is particularly true for middle and high school children, who naturally sleep later than adults and may struggle to function if made to wake too early. Many school districts have implemented later school start times to account for this biological reality.

First and foremost, school recess provides the physical activity that is critical to a child’s physical and mental health. But recess is also an opportunity for children to socialize without (excessive) adult interference, which allows them to learn cooperation and conflict resolution skills.

Kindergarten and preschool programs are increasingly focusing on teaching children academic skills like math and reading. But evidence suggests that because children are not yet cognitively or emotionally equipped to handle most academic material, such early academic training can produce lasting harm . Some research has found that children in such programs do worse over the long term than children who spent preschool and kindergarten playing and socializing.

Children and young adults today are significantly more likely to experience mental health problems—especially anxiety and depression—than in decades past, and many will require mental health interventions at school. Evidence suggests that schools of any level can best support and help treat students with mental health disorders by proactively identifying students who need help, fostering a school culture that makes mental well-being a priority, and working to decrease stigma surrounding mental health care, both among students and their families. For students without diagnosable mental illnesses, schools can still be supportive by ensuring workloads are reasonable; providing opportunities for movement, creativity , and social connection; and reminding children, teenagers , and young adults that it's OK to ask for help.

How do you form an effective argument? A new book by Ward Farnsworth helps explain.

A Personal Perspective: Think brand-management consultations can fix what ails higher education? Think again.

No one likes to make mistakes, but we all make them. Here's why acknowledging and celebrating our mistakes is good for us—and for our kids.

Which teachers do you most remember? The ones who were inspired and inspiring, and the ones who cared. Here's how to be a great teacher.

Discover how animals are more than just pets. They're partners in healing. Dive into the therapeutic world of animal-assisted interactions.

Sometimes, you have to do things yourself.

When did punctuation become so emotional? A look back at its history helps explain its current controversial role in our texts.

Useful strategies for helping your neurodivergent student achieve academic success during the end-of-the-school-year slump.

We can feel inexplicably drawn to a challenging new pursuit later in life. Will you embrace a dream?

The field of critical thinking research owes Kahneman a debt of gratitude for his contributions in helping shine a light on the importance of ‘thinking slow.’

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Popular Articles

Based on downloads in April 2024

Effects Of Student Athletics On Academic Performance , Nicole Grimit South Dakota State University

Effects Of Student Athletics On Academic Performance , Nicole Grimit

The journal of undergraduate research.

The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of involvement in athletics at the collegiate level at South Dakota State University. This paper seeks to determine if participation in collegiate athletics is beneficial to a person or if its disadvantages outweigh the advantages. Sixty-seven student-athletes completed a survey during October of 2013 to determine the effects that athletic involvement has had on SDSU’s campus. This study found that participation in athletics is extremely beneficial. These athletes performed better in the classroom, developed impressive time management skills, felt motivated to complete their degree, were motivated to attend classes, and …

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The Effect Of Rewards And Motivation On Student Achievement , Lori Kay Baranek Grand Valley State University

The Effect Of Rewards And Motivation On Student Achievement , Lori Kay Baranek

Masters theses.

A review of research is conducted to examine the effect of rewards on intrinsic motivation and learning for children in general education and special education. Intrinsically motivated students experience school success because they display behaviors such as choosing challenging activities and spending more time on task. The use of rewards undermines intrinsic motivation and results in the slower acquisition of skills and more errors in the learning process. The implications of the research are discussed and a collection of strategies designed to promote intrinsic motivation is presented. One part of the collection presents strategies for all students, and the other …

Exploring How Student Athletes Balance Athletic, Academic, And Personal Needs Through Learned Needs Theory. , Michael E. Rutledge II Louisiana State University

Exploring How Student Athletes Balance Athletic, Academic, And Personal Needs Through Learned Needs Theory. , Michael E. Rutledge Ii

Journal of research initiatives.

The attempt to balance the requirements of athletic and academic demands prompts extensive research agendas from higher education and athletic stakeholders to examine how extrinsic and socio-environmental factors affect the desired outcomes of student athletes. Reputable motivation literature describes needs as the starting point of motivation and influences behaviors embedded within cultural and systematic structures. Thus, the purpose of this study is to understand how sport participation influences athletic and academic performance through Learned Needs Theory (LNT). This study provides insight to processes of motivation that contribute to knowledge, practical implications, and research that translates to research-based approaches to increase …

Social Cognitive Theory , iSALT Team Minnesota State University - Mankato

Social Cognitive Theory , Isalt Team

Isalt resources: theories, concepts, and measures.

No abstract provided.

Educational Learning Theories , Molly Zhou, David Brown Dalton State College

Educational Learning Theories: 2nd Edition , Molly Zhou, David Brown

Education open textbooks.

This open textbook was the result of a remix of pre-existing open materials collected and reviewed by Molly Zhou and David Brown. Learning theories covered include the theories of Piaget, Bandura, Vygotsky, Kohlberg, Dewey, Bronfenbrenner, Eriksen, Gardner, Bloom, and Maslow. The textbook was revised in 2018 through a Round Ten Revisions and Ancillary Materials Mini-Grant .

• Behaviorism
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• Social Cognitive Theory
• Experiential Learning Theory
• Human Motivation Theory
• Information Processing Theory

The Effectiveness Of School Uniforms On Students' Academic Achievement And Overall Classroom Behavior , Bobbi Jo Adams Rowan University

The Effectiveness Of School Uniforms On Students' Academic Achievement And Overall Classroom Behavior , Bobbi Jo Adams

Theses and dissertations.

The purpose of the study was to see what effect school uniforms had on students' academics and behavior. Subjects were seventh and eighth grade students, from a school which recently implemented a uniform policy for the 2006-2007 school year. Their academic and discipline records were collected from the current and previous year. Students from the previous year, who were not required to wear uniforms, were placed in the control group (n=55). Students, who were now required to wear uniforms, were placed in the experimental group (n=55). A t -test for independent samples was run on the data. No significant difference …

The Effects Of Participation In Athletics On Academic Performance Among High School Sophomores And Juniors , Lee Sitkowski Liberty University

The Effects Of Participation In Athletics On Academic Performance Among High School Sophomores And Juniors , Lee Sitkowski

Doctoral dissertations and projects.

Athletics and academic performance has been studied at length over the years in the literature. Despite the mostly university level research conducted, no consensus has been reached regarding the impact of athletic participation on academic performance at the high school level. As a result, the relationship between the in season and out of season school academic performance of high school sophomores and juniors in one high school was investigated in this study. It was determined that there was a significant relationship that existed between academic performance, measured by GPA, and athletic participation. Through an analysis of 249 high school sophomore …

The Effects Of Mental Health In Students’ Academic And Social Success , Matthew Evans Northwestern College - Orange City

The Effects Of Mental Health In Students’ Academic And Social Success , Matthew Evans

Master's theses & capstone projects.

The percentage of children experience mental health issues such as anxiety, behavior disorders and depression have continued to become more prevalent in the last twenty years. The purpose of this literature review is to examine the prevalence and contributing factors of mental health disorders in school aged children and the effects it has on their social success and academic achievement and what can be done to support children to be successful and improve their mental health. Educators are a key factor in improving a child’s mental health, with much of a child’s time being spent in school, educators are more …

The Effects Of Technology On Student Motivation And Engagement In Classroom-Based Learning , James Francis University of New England

The Effects Of Technology On Student Motivation And Engagement In Classroom-Based Learning , James Francis

All theses and dissertations.

Technology has seen a recent widespread integration into daily life, where access to vast amounts of information is now available with ease. Today’s generation of students has grown up with technology all around them in an ever-increasing manner. To create an effective 21st century classroom that meets the needs of the students, a modern teacher must factor a student’s motivation to learn and the effects technology has on inclusionary education.

A technology implementation was devised to address this rising need. Research was completed at an urban charter school on a population of 348 at the time of technology intervention through …

A Correlational Study Of The Relationship Between Academic Performance And Parental Age , Jamie Melamed Rowan University

A Correlational Study Of The Relationship Between Academic Performance And Parental Age , Jamie Melamed

This study sought to examine the relationship between academic performance and parental age. Parental age has previously been shown to be a strong predictor of academic performance. This study consisted of a survey of 45 undergraduate students at Rowan University to determine the degree to which their parents' ages, both mothers' and fathers', correlated with academic performance as measured by high school class rank, SAT score, and GPA at Rowan. All participants were children of intact families, and the sample consisted of 25 females and 20 males. Both mother's age and father's age were found to correlate strongly with the …

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“In My Blood”: External Factors For International Stem Postdoctoral Scholars’ Career Decisions , Kathryn J. Watson, Sylvia L. Mendez 2024 The University of Iowa

“In My Blood”: External Factors For International Stem Postdoctoral Scholars’ Career Decisions , Kathryn J. Watson, Sylvia L. Mendez

Journal of global education and research.

This instrumental case study (Stake, 1995) explores the external factors that influence international science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) postdoctoral scholars in the United States to pursue a career in STEM. Interviews with 20 international STEM postdoctoral scholars were analyzed deductively to shed light on their unique backgrounds and experiences. Three themes emerged: (a) parents were highly encouraging, (b) a love of science was nurtured in school, and (c) they were eager to engage in and promote scientific innovation. These findings illustrate the ways in which family, schools, and community influence the STEM career trajectories of international postdoctoral scholars.

Movin’ On Up: The Lived Experience Of Women Of Color In Leadership And The Supports That Helped Them Make It To The Top , Rozina Kapadia 2024 UMass Global

Movin’ On Up: The Lived Experience Of Women Of Color In Leadership And The Supports That Helped Them Make It To The Top , Rozina Kapadia

Dissertations.

Purpose: The number of women of color in leadership continues to be significantly lower than the number of men. The lack of opportunity combined with the lack of support results in less women of color in leadership. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of women of color in their roles as leaders in corporate environments with respect to the support (personal supports, organizational supports, cultural supports, and stereotypical supports) received. Specifically, the research examined the stories of female leaders of color to understand how their experiences have supported or hindered their growth in leadership. …

Speak My Language: Art Therapy Restorative Justice Hybrid For Disenfranchised High School Students , Catherine Day 2024 Lesley University

Speak My Language: Art Therapy Restorative Justice Hybrid For Disenfranchised High School Students , Catherine Day

Expressive therapies capstone theses.

This literature review examines the use of zero tolerance policies and exclusionary practices in schools throughout the United States. The adolescent population is more vulnerable now than ever, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic. An increasing number of students are struggling with behavioral misconduct, mental health issues, and suspension/expulsion from school. The research contained in this review explores how zero tolerance policies have contributed to the current state of our education system, behavioral misconduct in schools, student involvement in the juvenile justice system, alternative methods of discipline such as restorative practices and therapeutic interventions like Art Therapy. The current exclusionary …

A Systematic Review Of Practices Utilized By Administrators To Support Teachers With Classroom Management , Ciara Waggoner 2024 Western Kentucky University

A Systematic Review Of Practices Utilized By Administrators To Support Teachers With Classroom Management , Ciara Waggoner

Masters theses & specialist projects.

An administrator’s role in supporting teachers has been a topic often discussed in literature. A less mentioned administrative function is their role in supporting teachers in classroom management strategies related to teaching and setting expectations. Problem behaviors in the classroom have a negative impact on student outcomes. Administrators can help address problem behaviors through the use of four effective administrator practices areas identified by Grissom et. al. (2021): (a) instructionally focused interactions (b) building a productive school climate (b) facilitating collaboration, and (c) managing personnel and resources. The purpose of this systematic review was to identify: (1) Which of the …

The Predictive Relationship Between Student Food-Insecurity And Basic Psychological Needs Within College Students , Andrew Joel Tlucek 2024 Liberty University

The Predictive Relationship Between Student Food-Insecurity And Basic Psychological Needs Within College Students , Andrew Joel Tlucek

In recent years, researchers have determined food insecurity affects a college student’s grade point average (GPA), mental health, campus status, and social life. While each of these findings is valuable for post-secondary faculty and their decision-making, none can determine whether a student’s basic psychological needs are affected by their food insecurity (FI), which is paramount in a student’s success inside and outside of the classroom. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine whether there was a predictive relationship between the severity of a student’s food insecurity and their basic psychological needs satisfaction. To accomplish the study, one hundred …

Alignment Of Multi-Tiered Support Systems Following A School-Based Suicide Risk Assessment: Exploring The Lived Experiences Of School-Based Mental Health Professionals , Lorraine Z. May 2024 Liberty University

Alignment Of Multi-Tiered Support Systems Following A School-Based Suicide Risk Assessment: Exploring The Lived Experiences Of School-Based Mental Health Professionals , Lorraine Z. May

The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of school-based mental health professionals (SBMHP) alignment of multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS) with completed suicide risk assessments (SRA). This qualitative, phenomenological study investigated the experiences of SBMHP with school-based SRA and MTSS. The experiences of SBMHP regarding aligning MTSS with completed SRA prior to this study were unknown. The social ecological model (SEM) provided the framework as it outlines the multiple systems that SBMHP should consider when aligning interventions within a MTSS when working with students, while Joiner’s interpersonal theory of suicide (ITS) provided the grounding for suicidal behavior. …

The Relationship Between Participation In Chorus And The Acquisition Of Higher-Order Reasoning Skills Among Middle School Students , Jason M. Streun 2024 Liberty University

The Relationship Between Participation In Chorus And The Acquisition Of Higher-Order Reasoning Skills Among Middle School Students , Jason M. Streun

This predictive correlational study examined the relationship between participation in chorus and the acquisition of higher-order reasoning skills among middle school students. Although the education profession focuses on ways to engender higher-order reasoning skills in their students, today’s high-stakes climate so rigorously addresses STEM subjects that it tends to ostracize music from the discussion. Thus, the significance of this study lies partly in its endeavor to better understand the connection between linguistic development and reasoning, the positive influence that participation in choral music can potentially wield in the acquisition and improvement of linguistic skill, and, correspondingly, the attainment of higher-order …

Who Picks Where A Student Sits In A Classroom? , Kathryn Kummer 2024 Bowling Green State University

Who Picks Where A Student Sits In A Classroom? , Kathryn Kummer

Honors projects.

This ACTION research study aims to explore who should pick where students sit in a classroom. Disruptive behavior is a common issue in managing a classroom, so in this study, the results of each arrangement will be done by observing how often disruptive behavior happens in the classroom due to the seating arrangement. Student preference for seating arrangement will also be noted to determine if that affects disruptive behavior. The three arrangements to explore are: student choice, teacher choice, and random selection. By the end, the study will provide the arrangements effect as it relates to disruptive behavior and if …

Effectiveness Of The Law School Admission Test , Sydney Snyder 2024 Bowling Green State University

Effectiveness Of The Law School Admission Test , Sydney Snyder

Examining the influence and effect of the LSAT on graduation and bar passage rates.

Learning Through Play At School Ukraine: Final Research Report , Rachel Parker, Amy Berry, Kellie Picker, David Jeffries, Prue Anderson, Oksana Zabolotna 2024 Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER)

Learning Through Play At School Ukraine: Final Research Report , Rachel Parker, Amy Berry, Kellie Picker, David Jeffries, Prue Anderson, Oksana Zabolotna

Student learning processes.

The Learning Through Play (LTP) at School Research Study Ukraine was a four-year intervention study funded by the LEGO Foundation and implemented by the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) and the Ukrainian Educational Research Association (UERA). The intervention was a two-year professional learning program that blended online, and face-to-face learning called the Teacher Innovative Play Program (TIPP). The TIPP was designed based on documented evidence that reports that teachers need opportunities to experiment and reflect to change practice. The study was guided by three research questions which were revised following the full-scale invasion of Ukraine by Russian armed forces …

Exploring The Longitudinal Effects: Non-Traditional Pedagogies And Practical Learning On Biology Education And Medical Understanding , Thomas Ziebro 2024 Bowling Green State University

Exploring The Longitudinal Effects: Non-Traditional Pedagogies And Practical Learning On Biology Education And Medical Understanding , Thomas Ziebro

Medical disinformation is becoming a rampant problem in the United States, and the Covid-19 pandemic highlighted it. There have been attempts to fight the problem at the source through fact verification. These attempts have been unsuccessful. This paper investigates the efficacy of non-traditional pedagogies and the correlation between them and an individual perceived and practical ability to understand their primary care provider. The purpose of this research was to establish whether non-traditional pedagogies at the secondary and post-secondary level are more effective than traditional lecture-based instruction. The research was conducted through an anonymous cross-sectional survey which included questions about educational …

Denial Of Pregnancy Or Cryptic Pregnancy , Nadia N. Shuriah, Elaine McFarland, Bethany Spenn, Kaisha Butz McManus 2024 Nova Southeastern University

Denial Of Pregnancy Or Cryptic Pregnancy , Nadia N. Shuriah, Elaine Mcfarland, Bethany Spenn, Kaisha Butz Mcmanus

Bio4960: practicum in biology i.

Denial of pregnancy, or cryptic pregnancy, presents a complex situation where individuals are unaware of their pregnancy until the late stages of labor. This study delves into the multifaceted nature of concealed and denied pregnancies, exploring their prevalence, factors contributing to them, and their implications for both individuals and healthcare systems. By reviewing relevant literature and case studies, we aim to illuminate the difficulties healthcare providers face in identifying and managing cases of denial of pregnancy. Additionally, we stress the significance of proactive screening and comprehensive care to ensure the well-being of mothers and infants. This research endeavors to deepen …

Child Development Degree Program: Careers Spotlight & Panel Discussion , Amanda Chorak, Jenae Pratscher, Dajah Bibbs, Brittany Alsvig, Kayla Deubel, Margaret Landis, Savannah Vaughan, Abigail Gentry, Alexa Gonzalez, Kaitlyn Fish, Ashley Camden, Kathleen Hammerberg, Sarah O’Neal, Kenzy Mallard, Sutton Bate, Kara Vallarta 2024 Olivet Nazarene University

Child Development Degree Program: Careers Spotlight & Panel Discussion , Amanda Chorak, Jenae Pratscher, Dajah Bibbs, Brittany Alsvig, Kayla Deubel, Margaret Landis, Savannah Vaughan, Abigail Gentry, Alexa Gonzalez, Kaitlyn Fish, Ashley Camden, Kathleen Hammerberg, Sarah O’Neal, Kenzy Mallard, Sutton Bate, Kara Vallarta

Scholar week 2016 - present.

Join session via Microsoft Teams.

The Child Development program within the School of Education has continued to grow and strengthen its identity over the recent years. Students currently seek diverse career paths working with children and families following completion and graduation from the B.S. Child Development program. A group of undergraduate students from the spring 2024 CDEV 490 Senior Seminar will facilitate a discussion with a panel of helping professionals connected to the Child Development degree program. The panel discussion will give spotlight to the variety of career paths the degree prepares individuals for and will include both ONU Child …

Efficacy Of Patient Education And Duloxetine, Alone And In Combination, For Patients With Multisystem Functional Somatic Disorder: Study Protocol For The Edulox Trial , Cecilia Pihl Jespersen, Heidi Frølund Pedersen, Maria Kleinstäuber, Per Fink, Kaare Bro Wellnitz, Eva Ørnbøl, Andreas Schröder, Johanne Liv Agger, Lene Vase, Nanna Brix Finnerup, Lise Kirstine Gormsen 2024 Aarhus University

Efficacy Of Patient Education And Duloxetine, Alone And In Combination, For Patients With Multisystem Functional Somatic Disorder: Study Protocol For The Edulox Trial , Cecilia Pihl Jespersen, Heidi Frølund Pedersen, Maria Kleinstäuber, Per Fink, Kaare Bro Wellnitz, Eva Ørnbøl, Andreas Schröder, Johanne Liv Agger, Lene Vase, Nanna Brix Finnerup, Lise Kirstine Gormsen

Psychology faculty publications.

Multisystem functional somatic disorder is characterized by specific patterns of persistent physical symptoms with a complex biopsychosocial etiology. The disorder can lead to disability and personal suffering. Current treatment options require specialized settings, therefore patients often wait a long time to receive specific treatment.

Patient education is considered important in most treatment programs, but has only been investigated sparsely as a stand-alone treatment. Pharmacological treatment is limited to tricyclic antidepressants in low doses with not antidepressant properties. Duloxetine has been found effective in single organ functional disorders. As a treatment for multisystem functional somatic disorder, duloxetine could reduce symptoms …

Comparing Cognitive Theories Of Learning Transfer To Advance Cybersecurity Instruction, Assessment, And Testing , Daniel T. Hickey Ph.D., Ronald J. Kantor 2024 Indiana University - Bloomington

Comparing Cognitive Theories Of Learning Transfer To Advance Cybersecurity Instruction, Assessment, And Testing , Daniel T. Hickey Ph.D., Ronald J. Kantor

Journal of cybersecurity education, research and practice.

The cybersecurity threat landscape evolves quickly, continually, and consequentially. This means that the transfer of cybersecurity learning is crucial. We compared how different recognized “cognitive” transfer theories might help explain and synergize three aspects of cybersecurity education. These include teaching and training in diverse settings, assessing learning formatively & summatively, and testing & measuring achievement, proficiency, & readiness. We excluded newer sociocultural theories and their implications for inclusion as we explore those theories elsewhere. We first summarized the history of cybersecurity education and proficiency standards considering transfer theories. We then explored each theory and reviewed the most relevant cybersecurity education …

Trauma-Informed Teaching Perspectives Of Arts And Non-Arts Educators: A Mixed Methods Study For Transformational Change , Annie C. Shrawder 2024 Kutztown University of Pennsylvania

Trauma-Informed Teaching Perspectives Of Arts And Non-Arts Educators: A Mixed Methods Study For Transformational Change , Annie C. Shrawder

Education doctorate dissertations.

The purpose of this study was to understand and answer the overarching research question: To what extent are PA educators prepared to recognize and respond to students impacted by trauma and Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)? This question is investigated using a mixed methods action research design on the preparedness of k-12 arts and non-arts educators within one school district. This study unpacks the level of preparedness of educators teaching students with trauma and adverse childhood experiences. The data analysis provided perspectives of non-arts teachers and arts teachers in one school district. Additionally, academic research revealed that the arts positively counteract …

Discussing Patient Emotions In Audiology: Provider Experiences With The Implementation Process Of Hearing Loss Psychological Inflexibility Screenings , Sydnee Grigsby, Karen Muñoz, Guadalupe G. San Miguel, Michael P. Twohig 2024 Utah State University

Discussing Patient Emotions In Audiology: Provider Experiences With The Implementation Process Of Hearing Loss Psychological Inflexibility Screenings , Sydnee Grigsby, Karen Muñoz, Guadalupe G. San Miguel, Michael P. Twohig

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate barriers and facilitators experienced by clinical educators and graduate students when talking with patients about difficult emotions and thoughts related to their hearing.

Method: A longitudinal observational design was used, and an Implementation Research Logic Model guided the process. Five clinical educators and five graduate students participated in the study. Participants completed pre- and post-measures and attended individual debriefing sessions during the eight-month study period.

Results: Four themes emerged from the debriefing sessions: (1) learning process, (2) confidence (3) barriers, and (4) supervision. Participants described that the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-Managing Child Hearing Loss …

The Relationship Between Academic Crafting, Work-School Facilitation And Academic Engagement: A Mediated Model , Gökhan Kerse, Umut Çil 2024 Kafkas University

The Relationship Between Academic Crafting, Work-School Facilitation And Academic Engagement: A Mediated Model , Gökhan Kerse, Umut Çil

Makara human behavior studies in asia.

This research examines the relationship between academic crafting, work-school facilitation and academic engagement in higher education. Based on the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model, the research sought to determine how students' alignment of academic activities with personal preferences and interests (academic crafting) affects academic engagement and whether work-school facilitation mediates this effect. The research therefore emphasized the delicate balance that students strike between their work obligations and their scholarly activities. Our research hypotheses focused on understanding how academic crafting directly and indirectly affects student engagement. The research data were obtained from a sample of students enrolled in postgraduate programs and actively …

Students’ Experiences When Using Real-Time Automated Captions And Subtitles In Live Online Presentations: A Phenomenological Study , Anymir Orellana Ed.D., Elda Kanzki-Veloso Ph.D., Georgina Arguello Ed.D., Katarzyna Wojnas 2024 Nova Southeastern University

Students’ Experiences When Using Real-Time Automated Captions And Subtitles In Live Online Presentations: A Phenomenological Study , Anymir Orellana Ed.D., Elda Kanzki-Veloso Ph.D., Georgina Arguello Ed.D., Katarzyna Wojnas

The qualitative report.

According to the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework, as a text-based alternative to auditory information in videos or presentations, captions can make the content equally accessible, and multilingual subtitles can promote a cross-linguistic understanding of the content. We conducted a phenomenological study to understand the common meaning of the participants’ experiences when using real-time automated captions/subtitles during live online class presentations. Twenty-four remote student participants were placed in three study groups. All participants were fluent in spoken and written English, eight could read in one or more additional languages, and none had a hearing disability. We used Microsoft PowerPoint …

Conceptions Of Heroic Leadership In Civil Society , Theresa A. Thorkildsen 2024 University of Illinois Chicago

Conceptions Of Heroic Leadership In Civil Society , Theresa A. Thorkildsen

Heroism science.

While nations face multiple disruptions to civil society, individuals in late adolescence and early adulthood are overlooked for heroic leadership opportunities in some cultures. An underestimation of individuals’ abilities is sometimes fostered by biological definitions of human development that align competence with physical changes in the brain (Blakemore, 2012). Prolonged exposure to such disregard can encourage individuals to restrict the information they notice, fostering distortion in the intentions that support leadership readiness (Pratkanis, 2007). Studies of individuals’ conceptions of how the world operates can improve leadership readiness if such evidence is used to verify that individuals notice essential information. Using …

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Expanding the scope of “trans-humanism”: situating within the framework of life and death education – the importance of a “trans-mystical mindset”.

• 1 School of Education, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
• 2 Department of Education, National Taipei University of Education, Taipei, Taiwan

Life and death education , as noted from the literatures, has been studied and researched extensively in China, Malaysia, and Taiwan. Our own research undertakings over the past several years, situated in different sociocultural settings have delved into aspects of life and death that could help advance theoretical understanding of the subject matters (e.g., does the meaning of “effective life functioning” connote differing interpretations for different cultural groups?). Situating within the framework of life and death education, we expand the study of trans-humanism by introducing an extended prefix or nomenclature known as “trans-mystical”. Specifically, our philosophized concept of trans-mysticism considers a related concept, which we term as a “trans-mystical mindset”. A trans-mystical mindset, differing from an ordinary mindset, from our philosophical rationalization, is defined as “a person’s higher-order state of consciousness, espousing her perception, judgment, belief, and attempted interpretation of life and death phenomena that are mystifying and fall outside the ordinary boundaries of human psyche.” Our focus of inquiry, as reported in the present article, seeks to advance our proposition: that a trans-mystical mindset, unlike an ordinary mindset, may help a person to rationalize, appreciate, and understand metaphysical contexts, mystical experiences, and the like. This focus, interestingly, serves to highlight an important discourse - namely, that there is a dichotomy in theoretical lenses (i.e., objective reality vs. individual subjectivity) that a person may use to rationalize the significance or non-significance of universal contexts, events, phenomena, etc. (e.g., a person’s experience of “premonition”). As such, then, there is an important question that we seek to consider: whether philosophization, or the use of philosophical psychology, would yield perceived “scientific evidence” to support or to reject the study of metaphysicism, mysticism, and the like? For example, does our philosophization of an “equivalency” between a person’s trans-mystical mindset and her experience of self-transcendence help to normalize and/or to scientize the subject matters of metaphysicism, mysticism, etc.?

1 Introduction

The subject of life and death education ( Chen, 2013 ; Huang, 2014 ; Seng and Lee, 2022 ) has significant daily relevance and applicability for us in society to consider. Personal understanding of life education , for example, may inform and educate a person about the diverse meanings and purposes of effective life functioning (e.g., the attainment of financial success in life vs. the attainment of good health). In relation to death education , likewise, a senior citizen’s spiritual knowledge of “transcendence” ( Conn, 1998 ; Long, 2000 ; Ge and Yang, 2023 ), or his perceived “spiritual connectedness” to God ( Laurin et al., 2014 ; Cohen-Zimerman et al., 2020 ), may assist him with his coping of grief. On a formal front, conceptual and/or empirical research development of life and death education may yield evidence to help elucidate and/or explain the underlying nature of the subject contents.

Our own teaching and research undertakings over the past decade have delved into different aspects of life and death education. For example, recently, we introduced a theoretical concept that we termed as a “holistic mindset”, or a person’s “multiple mindsets” ( Phan et al., 2024 ). In brief, we theorize that a person may possess multiple contextual mindsets at any moment in time for adaptation and accommodation of different life and death contexts. For example, a Catholic nun may possess and exhibit a strong “spiritual mindset” whereas, in contrast, a scholar of Buddhism ( Masel et al., 2012 ; Prude, 2019 ) may possess and exhibit a strong “philosophical mindset”. In a similar vein, a doctorate student preparing for an oral exam is more likely than most to possess and exhibit a “cognitive mindset”. Our theorization then, contends that a specific life context (e.g., the context of academic learning) would define and/or espouse a corresponding “contextual mindset”.

One particular life context that we are interested in is known as a “trans-mystical context” or a perceived mystical context. There are metaphysical or mystical life and death contexts in this world that are somewhat anomalistic and non-conventional. For example, some cultural groups may engage in the practice of “ancestor worshipping” ( Steadman et al., 1996 ), whereas other cultural groups may view this practice with a sense of intellectual curiosity. In a similar vein, there are some of us who have reported the personal experience of “premonition”. 1 We purport that ancestor worshipping, premonition, the belief in “reincarnation” ( Nagaraj et al., 2013 ; Burley, 2014 ), and the like are metaphysical contexts or “non-daily” contexts. Such contexts, we contend, may elicit perceived experiences that are somewhat subjective and whether they fall outside the realm of objectivity and/or the realm of ordinary human psyche. Importantly, however, we reason that the scientific premise of psychology may provide sound, logical accounts to help explain the “uniqueness” of metaphysical contexts. That perhaps, despite individual subjectivity in perception, interpretation, and reason, metaphysical contexts and/or mystical experiences are just on par with “ordinary” contexts, life experiences, etc.

Our focus of inquiry for consideration relates to the advancement of the study of “trans-mysticism”. In particular, we philosophize a psychological concept, termed as a “trans-mystical mindset”, that may help to show how metaphysicism can be subjectively rational. In brief, we define a person’s “trans-mystical mindset” as:

A “contemplative higher-order, mystical” state that details his/her perception, attitude, judgment towards some “unknown” and/or extraordinary life concept, life phenomenon, event, situation, etc. (e.g., a person’s trans-mystical mindset towards the notion of “post-death” experience).

A trans-mystical mindset, as defined, may help a person to reason and/or to make meaningful sense of a metaphysical context and/or a mystical encounter (e.g., a person’s experience of premonition). By the same token, encountering a metaphysical context or a mystical life/death experience may help necessitate, facilitate, sustain a person’s trans-mystical mindset and his willingness to accept that such an encounter is valid. From this then, situating within the scope of life and death education ( Chen, 2013 ; Huang, 2014 ; Seng and Lee, 2022 ), we premise a significant principle for consideration:

That metaphysical or mystical contexts (e.g., a perception of “spiritual transportation” to another time-space realm) are pivotal to the “formation” of a trans-mystical mindset, or that a person’s trans-mystical mindset is intimately linked to her trans-mystical life/death experiences.

Our position or standing is that psychological grounding (e.g., the use of the discourse of philosophical psychology, which entails the proposition of a trans-mystical mindset) may offer robust explanations for metaphysical encounters. More importantly, however, we contend that our philosophical undertaking here may form the basis for future examination of something that is somewhat contentious: that psychological inquiries alone cannot encapsulate and/or explain the uniqueness of metaphysical contexts; rather, as a possibility and something that is beyond the scope of this conceptual analysis article, is the fact that metaphysical contexts and mystical experiences have alternative interpretations and meanings – for example, the context of premonition ( Cameron, 1958 ; Dossey, 2009 ), one’s belief in reincarnation ( Nagaraj et al., 2013 ; Burley, 2014 ), and the like cannot simply be validated or vindicated by scientific inquiries.

Overall, then, the present conceptual analysis article uses philosophical psychology ( Thagard, 2014 ; Thagard, 2018 ; Phan et al., 2024 ) to help “normalize” and/or to “scientize” the subject matters of trans-mysticism. That philosophizing the concept of trans-mysticism (e.g., a trans-mystical mindset) and “benchmarking” this against Maslow’s (1968 , 1969) theory of the “hierarchy of needs” may, in fact, validate and/or legitimize the importance of metaphysical contexts, mystical life and death experiences, etc. This line of inquiry, we contend, emphasizes an important standing: the premise of “objectivity” vs. the premise of “subjectivity”. Objectivity indicates consistency , transparency , realism , and non-biased judgment , whereas subjectivity, in contrast, considers openness , personal viewpoint and interpretation , and individualistic thinking . Regardless of one’s position, we firmly believe that our philosophized concept of trans-mysticism and thereafter may advance the study of life and death education. In the following section of the article, we discuss a number of elements – namely:

i. An introduction of a theoretical account of the subject of life and death education.

ii. An examination of the nature of a proposed life and death-related concept that we term as “trans-mysticism”.

iii. A proposition of a theoretical premise, which purports the process of transformation of a person’s ordinary mindset, resulting in a trans-mystical mindset.

iv. A proposition of an association, which purports a situational placement or contextualization, highlighting a potential equivalence between a trans-mystical mindset and a state of self-transcendence.

v. A discussion of a few notable inquiries for teaching and research development purposes.

2 The importance of life and death education: a brief introduction

Life and death education ( Chen, 2013 ; Huang, 2014 ; Seng and Lee, 2022 ) is an interesting subject for teaching and learning, given its potential relevance and significance for daily life purposes. The study of life and death education, in its entirety, seeks to understand and appreciate the intricacies or complexities of human existence from different historical-sociocultural perspectives (e.g., what does proactive life functioning mean for South Pacific Islanders?). Life education , in brief, relates to the teaching of specific tenets about life that may enable and/or assist a person to live a cherished and self-fulfilling life. A cherished and self-fulfilling life, say, may consist of a person’s feeling of self-gratification, arising from her successful attainment of financial wealth. In a similar vein, but somewhat different, a cherished and self-fulfilling life may reflect a person’s daily practice to impart his life wisdom onto others. Such teaching is meaningful and may serve to enlighten individuals, their families, and society in general. One distinction, in this case, refers to a person’s appreciation and acknowledgment that variations in historical-sociocultural context (e.g., a child who grows up in an Indonesian historical-sociocultural context) give rise to different life courses and life trajectories (e.g., a child who grows up in an Indonesian sociocultural context, and the shaping of her aspirations, desires, future intentions, etc.). In a similar vein, a person’s life wisdom or life knowledge ( Goldstein and Kornfield, 1987 , Sternberg and Glück, 2019 , Chattopadhyay, 2022 ) may be transformed into practice for daily life purposes.

Life education seeks to provide quality teaching, theoretical insights, and relevant information that may assist, explain, and facilitate proactive daily life functioning. Proactive life functioning on a daily basis is vibrant and healthy, helping a person to fulfill and attain a desirable life trajectory or trajectories. Different life contexts (e.g., the context of academic learning) on a daily basis, we contend, connote different types of proactive functioning – for example, the life context of awareness of the danger that COVID-19 poses ( Willyard, 2023 ) may compel a person, in this case, to seek appropriate pathways to ensure that she has a healthy life trajectory. In a similar vein, the life context of the importance of academic attainments may shape a student’s mindset to seek mastery and deep, meaningful learning experiences in his schooling. Regardless of diversity of life contexts, life education places emphasis on the recognition, promotion, and development of a cherished and self-fulfilling life.

Death education , or the study of thanatology ( Meagher and Balk, 2013 ; Chapple et al., 2017 ), in contrast, seeks to understand the intricate nature of death and other dying-related matters (e.g., the process of grief for a loved one). For example, angst, stress, sadness, and depression are life matters that closely associate with death. Unlike life education, which is positive, vibrant, and self-fulfilling, death education is morbid and undesirable for teaching and learning. For example, the teaching of death education seeks to educate individuals, family members, and society the following aspects:

i. The perception, viewpoint, and/or belief that one has towards the subject of death (e.g., how does one feel, at present, knowing that a loved one is facing a critical illness?).

ii. Personal care and preparation from others (e.g., social workers, volunteers) to assist with the impending encounter and/or facing of death.

iii. Stages and processes (e.g., counselling, spiritual advice, etc.) that are associated with grief and bereavement upon the death of a loved on.

iv. Consideration of programs, strategies, pathways, etc. that could help alleviate the negative emotions, feelings, perceptions, etc. that one may have when faced with a death-related matter.

Our study of life and death education for teaching and theoretical contribution purposes over the past decade has led us to undertake a few notable developments – namely, the testament of the following: Focus on instructional designs and pedagogical approaches (2.1), Research inquiries for consideration (2.2), and Advancement in theoretical contributions (2.3).

2.1 Focus on instructional designs and pedagogical approaches

Focus on appropriate instructional designs and pedagogical approaches that may instill appreciation and facilitate effective learning experiences for the subject life and death education (e.g., appreciating that death education has potential daily life relevance). We propose an interesting idea known as “theoretical infusion”, which involves the practice of “infusion” of a particular faith, epistemological belief, customary practice, discourse, etc. in the teaching of life and death. “Spiritual infusion”, for example, details the incorporation of spirituality, or one’s spiritual faith ( Schneiders, 1986 ; Wagani and Colucci, 2018 ; Villani et al., 2019 ), to complement the teaching of life and death, making it more stimulating and “life-related” for learning. Theoretical infusion (e.g., Buddhist spiritual infusion), we contend, may serve to associate subject contents of life and death with other meaningful and/or related contents. In other words, theoretical infusion is used to encourage students to appreciate subject contents of other topics and/or subjects (e.g., appreciating the importance of Christianity from a life perspective) within the context of life and death education. By the same token, we rationalize the benefits of embedding subject contents of life and death within other subject contexts (e.g., how does Christian faith view death?). Having said this, however, we also acknowledge an important mentioning from one of our reviewers in an earlier draft of this article – that we need to also consider the potential “negativity” of our idea of theoretical infusion. That engaging in theoretical infusion (e.g., infusing a particular religious or spiritual faith to support the teaching of death education) may, in fact, amount to and/or be perceived as a form of “indoctrination”. A student with no religious affiliation, in this instance, may feel pressured to accept the practice of “Buddhist spiritual infusion” as a “norm”.

Aside from theoretical infusion, we also propose and use another discourse that we term as “active transformation”. In brief, active transformation relates to one’s self-cognizance of daily practicality of knowledge pertaining to life and death. In other words, active transformation emphasizes the important nexus between theory and practice – for example, how can a teenager use her personal understanding of Confucianism ( Yao, 2000 ; Havens, 2013 ) to assist others in the neighborhood? As such, then, we rationalize that our idea or theoretical premise of active transformation may serve to impart benefits for individuals and society. For example, a mother may accompany her son and make weekly visits, offering spiritual advice and life wisdom on different life and death-related matters to those in this need. This voluntary periodic engagement reflects her willingness to help others in the community and, more importantly, showcases proactive practice of active transformation of life wisdom, or life knowledge. Again, having said this, we are cognizant of one of our reviewers’ earlier mentioning: that the idea or the theoretical premise of active transformation may, likewise, produce negative yields. A person’s inclination towards some form of negativity, in this case, may compel her to engage in negative or maladaptive functioning. That rather than offering sound spiritual advice, a mother may instead transform her life wisdom about spirituality for negative purposes (e.g., a purposively act to indoctrinate a senior citizen with a biased view of Buddhist spirituality).

2.2 Research inquiries for consideration

Concerted attempts to seek new research frontiers that may amplify the importance of the subject life and death. One aspect of our research development, at present, seeks to understand and appreciate the importance of life and death from two contrasting positions: objectivity and subjectivity . Certain life and death matters (e.g., the proposed notion of “post-death” experience) ( Phan et al., 2024 ), we contend, compel and/or require us to seek alternative research discourses for understanding. For example, over the past few years, our use of philosophical reasoning ( Thagard, 2014 ; Thagard, 2018 ; Phan et al., 2024 ) has assisted us to understand about the study of life and death experiences (e.g., attainment of theoretical insights and explanatory accounts of life and death). Philosophical inquiries, from our point of view, may to complement contrasting research discourses and help to yield scientific credence for support. Engaging in philosophical analysis, we contend, may serve to encourage researchers to think non-conventionally and outside the box. Higher-order thinking, reflection, etc. may give rise to contemplation of research propositions for discussion. Our intent over the past several years has been to expand the scope of life and death education ( Chen, 2013 ; Huang, 2014 ; Seng and Lee, 2022 ) by seeking to understand the known and unknown “unknowns” of life and death experiences. This line of research development is somewhat different from other inquiries and research undertakings that place emphasis on the “knowns” of life and death experiences (e.g., the intimate process of grief). The “unknowns” of life and death are more interesting as they delve into unexplained complexities of human existence that do not have clear, consistent explanatory accounts.

2.3 Advancement in theoretical contributions

Our interest, aside from teaching and research purposes, also seeks to make meaningful theoretical contributions to the study of life and death education ( Chen, 2013 , Huang, 2014 , Seng and Lee, 2022 ). One aspect of our research development focuses on the examination and reading of the literatures, pertaining to the importance of variations of different historical-sociocultural contexts of life and death functioning. In brief, we note from our own research undertakings that different historical-sociocultural contexts offer unique insights into the viewpoint, opinion, perception, and interpretation of life and death experiences. For example, in terms of life functioning, we note that many Taiwanese believe in the attainment of “spiritual growth” in place of financial wealth. In a similar vein, many Taiwanese engage in the practice of “ancestor worshipping” ( Steadman et al., 1996 ) and believe in the “afterlife” ( Segal, 2004 ; Jones, 2016 ).

Gauging into the “historical-sociocultural contextualization” of life and death is meaningful as it offers unique understandings of life and death experiences. One distinction about this focus of inquiry is that unlike other disciplines and/or fields of research, the subject of life and death has comparable and contrasting viewpoints, opinions, perceptions, interpretations, etc. That understanding of life and/or of death (e.g., is there any validity to the notion of afterlife?), for example, differs for different ethnic-cultural groups. At present, one of our research undertakings seeks to understand the uniqueness of the Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture and her viewpoint, interpretation, status quo, etc. about life and death. One of our colleagues, who is a Torres Strait Islander, has shared with us some interesting facts for consideration. According to our colleague, many Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples believe in the existence of rebirth where a deceased is transformed into a new “being”. To facilitate success in such a process, it is poignant that relatives and loved ones do not mention the deceased’s name for 12 months [e.g., “Do you remember when Sarah (i.e., the deceased) used to say this…?”].

3 The present conceptualization

Our aforementioned description of life and death education ( Chen, 2013 ; Huang, 2014 ; Seng and Lee, 2022 ) has provided grounding for our philosophical inquiry and research undertaking, which delve into the nature of a proposed concept known as “trans-mysticism” or, alternatively, trans-mystical studies. For us, as a proposition, trans-mysticism is a combination or the unification of two distinct areas of research of trans-humanism: transpersonalism ( Strohl, 1998 ; Lancaster and Linders, 2019 ) and mysticism ( Schneiderman, 1967 ; Bronkhorst, 2022 ). It is important to note that our proposed term of trans-humanism differs from the more recent practice or use of the term (i.e., “trans-humanism”), which contends the possibility that we could use technological advances to augment human capabilities. Trans-mysticism, for us specifically, is a psychological premise that that may assist researchers, educators, students, etc. to understand, appreciate, and/or accept the existence of metaphysical contexts and the anomalistic and “non-realistic states” of life and death. More importantly, we rationalize that our philosophized concept of trans-mysticism (e.g., a “trans-mystical mindset”) may help to “normalize” and/or to “scientize” the subject matters of metaphysicism, mysticism, and the like. For example, one of our articles published recently ( Phan et al., 2021 ) introduces readers to a specific cultural belief (and/or the cultural practice) known as the “underworld” or the “other world” by which a person could travel to interact with loved ones who have moved on. This mentioning may, indeed, give rise to criticisms, disbeliefs, doubts, uncertainties, etc. In a similar vein, unbeknown to some or many in the Western world, perhaps, but the cultural practice of ancestor worshipping ( Townsend, 1969 ; Steadman et al., 1996 ; Lakos, 2010 ; Clark and Palmer, 2016 ) connotes a specific meaning for those in the Eastern world. Aside from veneration for the dead, this cultural practice also signifies the importance in what is known as “spiritual connectedness” or spiritual communication between the dead and the living – for instance, a daughter may pay homage to her deceased father by lighting incenses and asking for his specific blessing to assist her with the forthcoming final exams.

We reason and contend that philosophical research inquiries in the social sciences (i.e., a research inquiry that utilizes the discourse of philosophical psychology) may affirm one of two things: validating a proposed inquiry with supporting “philosophical” evidence or invalidating a proposed inquiry due to a lack of “philosophical” evidence – for example: that there is support for the proposed concept of trans-mysticism, which may help to provide robust explanations for metaphysical encounters. Of course, it is plausible to purport that trans-mysticism may simply be philosophical and lacks logical credence or legitimate merits for further consideration. One of our reviewers, in an earlier draft of the manuscript, offered an interesting critique: that resorting to the use of philosophical psychology ( Thagard, 2014 ; Thagard, 2018 ; Phan et al., 2024 ) or that philosophizing about the nature of a metaphysical context (e.g., one’s ability to interact with a loved one who has moved on) does not necessarily make it valid or credible for research development. Our conceptualized approach, in this case, argues that psychological tenets may be used to explain the underlying nature of metaphysical contexts and/or mystical experiences in life. That the psychological concept of trans-mysticism may, for example:

i. Help to “normalize”, “scientize”, and/or “legitimize” the study of metaphysical contexts and/or non-ordinary or extraordinary realms of human existence ( Rush, 2011 ; Pasi, 2015 ).

ii. Help us appreciate the trans-mystical nature of metaphysical contexts and/or mystical experiences (e.g., a person’s testament of her ability to “detect” dark spiritual “energy” of a loved one).

Over the course of our research development, from conception to subsequent refinement of the article, we have evolved in our thinking and deliberation. Poignant then is our main focus of inquiry, which seeks to capitalize on the use of psychological theories (e.g., transpersonalism) to explain the intricate nature of metaphysicism, mysticism, and the like. Central to our thesis is the robust explanatory account, epistemically objective in nature, of the aforementioned subject of one’s metaphysical or mystical encounters. That ultimately, perhaps, differing subjective universal encounters and/or experiences (e.g., the metaphysical encounter of a loved one who has moved on vs. the daily encounter of a next-door neighbor) may “subsume” within a common prism or theoretical lens for understanding. A related inquiry for future consideration, which falls outside the scope of the present article relates to the confirmation or the epistemic validation of the trans-mystical nature of metaphysical contexts and/or mystical experiences (e.g., that indeed there is something unique or mysterious about a particular metaphysical encounter, and this personal experience does not coincide with objective reality).

3.1 A brief account of transpersonalism and transpersonal psychology

In this section of the article, we briefly discuss a related topic known as transpersonalism ( Strohl, 1998 ; Lancaster and Linders, 2019 ) and transpersonal psychology ( Maslow, 1969 ; Hartelius et al., 2007 ). This topic, we contend, is important and relates to our theoretical premise of trans-mysticism. It is interesting to note that there is a distinction between transpersonalism and transpersonal psychology or that, in fact, the two areas or disciplines are not identical or equivalent ( Friedman, 2002 ; Shorrock, 2008 ). Friedman’s (2002) theoretical account offers a detailed analysis – for example:

“The former [i.e., transpersonalism] is a broadly defined domain of inquiry that can legitimately include a diversity of methods ranging from those of the humanities to those of a variety of scientific endeavors. Psychology, on the other hand, is defined by most psychologists as a scientific discipline; except for a few humanistic and transpersonal adherents who insist that including alternative, that is, nonscientific, approaches is important for the discipline, science is widely accepted as the mainstay of the discipline…. Furthermore, I see transpersonal psychology foremost as a field within the discipline of scientific psychology that focuses on those aspects of trans personal studies that involve the individual, including thoughts, feelings, and behaviors as found in the individual’s biological, cultural, social, and wider contexts” (pp. 180–181).

A more detailed explanation is noted in Shorrock’s (2008) book, titled “ The Transpersonal in Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Counselling ”. Shorrock’s (2008) account of transpersonalism and transpersonal psychology is comprehensive, outlining the genesis, complexity, and the numerous definitions and viewpoints that scholars over the years have proposed. The word count of the present article limits us from detailing Shorrock’s (2008) book and/or the complete gamut of definitions, viewpoints, perspectives, etc. of both disciplines. For the purpose of our rationale, we provide a few definitions of the two areas/disciplines for readers to appreciate ( Table 1 ). From Table 1 , a point of commonality between transpersonal psychology ( Tart, 1975 ; Lajoie and Shapiro, 1992 ; Cunningham, 2007 ) and transpersonalism ( Strohl, 1998 ; Lancaster and Linders, 2019 ), in this case, is the use of the prefix “trans” ( Lancaster and Linders, 2019 ) or the extended prefix or term “transpersonal”, which is defined as “as reaching beyond the personal realm or transcending the singular, personal state of being” ( Clark, 2016 ). Moreover, from our analysis, the significance or the uniqueness of transpersonalism and transpersonal psychology relates to the following: that decisions to accept or to reject transpersonalism and/or transpersonal psychology are largely based on scientific rigor and a researcher’s ability to empirically validate using scientific means (e.g., is it possible?) ( Friedman, 2002 ; Shorrock, 2008 ). Transpersonal psychology is considered as being more robust, valid, and/or legitimate for its scope, which closely aligns to the rigor of scientific psychology ( Friedman, 2002 ; Shorrock, 2008 ).

Table 1 . A summary of sample definitions of transpersonalism and transpersonal psychology.

Despite contrasting definitions ( Table 1 ), we argue that both transpersonalism ( Strohl, 1998 , Lancaster and Linders, 2019 ) and transpersonal psychology ( Tart, 1975 , Lajoie and Shapiro, 1992 , Cunningham, 2007 ) are comparable with each other in terms of interpretation, understanding, and inference. Central to this rationale is that regardless of methodological considerations (e.g., what methodological approach would be best to investigate…?), the study of transpersonalism and the study of transpersonal psychology both subsume within or fall under the umbrella of what we term as “trans-humanistic” development. That trans-humanistic studies, in their entirety, can offer insights and theoretical understandings into the underlying nature of “humanism”. Moreover, we premise that our philosophized nomenclature and/or concept of trans-mysticism, likewise, may subsume within the overarching framework of trans-humanism. In other words, for consideration, is the following extrapolation: that the trans-humanistic framework, especially the tenets of trans-mysticism may provide theoretical grounding to help us gauge into the logic , validity , and legitimacy (e.g., objectivity vs. subjectivity) of the study of metaphysical contexts and mystical life and death experiences – for example, near-death experiences, spiritually transformative experiences, spiritual awakenings, peak experiences, and ecstatic experiences.

3.2 Trans-mystical development: a proposition

Trans-mysticism , as a distinct concept, may contribute to the study of life and death education ( Chen, 2013 ; Huang, 2014 ; Seng and Lee, 2022 ) by accentuating the significance of metaphysical contexts and mystical of life and death experiences, such as:

• The personal experience of “premonition” ( Cameron, 1958 ; Dossey, 2009 ).

• Personal belief in the concept of “reincarnation” ( Nagaraj et al., 2013 ; Barua, 2017 ), or the concept of the endless cycle of “birth-death-rebirth”.

• The personal experience of “spirit communication” with loved ones who have moved on (e.g., the ritual practice of Guan Lou Yin) ( Buckland, 2004 ; Phan et al., 2021 ).

• The personal experience of “time–space transcendence” (i.e., one’s ability to transcend to another time–space context) ( Phan et al., 2024 ).

The proposed prefix or nomenclature “trans-mystical” is somewhat unique for its unification of two distinct areas of research: trans-humanistic studies (e.g., the study of a person’s experience of self-transcendence, which showcases a higher-order form of life functioning) + mystical studies (e.g., the study of a person’s esoteric experience of perceived spirit communication). Trans-mysticism, in accordance with our rationale, is closely associated with the specific subject matters of metaphysicism and mysticism. That our justification for the inclusion of the concept of trans-mysticism arises from the following understanding: that there is an intimate association between life/death context (i.e., metaphysical or mystical context) and a person’s individual mindset . Moreover, from our point of view, the theoretical premise of psychological concept of trans-mysticism is as follows: that personal experience of metaphysical contexts and/or mystical phenomena may give rise to the necessitation , development , and manifestation of a “trans-mystical mindset”. What is a trans-mystical mindset, which subsumes under the theoretical framework of trans-mysticism? For the context of the present article, we define a trans-mystical mindset as:

The ultimate human experience and/or a higher-order state of consciousness of a person, espousing her perception , judgment , belief , and attempted interpretation of metaphysical contexts and/or of life and death phenomena that are mystifying and fall outside the ordinary boundaries of human psyche.

Our philosophization contends that a trans-mystical mindset is contextual (i.e., it is contextualized or is situated within the metaphysical or the trans-mystical life and death contexts) and differs, in this case, from a person’s “ordinary” mindset ( Figure 1 ). There are perhaps a few unique characteristics for us to consider – namely:

i. A trans-mystical mindset is an internalized state that is perceived as being complex and/or higher-order. A trans-mystical mindset is different from an ordinary mindset, which espouses the “perception of normality” or the “realm of conventional human psyche”. An ordinary mindset, in this case, manifests and functions to facilitate successful adaptation of typical or standard daily life contexts (e.g., the context of academic learning in university or the context of a bank employee adapting to his new workplace environment).

ii. Existence of a trans-mystical mindset corresponds to and/or contextualizes to a specific metaphysical context, which may result in a person experiencing some form of mysticism (e.g., a person’s experience of premonition).

iii. There is a demarcation between what is “ordinary” and what is “extraordinary” and this distinction, in fact, explains the nature between an ordinary mindset and a trans-mystical mindset ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Structure of trans-mystical mindset.

Our philosophization has so far introduced an interesting discourse for consideration: the uniqueness in perception, interpretation, and understanding of life and death (i.e., the perspective of objectivity vs. the perspective of subjectivity). The perspective of objectivity ( Hanfstingl, 2022 ) emphasizes the importance of impartiality, unbiased interpretation and logical judgment, and the use of facts and verifiable evidence. For example, in terms of “negativity”, poverty, suffering, uncertainty, despair, and confusion ( Zhang, 2003 ; McCartney et al., 2007 ; Mistry et al., 2009 ) are attributes that many of us experience on a daily basis. Natural tendency, in this case, would dictate that one’s personal mindset seeks out opportunities, pathways, means, etc. to help rectify or resolve such negative life experiences. The perspective of subjectivity ( Lundberg et al., 2023 ), in contrast, emphasizes individualism, a person’s own sense of interpretation and point of view, and potentially biased judgment. For example, a person’s feeling and subjective interpretation may give rise to her conviction and insistence that spirit communication ( Buckland, 2004 ), premonition ( Cameron, 1958 ), time–space displacement, and the like are trans-mystical experiences that do not coincide with everyday objective reality. Subjectivity, in this sense, may associate with what we refer to as “subjective rationality” or “subjective rationalization”. It is interesting to note that unlike objectivity, subjective rationality may reflect and/or encompass the uniqueness of what we term as “social and/or cultural mediation”. That particular culture (e.g., Taiwanese culture), in this instance, may convey and/or mediate messages of acceptance, appropriateness, etc. of metaphysical experiences (e.g., premonition).

3.3 Ordinary mindset, trans-mystical mindset, and self-transcendence

An interesting position is that it is plausible to approach the study of metaphysicism and mysticism from a psychological point of view. There are in this sense several notable inquiries relating to the study of life and death education that are somewhat unique but, importantly, we are not able to address and/or answer here. Central to our thesis, as previously mentioned, is the use of philosophical psychology (e.g., the proposition of a trans-mystical mindset) to help normalize and/or to scientize the subject matters of metaphysicism and mysticism. Beyond the scope of our examination and something that is more contentious, perhaps, is the potential study of the epistemic validation of the underlying nature of metaphysicism – that, indeed, there is something mysterious about metaphysical contexts and that these do not coincide with the realm of ordinary boundaries (e.g., that the personal experience of premonition). In a similar vein, this mentioning of the “mystique” of metaphysicism raises several questions for future research to consider:

i. Is it a case of subjective rationalization or subjective rationality – that the perception of mystique of metaphysical contexts is subjective and individual and not universal in terms of rationalization (e.g., that a person’s subjective rationalization of metaphysical contexts does not necessarily hold for another person)?

ii. Is it beyond the scientific confines and/or the scientific rigor of psychology, as a distinct field of research, and that some alternative epistemology is required in order for us to study the complexity of metaphysicism?

iii. Is it a valid discourse for us to suggest that there is scientific credence to study the epistemic validation or invalidation of metaphysicism?

The present study context considers an interesting premise: that psychological understanding, situated within the boundary of realistic objectivity, may help explain the nature of metaphysicism and mysticism. In other words, a trans-mystical mindset, psychological in makeup, may assist a person to accommodate , adapt , resolve , and interpret the intricacies of metaphysical contexts. That indeed, from our considered viewpoint, metaphysical contexts (e.g., a daughter’s experience of spirit communication with her loved ones) do not necessarily differ from daily life contexts (e.g., a teenager’s romantic feeling for his classmate). Individual differences (e.g., a person’s insistence that he has reincarnated), in this sense, are perhaps subjective – that subjective rationalization is prevalent and may serve to attribute to one’s own conviction of a metaphysical experience.

Unlike an ordinary or a normal mindset, a trans-mystical mindset does not simply eventuate. It is not automatic, spontaneous, and/or instantaneous. Rather, the perceived “unknowns” of this world, or a specific unknown context that one may confront at a particular moment in time, may initiate and stimulate a trans-mystical mindset. Our philosophization contends that a trans-mystical mindset reflects a person’s experience of being able to “transcend” herself from an ordinary level of human psyche to an expansive, extraordinary level. More importantly, our embracement of objective rationality indicates that a trans-mystical mindset may add logic, validity, and scientific credence to the study of metaphysical contexts and mystical experiences. In other words, from our point of view, a trans-mystical mindset may serve as a theoretical lens, helping society and individuals to view the subject matters of metaphysicism objectively. That the metaphysical concept of premonition ( Cameron, 1958 ; Dossey, 2009 ) is non-mystical and/or is just a “norm” that some individuals may experience. We rationalize this position by considering an interesting benchmark or a point of equivalency – namely:

That a trans-mystical mindset, as extraordinary and higher-order, may equate to the humanistic state of transcendence .

3.3.1 Point of equivalency for consideration

The underlying account of our rationalization (i.e., a trans-mystical mindset ≈ state of transcendence) is that both a trans-mystical mindset and a state of transcendence are non-ordinary life states and/or non-everyday contexts ( Figure 1 ). For example, a student’s state of self-transcendence is somewhat different from her state of intrinsic motivation for mathematics learning, and/or that the personal context of bushwalking on a Saturday morning does not coincide with a teenager’s trans-mystical mindset. In terms of transcendence, there are numerous theoretical accounts [ Reed’s (1991) Self-Transcendence Theory] within the transpersonal psychology literature, but generally speaking, a popular account is from Maslow (1971) , which states the following:

Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to human beings in general, to other species, to nature, and to the cosmos” (p. 269).

An analysis of Maslow’s (1971) description of transcendence (e.g., self-transcendence) suggests, perhaps, a very concise, direct, and clear explanation (e.g., that a person’s state of self-transcendence indicates his complex state of consciousness…). At a deeper level, however, we note a few notable keywords or phrases that are somewhat complex – for example: “holistic levels of human consciousness”, “ends rather than means”, and “the cosmos”. We contend that these keywords or phrases serve to support our earlier mentioning: that the underlying nature of transcendence, similar to a trans-mystical mindset, is something that is higher-order and that a lay person does not necessarily experience on a daily basis.

There is research development that has, to date, explored the impact of transcendence. For example, a number of researchers have studied the underlying nature of “self-transcendence” ( Conn, 1998 ; Ruschmann, 2011 ; Llanos and Martínez Verduzco, 2022 ), which concerns a person’s ability to transcend beyond her perceived sense of self and, in the process, recognizing that there are elements in life (e.g., nature, social relationship, the universe, divine power, etc.) that constitute the notion of “whole” (e.g., the “wholeness” of a person consist of…). A person’s self-transcendence experience, in this case, showcases her deep understanding and appreciation that there are, perhaps, greater “powers” in life (e.g., a teenager’s perceived spiritual connectedness with God). As such then, this brief theoretical account supports our earlier mentioning regarding the significance and/or the intricacy of a state of self-transcendence: that it is an experience of a higher-order where some of us in society are fortunate or have been fortunate to have encountered.

Again, reiterating our earlier discussion, a state of self-transcendence is higher-order ( Maslow, 1969 , 1971 ) but it does not mean that such encounter and/or experience is mystical in any shape or form. It is a psychological state that we purport may adhere to and/or equate to what we term as “transformation” or the “process of transformation” ( Figure 1 ). Transformation for us, in this case, relates to the “transformation” of a person’s “ordinary” state of consciousness (i.e., ordinary mindset) to a more “complex” state of consciousness (i.e., a trans-mystical mindset). In other words, our conceptualization is as follows:

That transformation of a person’s contextual mindset (i.e., ordinary mindset → trans-mystical mindset) equates to or is analogous to a state of self-transcendence, helping her to rationalize, understand, and/or appreciate the nature of metaphysical contexts, mystical experiences, and the like.

The significance of the aforementioning lies in our attempt to objectively rationalize the nature of metaphysical contexts by equating the concept of a trans-mystical mindset with a state of self-transcendence ( Maslow, 1969 , 1971 ). In this analysis, a trans-mystical mindset is not some unknown, mysterious concept that only a few of us may experience. Rather, equating to a state of self-transcendence, a person’s transformed mindset (i.e., personal mindset → trans-mystical mindset) espouses his intimate sense and/or experience of quality attributes, such as awareness , realization , logical reasoning , acceptance , and enlightenment . As an example, consider a senior citizen who recently encounters a metaphysical life context (e.g., interaction with perceived dark energy of loved ones who have moved on). Such a metaphysical encounter could potentially “transform” the senior citizen’s mindset (i.e., personal mindset → trans-mystical mindset) to assist him to logically rationalize (e.g., he reasons that his experience of spiritual connection is normal), realize (e.g., he realizes that he is able to “sense” a loved one who has moved on nearby), and/or accept (e.g., he accepts that what he is feeling (i.e., sensing a spiritual connection) is normal) that his personal experience of mysticism is normal.

3.4 Innovation and intricacy

Figure 1 encapsulates our conceptualization, showcasing the process of transformation and the two major levels of human existence and/or human psyche (i.e., ordinary (Level 1)  → trans-mystical (Level 2) ). Innovatively and significantly, our conceptualization is intended to support and/or to accentuate our theoretical position: that the subject matters of metaphysicism (e.g., a teenager’s mystical experience) are, in fact, “normal” or that they coincide with the realm of objective rationalization. That we may, in fact, use psychological premises (e.g., the use of philosophical psychology) to decipher, normalize, and scientize the perceived “extraordinary” nature of metaphysical context, mystical experiences, and the like. By all accounts, one may perceive and view the context of premonition ( Cameron, 1958 ; Dossey, 2009 ) as being something that is extraordinary and situates outside or beyond the realm of ordinary boundaries of life and death. This standing, however, emphasizes the importance of subjective experience (e.g., something that is perceived and viewed as being “extraordinary” for one person may not be so for another person). Moreover, such differences in personal experience may make the same belief subjectively rational for one person but not another person. Upon reflection though, we offer an alternative account, which is illustrated here in this section, where we contend that variations in mystical or metaphysical contexts may “cross-reference” with Maslow’s (1969 , 1971) hierarchy of needs framework:

Level 1: an ordinary mindset: Ordinary boundaries of human existence and/or human psyche may give rise to the proposition of a person’s “ordinary mindset”. Ordinary boundaries of human existence and/or human psyche (e.g., a student’s love for mastery of classical music), from our rationalization, coincide with Maslow’s (1968 , 1969) proposition of physiological needs, safety needs, belonging and love needs, and esteem needs. Level 1, from our point of view, is considered as a basic level or a low level of human psyche.

Level 2: a trans-mystical mindset: Extraordinary boundaries of human existence and/or human psyche may give rise to the proposition of a “trans-mystical mindset”. Extraordinary boundaries of human existence and/or human psyche (e.g., a teenager’s perceived ability to transcend to another time–space realm), from our rationalization, coincide with Maslow’s (1968 , 1969) proposition of self-actualization and self-transcendence. Level 2, from our point of view, is considered as a complex level or a higher level of human psyche.

Our philosophization, summarized in Figure 1 , is innovative for its proposition of an active process of transformation of a person’s psychological mindset. That a person’s mindset is contextual ( Phan et al., 2024 ) and changes with reference to a specific context at hand (i.e., Level 1 → L2). Moreover, from our point of view, normalizing and/or scientizing the subject matters of metaphysicism, mysticism, and the like may consist of the equivalency between two higher-order concepts: a trans-mystical mindset ≈ a state of self-transcendence. Variations in human experiences, ranging from ordinary and perceived realistic levels (e.g., one’s personal desire to live a cherished and self-fulfilling life) to extraordinary and perceived complex levels (e.g., one’s personal desire to seek theoretical understanding of the unknowns) may serve to change one’s psychological mindset (i.e., personal mindset → trans-mystical mindset).

4 Importance of antecedents: life wisdom and historical-sociocultural contextualization

Approaching the study of life and death education from a mystical perspective ( Phan et al., 2021 , 2023 ), or from the perspective objectivity vs. subjectivity, is insightful and interesting, as it may help advance theoretical understanding of the subject matters. An important issue for consideration, in this case, relates to one’s inclination to accept or to reject the enigma of the subject of trans-mysticism (e.g., a person’s perceived mystical life experience, such as his ability to transcend to another time–space context). Our attempt over the past few years has involved the use of philosophical analysis to help normalize the subject matter of mystical experiences and metaphysical contexts. That psychological premises, for example, may enable us to scientize the nature of metaphysicism. Interestingly, one of our reviewers recently mentioned a pivotal point, contending that philosophizing the relevance and/or the uniqueness of mystical experiences and metaphysical contexts does necessarily make them any more valid. That a person’s willingness to embrace the subject of trans-mysticism, likewise, may simply reflect and/or indicate his sense of curiosity, interest, etc. and nothing more. If this is the case, then it may be plausible to purport that universal contexts (e.g., the context of mastery and enjoyment of visual arts vs. the context of reincarnation) do not conjecture any “mystique” or “extraordinariness”. A specific life context is only mysterious or extraordinary (e.g., a teenager’s conviction that her personal experience of spiritual connection with a loved one who has moved on), perhaps, from a subjective point of view. Having said this, however, we want to briefly introduce two theoretical concepts that may offer grounding and discount the objective logic, validity, and/or legitimacy of trans-mysticism, metaphysical contexts, and the like:

i. The importance of life wisdom.

ii. The importance of historical-sociocultural contextualization.

To offer a balanced overview and to encourage scholarly dialogues, we have chosen to consider an alternative and/or a related viewpoint: that acquired life wisdom and/or one’s historical-sociocultural upbringing may predominate and support and/or strengthen the perspective of subjective rationality. This viewpoint considers the importance of subjectivity, personal experience and interpretation, and individual differences and contends that perhaps there is something mysterious about the study of metaphysicism. For example, life wisdom is an interesting commodity that may impart contextual epistemological beliefs, expectations, reflective thoughts, and the like. In a similar vein, historical-sociocultural grounding and/or upbringing may cultivate the cultural belief that ancestor worshipping ( Steadman et al., 1996 ; Lakos, 2010 ) enables a person to engage in spirit communication.

4.1 The importance of life wisdom

Life wisdom or life knowledge is somewhat different from contextual subject knowledge (e.g., knowledge of Algebra) as it connotes the importance of “generality”. Situating within the context of life and death education ( Chen, 2013 ; Huang, 2014 ; Seng and Lee, 2022 ), life wisdom is defined as:

“A lifelong process that reflects cognitive maturity, diverse life experiences, and the continuation of acquired knowledge of different contexts. A person's wisdom of life, in this sense, is not analogous with his/her intellectual or cognitive development” ( Phan et al., 2021 ).

Unlike specific content knowledge, procedural knowledge, and/or conceptual knowledge (e.g., Algebra), life knowledge, or life wisdom, is somewhat generic and reflects a person’s maturity and diverse life experiences (e.g., a Buddhist nun’s life knowledge of spirituality). Progress in life, in this sense, may coincide with a person’s acquirement and/or development of life knowledge. It is interesting to note life and death education teaching considers the importance of “active transformation” of life wisdom, or life knowledge, into practice for positive and/or effective life functioning ( Phan et al., 2021 , 2023 ). Active transformation, importantly, emphasizes the nexus between theory and practical purposes. In terms of the present context, however, we posit that life wisdom may help to assist a person to view metaphysical contexts and mystical experiences somewhat differently. In other words, resonating with our earlier mentioning, a person’s life wisdom may in fact assist him with his subjective interpretation and rationalization – that, indeed, there is logic to the argument that metaphysical cases of reincarnation, premonition, spirit communication, etc. are extraordinary and situate outside the realm of ordinary boundaries of life and death.

4.2 The importance of historical-sociocultural and ethno-anthropological contextualization

Historical-sociocultural background and upbringing (e.g., a South African child who was born and grows up in Indonesia) may help to shape a person’s epistemological belief, cultural value, customary practice, etc. Extensive research development, to date, has acknowledged the importance of what is known as “sociocultural contextualization” or “situational placement” of one’s learning experiences and personal development ( Wertsch et al., 1995 ; Kozulin, 1999 ; Mahn, 1999 ). There are specific examples, briefly introduced here, that support the potency of historical-sociocultural and ethno-anthropological premises of life and death experiences. That a person’s specific historical-sociocultural upbringing may play a prominent role, helping to convince her that subjective, metaphysical, and extraordinary contexts are perhaps logical. For example, unlike their Western counterparts, Tibetans in general have been brought up from an early age to appreciate the importance of Tibetan Buddhist teaching ( Lama and Chodron, 2019 , Prude, 2019 ), which emphasizes the premise of reincarnation ( Burley, 2014 ; Barua, 2017 ) or the notion of the “birth-death-rebirth” cycle ( Park, 2014 ; Sarao, 2017 ). It is their collective cultural belief perhaps, that upon death, one would reincarnate to a new “being” or a new life. In a similar vein, as we cited earlier, many Taiwanese believe in what is known as an “underworld”, or a place where one could meet and communicate with loved ones who have moved on ( Phan et al., 2021 ). It is interesting to note though, that some Western scholars ( Greber, 1979 ; Buckland, 2004 ; Tymn, 2014 ; Pócs, 2019 ) have also made reference to the notion of “spirit communication”.

The brief accounts, as mentioned here, emphasize the potential relevance and applicability of personal upbringing, grounded in historical-sociocultural contexts. Similar to the case of life wisdom, we posit that historical-sociocultural contexts may support the theoretical lens of subjective rationalization. That a particular historical-sociocultural grounding may instill conviction, personal resolve, and/or firm belief that metaphysical encounters, mystical contexts, and the like are ontologically subjective not rational in perception, interpretation, etc.

5 Summation

In summation, the study of life and death education ( Chen, 2013 ; Huang, 2014 ; Seng and Lee, 2022 ) has established strong grounding for learning, research, and practical purposes. Central to this thesis is a pervasive desire for individuals to appreciate life and death experiences in all different forms. Philosophical, conceptual, and empirical research undertakings have been plentiful, resulting in a myriad of findings and viewpoints for consideration. Our own research inquiries of life and death education over the years, likewise, have provided some interesting findings and insights for continuing teaching and research development. One particular aspect for continuing development relates to the context of universality. Do all of us view, perceive, and/or interpret universal contexts the same or differently? That perhaps, for some of us, life and death contexts are different and exist outside or beyond the ordinary and realistic boundaries of humankind (e.g., a person’s perceived feeling and/or experience of time–space transportation). Indeed, as a recap, we have briefly explored this metaphysical or mystical topic of human agency in a few of our recent articles. This concerted effort has provided preliminary grounding for our proposition of a related psychological concept known as “trans-mysticism”.

The present article considers an interesting discourse: that we may, in fact, subsume and/or frame different subjective viewpoints and interpretations of universal contexts within one common objective, psychological lens. That a resulting trans-mystical mindset, in this case, may help to “objectivize” or scientize the subject matters of metaphysicism, mysticism, and the like. Relating to this proposition is our conceptualization of an equivalency between the process of transformation of an ordinary mindset and a personal state of self-transcendence (i.e., a trans-mystical mindset ≈ a state of self-transcendence). Our philosophization (e.g., situating the concept of a “trans-mystical mindset” within Maslow’s (1968 , 1969) hierarchy of needs framework), in this analysis, is intended to achieve three major feats:

i. To promote the possibility of normalization and acceptance of metaphysical contexts and mystical life and death experiences from the perspective of psychology.

ii. To introduce an alternative nomenclature or psychological concept, known as trans-mysticism, into mainstream trans-humanistic literatures for consideration – for example, a person’s contextual mindset may situate within a hierarchy, transforming from an ordinary level to a higher-order level or a trans-mystical level.

iii. To advance the study of life and death education by considering the legitimacy, logic, and validity of non-conventional or non-objective themes (e.g., the personal experience of premonition).

Overall, then, the focus of our philosophical inquiry raises several notable issues for consideration and/or acknowledgment. That innovatively and creatively, we have utilized psychological premises (e.g., the study of transpersonalism) and the formal teaching and research of life and death education ( Chen, 2013 , Huang, 2014 , Seng and Lee, 2022 ) to normalize and/or to scientize the subject matters of metaphysicism. Equally important is a focus that we briefly mentioned for future development, which seeks to elucidate the epistemic legitimacy or validation of personal conviction and belief that metaphysical contexts and/or mystical experiences are truly unique [e.g., is there something truly unique, objectively, about one’s mystical belief of a metaphysical encounter (e.g., his conviction that spirit communication is unique and does not coincide with everyday objective reality?)].

6 Inquiries for consideration: teaching, educational, and practical purposes

We acknowledge that it is somewhat difficult to conceptualize concretely the concept of trans-mysticism, and/or to convince someone that there is scientific truth to the subject matters of metaphysicism and mysticism. Unlike other theories, concepts, relationships, etc. in the social sciences (e.g., the study of human motivation for effective learning), trans-humanism in its entirety is somewhat abstract, subjective, and individualized, requiring philosophical analysis, reasoned judgment, and contemplation to assist with the attainment of meaningful understanding. In this section of the article, we introduce a few proposed inquiries that may add valuable insights and support our aforementioned proposition for further development.

6.1 Teaching and practical purposes

Quality teaching (e.g., on-campus) and innovative curriculum development, as a whole, is a central element of successful schooling and academic learning experiences. The nexus between research and learning outcomes may involve active transformation of research findings into practice, where possible [e.g., how do we transform the premise of premonition ( Cameron, 1958 , González-González, 2019 ) into positive daily practice?]. Our interest in this matter over the past few years has been to develop a “unifying” framework of life and death education that may take into account different theoretical lenses – psychological , philosophical , sociological , anthropological , etc. Such a unifying framework could, perhaps, help to provide complementary information for holistic understanding of the subject contents of life and death [e.g., a psychological viewpoint (e.g., psychological process of grief) + historical-sociocultural viewpoint (e.g., the Eastern viewpoint about death) of death].

Aside from a unifying framework that incorporates different theoretical lenses, what else can we consider for effective teaching and learning experiences? Consider, in this case, innovative curriculum development that places emphasis on daily relevance and applied educational and non-educational practices. Does a trans-mystical mindset have any practicality for consideration? Can a student utilize her trans-mystical life experience or an encountered metaphysical context to “better” herself and/or others? Is there a program for implementation that an educator could develop, which takes into account the importance of trans-mystical life/death contexts? These sample questions emphasize the importance of practicality or the transformation of theory into practice. To answer such questions, we would need to consider the potential negative perception of the subject matter itself – that:

i. Some or many students, in general, may not appreciate and/or view trans-mystical life/death contexts as a credible subject for studying (e.g., for their future study and/or career pathways).

ii. It is somewhat difficult to associate trans-mystical life/death contexts with everyday relevance and/or applicability.

iii. Some or many students may have differing viewpoints, religious faiths, cultural beliefs, etc. that would prevent them from embracing the subject of trans-mystical life/death contexts.

Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry, Economics, etc. are “hard pure theoretical” disciplines ( Becher, 1989 ; Becher, 1994 ) that are concrete, relatively straightforward in terms of comprehension, processing, and/or understanding, and may reflect daily life relevance. Where does the subject of metaphysical contexts and/or the subject of mystical experiences, in contrast, rank in terms of “intellectual categorization” (e.g., is there any “academic basis” to the study of trans-mysticism?) ( Becher, 1989 , 1994 )? Becher’s (1989 , 1994) framework of intellectual categorizations (e.g., treating the subject content of a trans-mystical mindset as a “soft pure theoretical” subject), in this case, may help to define or redefine the “intellectual rigor” of the subject matters of trans-mysticism, metaphysical contexts, and the like. In a similar vein, the pedagogical practice of theoretical infusion ( Phan et al., 2023 , 2024 ), as described earlier, may lend support and strengthen the perception of intellectual or “academic rigor” to the subject matters of trans-mysticism, metaphysical contexts, and the like. For example, the pedagogical practice of Buddhist infusion ( Yeshe and Rinpoche, 1976 ; Metzner, 1996 ; Master Sheng Yen, 2010 ) may associate trans-mysticism with the subject matter of Buddhist spirituality (e.g., that personal experience and/or feeling of Buddhist spirituality is non-ordinary or extraordinary, reflecting the uniqueness of mysticism), adding valuable academic insights for consideration.

The study of trans-mysticism, in its entirety (e.g., a trans-mystical mindset), may impart some relevant insights for daily life purposes. Daily life relevance, in this case, does not necessarily equate to useful practicalities for positive life functioning. Rather, from our point of view, life relevance arising from in-depth knowledge and personal understanding of trans-mysticism may relate to one’s ability to appreciate and accept the broad “humanistic” nature of life and death. Furthermore, appreciating the concept of trans-mysticism may enable and/or assist a person to recognize that interpretation of life and death can incorporate and involve different theoretical lenses – for example, objective reality vs. individual subjectivity.

6.2 Self-reflection and holistic state of consciousness-subconsciousness

We now turn our attention to another focus of inquiry, which seeks to consider the potential impact of a person’s trans-mystical mindset on her state of personal reflection. Personal reflection , as Schön (1983 , 1987) contends, may espouse two different types: “in-action” reflection (i.e., during the event) and “on-action” reflection (i.e., after the event). This theoretical premise is relevant and may, in fact, relate to the context of our discussion of trans-mysticism. There are a few inquiries that we have formulated for researchers, educators, etc. to consider:

i. Does a trans-mystical mindset coincide with or help a person to develop reflective thinking skills?

ii. Does an encounter with a particular trans-mystical context and/or mystical life/death experience help a person to develop reflective thinking skills?

iii. Can personal reflection assist a person to reason, accept, and/or embrace trans-mystical life/death contexts?

iv. Can reflective thinking serve as an informational source, helping to necessitate, prepare, facilitate, and/or sustain a trans-mystical mindset?

The main issue, from our point of view, is whether trans-mystical mindset and reflective practice are interrelated with each other. In terms of life and death contexts, specifically, we prefer to use the term “self-contemplation” or “personal contemplation” ( Chattopadhyay, 2022 ) over that of self-reflection. For us, self-contemplation is more than just a state of personal reflection of different types of life functioning. Rather, self-contemplation is transpersonal and reflects a person’s concerted introspection to seek deep understanding about life experiences and the true meaning of higher-order life attainments. Moreover, from our point of view, self-contemplation emphasizes the importance of one’s own self-analysis and philosophization about the true meaning of aestheticism and altruism. It would be an interesting endeavor to explore the self-contemplative nature of trans-mysticism. To facilitate this line of questioning, we propose a term that we coin as “trans-mystical contemplation” or “trans-mystical introspection” – for example: does a person’s experience of trans-mysticism (e.g., a person’s conviction and belief that she is able to connect spiritually with loved ones who have moved on) reflect his contemplative or introspective thoughts?

Our recent article introduced a mindfulness-related methodological approach known as “meditative-reflective documentation” ( Phan et al., 2024 ). Meditative-reflective documentation is an approach that encourages a person to document and note down specific phrases, drawings, keywords, etc. that could describe his “meditative-reflective” experience. This theoretical account of meditative-reflective experience contends that in-depth meditation may enable a person to attain and/or to experience a higher-order “meditative-reflective” state – for example, his perceived feeling of “extraordinariness”, such as the perceived feeling of out-of-body experience (e.g., self-awareness of the perception of “disassociation” of body and mind from the present time–space context). As a result of this mentioning, we wonder whether there is credence to consider an interesting proposition: that the totality of a person’s state of consciousness and subconsciousness may consist of a unification or a combination of similar states: a trans-mystical state , a meditative-reflective state , a self-actualizing state , a transcendence state , etc., ( Figure 2 ).

Figure 2 . A proposed holistic state of consciousness-subconsciousness here.

Our seminal idea, as described, considers the possibility that some discourse and/or course of action could act to facilitate the unification of different states of consciousness and subconsciousness (e.g., a trans-mystical state, a meditative-reflective state, a self-actualizing state, and a transcendence state). This unification, we philosophize, may serve to encapsulate the “entirety” of a person’s state of consciousness-subconsciousness. Our narrative, in this case, contends that metaphysical contexts and/or mystical experiences may help initiate, unify, and sustain the four aforementioned states of consciousness-subconsciousness.

6.3 Research development for consideration

In this final section of the article, we discuss a few research propositions that may assist to support our advocation for the study of the entirety of trans-humanism, including the proposed concept of a trans-mystical mindset. We acknowledge that overall, the subject of trans-humanism is abstract, philosophical, and can be somewhat incomprehensible at times, making it difficult for students, individuals, etc. to understand and appreciate. Even more difficult, perhaps, is the development of research undertakings that could in effect help to validate such representation(s). There are a couple of questions, at present, for us to consider:

i. How do we accurately measure and assess the underlying nature of a trans-mystical mindset?

ii. How do we measure, assess, and/or evaluate one’s perceived feeling of a metaphysical context, mystical experience, and the like?

iii. How do we validate the proposition of a holistic state of consciousness-subconsciousness ( Figure 2 ), which may consider the following: a trans-mystical state, a meditative-reflective state, a self-actualizing state, a transcendence state, etc.?

iv. How do we objectively validate, legitimize, and/or confirm that a trans-mystical mindset is unique or that metaphysical experiences are extraordinary and situate outside the realm of ordinary boundaries?

The sample questions above illustrate the complexities of the study of the entirety of trans-humanism. For example, how would we soundly and/or accurately undertake a research inquiry into the nature of a trans-mystical mindset? This question places emphasis on a research-related issue or matter known as “methodological appropriateness” ( Esterberg, 2002 ; Creswell, 2003 ; Creswell, 2008 ). Methodological appropriateness, in brief, relates to the development of an appropriate methodological design for usage that would, in turn, enable a researcher to measure and assess a concept, phenomenon, relationship, etc. adequately and accurately In the social sciences, there are a couple of robust and stringent methodological designs for researchers, educators, students, etc. to consider (e.g., Likert-scale inventories, surveys, open-ended interviews). Likert-scale inventories and/or open-ended surveys are relatively straightforward and, in this case, may offer simple, direct opportunities and/or pathways for the attainment of evidence into the perception of trans-mystical life/death experiences (e.g., I perceive that there is something out there, divine, that I cannot explain…).

An important line of inquiry for consideration entails a comparative analysis of viewpoints, perspectives, interpretations, opinions, etc. of the study of trans-humanism in its entirety. We purport that a “sociocultural-anthropological” approach could offer a more interesting account of perception, interpretation, understanding, etc. of metaphysical contexts, mystical experiences, and the like. A sociocultural-anthropological approach ( Phan et al., 2024 ), we contend, places emphasis on the importance of diverse customary practices, cultural values, epistemological beliefs, protocols, etc. As we mentioned earlier, historical-sociocultural grounding and personal upbringing may play a prominent role, helping to shape or influence a person’s behavior, viewpoint, interpretation, epistemological belief, etc. (e.g., that there is logic and relevance to the cultural practice of ancestor worshipping). In this analysis, research undertakings that place emphasis on ethnographic-anthropological differences or similarities (e.g., the contrasting viewpoints regarding a trans-mystical mindset in reception, belief, and conviction towards the notion of premonition) may lend support for a wider scope in study of perspectives, beliefs, opinions, and ideas of metaphysical contexts, etc.

7 Conclusion

The present conceptual analysis article, we contend, has advanced the study of transpersonalism in its entirety ( Maslow, 1969 ; Strohl, 1998 ; Hartelius et al., 2007 ; Lancaster and Linders, 2019 ) by considering an alternative – namely, the nomenclature “trans-humanism” and, in this case, the philosophized psychological concept of trans-mysticism. Our focus of inquiry, philosophically and theoretically, attempts to analyze the potential relevance and significance of trans-mysticism by situating its nature within the framework of life and death education ( Phan et al., 2021 ; Lei et al., 2022 ; Seng and Lee, 2022 ; Shu et al., 2023 ). Specifically, we purport that metaphysical contexts, mystical experiences, and the like may transform a person’s ordinary mindset to a trans-mystical mindset, helping him to appreciate, rationalize, and make reasoned judgments about the nature of such “extraordinary” encounters.

Overall, then, we contend that our focus of inquiry has added valuable insights for research, teaching, and practical purposes. Central to this thesis is our use of philosophical analysis to normalize and scientize a subject area that is perceived as being somewhat non-conventional. This utilization of personal philosophization has provided grounding for consideration of several interesting endeavors: (i) viewing life and death from contrasting theoretical lenses (e.g., objective reality vs. individual subjectivity), (ii) seeking to engage in higher-order human practices (e.g., meditative-reflection) in order to encounter and/or to experience metaphysical contexts and the like, and (iii) embracing the importance of “normalization” of extraordinary human psyche for daily functioning.

Author contributions

HP: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. BN: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. C-SH: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Validation, Writing – review & editing. S-CC: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. LW: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

HP would like to express his appreciation to the University of New England, Armidale, Australia for allowing him to undertake his sabbatical in late 2022, which led to the preparation and writeup of this article. A special thank you to the National Taipei University of Education and, in particular, the Department of Education for hosting the first author’s sabbatical. Finally, the five authors would like to extend their gratitude and appreciation to the Associate Editor and the two reviewers for their insightful comments, which have helped to enhance the articulation of this conceptual analysis article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: life and death education, trans-mystical mindset, transpersonalism, trans-mysticism, hierarchy of needs, mediative-reflective state, transcendence state, self-actualizing state

Citation: Phan HP, Ngu BH, Hsu C-S, Chen S-C and Wu L (2024) Expanding the scope of “trans-humanism”: situating within the framework of life and death education – the importance of a “trans-mystical mindset”. Front. Psychol . 15:1380665. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1380665

Received: 02 February 2024; Accepted: 10 April 2024; Published: 23 April 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Phan, Ngu, Hsu, Chen and Wu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Huy P. Phan, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• Open access
• Published: 26 April 2024

Culture change and lessons learned from ten years in the VA centers of excellence in primary care education

• William G. Weppner 1 , 6 ,
• Mamta K. Singh 2 ,
• Joyce E. Wipf 1 ,
• Rebecca Shunk 3 ,
• LeChauncy Woodard 4 &
• Rebecca Brienza 5  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  457 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Team-based care is critical to achieving health care value while maximizing patient outcomes. Few descriptions exist of graduate-level team training interventions and practice models. Experience from the multisite, decade-long Veterans Affairs (VA) Centers of Excellence in Primary Care Education provides lessons for developing internal medicine training experiences in interprofessional clinical learning environments.

A review of multisite demonstration project transforming traditional silo-model training to interprofessional team-based primary care. Using iterative quality improvement approaches, sites evaluated curricula with learner, faculty and staff feedback. Learner- and patient-level outcomes and organizational culture change were examined using mixed methods, within and across sites. Participants included more than 1600 internal medicine, nurse practitioner, nursing, pharmacy, psychology, social work and physical therapy trainees. This took place in seven academic university-affiliated VA primary care clinics with patient centered medical home design

Each site developed innovative design and curricula using common competencies of shared decision making, sustained relationships, performance improvement and interprofessional collaboration. Educational strategies included integrated didactics, workplace collaboration and reflection. Sites shared implementation best practices and outcomes. Cross-site evaluations of the impacts of these educational strategies indicated improvements in trainee clinical knowledge, team-based approaches to care and interest in primary care careers. Improved patient outcomes were seen in the quality of chronic disease management, reduction in polypharmacy, and reduced emergency department and hospitalizations. Evaluations of the culture of training environments demonstrated incorporation and persistence of interprofessional learning and collaboration.

Conclusions

Aligning education and practice goals with cross-site collaboration created a robust interprofessional learning environment. Improved trainee/staff satisfaction and better patient care metrics supports use of this model to transform ambulatory care training.

Trial registration

This evaluation was categorized as an operation improvement activity by the Office of Academic Affairs based on Veterans Health Administration Handbook 1058.05, in which information generated is used for business operations and quality improvement (Title 38 Code of Federal Regulations Part 16 (38 CFR 16.102(l)). The overall project was subject to administrative oversight rather Human Subjects Institutional Review Board, as such informed consent was waived as part of the project implementation and evaluation.

Peer Review reports

An interprofessional, team-based model has been shown to improve quality, efficiency, and safety of patient care [ 1 , 2 ]. This model is essential as health care systems transition to value-based care and is strongly encouraged in undergraduate health profession training by the National Academy of Medicine [ 3 ] and American Association of Medical Colleges [ 4 ]. Although calls for more support for team-based care have existed for decades [ 5 ], successful examples providing meaningful workplace learning environments are limited [ 3 , 6 ].

This manuscript describes the approaches, lessons learned and measured outcomes from a decade-long, multi-site endeavor to transform traditional models of education to interprofessional team-based collaborative care. This manuscript summarizes principles and processes which enabled seven participating Veterans Affairs (VA) programs to successfully develop, implement, evaluate, disseminate and sustain interprofessional models of training. We share specific strategies and professions involved, as well as published trainee, staff, patient and health system outcomes. The lessons learned provide a guidepost to transform other primary care teaching clinics that are interested in engaging more fully in Patient Centered Medical Home practices, and to support graduate training for a more diverse population of interprofessional trainees, from internal medicine, nurse practitioner, pharmacy psychology, and other affiliated health professions.

Setting and participants

The VA health care system transformed its primary care clinics to align with the Patient Centered Medical Home model in 2010 [ 7 ]. Subsequent to this transformation, the VA Office of Academic Affiliations (OAA) established “Centers of Excellence in Primary Care Education” (CoEPCE) with the goal of transforming traditional siloed health professional education to collaborative practice models [ 8 ]. CoEPCE sites were selected from a competitive application process and received funding to develop and implement programs. Selection was based on innovative proposals to develop models of interprofessional education and team-based care. All sites were located at mid- to large-sized academic primary care clinics. Funding was utilized primarily for salary support for curriculum development, teaching, and evaluation. Each center aimed to design innovative graduate medical education (GME) and health professional training models with sufficient time and structure for all trainees to “learn with, about and from each other” in keeping with National Academy of Medicine recommendations for meaningful interprofessional education and care [ 3 ]. Although each site had similar objectives and shared competencies, all were challenged to develop unique models of training, care and culture. Sites were encouraged to share curricula.

The CoEPCE’s were based in academic primary care clinics of initially five, then seven, geographically separate VA institutions with university affiliations. Each site included a variety of unintegrated health professional training programs that were functioning in silos (e.g., internal medicine, nurse practitioner, nursing, pharmacy, psychology, social work, dietetic and physical therapy trainees). As is typical for primary care clinics within the VA, the largest group of trainees were internal medicine residents, both in terms of numbers of trainees and number of years of exposure to the training. New nurse practitioner residencies were created at each site and several established other post-graduate programs, including registered nurse or chiropractic residencies [ 9 ]. Trainees were included in evaluations if they provided clinical care in CoEPCE clinic according to their licensure (e.g. graduate health professional trainees), and participated in CoEPCE curricular activities. Trainees typically spent between one and three full academic years in a CoEPCE, depending on the requirements of their training programs. When applicable, perspectives from staff and faculty from the training clinics were included in published qualitative studies. Over the decade of the CoEPCE experiment from 2010 to 2019, more than 1600 trainees were successfully engaged into integrated interprofessional learning and primary care teams for up to three years during training. Local leadership at each site tracked and reported trainee participation at least twice each academic year through a shared reporting portal.

Program description

Across the seven sites, there were four educational competencies required at baseline in support of patient-centered care: Shared Decision Making, Sustained Relationships, Performance Improvement and Interprofessional Collaboration [ 10 ]. We employed a conceptual model with the foundation that educational transformation needed to align with practice redesign supporting the strong relationship between the patient/caregivers and their primary care team [ 11 ]. Sites had different types of participating health professional trainees at a baseline and the predominant training model was within each profession, with very limited shared or overlapping curricula prior to the beginning of the CoEPCE project.

The initial stage of each program required aligning individual training programs’ accreditation needs, while ensuring meaningful time together in the training model. Attention to overlapping and complementary aspects of different program competencies paralleled discussions of roles and responsibilities in clinic. Particular attention was given to modelling collaborative leadership across professions in curriculum development, implementation, and delivery. During such sessions, interprofessional co-leads purposefully facilitated discussions of profession-specific stereotypes and modelled discussions about how such stereotypes may support or impede collaboration in curricular and clinical care settings. Programs required trainees spend at least 30% of their time in this model to allow sufficient time to interface and develop longitudinal team and patient continuity relationships. This required dedicated time from a core of internal medicine residents, nurse practitioner residents, pharmacy residents, psychology post-doctoral candidates, social work interns and physical therapy trainees. Each participating training program required faculty have dedicated time or teaching commitments to support interprofessional collaboration. This dramatic transformation of profession-specific training models required both commitment and buy-in from each program to participate while still maintaining accreditation requirements. Dedicated faculty time varied depending on overlapping responsibilities, but most participating faculty had at least 10% of their full time equivalent dedicated to the CoEPCE interprofessional work. In addition, travel to conferences was supported by CoEPCE to facilitate dissemination of curricula across sites, typically with participation in 1–2 relevant in-person conferences per year.

Approach to curricula

To teach core competencies, sites developed curricula using different primary educational modalities: shared workplace learning, didactics and reflection (Fig.  1 ). These modalities were designed to reinforce and overlap curricula from other areas. One example was an interprofessional case conferences for high-risk/high-need veterans. Initially grounded in didactics related to roles and responsibilities, one site developed weekly team interprofessional case conferences focused on care coordination and team planning for high-utilizing Veterans [ 12 ]. The impacts of this conference on trainee and patient outcomes were evaluated with iterative improvements [ 13 , 14 ]. Through this process, curricula to support the conference as a billable version of clinical care was developed and disseminated to the partner sites [ 15 ]. This was not a linear process. Instead, iteration and collaboration across sites led to the next version of the conference, which was successfully implemented at all sites. An immersive, interprofessional workplace learning environment required the VA and the academic affiliates’ commitment to flexible schedules. Most programs instituted an “X + Y” ambulatory block systems for participating internal medicine residencies, with “X” ward weeks alternating with dedicated “Y” ambulatory clinic weeks. New scheduling models and didactic alignment created dedicated time for interprofessional didactics, conferences and projects.

Examples of related curricular innovations spanning three domains of instruction techniques– didactic instruction, collaborative workplace learning, and evaluation/reflection/feedback

Implementation and dissemination

In addition to using the same four core educational competencies, and similar approaches to educational modalities (Fig.  1 ), sites balanced development of local innovation with efforts to disseminate curricula across sites. Multi-site collaboratives worked to develop curriculum, competencies and quality improvement coursework. Sites employed rapid reflection and change principles to integrate trainee feedback around curricular improvements, team dynamics and roles in real time using practical approaches. Evaluated projects became formal “implementation kits” that each site developed on a yearly basis, based on locally successful curricular innovations. These were shared cross-site via workshops, with academic partners at related educational conferences and via websites more broadly (see Table  1 for examples). Creating sustainable culture change was a conscious effort at all CoEPCE training sites. This required understanding interprofessional stereotypes, noting them, challenging them and discussing some of the underlying truths that served as foundations for how different professions view and interact with each other going forward.

Program evaluation

The evaluation of the CoEPCE was guided by the Interprofessional Learning Continuum (IPLC) model [ 3 ]. This comprehensive approach suggests that effective interprofessional education spans from pre-graduate education through graduate collaborative practice training settings and into professional practice with impacts on the culture of a health care organization. This model encouraged us to move beyond more typical measures of trainee satisfaction and assess trainees’ knowledge and skills, impacts on patient and systems outcomes, and overall culture change. Teaching learners to work in and lead teams was emphasized, with the goal of promoting interest in primary care careers.

Practical evaluation of individual site’s curricula came in the form of real-time, quality-improvement “just-in-time” evaluations supporting an iterative approach to improve content and delivery. Common examples included “Minute Papers,” [ 16 ] pre-/post applications of the “Quality Improvement Knowledge Application Tool,” [ 17 ] and learner-driven educational portfolios [ 18 ]. Sites collaborated to develop new instruments to evaluate curricular implementation, such as population health training and teamwork competencies [ 19 ]. Qualitative methods were used to collect perspectives of trainees and exit interviews of graduates related to specific teaching elements. Cross-profession interviewers were used to summarize recommendations to different programs prior to the next academic year.

The multisite evaluation examined a broad spectrum of trainee, faculty/staff, patient and systems outcomes. Multisite evaluations were more in keeping with medical education research, in which a priori hypotheses were tested by external evaluators employing methodologically rigorous qualitative and quantitative research techniques. Trainee experiences were collected with repeated cross sectional learner surveys based on a standardized tool developed for VA trainees [ 20 ]. These were collected regularly as part of all-site progress reports to monitor success and goal achievement [ 21 ]. Clinical outcomes were collected using the VA’s Corporate Data Warehouse, focusing on chronic disease metrics such as diabetes, use of high-risk medication combinations, and appropriate health care utilization patterns [ 22 ]. CoEPCE centers received a waiver of informed consent with exemptions, as the evaluation was categorized as an operation improvement activity by the Office of Academic Affairs based on Veterans Health Administration Handbook 1058.05. A comprehensive list of outcomes from interventions across sites of didactic instruction, collaborative workplace learning and reflection/feedback can be found in Appendix 1 .

For trainee and faculty/staff level outcomes, those people involved expressed a positive experience across different settings (see Appendix 1 – Participant Outcomes). Notably, trainees who graduated from CoECPE sites indicated overall trainee satisfaction and desire to continue to work in interprofessional collaborative environments, and the desire to serve as change agents to bring interprofessional models to new workplaces upon graduation, based on their CoEPCE experience [ 23 ]. Given the traditionally low percentage of internal medicine physicians entering primary care, it was interesting to see the number of participating medicine residents choosing primary care careers after graduation was high. Across sites, 47–81% of internal medicine residents entered a primary care position following graduation [ 24 ]. One site indicated a two-fold increase of residents entering primary care, from 36% of historical controls to 75% of CoEPCE graduates [ 25 ]. Given the non-randomized nature of this study, we cannot directly ascribe causality between exposure to the CoEPCE and subsequent choice, versus attracting candidates that had a pre-existing interest in primary care. However, the satisfaction reported by trainees during their training supports a positive influence on subsequent career choices. Staff satisfaction in CoEPCE clinical sites was also high; 90% of those employees reported that trainees positively impact job experience, even though 51% of employees agreed that required tasks exceed available time, a finding that was confirmed in subsequent evaluations about staff support ratios in VA interprofessional academic primary care clinics [ 26 ]. Overall, there were high levels of satisfaction, low levels of burnout, and the majority indicated they were more satisfied than at their previous workplaces.

Moving beyond trainees and faculty/staff satisfaction and future career paths, patients saw improved outcomes in important clinical areas impacted by interprofessional teams (see Appendix 1 – Patient Outcomes). Data from over 49,000 primary care patients representing 100,000 patient-years of care in CoEPCE clinics compared to controls in non-CoEPCE VA academic clinics demonstrated that patients cared for in interprofessional team training environments had improved chronic disease management, less risky medication combinations and more timely referrals to needed behavioral health resources [ 22 ]. These support meaningful outcomes related to the core competencies of interprofessional collaboration and shared decision making. These patients also had a lower risk of emergency department visits and hospitalizations for ambulatory care sensitive conditions compared to controls.

Culture change resulting from sustained interprofessional collaboration manifested in many ways. Key structural and curricular innovations were subsequently adopted into the broader residency programs, including adoption of X + Y clinic schedules, incorporation of elements of population health and interprofessional case conference curricula in pre-GME years, expansion of quality improvement curricula, implementation of health policy curricula, as well as starting interprofessional education within other primary care clinics across the residency (Table  1 ). Graduates reported the program was successful in creating new norms of flattened team hierarchies, broadening graduates’ understanding of role interaction, and teaching relational skills involving teamwork [ 27 ]. An important observation suggested that meaningful culture change takes time - for staff and trainees in these newer interprofessional settings, and that those original sites that had more than 5 years of support were more likely to sustain the culture following the termination of CoEPCE grant funding.

Specific comments by internal medicine leadership from different CoEPCE sites provide insight into the development and implementation of a large multi-site interprofessional educational model [ 24 ]:

We found that the most successful collaborative learning activities acknowledge the expertise of multiple professions and are focused on patient-centered clinical care. Successful curriculum requires experimentation and sustained incorporation of trainee feedback. Workplace learning where the learning is embedded in all aspects of clinical care is critical for buy-in from trainees and for sustained improvements in the interprofessional working environment. There is no need to wait until you have a robust clinical interprofessional team-based environment to add trainees. Trainees can be key drivers of the change. Physicians need to be cognizant of the hierarchy of the environment and role model a flattened hierarchy where all team members have a voice. [CoEPCE] has changed the way we do health care—clearly enhancing our joy in primary care and simultaneously expanding depth of team-based care and quality of the care we deliver—we couldn’t do it without the whole team!

Qualitative approaches to share the trainees’ perspectives were used at individual sites and with cross-site evaluations. Representative quotes from selected citations are listed here:

Internal Medicine Resident (CoEPCE Site #4): “ I think this is the direction of where health care’s going in this country and if this country is going to continue to administer health care, I believe that I’ll be one of the few practitioners [who] comes straight out of residency saying this is the idea of tomorrow as opposed to the ideas of yesterday.” [ 28 ]. Internal Medicine Resident (CoEPCE Site #2): “We get the opportunity (in the CoEPCE) to really know the patients, really manage the patients, put in a treatment plan, see it enacted, see the results, because we bring the patients back. We see them in a couple of weeks…in a month. We check labs and results. We call patients at home; we follow-up. My colleagues not in this program don’t have the opportunity to do this.” [ 29 ]. Psychology Fellow (CoEPCE Site #1): “What was so inspiring was the opportunity to work closely with other professionals and learning to use our professional clinical voice and being able to foster relationships with others…for really complicated patients, touching base with primary care trainees, social work, getting together…to brainstorm and talk through some of the difficult pieces and come up with a solution together.” [ 29 ]. Pharmacy Resident (CoEPCE Site #6): “One of the biggest concepts I will take away from this entire experience is the idea of psychological safety. As a clinician, it is important to feel that your input matters and having the confidence to voice your opinion or share knowledge with your health care team.” [ 29 ].

Nurse Practitioner Resident (CoEPCE Site #3): “I was really pushed; I was challenged because I had two faculty members that were always there to support me. I saw patients who were much more complex than I ever saw as a student, and I was able to because of the support I received from the team. In addition to that, I also got training in facilitation, motivational interviewing, and patient-centered care.” [ 29 ].

This decade-long experiment in interprofessional team-based training and collaborative practice resulted in broad improvements in clinical learning environment, patient outcomes and the culture of care at participating institutions. Normalizing the change allowed for sustainment of the culture at the end of formal funding. The majority of sites continued interprofessional curricula and supporting structure in the form of “Centers of Education” that are embedded into the training programs. These models were supported based on their history and successful impacts on learners, staff, trainees and patients. The CoEPCE prepared trainees to work not only in local and partner institutions but more broadly in the health care system where quality metrics and remuneration are tied to value-based, team based care [ 30 ]. In addition, most sites have been successful at producing practice-ready health professionals that opt to work at their local institution or serve as agents of change in partner institutions, which has diversified and improved the primary care workforce. Given ongoing concerns regarding primary care workforce shortages, ensuring robust training programs is particularly important [ 31 ]. At the same time, the CoEPCE experience indicates that collaboration of all professions in the team is needed to optimize care of outpatients– team-based care is not a means to replace a particular profession or role.

Limitations to our findings include heterogeneity in curricula across sites which may limit applicability in other venues. The scope of this project and multiple parties involved in developing, implementing and evaluating different curricula over the CoEPCE timeframe contributed to the challenges in finding uniformly applicable approaches. We had limited direct metrics or outcomes from the four core competencies, particularly related to sustained relationships between CoEPCE trainees and patients, although collected trainee qualitative data suggest that trainees perceived high levels of continuous relationships with peers, patients and faculty. Lessons learned may not be as applicable to non-VA training sites in the US, or to those outside the US. At the same time, the findings reported in this paper, data from papers referenced, and references included in the associated appendix provide myriad examples on approaches that may be more applicable or successful in differing contexts.

Physician leadership in the CoEPCE summarized these important take-home lessons from this experience: (1) Challenge yourself to move beyond the easy outcomes; Evaluation design should not only include trainee satisfaction, but assess actual behavior change, with resultant improved practice, system change, and a transformed culture. (2) Provide dedicated structure for both interprofessional trainees and faculty to develop and understand shared goals, guiding principles, and roles and scopes of practice; this required time and conscious efforts to facilitate venues for socialization by faculty and trainees from different programs to inform collaboration, value of other professions’ unique skills, roles and culture change. (3) Purposefully model interprofessional co-leadership, self-reflection and practical evaluation approaches in a variety of settings; this was deemed important to develop, demonstrate and reinforce these behaviors in learners. (4) Aim for integration of curriculum by intentionally linking didactic instruction, collaborative workplace learning and reflection/evaluation/feedback. (5) “participants were encouraged by their leadership to embrace disruptive chaos; acknowledging the fact that trying new methods of collaboration and instruction may lead to conflicts or failures, but overtly allowing permission for this would eventually promote learning, innovation and successful, sustained interprofessional training programs.

Developing a set of common competencies and aligning educationalpractice to support cross-profession collaboration and cross-site implementation can provide robust learning environment for interprofessional learners. When implemented successfully, this may be associated with improved trainee experience, staff satisfaction and patient care. Ongoing work to support and disseminate successful approaches in this area are still very much required.

Data availability

The evidence generated and/or analysed during the current study are available in the publications listed in the supplementary material. The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study that are not referenced are available from the authors (WGW, RB, JW) on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the OAA leaders of the VA’s Centers of Excellence in Primary Care Education, as well as the local faculty, staff and trainees that participated in this ongoing experiment.

Funding for the Centers of Excellence in Primary Care Education was provided by the Office of Academic Affairs, United States Department of Veterans Affairs.

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WGW and RB wrote the main manuscript text; JEW developed the supplementary material, MKS described the curricular elements in Fig.  1 , and all authors contributed publications to Table 1 and the supplementary material, as well as collaborated on the intervensions, provided examples, reviewed and edited the manuscript.

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Websites for participating CoEPCE sites and related tracks/curricula. Boise VA - https://boisevacoe.org/ . San Francisco VA - https://vadgim.ucsf.edu/education/sfva-center-excellence-primary-care-education-coepce . Cleveland VA - https://my.clevelandclinic.org/-/scassets/files/org/medicine-institute/imrp/coe-recruitment-flyer-2021-2022.pdf?la=en . Seattle VA - https://uwmedres.uw.edu/program/pathways/coe . Yale/West Haven VA - Polypharmacy kit: https://improvepolypharmacy.yale.edu/ .

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Weppner, W.G., Singh, M.K., Wipf, J.E. et al. Culture change and lessons learned from ten years in the VA centers of excellence in primary care education. BMC Med Educ 24 , 457 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05390-6

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Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Implications for Mental Health and Substance Use

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Aim: Traumatic stressor events disrupt the normal daily functioning of individuals and groups, and the consequences of collective trauma magnify psychopathology and mental health issues. One overlooked mental health implication of traumatic stress is loneliness. The current study examines loneliness as a result of traumatic stress and its psycho-social correlates, including substance abuse and changes in daily health behaviors. Design: Cross-sectional, nationwide, online survey. Methods: This study was a cross-sectional, nationwide online survey that included 2,530 adults in the United States, 18-83 years old, and examined the associations between loneliness and psychosocial factors and substance use during the initial part of the COVID-19 pandemic. Results: Increased loneliness was associated with younger age, single marital status, and lower levels of education. Mental health disorders, including major depression, generalized anxiety, and somatization, were also associated with high levels of loneliness. Further, individuals with high levels of loneliness were more likely to report increased substance use, including alcohol and illicit drugs. Discussion: The findings of this study indicate that during times of collective traumatic events, high levels of loneliness are a risk factor for mental health and substance use. Further initiatives are warranted to create awareness and institute routine screenings for symptoms of loneliness to mitigate mental health distress and increases in substance abuse.

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One current challenge in the psychology of education is identifying the teaching strategies and learning contexts that best contribute to the learning of all students, especially those whose individual characteristics make their learning process more difficult, as is the case for students with special needs. One main theory in the psychology of education is the sociocultural approach to learning, which highlights the key role of interaction in children’s learning. In the case of students with disabilities, this interactive understanding of learning is aligned with a social model of disability, which looks beyond individual students’ limitations or potentialities and focuses on contextual aspects that can enhance their learning experience and results. In recent years, the interactive view of learning based on this theory has led to the development of educational actions, such as interactive groups and dialogic literary gatherings, that have improved the learning results of diverse children, including those with disabilities. The aim of this paper is to analyze the social impact achieved by a line of research that has explored the benefits of such successful educational actions for the education of students with special needs. National and European research projects based on the communicative methodology of research have been conducted. This methodology entails drawing on egalitarian dialogue with the end-users of research – including teachers, students with and without disabilities, students’ relatives and other community members – to allow an intersubjective creation of knowledge that enables a deeper and more accurate understanding of the studied reality and its transformative potential. This line of research first allowed the identification of the benefits of interactive learning environments for students with disabilities educated in mainstream schools; later, it allowed the spreading of these actions to a greater number of mainstream schools; and more recently, it made it possible to transfer these actions to special schools and use these actions to create shared learning spaces between mainstream and special schools. The improvement of the educational opportunities for a greater number and greater diversity of students with special needs evidences the social impact of research based on key contributions of the psychology of education.

Introduction

Access to mainstream, inclusive and quality education for children with disabilities has not yet been fully achieved. Children with disabilities are still being educated in special schools in most countries, with varying percentages depending on the country, and therefore these schools attend diverse special needs ( World Health Organization, 2011 ). In addition, students with disabilities and special needs tend to leave school without adequate qualifications ( European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2017 ). Therefore, the appropriate inclusion of children with disabilities into the general education system is part of the European Disability Strategy 2010–2020 ( European Commission, 2010 ). In this context, one current challenge of the psychology of education is to identify the teaching strategies and learning contexts that best contribute to the education of students with special needs. In this endeavor, research in the psychology of education is focused on the strategies, actions and practices that enhance the learning of these students, taking into account their individual characteristics, however, importantly, research is also focused on the strategies, actions and programs that benefit the learning of all students, including those whose individual characteristics make the learning process more difficult, so that shared learning environments that promote successful learning for all can be created.

Instrumental learning, especially in regards to difficulties in reading and literacy, is one of the main concerns of research on the psychology of education ( Lloyd et al., 2009 ; Alanazi, 2017 ; Alenizi, 2019 ; Auphan et al., 2019 ; Hughes et al., 2018 ). Numerous programs for improving reading and/or reading difficulty prevention have emerged from research on reading and literacy from the perspective of the psychology of education, and their impact on improving children’s learning has been analyzed ( Vellutino and Scanlon, 2002 ; Papadopoulos et al., 2004 ; Hatcher et al., 2006 ). There are also specific studies about reading and literacy programs and their success with students with special needs ( Holliman and Hurry, 2013 ) and/or with students at risk for reading disabilities ( Lovett et al., 2017 ). Strategies to promote the learning of mathematics in children with special educational needs and disabilities have also been studied ( Pitchford et al., 2018 ), and programs based on these strategies have been developed ( Montague et al., 2014 ).

Research has also explored the association between learning difficulties and behavior problems ( Roberts et al., 2019 ), showing that lower academic achievement is a risk factor for developing behavior difficulties among students with special educational needs and disabilities ( Oldfield et al., 2017 ). The study of the learning context and the school environment, which facilitates or hinders learning, has shown that the expectations from teachers and their attitudes toward children with special needs are some of the most influential elements ( Anderson et al., 2014 ; Wilson et al., 2016 ; Bowles et al., 2018 ). Research has also found that teachers can have an important influence on the social acceptance of peers with special needs ( Schwab et al., 2016 ), which is important because the social exclusion of children can affect their learning difficulties and behavior problems ( Krull et al., 2018 ). The efficacy of peer network interventions for improving the social connections of students with severe disabilities has been highlighted ( Asmus et al., 2017 ), and programs and educational actions based on peer interaction, such as cooperative learning ( Velázquez Callado, 2012 ), have been developed to improve the school climate. Importantly, there are effective programs for improving peer acceptance and a positive coexistence related to curricular learning ( Law et al., 2017 ; Vuorinen et al., 2019 ), which is a key issue in facilitating inclusive education.

This body of research on effective actions and programs to enhance the learning and inclusion of students with disabilities and special needs shows the capacity that research in the psychology of education has for improving the education of these students. It also shows the importance that the learning context has, regarding both instruction and social relations, on the academic and social performance of students with special needs. This resonates with the social model of disability, an approach that has been claimed, from the perspective of human rights, to shift the focus from non-disabled centrism and to transcend the traditional and individualistic perspective of disabilities to focus on the improvement of educational experiences for these students ( Chun Sik Min, 2010 ; Park, 2015 ). This perspective assumes not only that children with disabilities should be included in mainstream education but also that inclusive education can be more effective ( Lindsay, 2007 ). This interactive understanding of learning allows seeing beyond individual students’ limitations or potentialities and focusing on contextual aspects that can enhance their learning experience and results ( Goodley, 2001 ; Haegele and Hodge, 2016 ).

The classical psychology of education already emphasized the importance of the social context for children’s learning. In particular, the sociocultural approach of learning developed by Vygotsky and Bruner highlighted the key role of interaction in children’s learning and development. Both authors agreed that what a child learns has been shared with other persons first, emphasizing the social construction of knowledge. While Vygotsky (1980) stated that in children’s development, higher psychological functions appear first on the interpsychological level and then on the intrapsychological level, Bruner (1996) refers to a social moment where there is interaction and then an individual moment when interiorization occurs.

Bruner evolved from a more cognitivist perspective of learning centered on individuals’ information processing ( Bruner, 1973 ) to a more sociocultural and interactive perspective ( Bruner, 1996 ) within the framework of which he conceptualized the idea of “scaffolding,” which enables novice learning in interaction with an expert, and “subcommunities of mutual learners,” where “learners help each other learn” and “scaffold for each other” ( Bruner, 1996 , p. 21). For Bruner, “It is principally through interacting with others that children find out what the culture is about and how it conceives of the world” (1996, p. 20); therefore, learning occurs through interaction within a community.

Vygotsky stated that learning precedes development, not the other way around, and he conceptualized the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which represents the opportunity that learning interactions with adults and more capable peers have to advance children’s development ( Vygotsky, 1980 ); beyond the actual level of development, the ZPD emphasizes the importance of interactions with others to solve problems and learn. He emphasized that this interaction is especially important for children with disabilities: “Precisely because retarded children, when left to themselves, will never achieve well elaborated forms of abstract thought, the school should make every effort to push them in that direction and to develop in them what is intrinsically lacking in their own development” ( Vygotsky, 1980 , p. 89). In this regard, he warned of the risks of working with children with disabilities from a perspective centered on biological processes and basic dysfunctions instead of working with higher psychological functions ( Vygotsky, 2018 ). Vygotsky’s focus on interaction provides new opportunities for learning and development for children with special needs to develop these higher psychological processes.

The sociocultural approach of learning developed by Vygotsky and Bruner has continued inspiring theory and research in the psychology of education to today. According to Dainez and Smolka (2014) , Vygotsky’s concept of compensation in relation to children with disabilities implies a social formation of mind and therefore the social responsibility of organizing an appropriate educational environment for these children. Vygotsky’s approach has been taken into account in studies about how peer mediation increases learning, especially when peers have different cognitive levels ( Tzuriel and Shamir, 2007 ), and research on children with disabilities, for instance, cerebral palsy, has been conducted based on Vygotsky’s contributions and showed improvements in these children’s spatial abilities, social interaction, autonomy, and participation in class activities ( Akhutina et al., 2003 ; Heidrich and Bassani, 2012 ).

In recent years, the interactive view of learning has led to the development of educational actions that have improved the learning results of diverse children, including those with disabilities. INCLUD-ED ( Flecha, 2006-2011 ) was an integrated project funded by the European Union under its 6th Framework Programme with the main objective of achieving both academic success and social cohesion for all children and communities in Europe, regardless of their socioeconomic status and/or ethnic background. INCLUD-ED identified successful educational actions (SEAs), that is, actions that can improve school success and contribute to social cohesion in every context where they are implemented ( Flecha, 2015 ). Some of the SEAs that have demonstrated improvements in reading, mathematics and peer relationships include interactive groups (IG) and dialogic literary gatherings (DLG). IG ( Valls and Kyriakides, 2013 ) consists of organizing classrooms in small heterogeneous groups that work on instrumental learning activities drawing on mutual support and dynamized by adult volunteers from the community; DLG ( Soler, 2015 ; Lopez de Aguileta, 2019 ) consists of reading and discussing classical works of literature based on the principles of dialogic learning, reaching deeper understanding of the texts as a result of sharing the participants’ interpretations and meanings. In both actions, learning interactions, as the main tool to promote learning, are facilitated among diverse persons in accordance with the contributions of the sociocultural theory of learning. In this regard, previous research has identified that Vygotsky’s and Bruner’s contributions are at the basis of these SEAs ( Elboj and Niemelä, 2010 ; Garcia et al., 2010 ).

Materials and Methods

The objective of this paper is to analyze the social impact achieved by a line of research that has explored the benefits of SEAs on the improvement of the education of students with special needs. For this purpose, the following data collection methods were used. First, existing data from case studies conducted within the four projects that compose this line of research have been analyzed to identify the impact of SEAs on students with special needs. These projects studied the benefits of SEAs for diverse students at different specific levels (i.e., school and classroom organization, community participation, interactions). In this paper, we aim to go beyond these specific aspects to understand in a more integrated and comprehensive manner how these different levels contribute to the impact that SEAs have, specifically on students with special needs. Second, new data were collected through in-depth interviews with teachers involved in the implementation of these actions in their schools as a consequence of this line of research. These interviews allowed the analysis of the subsequent impacts achieved as a result of conducting research on this topic from the perspective of the agents involved in the implementation of the results of this line of research.

All participants (teachers, volunteers, families, and children) agreed to provide researchers access to relevant data for the purpose of the study. Prior to data collection, they were informed of the nature of the research, and written informed consent was obtained. In the case of minors, informed consent was obtained from their parents or guardians. All participants were informed that their participation was anonymous and voluntary and that data would be treated confidentially and used solely for research purposes. Ethical requirements were addressed following the Ethics Review Procedure established by the European Commission (2013) for EU research, the Data Protection Directive 95/46/EC and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000/C 364/01). The study was fully approved by the Ethics Board of the Community of Researchers on Excellence for All (CREA) 1 .

Case Studies

The line of research that we analyze in terms of social impact is composed of four national and European research projects in which the authors have participated in the last 15 years. In these projects, a total of 36 case studies were conducted. Of these cases, 10 included data on the participation of students with special needs in SEAs (see Table 1 ), and these were analyzed for the purposes of this paper. These cases fulfilled two criteria: (1) the schools were implementing SEAs and (2) students with special needs participated in SEAs with their classmates. Overall, 60 data collection techniques were used in the 10 case studies. These included 36 interviews, 14 with class teachers (3 of them were also special education teachers), 4 with special education teachers, 3 with volunteers, 8 with students, and 7 with students’ relatives; 13 focus groups, 5 with teachers, 8 with students, and 1 with students’ relatives; and 10 observations, 9 in classrooms and 1 in a teachers’ meeting (see more details in Table 1 ).

Summary of the data collection instruments and participants in the project case studies.

The different projects focused on different aspects of the SEAs and therefore entailed different layers of analysis throughout this line of research, which has allowed a comprehensive view of the benefits of SEAs for diverse students and specifically for students with special needs.

The doctoral project funded by the Catalan Government ( Molina, 2003-2007 ) was the first research to specifically focus on the inclusion of students with special needs in SEAs, and particularly analyzed the type of classroom interactions that facilitate students’ inclusion when classrooms are organized in IG. The project’s main objective was to analyze the influence that students’ participation in IG has on their educational inclusion. The main categories of analysis were peer interactions and community participation as components of IG and learning , participation and social inclusion as components of educational inclusion.

INCLUD-ED ( Flecha, 2006-2011 ) aimed to identify educational actions that contributed to overcoming segregation and promoted the inclusion of all students in schools across Europe, with a special focus on vulnerable groups of students. INCLUD-ED clarified the distinction between mixture, streaming and inclusion ( INCLUD-ED Consortium, 2009 ) as different ways of organizing student diversity and human resources with different consequences on students; distinguished different forms of family and community participation; identified educative, decisive, and evaluative forms of participation as those that had more impact on students’ success; and identified successful educational actions. The contribution of this project to this line of research was an analysis of SEAs at the level of school organization, resource management and community engagement. The main objective of the case studies within this project was to analyze components from educational practices that decrease the rates of school failure and those of the practices that increase them. The main categories of analysis were inclusive practices and community participation .

MIXSTRIN ( Valls, 2008-2011 ), as a continuation of the INCLUD-ED research in the Spanish context, deepened the analysis of the different forms and consequences of mixture, streaming and inclusion from a mixed methods approach. Thus, this project focused on analyzing SEAs at the level of classroom organization. The main objective of the case studies was to identify how different ways of grouping students are related to students’ learning results. The main categories of analysis were practices of mixture, streaming , and inclusion .

Finally, INTER-ACT ( Garcia-Carrion, 2018-2020 ) analyzes how SEAs are being implemented with students with disabilities in both mainstream schools and special schools, with the aim of transferring these actions and their benefits to new schools. The project’s focus of analysis is the interactions that occur in IG and DLG in both types of schools. The main objective of the case study conducted was to analyze in depth successful cases of schools implementing IG and DLG with students with disabilities to identify the best conditions for increasing the impact on the improvement of learning, development and relationships. The main categories of analysis were characteristics of the interactive learning environment and improvements achieved.

Within the different research projects, using the case study as a methodological approach has allowed understanding the reality of the object of study in context. Following Stake (2006) , case studies were selected based on what information they could provide about the issue explored, in this case, the increase in the educational quality provided to students in SEAs, especially to those with special needs. In this regard, case studies were instrumental in providing insight into this issue. As a sum of individual research projects, the line of research presented here constitutes multicase research ( Stake, 2006 ), where cases share similarities – e.g., data collection techniques, the population object of study and purpose – and allow understanding from the singularity of each case of the broader phenomenon that all of them are part of.

In-Depth Interviews

Five interviews were conducted with teachers who fulfilled two criteria: (1) they were implementing SEAs with their students, including students with special needs, and (2) they had started to implement these actions as a consequence of the research line on SEAs and special needs, that is, after becoming aware of the evidence obtained on the benefits of SEAs for these students. Two of the interviewees were teachers at one school where one of the case studies was conducted while the other interviews were not related to the case studies. The interviews were conducted by one of the researchers at the end of the 2018–2019 school year, and at that time, the participants had been implementing SEAs for a period of 4–6 years (see Table 2 ). The interviews lasted between 20 and 55 min and were conducted at times and in places that were convenient for the participants. We introduced the interviews as follows: “In the last 15 years, a line of research has been conducted on the educational inclusion of students with special needs through SEAs. We are interested in gathering information on the social impact of this line of research.” Sample questions were as follows: “Can you identify some of those impacts (e.g., improvements in the learning of students with special needs or improvements in the schools’ approach to responding to students’ diversity)?”; “How has the line of research led/contributed to such impacts?”; “Have these impacts been transferred to different contexts or students with different characteristics?”; and “Have the impacts been sustained over time?” All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for subsequent analysis.

Profiles of the participants in the in-depth interviews.

Communicative Methodology

This line of research has been conducted based on the communicative methodology ( Gómez et al., 2011 ). The data collection and analysis of the social impact achieved has also been conducted based on this methodology. The communicative methodology entails drawing on egalitarian dialogue with the end-users of the research – including teachers, students with and without disabilities, students’ relatives and other community members – to allow an intersubjective creation of knowledge that enables a deeper and more accurate understanding of the studied reality and its transformative potential ( Gómez et al., 2012 ), therefore enabling greater social impact. Different studies have demonstrated the suitability of this methodology when researching vulnerable groups ( Puigvert et al., 2012 ; Gómez et al., 2019 ), as well as the social impact that this methodology produces.

Following the communicative methodology, in this line of research, data collection techniques were aimed not only at gathering the individuals’ experiences and perceptions but also to discussing these experiences and perceptions with them in light of previous scientific knowledge on the issue and with the purpose of identifying both the exclusionary and transformative components of the reality studied. While exclusionary components refer to the barriers encountered by certain persons or collectives, for instance, educational barriers encountered by persons with disabilities, transformative components are those elements that contribute to overcoming these barriers, for instance, certain types of classroom organization or learning interactions. The objective of the dialogues held with end-users and other stakeholders in the research process is to agree upon these exclusionary and transformative components, which strengthens the validity of the research results and its potential social impact.

Data Analysis

For this paper, the different case studies have been analyzed together to understand in an integrated manner how the different layers analyzed previously (school and classroom organization, community participation, interactions) contribute to the social impact of the implementation of SEAs with students with special needs. For this purpose, the existing data of the case studies were analyzed with a new set of categories that was created to examine this social impact. Taking into account that the main challenges in the education of children with special needs are their limited participation in normalized learning environments ( World Health Organization, 2011 ), their lower educational levels achieved ( European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2017 ) and their higher risk of being socially marginalized and bullied ( UNESCO, 2017 ), the improvements in these domains constitute the social impact of the educational intervention aimed at students with special needs; therefore, the following were the basis for creating the categories for the analysis of the social impact of SEAs:

• (1) Impact on students’ participation: characteristics of the successful educational actions that enable the participation of students with special needs.
• (2) Impact on the cognitive dimension: improvements achieved in instrumental learning and cognitive development.
• (3) Impact on the socioemotional dimension: improvements achieved in social cohesion and emotional/affective development.

The newly conducted interviews on the social impact of the line of research were analyzed with categories that take into account the social impact criteria identified by IMPACT-EV (European Commission FP7, 2014-2017) and used in SIOR ( Flecha et al., 2015 ) regarding improvements, sustainability and transference. The fourth category emerged inductively from the data:

• (1) Impact on students with special needs: improvements and sustainability,
• (2) Impact on schools: improvements and sustainability,
• (3) Transference to new contexts, and
• (4) Factors supporting social impact.

The themes present in the transcripts were coded by the researchers on a line-by-line basis. A deductive, flexible approach was used for the coding to identify subthemes within the categories. Categories of analysis were applied to the transcripts by two independent coders to enhance the validity of the results. Consensus for the coding was achieved through discussion.

In the following, the social impact of the line of research is presented, which includes evidence on the benefits of SEAs for students with special needs and how such SEAs led to a new social impact on different schools, students, teachers and contexts. Three types of social impact are presented: (1) impact on students with special needs and their opportunities to participate, learn and have positive relationships in SEAs; (2) impact on schools’ and teachers’ approaches to meeting students’ special needs; and (3) the replicability of SEAs to new types of educational contexts and student populations. The factors that have enabled the achievement of these impacts are also reported.

Social Impact 1: Enhanced Participation, Learning Opportunities, and Group Cohesion for Students With Special Needs in Successful Educational Actions

The social impact of seas.

Previous analyses of the case studies showed that SEAs entail a more efficient organization of classrooms and schools, allowing a more inclusive education for a diverse student body, including students with special needs, who can benefit from enhanced access to the content of the general curriculum in a shared learning environment ( Christou and Molina, 2009 ; Molina and Ríos, 2010 ). A key feature of the inclusive learning environments promoted in the SEAs is the diverse interactions promoted around learning among, on the one hand, students, as they are organized in heterogeneous groups and, on the other hand, relatives and other members of the community, who are welcome to participate in the students’ learning activities. These interactions are key components of the SEAs that have created new learning opportunities for students with special needs in mainstream schools and, more recently, in special schools ( García-Carrión et al., 2016 , 2018 ).

The analysis of the social impact of SEAs on students with special needs shows positive impacts in terms of the participation, learning and social inclusion of these students. Regarding student participation, the supportive peer interactions promoted within the SEAs and the participation of volunteers from the community, who ensured that these supportive interactions were implemented and provided assistance themselves when necessary, facilitated normalized and active participation in learning activities and natural support within the student group, which progressively made specific, individualized support less necessary ( Molina, 2003-2007 ). For this to occur, the case studies showed the importance of the activities that students worked on in the IG being the same for all of them and of students with special needs not being given different activities in any case. The same occurred with DLG: all students participating in the gathering read the same book. The analysis showed that this was important because both IG and DLG work based on interactions and, if one student was given an activity or a book that was different than that of the other students, interaction of this student with the group would be easily broken. In some cases, adaptations were made regarding the way students accessed the material, interacted with it or produced an output or regarding the level of complexity required. However, the learning content was always the same to allow the maximum benefit from interaction and the highest possible level of attainment. Across the case studies, teachers reported that supportive interactions within heterogeneous groups in successful educational actions had been more effective than differentiated individual attention separated from the class, even in the cases when additional human resources were used. Therefore, SEAs have prevented reducing learning opportunities related to the segregation and individualization of educational measures often aimed at these students ( Valls, 2008-2011 ; Flecha, 2015 ).

In terms of learning and cognitive development, the possibility of asking questions when necessary and constantly seeing and listening to peers working on the activity and talking about it helped students with special needs stay connected to the activity, understand it and do it ( Molina, 2003-2007 ; Valls, 2008-2011 ). Learning progress was more evident in instrumental learning subjects (literacy, math), which are prioritized in IG and DLG. Specifically, due to the interactive and dialogical nature of both IG and DLG, communicative ability is one learning and development area in which students show a clear improvement. In this regard, for these children, DLG have meant the opportunity to broaden their vocabulary and gain a better understanding of the language structure, as they are able to listen more proficient children and adults, who also model language and help the students with special needs express themselves better ( Garcia-Carrion, 2018-2020 ).

Regarding the social impact of SEAs on the social inclusion of students with special needs and group cohesion, it was observed that the participation of these students in regular class activities that IG and DLG facilitated contributed to considering these students as “one of the class” and not a “part-time student” who only shares part of their time and activities with their classmates. Beyond participation, SEAs gave students opportunities to interact with their peers and therefore to come to know better each other, ultimately building new friendships. Peer support and friendship that were learned in IG and DLG often extended beyond the class and beyond the context of school, creating new opportunities for both cognitive and social development, for instance, when students with special needs had the opportunity to share their doubts with their classmates when doing homework via telephone or social networks or to meet them at birthday parties ( Valls, 2008-2011 ; Garcia-Carrion, 2018-2020 ).

Extending Improvements to More Schools and Students

The case studies showed ways in which the education of students with special needs improved in SEAs, as well as key components of these actions that explained the results. Both findings were crucial to extend these actions and their benefits to more children with special needs and thus for the social impact of the research.

The first time that primary schools were transformed into learning communities and implemented SEAs was in 1995 in Spain. There were five schools at that time. Ten years later, in 2005, there were 22 schools. After 10 more years, in 2015, the number reached 120 schools in different countries ( Flecha, 2015 ). Today, 225 schools in Spain 2 , 49 schools in other European countries 3 , and 411 schools in Latin America 4 , each with diverse populations, have become learning communities through the application of successful educational actions. These data show that the INCLUD-ED project (2006–2011) was a turning point in the spread of SEAs in schools. The spread of the project also meant that these actions could reach more diverse students with special needs. The applicability of the SEAs with these students was usually a topic of debate among the teachers that incorporated these actions in their schools. When the knowledge of the evidence provided by the line of research reached the new schools, both teachers and the rest of community became more confident when including students with disabilities in IG, DLG, and other shared learning activities in the school. The different teachers interviewed explained that the implementation of SEAs in their schools has increased over time and so has the participation of students with special needs, which reaches 100% in some cases. As one teacher explained, the participation in SEAs prevents the need for individual support outside the classroom: “Out of all the classes, there is not any child that gets out of the classroom [to receive individual support] when they work on SEAs” (Sandra). The implementation of SEAs with students with special needs – as well as with the general population of students – has not only been sustained but has increased, as, for teachers, it is an efficient way to respond to these – and other – students’ needs:

In the school, almost all students with special needs participate in SEAs (.) From my experience I can tell you that I used to do an SEA session per week, then I did two, this year I have done three, and now I cannot imagine less than three, every time I need to do it more and more. (Carmen)

The benefits observed by research in the case studies then started to spread to more children in other schools. Two examples can illustrate these improvements. First, the case of a child with a severe neurological deficit, for whom participating in SEAs made it possible to transform the expectations that were imposed on his learning possibilities:

The neurologist said that he could not learn almost anything. literacy and all the learning, they saw it as impossible. but he has learnt to read (…) if we hadn’t known about it, that evidence about interactions… Last year we did 6 sessions [of IG] per week, plus DLG, we did as much as we could, and it is amazing what he has learnt. (Sandra)

Research has already shown that being able to participate and learn in IG and DLG changes the self-concept and learning expectations of the children with special needs as well as the concept and expectations their peers and adults have of them. In these interactive learning environments, students were often able to solve tasks that they could not solve alone or read books that could not read alone, going beyond teachers’ and families’ expectations for their learning ( Flecha, 2015 ). When SEAs reached new schools and students, these higher expectations, which create new learning opportunities, were created there too.

The second example is of a child with Down syndrome who could benefit from a more normalized learning environment where he could make progress in both learning and group belonging; this shows how the benefits that research had identified in group cohesion were replicated in other cases like this:

We had another child with a disability who was very isolated from the group, he did not have an emotional bond either, and the attention he received was too individualized; with the special education teacher, the speech therapist, he did not feel he belonged to the group. And when we started implementing SEAs, work in IG, DLG, the group changed very much, (…) and the child, who had Down syndrome, started to belong to the group: worked on the same activities as the others, and the others counted on that child. It was a huge change. (…) We achieved a lot of things. (Carmen)

Both teachers, Sandra and Carmen, clearly attributed the improvements observed to the students’ participation in IG and DLG. In some cases, looking for the participation of these children in SEAs has made teachers look for adaptations that enabled their participation. This was the case for a child in Irene’s school. He had not developed oral language, which made it difficult to participate in DLG, but the teachers adapted the book to pictograms and facilitated him in using a tablet with the pictograms and synthesized voice software installed so that he could communicate in the group. This had several impacts: first, the child could follow the reading, think of an idea to share and structure the idea; second, he could share the idea with the group and contribute to the gathering; third, the other children could realize that their classmate wanted and was able to communicate with the others, and even “heard his voice” for the first time; fourth: new opportunities for communication and the sharing of knowledge, experiences and thoughts appeared in the group. These changes did not occur until the teachers considered how they could improve the child’s participation in DLG, so it was the SEA that encouraged teachers to mobilize the resources that enabled the child’s participation and made these changes possible.

Importantly, the improvements achieved have been sustained and even increased through time as the implementation of SEAs also increased. Awareness of improvements has spread in their communities and that has led, in some cases, to an increased demand to enroll students with special needs in these schools, as Sandra explains in the quote below; this is another way in which the participation and learning opportunities of students with special needs in SEAs have been enhanced:

More families are coming with children with special needs that attended other schools. (…) Here, in the town, all the families know each other. (…) They talk and explain their experiences… and therefore many are requesting a change of school. (Sandra)

Social Impact 2: Transforming Schools’ Approaches to Meeting Students’ Diversity in Terms of Special Needs

The education of students with special needs has changed not only because of increased opportunities to participate in SEAs but also because the dialogic, interactive and transformative approach behind the SEAs has been assumed by the teachers and the entire community to change the way they approach the education of these students at every moment – within and outside SEAs – now being more dialogic, interactive and transformative as well.

Before implementing SEAs, schools tended to respond to students’ special needs through individual attention, often outside the classroom and based on low expectations; they understood the students’ disabilities as an indicator of what the students could achieve. The participation of students with special needs in SEAs has meant a turning point in the schools’ approach to diversity.

A Focus on Interactions to Enhance Students’ Learning Opportunities

Knowing SEAs and their scientific and theoretical bases, especially the relevance of interactions for learning, has meant that teachers who have incorporated SEAs in their schools focus on the interactions they promote. In mainstream schools, the more diverse and rich interactions students found in SEAs was an element that convinced teachers to include the participation of students with special needs and to do the necessary material adaptations to allow that interaction. They could observe improvements in typically developing children, both in learning and coexistence, as a consequence of participating in SEAs, which also encouraged them to include students with special needs and extend these benefits to them, overcoming previous ideas about special education, as Irene explained:

We were intoxicated with the idea that [mainstream] students make progress, but those with special needs need different things, need that we adapt to their learning level… But we have advanced in inclusion as we have been implementing SEAs, because we realized that children with special needs can participate too, and interactions with peers are positive for them to progress, besides self-esteem, seeing they are capable, and that they can improve. (Irene)

In the context of special schools, interactions are also a topic of discussion now, which helps teachers focus on providing their students with the best learning environment possible. For the professionals working there, this has meant an opportunity to give their students richer learning opportunities within their segregated placement:

In our school program, we include what the students will learn, but we also consider and talk very much about the interactions they will have, which is a topic we had never discussed before knowing about SEAs. We focus on the type of interactions they have, if they are quality interactions, if they can have more quality, how we can promote them through SEAs, IG, DLG… (Marta)

Evidence, the SEAs, which explain what is best for our students, give us confidence in our work. We know our way to advance in giving the best results to our students. Therefore, we think of interactions; since they are segregated, we consider which type of interactions we should offer to them. (Ana)

Development of Scientific Thinking About Education

Another consequence of being aware of the benefits of SEAs for students with special needs, as demonstrated by research, has been the development of a more scientific way of thinking among the teaching staff. The teachers interviewed, as well as other teachers in their schools, read scientific publications emerging from or related to this line of research and discussed them in dialogic pedagogical gatherings. This helped them become familiar with research and scientific evidence, and they now look for this evidence when they must make decisions on their students’ education:

Now we say: “But is there evidence for it? Let’s see who has written about that” (…) for instance, when we are working on autism, [we want to know] if what we implement is based on scientific evidence or not, and what the most recent research about autism says. It has emerged from having implemented evidence and talking about evidence. (Marta)

Once the teachers learned that there is scientific evidence behind the success achieved by SEAs, they looked for evidence-based actions, practices or programs in any aspect of their professional activity, which increased their chances of enhancing students’ education, not only when the students participate in SEAs but at any moment they are at school. SEA participation therefore increases the potential social impact that other research in education and psychology of education can have, as these teachers look for the evidence of previous improvements achieved and reported by this research to transfer them to their own context and achieve similar improvements.

Changing Teachers’ Minds and Talk About Students With Special Needs

In relation to the scientific view of education, teachers have changed the way they think and talk about their students, focusing not on the students’ disabilities but on what the teachers can do to transform the educational context and improve the education of such students. These teachers do not ask whether students with special needs can participate in SEAs; they start from the premise they can, and they think on the way they can facilitate their students’ participation through, for instance, necessary adaptations. These teachers believe that this way of thinking about their students has made them improve as teachers, as their professional performance is permeated by language of possibilities:

We realize that we have a different approach, I mean, [we think about] how are we going to include these students or how are we going to promote interactions with them. And we did not have this perspective before. As a school, having had scientific evidence within reach made us improve our teaching practice, reconsider many things, and find meaning. (Marta)

At the personal level, we have improved our dialogues about what is best for our students. We are advancing in this direction, always putting the focus on the students, on what we will achieve, on the fact that this is the best for them. (Ana)

Rethinking and Reorganizing Specialized Support Within and Beyond SEAs

Implementing SEAs with students with special needs entailed rethinking the role of special education teachers, speech therapists and other specialized support. While these professionals used to work outside the class to provide individualized support to students with special needs, usually based on different curricular material of lower academic level, when SEAs started to be implemented, teachers agreed with these specialists that students with special needs would not leave the classroom. Instead, these professionals started to enter the classroom to support students in IG. When the class was not organized in IG, teachers kept the criteria of organizing heterogeneous groups of students to facilitate the inclusion of students with special needs, and specialists also provided support there. Speech therapists, who, in some cases, were more reluctant to change their role into a more inclusive role, also agreed to participate in SEAs by preparing activities for IG or supporting students in DLG.

One of the first things we were clear about was that these students would not leave the classroom and would be distributed within the classroom in heterogeneous groups, and at the same time, we started working in IG and DLG. (…) In my school, all of them used to leave the classroom and had different curricular materials. Objectives were set with very low expectations, low academic objectives, and then we engaged in debates and there were several changes. (…) On the one hand, the role of the speech therapist changed, and this was difficult to achieve because they felt they had lost their identity, their role, (…) but now we work and plan children’s learning together. (Sandra)

In some cases, reading and discussing research publications, such as INCLUD-ED results ( INCLUD-ED Consortium, 2009 ), helped in organizing students and supporting them in a more inclusive way when working in SEAs and beyond, which supported the decision to maintain students with special needs in the class when SEAs were implemented:

Little by little, we saw that all students improved, and we started to do pedagogic gatherings. For instance, I remember that we discussed INCLUD-ED “Actions for success in schools in Europe,” and we emphasized the topic of groupings with the teaching staff because the special education teachers had the idea that they had to take the students with special needs out of the classroom. So, we agreed that when we worked in SEAs, these students would stay in the classroom so that they could participate in the same activities as everyone else. (Ines)

Higher Expectations and Enhanced Learning: Teachers Recovering Meaning in Their Profession

Being aware of SEAs and the improvements promoted and having the opportunity to discuss them and implement them in their school facilitated teachers’ enhanced belief about their students’ potential and, at the same time, gave them the tools to make that potential real; as teachers’ expectations were raised, students’ performances also raised and even surpassing these expectations. This has had an impact on students but also teachers, as some of the teachers reported rediscovering meaning in their profession as a result of being better able to facilitate the learning of students with more difficulties:

I think that the teachers who implement SEAs with our students have found more meaning in teaching, because we see that they learn. We have had high expectations, and even with these high expectations, many times, they have surprised us. We’ve said “I never imagined it could but it happened”, even if we always had high expectations. Sometimes, unintentionally, working with disabilities, we think, “well, we have high expectations, but we will get there one day”, and we are already there. (Marta)

The higher expectations and the possibilities enabled by them has meant a shift, especially in the context of special education, where low expectations and low educational levels predominate, as Ana reflected:

I think that in special schools we can easily find the “happiness curriculum”, that is to say, “poor kids, they have enough with their disability, instead of trying to learn more [let’s make them happier]”. I have worked in several special schools, and I always found colleagues with this attitude. Then, I think that implementing SEAs, and now with the line of research, I think we have realized that we have to change our minds, through dialogue: Why expect less? Let’s go for high expectations, for the best of each student, and see what we can achieve. I think it has been something that has spread in the school, as a result of starting to work in this way with students and other colleagues seeing the results. (Ana)

Importantly, the higher expectations supported by the previous evidence of improvement achieved through SEAs have made it possible for teachers to take on challenges that they would not have taken on before. For instance, Carmen explained that once she learned about the SEAs and their impact at a conference, she decided to implement these actions with the most challenging group at her school. The groups with most challenging students are often those that teachers do not choose to work with and are assigned to the least experienced teachers or those who arrived most recently at the school; however, SEAs make teachers more confident in their ability to improve these students’ educations and, as occurred in the case of Carmen, make them wish to teach precisely the most difficult groups because they know they can make a difference in the education of those students:

I could not understand how it was possible to respond to the diversity we had in the classrooms. I remember that when I arrived at the school I couldn’t, I was overwhelmed, and I remember going at the international conference and seeing it crystal clear. I saw it so clear that I remember we had a class in the school with much diversity, a very special group, and I went to the principal’s office and said, “I need to take this group and implement what I know, what the evidence says that works, to ascertain that it works, and to transform this group”. (…) And the change was amazing. (…) Now I cannot see it in any other way, because now, I feel that any challenge I face, I will succeed. And now, I feel very much like taking the group most in need, the most vulnerable one. For me, it has been awesome working like this. (Carmen)

Social Impact 3: From Mainstream to Special Education Settings: The Transference of SEAs

The expansion of SEAs to new schools has entailed SEAs reaching new educational contexts, some of which are specific contexts in special education. Reaching these new contexts has entailed the opportunity for more inclusive, quality education.

SEAs as a Way to Include Students Segregated in Special Education Classes in the Mainstream Class

As the teachers reported, the inclusion of all students with special needs in SEAs has sometimes been a process, especially when the school serves students with severe disabilities, which directly affects areas of curricular learning. Irene’s school contains a specific classroom for students with language and communication disorders (a communication and language classroom) related to the autism spectrum disorder, which serves students from different municipalities. These students have little or no development of oral language, which makes it difficult for them to participate in actions such as IG and DLG, as such methods are based on dialogue and interaction. Teachers relied from the beginning on research evidence for including in SEAs other students with special needs who attended the mainstream classes. Subsequently, guided by the evidence of the improvements achieved with these students in the school, the students from the communication and language classroom also started to be included in the SEAs.

The students of mainstream classrooms started to participate first. (…) At the beginning, the students with autism, who had many difficulties, who could not speak, did not participate in SEAs; we had not thought about that yet. (…) We still had to break with the idea that we had to teach students with special needs outside the classroom. Then, when we started to include them in the classroom, especially by participating in SEAs, and we saw that the students with difficulties – but who could speak – improved, then we said, “And the other students? The most difficult ones? Let’s see if it is possible”. And it is possible. (Irene)

In this case, the teacher highlighted the importance of adapting some aspects of the development of the activity to facilitate the progressive participation of these students. In the case of students with autism and little language development, the readings for the DLG were prepared with pictograms so that the children could follow the story and express themselves. The teachers prepared the reading and the contribution for the gathering with their families ahead of time. In IG, the students started participating in only one activity, with additional support if necessary, and progressively participated in two or more activities of the IG session.

IG and DLG have made the participation of students who previously shared little learning time with their peers possible in the mainstream classroom, which means that SEAs have had an impact on their educational inclusion and learning opportunities. Furthermore, some of these students have left the communication and language classroom and are now enrolled full time in the mainstream classroom. SEAs have helped to make the possibilities for these students to learn in mainstream inclusive settings more visible and, as a consequence, some students have left open places in the communication and language classroom that can be occupied by students who are now attending special schools. Therefore, in this case, SEAs not only promote the inclusion of students within that school but also open possibilities for more inclusive trajectories for students in other schools.

Pau is a child who came to the communication and language classroom as a child with autism. Today, after having worked with him in the mainstream classroom of peers of the same age, participating in SEAs with interactions has improved his performance at the social level, and now this child is in the mainstream classroom and has left an available place in the communication and language classroom for other children with language difficulties at special schools. That is, we have achieved students who were schooled in the communication and language classroom now being in the mainstream classroom. (Ines)

Transference of SEAs in Special Schools

In the context of Spain, where the research was conducted, 17% of students with special needs are enrolled in special schools ( World Health Organization, 2011 ). According to national law 5 , these are students with disabilities whose special educational needs cannot be met in mainstream schools, the most frequent types of disabilities including intellectual disabilities (36%), multiple disabilities (24%) and pervasive developmental disorder (19%) 6 . Some special schools concerned with providing the best education to their students have also wondered about the possibility of bringing to their schools the educational actions that transformed the education of students with disabilities in mainstream schools. Today, there are 4 special schools that implement SEAs. In Marta and Ana’s school, when the teaching staff started to implement SEAs, no one there had previous experience with implementing SEAs in special schools, so they had to recreate the SEAs in the new context. To ensure proper implementation to achieve the benefits that had already been observed in mainstream schools, they implemented the SEAs progressively and assessed the ongoing results:

In our school, we started with one classroom, and little by little, the number of classrooms that implemented DLG increased. Today, not only has this implementation been sustained, but the number of participants has increased, both in DLG and IG. (…) The results are very positive, because in primary education, at the beginning, only one classroom participated and now 5 entire classrooms participate. (Ana)

The transference of SEAs in their special school was not only sustained but, in time, also increased: similarly to what occurred with mainstream schools, more SEAs have been implemented in more groups and with more diverse children: “We included first children with more speech ability, and little by little we included students with less speech ability to see how we could manage to guarantee that all of them could participate in the SEA” (Marta). “Now, when you look at the timetable for the next school year, you can see that it is full of SEAs” (Ana). This extension in the implementation of SEAs in the school cannot be separated from the students’ progress: it is the improvements such work has achieved that encourages teachers to extend IG and DLG to new groups, students and learning content.

In some cases, preparing the activity with the children ahead of time facilitated their incorporation into the SEA. According to the teachers, using such strategies has made it possible for approximately 80% of the students of preprimary and primary education to participate in IG, and approximately 40% of the students to participate in DLG. In this context of special education and with this group of students, SEAs have also demonstrated improved learning. Language is an area in which most of these students present difficulties, and it is the area of improvement that the teachers have highlighted most, along with an improved coexistence between students:

With the SEAs, new language structures appeared in the students that we never imagined before that they could develop, reasoning, argumentation, first with much help and modeling, but finally, it appeared spontaneously. Then, reading books, which we did not foresee either (…). Expanding their vocabulary. (…) With the SEAs they gain richer vocabulary too. (Marta)

The main results we have seen are improvements in language competence and the quality of their contributions, sentence structures of greater complexity, improvement in explaining their opinions, improved coherence of discourse, taking into account the topic of the debate. (…) Then, an increase in the number of participants in the DLG, better knowledge of the other participants, the creation of new bonds and friendships, and the reduction of coexistence problems. (Ana)

This evidence suggests that SEAs are not limited to a particular type of school or student population but can be effective with very different types of student diversity and educational contexts. According to the teachers, the research on SEAs and special needs had an influence on these improvements achieved in their school:

I think that we could not have achieved it if we would not have this line of research and impact. I mean, it has given us much robustness, a great deal of science to say, “Okay, it has been studied, it works,” and this robustness helped us to transfer, sometimes we say “to recreate,” the SEAs. (Marta)

Building Collaboration Between Special and Mainstream Schools

The replicability of SEAs in special schools was accompanied by the previously mentioned transformation of teachers’ understanding of the education of students with special needs. The focus on learning interactions that both IG and DLG have led teachers in these schools not only to ensure maximum diversity in the interactions within the school by, for instance, grouping students with different disabilities and with different capabilities together, but also to look for interactions with typically developing peers who are educated in mainstream schools. Sharing learning activities with these children in an inclusive learning context entailed new learning opportunities for the special school students in a more normalized environment that could eventually help them prepare for a transition from special education to combined (special-mainstream) education. As Ana explained, in her school, the idea of collaborating with mainstream schools emerged from the high expectations developed and the will to pursue more ambitious objectives for their students. Now, the teachers want to establish this beneficial experience as a regular collaboration and extend it from DLG to IG.

Since we started to work with DLG with our students, we have seen that our objectives in DLG are changing, the same way they are progressing and improving, there is an evolution. They start to structure sentences, ask questions, talk about the topic; then, we see the need to look for higher expectations, that is, there is always a bit more. Then, we thought that as we wanted a bit more, and the ones who could provide it as role models were students of their same age. We wanted them to participate in DLG in the most normalized way possible. (…) When we did it with the [mainstream] school it was a spectacular experience, because new dialogues emerged, our students participated very much spontaneously. (…) Then, the need to create these DLG as something periodical and systematic for the next years emerged, starting with DLG, and then we will continue with IG. Each time a bit more, more inclusion, more interactions, more communication, and more learning. (Ana)

According to the teachers’ experience, the students of both regular and mainstream schools benefited from this experience. The special education students could improve their language and academic learning and find new contexts where they could be accepted and respected, and the mainstream school students had the opportunity to learn more about people with disabilities, including their difficulties and capabilities and how to interact with them, which is learning for life. In one of the mainstream schools that had less experience in implementing DLG, students could even learn from the greater experience students from the special school had with DLG. For both groups of students, many of whom lived in the same town, this collaboration entailed the possibility of coming to know each other and creating bonds beyond the school context:

For the children of the mainstream school, it has brought the opportunity to know students with disabilities and learn how to interact with them; for instance, they live in the same municipality, and maybe they met in the street and they did not interact, they did not know how to talk to each other. The gatherings are above all respect, humanity, a climate of total acceptance, that many times we do not find in society. And our students were able to demonstrate what they knew and had no problem raising their hands and sharing what they knew. Although they needed help, they asked questions to their peers at the mainstream school. I mean, their concerns, their language improvement, I think that apart from the academic and the language improvement, regarding human values it is helping both the mainstream and the special school. (Ana)

The fact that SEAs have been replicated in special schools and there are therefore mainstream and special schools that implement SEAs in the same geographical context has made these collaborations and new learning opportunities for both groups of students possible.

Reaching Other Educational Contexts in the Community

The research on SEAs and students with special needs has also had an impact in other places of the community beyond the school context. An illustrative example explained by Sandra is an association dedicated to people with disabilities that offers activities for children with disabilities. The fact that SEAs are open to the community facilitated the president of the association participating in IG in Sandra’s school, showing how both learning and coexistence improve in IG. In addition, the mother of a child with special needs at Sandra’s school is an active member of the association. These connections with members of this association have caused a change in the association, which is now more oriented toward promoting academic learning among the children and is more impregnated with high expectations, creating new contexts where learning and inclusion can be enhanced:

This summer, the association is promoting instrumental learning for the first time; they are doing homework, which they had done never before, and they are very satisfied. And also, the issue of the evidence (…) she told me the other day that a girl with autism had come, the family explained that she had behaviors such as pulling hair, pushing, and she told them, “Don’t worry, we are changing it”, and the mother was very happy, and she was happy too (…) They are learning to read and write since preprimary, and the families are really satisfied… This has been a big change, because they did not think like this before. (Sandra)

Factors Supporting Social Impact

The interviews held with teachers about the impacts achieved have also shown several factors that contributed to these impacts, mainly via supporting the sustainability and replicability of the actions and the promoted improvements. It is important to summarize these factors here because taking them into account may contribute to an enhanced social impact of the research.

Teachers’ Permanent Training Based on Scientific Evidence

As mentioned above, a more scientific approach to education was one of the impacts achieved for teachers. This was translated into the practice of regularly reading scientific texts related to their profession, which, in turn, reinforced this scientific view. Some schools organized seminars in which the teaching staff debated these texts, and in other cases, teachers attended seminars or meetings with teachers from other schools. The texts that they read and debated included articles, books and reports resulting from this line of research and other scientific publications related to teaching and learning that could help them solve problems they encountered and improve their practice. According to the interviewed teachers, sharing this space of learning and debate has been a help in replicating the SEAs in new classes or schools and in bringing the SEAs to more students; it has also been a source of sustainability when the barriers found in the implementation of SEAs were shared and discussed:

Training is essential. As we read about the evidence and debated it, if we had a preconceived idea, we said, “No, this is true, it is as you say, this girl may be able to do that”. I think that training has been and still is essential for all this, because theory gives us a clue to put everything into practice. If we know the theory, then it is very easy. (…) We have to know first, we have to learn first. And then we see it very clearly. (Carmen)

Gaining confidence and feeling empowered to implement the actions that are supported by research has also been an effect of the teachers having access to scientific knowledge:

We emphasized very much that evidence says that children improve more with inclusion, that is, not taking them out of the classroom, if you do not group them separately… Then, you get empowered, and say, “This is really what we have to do; every time, if we could do that it would be ideal”. Then, you change your outlook a bit. (…) Because we came from another paradigm, we had another trajectory, and with the training we started to see things more clearly; we got empowered and said, “It has to be done this way, it is demonstrated that it is best, so let’s do it”. (Ines)

Teamwork and Networks of Support

Another facilitator of social impact highlighted by the teachers was the availability of a network of support among teachers and schools. The previously mentioned seminars are one place where some of these networks have been created. The previous experiences of other colleagues that are shared in these spaces have encouraged new teachers to implement SEAs and have also helped solve doubts and difficulties in the implementation of SEAs. These networks of support have made possible, for instance, collaborations between special and mainstream schools in sharing SEAs. Irene explained that this was an important factor in her case; the same way that special schools took the progress achieved in mainstream schools as a reference to replicate the SEAs in their context, Irene’s school took one special school as evidence of the possibilities for successfully implementing SEAs in her school:

The more positive, inclusive, rich, high expectations and interactions you have in more contexts with other professionals that are implementing SEAs in other schools and see that it is possible, that a special school is doing it and it is possible, and they improve… the more things like that you listen to throughout your professional life, and the more people you can share these spaces with, the more you empower yourself… and finally, you do it, because you believe it is true that it is possible and that you are going to make it. (Irene)

Recording Results and Being Aware of the Improvements Achieved

For teachers, it was also important to have a record of the students’ results related to the SEAs so that they could register progress and be fully aware of the improvements achieved. Some schools had more systematic records than others, and some of them were aware that they had to improve their recordkeeping, but all of them agreed on the importance of gathering this evidence, as it demonstrates teachers they are doing well and encourages the continuance of their work:

Results, because in daily life the inertia doesn’t let us see progress, but it is very important to talk about it with colleagues: “Look at what we have achieved,” “Look, this child could not do that and now he does”. When we verbalize it, we realize all we are achieving. (Carmen)

Sharing the Impact of SEAs With Families

When schools share the development and outcomes of SEAs not only among teachers but also with students’ families, the latter also become active supporters of these actions. This information can be shared in the schools’ seminars or assemblies that are open to families, in individual meetings with the family of a particular student, or while developing the SEAs if families participate, for example, as volunteers in IG. This information has led, for instance, to families not authorizing their children with special needs to receive support outside the classroom – because they know their children can progress further by participating in SEAs in their classroom—or agreeing that their child can stay in the school one more year so as to continue taking advantage of learning in SEAs.

Within education, I think that special education is the great forgotten area, and, with this research, I really believe that now is our time. I think that special education is starting to be visible and show that with them [students with disabilities], it is also possible. (…) I believe that it is our moment and I hope that this research helps all students and that finally, inclusion becomes a reality that we achieve between all. (Ana, teacher at a special school)

Ana, with these words, tried to synthesize what the actual and potential social impact of the line of research was for teachers such as her. Research conducted on SEAs and students with disabilities and other special educational needs allowed the identification of benefits that these educational actions entailed for these children in the schools that were already implementing them. Subsequently, this evidence has reached new schools, bringing these improvements to new student populations and improving teachers’ professional experiences, thus achieving a social impact that, as Ana said, is contributing to transforming special education.

This line of research is an example of the body of research in the psychology of education that studies several aspects of the education of students with special needs, creating interventions that improve their learning and coexistence with peers or bringing forth scientific evidence on which effective educational programs can be based. As interaction and dialogue are key components of SEAs, we argue that the evidence collected on the impact of SEAs on students with special needs shows the transformative potential of the sociocultural approach of learning ( Vygotsky, 1980 ; Bruner, 1996 ) for the education of these students. Because evidence on the social impact of this line of research was obtained from a limited number of interviews, conclusions must be cautiously made. However, there is evidence supporting the achievement of social impact. The criteria defined by SIOR 7 , the Social Impact Open Repository that aims at monitoring, evaluating and improving the impact of research, enables the analysis of how social impact is approached, as well as the limitations that can be addressed to further enhance social impact achievements.

• (1) Connection of research with the social priority goals of sustainable development. The line of research responds to UN Sustainable Development Goal 4 on Quality Education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Therefore, the research is aligned with one of the social priorities.
• (2) Percentage of improvement achieved regarding the departure situation. The interviews conducted allowed the collection of evidence on the improvements achieved in terms of the students’ learning and improved coexistence and the schools’ more efficient response to student diversity. However, an accurate and quantified record of the academic and/or social improvements of these students has not been systematized. Therefore, evidence of the social impact would be enhanced with a more systematic procedure to collect and quantify the improvements.
• (3) Transferability of the impact: the actions based on the project’s results have been successfully applied in more than one context. Transferability has been achieved in different directions: first, replicating the SEAs in mainstream schools with the participation of students with special needs in these schools; second, recreating the SEAs in special schools, thus transferring the actions to a new student population; and third, transferring the SEAs to other out-of-school educational contexts in the community.
• (4) Scientific, political, and social dissemination. The benefits of SEAs for students with disabilities and other special needs have been disseminated through scientific publications, conferences and training for teachers and schools. Importantly, this dissemination has been a key component for the transferability and sustainability of the impact, according to the evidence collected and is associated with the scientific training of teachers, who used such publications to learn from and discuss the evidence and transform their own professional practice.
• (5) Sustainability of the impact achieved. According to the evidence collected, in all the new contexts and new populations of students where SEAs have been transferred, the intensity of the implementation has not only been sustained but also increased, and the same occurred with the improvements achieved. Although an accurate quantification of the improvement is not yet available, the experience of the sample of teachers who were involved in the transference of the SEAs and still implement them in their own context points in this direction.

Taking this into account, further research on SEAs and students with special needs with social impact could cover four aspects. First, to analyze how SEAs put into practice contributions from theory in the psychology of education to support the learning and development of children with special needs more in depth. Second, to define a procedure to collect and quantify the improvements achieved by the students as a result of participating in SEAs. The INTER-ACT project, which is currently advancing this line of research, will contribute to quantifying this improvement and strengthening the evidence of the research’s social impact. Third, to support the transference of the SEAs and the improvements associated with them to new schools. Additional impact is foreseen in this regard, as the ongoing INTER-ACT project will transfer SEAs to new mainstream and special schools and will add further evidence on the key elements for the transferability of SEAs to new contexts with students with special needs and those without. Finally, to extend the interactive understanding of learning and development beyond schools and the teaching and learning contexts, reaching other related professionals and activities, such as evaluation, attention and counseling related to special needs; these areas of intervention are still very much impregnated with an individualistic perspective more aligned with the medical model than with the social model of disability, and students and schools would benefit from coordinated work based on the evidence of the benefits of the interactive approach of SEAs.

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

The study was fully approved by the Ethics Board of the Community of Researchers on Excellence for All (CREA). The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

SM conceived the original idea with the support of ER. ED conducted the literature review. SM with the support of RG analyzed the results of the line of research (case studies) from the perspective of social impact. ER coordinated the data collection (interviews) on social impact. SM conducted the interviews, and transcribed and analyzed them with the support of RG and ED. SM wrote a full draft of the manuscript. ED, ER, and RG revised it and included corrections. SM revised the final version of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding. This work was supported by the INTER-ACT, Interactive Learning Environments for the Inclusion of Students With and Without Disabilities: Improving Learning, Development and Relationships. Spanish National Programme for Research Aimed at the Challenges of Society, Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness. Reference Number: EDU2017-88666-R.

1 The Ethics Board was composed of Dr. Marta Soler (president), who has expertise in the evaluation of projects from the European Framework Programme of Research of the European Union and of European projects in the area of ethics; Dr. Teresa Sordé, who has expertise in the evaluation of projects from the European Framework Programme of Research and is researcher in the area of Roma studies; Dr. Patricia Melgar, a founding member of the Catalan Platform Against Gender Violence and a researcher in the area of gender and gender violence; Dr. Sandra Racionero, a former secretary and member of the Ethics Board at Loyola University Andalusia (2016-2018) and a review panel member for COST action proposals in the area of health; Dr. Cristina Pulido, an expert in data protection policies and child protection in research and communication and a researcher in communication studies; Dr. Oriol Rios, a founding member of the “Men in Dialogue” association, a researcher in the area of masculinities, and the editor of “Masculinities and Social Change,” a journal indexed in WoS and Scopus; and Dr. Esther Oliver, who has expertise in the evaluation of projects from the European Framework Programme of Research and is a researcher in the area of gender violence.

2 Schools as Learning Communities in Spain: http://utopiadream.info/ca/centros-en-funcionamiento/caracteristicas/

3 Schools as Learning Communities in Europe: Successful Educational Actions for all (SEAS4ALL). ERASMUS + Programme. Record number: 2015-1-ES01-KA201-016327. https://seas4all.eu/ ; Social transformation through Educational Policies based on Successful Educational Actions (STEP4SEAS). ERASMUS + Programme. Record number: 11. 580432-EPP-1-2016-1-ES-EPPKA3-IPI-SOC-IN. https://www.step4seas.eu/

4 2018 Report of the Schools as Learning Communities network in Latin America https://www.comunidaddeaprendizaje.com.es/uploads/materials/579/352de6fce741a0d1e6d17c67944cec2c.pdf

5 Ley Orgánica de Educación [Organic Law of Education] (LOE), of 2006, amended by the Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa [Organic Law for the Improvement of Quality of Education] (LOMCE), of 2013.

6 Spanish Ministry of Education and Vocational Training. Statistics on Education. School year 2017-2018. https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/servicios-al-ciudadano/estadisticas/no-universitaria/alumnado/matriculado/2017-2018-rd.html

7 https://sior.ub.edu/indicators

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European Journal of Psychology of Education

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The European Journal of Psychology of Education (EJPE) is a quarterly journal oriented toward publishing high-quality papers that address the relevant psychological aspects of educational processes embedded in different institutional, social, and cultural contexts, and which focus on diversity in terms of the participants, their educational trajectories and their socio-cultural contexts. Authors are strongly encouraged to employ a variety of theoretical and methodological tools developed in the psychology of education in order to gain new insights by integrating different perspectives. Instead of reinforcing the divisions and distances between different communities stemming from their theoretical and methodological backgrounds, we would like to invite authors to engage with diverse theoretical and methodological tools in a meaningful way and to search for the new knowledge that can emerge from a combination of these tools.

EJPE is open to all papers reflecting findings from original psychological studies on educational processes, as well as to exceptional theoretical and review papers that integrate current knowledge and chart new avenues for future research.

Following the assumption that engaging with diversities creates great opportunities for new knowledge, the editorial team wishes to encourage, in particular, authors from less represented countries and regions, as well as young researchers, to submit their work and to keep going through the review process, which can be challenging, but which also presents opportunities for learning and inspiration.

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What Folks Consider 'Old Age' Is Getting Older

What Folks Consider 'Old Age' Is Getting Older

By Dennis Thompson HealthDay Reporter

MONDAY, April 22, 2024 (HealthDay News) -- People’s idea of “old age” is aging itself, with middle-aged folks and seniors believing that old age starts later in life than did peers from decades ago, a new study finds.

The study revolves around the question “At what age would you describe someone as old?”

Decades ago, folks born in 1911 set the beginning of old age at 71 when they were asked that question at age 65, researchers report April 22 in the journal Psychology and Aging .

But folks born in 1956 said old age begins at 74 when asked at age 65, researchers found.

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It’s not clear why people these days are setting a later date for the start of old age, said researcher Markus Wettstein , a psychologist with Humboldt University in Berlin, Germany.

“Life expectancy has increased, which might contribute to a later perceived onset of old age,” Wettstein said in a university news release.

“Also, some aspects of health have improved over time, so that people of a certain age who were regarded as old in the past may no longer be considered old nowadays,” Wettstein added.

For the study, researchers examined data from more than 14,000 participants in the German Aging Study, which includes people born there between 1911 and 1974.

Participants responded to surveys up to eight times over 25 years, and one question specifically asked the age at which someone could be considered old.

People born earlier tended to start old age at an earlier date than folks born later, results show.

However, the trend towards a later perceived onset of old age has slowed in recent years, researchers found.

“The trend toward postponing old age is not linear and might not necessarily continue in the future,” Wettstein noted.

The study also considered how perceptions of old age change as a person ages.

As people got older, they tended to push the onset of old age farther out, researchers found.

At age 64, the average participant said old age started at nearly 75. But by age 74, they said old age started closer to 77.

On average, the perceived onset of old age increased by about one year for every four to five years of actual aging, results show.

“It is unclear to what extent the trend towards postponing old age reflects a trend towards more positive views on older people and aging, or rather the opposite -- perhaps the onset of old age is postponed because people consider being old to be an undesirable state,” Wettstein said.

Gender and health status also appear to shape a person’s conception of old age.

Women, on average, set the start of old age two years later than men, a difference that has increased over time.

And people who feel more lonely or in worse health tend to say old age begins earlier than people who had less loneliness and better health, results show.

More information

Harvard Medical School has more about aging .

SOURCE: American Psychological Association, news release, April 22, 2024

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