a student is writing a research report on cloning

Research Cloning Frequently Asked Questions

Q: What is research cloning?

A: Research cloning refers to the production of clonal embryos for scientific investigation. The nucleus of a cell of an existing animal or person is inserted into an egg from which the nucleus has been removed, and the resulting entity is stimulated so that it starts developing into an embryo. Embryonic stem cells are then derived from that clonal embryo.

Research cloning is also called somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) or nuclear transfer . Older terms that are still used, though infrequently, are therapeutic cloning and embryo cloning.

Q: What's the difference between "reproductive cloning" and "research cloning?"

A: The cloning procedure is identical up to the stage at which a clonal embryo is either used for research purposes, or implanted in the womb of a female animal or a woman. See the discussion of reproductive cloning .

Q: Has research cloning been successful?

In a number of mammalian species, clonal embryos have been produced and embryonic stem cells derived from then. Research cloning has not been successful in human beings. The successes reported in 2004 and 2005 by a research team led by Hwang Woo Suk were later shown to have been falsified. Hwang's papers were retracted by the scientific journals in which they had been published to great acclaim, and Hwang admitted to scientific fraud, embezzlement of funds, and ethical violations involving the procurement of women's eggs.

Q: Doesn't the development of embryonic stem cell therapies require the use of cloning techniques?

A: No. All currently existing embryonic stem cells have been derived from embryos that were created but not needed for fertility purposes. Many thousands of such IVF embryos are being stored in fertility clinics, and many people undergoing IVF treatment for infertility have indicated that they would be willing to donate their unneeded embryos for stem cell research.

Q: Why do scientists want to use cloning techniques to produce embryonic stem cells?

A: One use for research cloning, which is commonly cited but currently is very speculative, is the production of embryonic stem cells that would be genetically identical to a person in need of replacement tissues that could hypothetically be created from them. In theory, these replacement tissues would not be rejected by the recipient's immune system - a problem that may have to be resolved before embryonic stem cells derived from IVF embryos are used as replacement tissues.

Another proposed use is the creation of genetically specific embryonic stem cells - the so-called "disease in a dish" model. These cells could be studied for clues to the very early development of the disease in question, or used for efficient testing of drugs that might be effective against that disease.

Q: Why are some people who support embryonic stem cell research concerned about research cloning?

A: There are three main reasons for concern. First, efforts to produce cloned human embryos require large numbers of women's eggs . In order to retrieve eggs, researchers give women hormonal treatments to first "shut down" and then "hyper-stimulate" their ovaries, followed by surgical extraction of multiple eggs. This is a time-consuming and invasive process associated with potentially serious health problems.

Second, research cloning raises concerns because of the exaggerated and probably unrealistic claims of "personalized" therapies made by many scientists and advocates. If the many technical obstacles to such treatments were ever overcome, they would likely be enormously expensive, and thus inaccessible to most people.

Finally, because research cloning involves the same technique that would be the first step in reproductive cloning, effective oversight to prevent efforts to produce cloned humans would be required. Concerns about unauthorized efforts to clone a human being are heightened by the fact that laws against reproductive cloning have not yet been passed in many jurisdictions.

Q: Is research cloning legal?

A: Research cloning is legal in most jurisdictions. A few US states prohibit it, but others actively encourage and fund it. At the federal level, the US government will not at present fund research cloning, nor does it provide regulation or oversight of research cloning efforts.

Last modified June 30, 2006

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About Cloning

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Cloning refers to the process of producing multiple individual organisms with identical genes, which may occur naturally or artificially. A gene is the basic biological unit that determines an organism's characteristics. Genes are made up of even smaller molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carry and replicate genetic information.

Cloning occurs as a natural outcome of biological reproduction. Some bacteria and plants reproduce asexually—that is, there is no mixing of genetic material from multiple parent organisms. Instead, these organisms reproduce by creating genetically identical copies, or clones, of themselves. Identical twins, or two separate offspring resulting from a single fertilized egg, are considered clones of one another but not of their parent organisms.

Clones can also be created artificially...    ( Opposing Viewpoints )

• Should cloning of humans be permitted?
• What are the potential benefits and risks of cloning?
• What are the ethical controversies surrounding cloning?
• What are the social and cultural impacts of cloning?
• Will clones really be physically and behaviorally identical?
• If human cloning is allowed, what type of legislation might be enacted to control it?
• Do any laws currently exist which address the issue of cloning?
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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Cloning is a technique scientists use to create exact genetic replicas of genes, cells, or animals.

Biology, Genetics, Health, Chemistry

Cloned Beagles

Two Beagle puppies successfully cloned in Seoul, South Korea. These two dogs were cloned by a biopharmaceutical company that specializes in stem cell based therapeutics.

Photograph by Handout

Cloning is a technique scientists use to make exact genetic copies of living things. Genes , cells, tissues, and even whole animals can all be cloned .

Some clones already exist in nature. Single-celled organisms like bacteria make exact copies of themselves each time they reproduce. In humans, identical twins are similar to clones . They share almost the exact same genes . Identical twins are created when a fertilized egg splits in two.

Scientists also make clones in the lab. They often clone genes in order to study and better understand them. To clone a gene , researchers take DNA from a living creature and insert it into a carrier like bacteria or yeast. Every time that carrier reproduces, a new copy of the gene is made.

Animals are cloned in one of two ways. The first is called embryo twinning. Scientists first split an embryo in half. Those two halves are then placed in a mother’s uterus. Each part of the embryo develops into a unique animal, and the two animals share the same genes . The second method is called somatic cell nuclear transfer. Somatic cells are all the cells that make up an organism, but that are not sperm or egg cells. Sperm and egg cells contain only one set of chromosomes , and when they join during fertilization, the mother’s chromosomes merge with the father’s. Somatic cells , on the other hand, already contain two full sets of chromosomes . To make a clone , scientists transfer the DNA from an animal’s somatic cell into an egg cell that has had its nucleus and DNA removed. The egg develops into an embryo that contains the same genes as the cell donor. Then the embryo is implanted into an adult female’s uterus to grow.

In 1996, Scottish scientists cloned the first animal, a sheep they named Dolly. She was cloned using an udder cell taken from an adult sheep. Since then, scientists have cloned cows, cats, deer, horses, and rabbits. They still have not cloned a human, though. In part, this is because it is difficult to produce a viable clone . In each attempt, there can be genetic mistakes that prevent the clone from surviving. It took scientists 276 attempts to get Dolly right. There are also ethical concerns about cloning a human being.

Researchers can use clones in many ways. An embryo made by cloning can be turned into a stem cell factory. Stem cells are an early form of cells that can grow into many different types of cells and tissues. Scientists can turn them into nerve cells to fix a damaged spinal cord or insulin-making cells to treat diabetes.

The cloning of animals has been used in a number of different applications. Animals have been cloned to have gene mutations that help scientists study diseases that develop in the animals. Livestock like cows and pigs have been cloned to produce more milk or meat. Clones can even “resurrect” a beloved pet that has died. In 2001, a cat named CC was the first pet to be created through cloning. Cloning might one day bring back extinct species like the woolly mammoth or giant panda.

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Cloning Fact Sheet

The term cloning describes a number of different processes that can be used to produce genetically identical copies of a biological entity. The copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as the original, is referred to as a clone. Researchers have cloned a wide range of biological materials, including genes, cells, tissues and even entire organisms, such as a sheep.

Do clones ever occur naturally?

Yes. In nature, some plants and single-celled organisms, such as bacteria , produce genetically identical offspring through a process called asexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction, a new individual is generated from a copy of a single cell from the parent organism.

Natural clones, also known as identical twins, occur in humans and other mammals. These twins are produced when a fertilized egg splits, creating two or more embryos that carry almost identical DNA . Identical twins have nearly the same genetic makeup as each other, but they are genetically different from either parent.

What are the types of artificial cloning?

There are three different types of artificial cloning: gene cloning, reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning.

Gene cloning produces copies of genes or segments of DNA. Reproductive cloning produces copies of whole animals. Therapeutic cloning produces embryonic stem cells for experiments aimed at creating tissues to replace injured or diseased tissues.

Gene cloning, also known as DNA cloning, is a very different process from reproductive and therapeutic cloning. Reproductive and therapeutic cloning share many of the same techniques, but are done for different purposes.

What sort of cloning research is going on at NHGRI?

Gene cloning is the most common type of cloning done by researchers at NHGRI. NHGRI researchers have not cloned any mammals and NHGRI does not clone humans.

How are genes cloned?

Researchers routinely use cloning techniques to make copies of genes that they wish to study. The procedure consists of inserting a gene from one organism, often referred to as "foreign DNA," into the genetic material of a carrier called a vector. Examples of vectors include bacteria, yeast cells, viruses or plasmids, which are small DNA circles carried by bacteria. After the gene is inserted, the vector is placed in laboratory conditions that prompt it to multiply, resulting in the gene being copied many times over.

How are animals cloned?

In reproductive cloning, researchers remove a mature somatic cell , such as a skin cell, from an animal that they wish to copy. They then transfer the DNA of the donor animal's somatic cell into an egg cell, or oocyte, that has had its own DNA-containing nucleus removed.

Researchers can add the DNA from the somatic cell to the empty egg in two different ways. In the first method, they remove the DNA-containing nucleus of the somatic cell with a needle and inject it into the empty egg. In the second approach, they use an electrical current to fuse the entire somatic cell with the empty egg.

In both processes, the egg is allowed to develop into an early-stage embryo in the test-tube and then is implanted into the womb of an adult female animal.

Ultimately, the adult female gives birth to an animal that has the same genetic make up as the animal that donated the somatic cell. This young animal is referred to as a clone. Reproductive cloning may require the use of a surrogate mother to allow development of the cloned embryo, as was the case for the most famous cloned organism, Dolly the sheep.

What animals have been cloned?

Over the last 50 years, scientists have conducted cloning experiments in a wide range of animals using a variety of techniques. In 1979, researchers produced the first genetically identical mice by splitting mouse embryos in the test tube and then implanting the resulting embryos into the wombs of adult female mice. Shortly after that, researchers produced the first genetically identical cows, sheep and chickens by transferring the nucleus of a cell taken from an early embryo into an egg that had been emptied of its nucleus.

It was not until 1996, however, that researchers succeeded in cloning the first mammal from a mature (somatic) cell taken from an adult animal. After 276 attempts, Scottish researchers finally produced Dolly, the lamb from the udder cell of a 6-year-old sheep. Two years later, researchers in Japan cloned eight calves from a single cow, but only four survived.

Besides cattle and sheep, other mammals that have been cloned from somatic cells include: cat, deer, dog, horse, mule, ox, rabbit and rat. In addition, a rhesus monkey has been cloned by embryo splitting.

Have humans been cloned?

Despite several highly publicized claims, human cloning still appears to be fiction. There currently is no solid scientific evidence that anyone has cloned human embryos.

In 1998, scientists in South Korea claimed to have successfully cloned a human embryo, but said the experiment was interrupted very early when the clone was just a group of four cells. In 2002, Clonaid, part of a religious group that believes humans were created by extraterrestrials, held a news conference to announce the birth of what it claimed to be the first cloned human, a girl named Eve. However, despite repeated requests by the research community and the news media, Clonaid never provided any evidence to confirm the existence of this clone or the other 12 human clones it purportedly created.

In 2004, a group led by Woo-Suk Hwang of Seoul National University in South Korea published a paper in the journal Science in which it claimed to have created a cloned human embryo in a test tube. However, an independent scientific committee later found no proof to support the claim and, in January 2006, Science announced that Hwang's paper had been retracted.

From a technical perspective, cloning humans and other primates is more difficult than in other mammals. One reason is that two proteins essential to cell division, known as spindle proteins, are located very close to the chromosomes in primate eggs. Consequently, removal of the egg's nucleus to make room for the donor nucleus also removes the spindle proteins, interfering with cell division. In other mammals, such as cats, rabbits and mice, the two spindle proteins are spread throughout the egg. So, removal of the egg's nucleus does not result in loss of spindle proteins. In addition, some dyes and the ultraviolet light used to remove the egg's nucleus can damage the primate cell and prevent it from growing.

Do cloned animals always look identical?

No. Clones do not always look identical. Although clones share the same genetic material, the environment also plays a big role in how an organism turns out.

For example, the first cat to be cloned, named Cc, is a female calico cat that looks very different from her mother. The explanation for the difference is that the color and pattern of the coats of cats cannot be attributed exclusively to genes. A biological phenomenon involving inactivation of the X chromosome (See sex chromosome ) in every cell of the female cat (which has two X chromosomes) determines which coat color genes are switched off and which are switched on. The distribution of X inactivation, which seems to occur randomly, determines the appearance of the cat's coat.

What are the potential applications of cloned animals?

Reproductive cloning may enable researchers to make copies of animals with the potential benefits for the fields of medicine and agriculture.

For instance, the same Scottish researchers who cloned Dolly have cloned other sheep that have been genetically modified to produce milk that contains a human protein essential for blood clotting. The hope is that someday this protein can be purified from the milk and given to humans whose blood does not clot properly. Another possible use of cloned animals is for testing new drugs and treatment strategies. The great advantage of using cloned animals for drug testing is that they are all genetically identical, which means their responses to the drugs should be uniform rather than variable as seen in animals with different genetic make-ups.

After consulting with many independent scientists and experts in cloning, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) decided in January 2008 that meat and milk from cloned animals, such as cattle, pigs and goats, are as safe as those from non-cloned animals. The FDA action means that researchers are now free to using cloning methods to make copies of animals with desirable agricultural traits, such as high milk production or lean meat. However, because cloning is still very expensive, it will likely take many years until food products from cloned animals actually appear in supermarkets.

Another application is to create clones to build populations of endangered, or possibly even extinct, species of animals. In 2001, researchers produced the first clone of an endangered species: a type of Asian ox known as a guar. Sadly, the baby guar, which had developed inside a surrogate cow mother, died just a few days after its birth. In 2003, another endangered type of ox, called the Banteg, was successfully cloned. Soon after, three African wildcats were cloned using frozen embryos as a source of DNA. Although some experts think cloning can save many species that would otherwise disappear, others argue that cloning produces a population of genetically identical individuals that lack the genetic variability necessary for species survival.

Some people also have expressed interest in having their deceased pets cloned in the hope of getting a similar animal to replace the dead one. But as shown by Cc the cloned cat, a clone may not turn out exactly like the original pet whose DNA was used to make the clone.

What are the potential drawbacks of cloning animals?

Reproductive cloning is a very inefficient technique and most cloned animal embryos cannot develop into healthy individuals. For instance, Dolly was the only clone to be born live out of a total of 277 cloned embryos. This very low efficiency, combined with safety concerns, presents a serious obstacle to the application of reproductive cloning.

Researchers have observed some adverse health effects in sheep and other mammals that have been cloned. These include an increase in birth size and a variety of defects in vital organs, such as the liver, brain and heart. Other consequences include premature aging and problems with the immune system. Another potential problem centers on the relative age of the cloned cell's chromosomes. As cells go through their normal rounds of division, the tips of the chromosomes, called telomeres, shrink. Over time, the telomeres become so short that the cell can no longer divide and, consequently, the cell dies. This is part of the natural aging process that seems to happen in all cell types. As a consequence, clones created from a cell taken from an adult might have chromosomes that are already shorter than normal, which may condemn the clones' cells to a shorter life span. Indeed, Dolly, who was cloned from the cell of a 6-year-old sheep, had chromosomes that were shorter than those of other sheep her age. Dolly died when she was six years old, about half the average sheep's 12-year lifespan.

What is therapeutic cloning?

Therapeutic cloning involves creating a cloned embryo for the sole purpose of producing embryonic stem cells with the same DNA as the donor cell. These stem cells can be used in experiments aimed at understanding disease and developing new treatments for disease. To date, there is no evidence that human embryos have been produced for therapeutic cloning.

The richest source of embryonic stem cells is tissue formed during the first five days after the egg has started to divide. At this stage of development, called the blastocyst, the embryo consists of a cluster of about 100 cells that can become any cell type. Stem cells are harvested from cloned embryos at this stage of development, resulting in destruction of the embryo while it is still in the test tube.

What are the potential applications of therapeutic cloning?

Researchers hope to use embryonic stem cells, which have the unique ability to generate virtually all types of cells in an organism, to grow healthy tissues in the laboratory that can be used replace injured or diseased tissues. In addition, it may be possible to learn more about the molecular causes of disease by studying embryonic stem cell lines from cloned embryos derived from the cells of animals or humans with different diseases. Finally, differentiated tissues derived from ES cells are excellent tools to test new therapeutic drugs.

What are the potential drawbacks of therapeutic cloning?

Many researchers think it is worthwhile to explore the use of embryonic stem cells as a path for treating human diseases. However, some experts are concerned about the striking similarities between stem cells and cancer cells. Both cell types have the ability to proliferate indefinitely and some studies show that after 60 cycles of cell division, stem cells can accumulate mutations that could lead to cancer. Therefore, the relationship between stem cells and cancer cells needs to be more clearly understood if stem cells are to be used to treat human disease.

What are some of the ethical issues related to cloning?

Gene cloning is a carefully regulated technique that is largely accepted today and used routinely in many labs worldwide. However, both reproductive and therapeutic cloning raise important ethical issues, especially as related to the potential use of these techniques in humans.

Reproductive cloning would present the potential of creating a human that is genetically identical to another person who has previously existed or who still exists. This may conflict with long-standing religious and societal values about human dignity, possibly infringing upon principles of individual freedom, identity and autonomy. However, some argue that reproductive cloning could help sterile couples fulfill their dream of parenthood. Others see human cloning as a way to avoid passing on a deleterious gene that runs in the family without having to undergo embryo screening or embryo selection.

Therapeutic cloning, while offering the potential for treating humans suffering from disease or injury, would require the destruction of human embryos in the test tube. Consequently, opponents argue that using this technique to collect embryonic stem cells is wrong, regardless of whether such cells are used to benefit sick or injured people.

Last updated: August 15, 2020

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Home / Guides / Writing Resources / Topics Guides / Human Cloning

Human Cloning

What is cloning.

To put it simply, cloning is the process of making an identical copy of something. There are two main types of cloning: Therapeutic Cloning and Reproductive Cloning. The most talked about type of cloning from a media and awareness standpoint is Reproductive Cloning; it is an asexual means of reproduction by which genetically identical copies of organisms are created. Many plants can do this naturally, but scientists are now able to artificially recreate this technique with animals and even humans.

To gain a better understanding of how exactly cloning works or for greater detail on Therapeutic Cloning or Reproductive Cloning, check out:

The History of Cloning: What Has Been Cloned?

A sheep named Dolly was the first mammal to be cloned using the DNA from other adult sheep. A team of scientists in Edinburg, Scotland who were hoping to discover if it was possible to create livestock with particular genetic traits created Dolly. Her existence proved that a new being can be created using adult cells. Unfortunately, Dolly aged rapidly, developing arthritis and other health problems at a very young age. Eventually, Dolly was put to rest via lethal injection.

Humans and Cloning

What is the purpose of trying to clone humans? Although movies and books sometimes make it seem like human cloning would only lead to an army of clones taking over the world and destroying mankind, there must be a scientific reason that this topic is being researched. In fact, some scientists hope that by researching and replicating stem cells, genetic diseases might become treatable or even curable. Other scientists have the intention of cloning entire human beings, not just their cells, in order to help infertile couples have children.

Cloning: Morality and Legality

Governments and religious activists alike have spoken out against human cloning. In the US, legislation during the Bush Administration prevented federal funds from being allocated towards research in human cloning; however, recently restrictions on funding were repealed. Many of the past bans on funding were reactions to public opinion regarding stem cell research.

Stem cells have the ability to replicate into various types of cells within the human body, and they can do so indefinitely. The controversy and ethical questions surrounding stem cells derive from the fact that these cells may be taken from human embryos. While the cells are being replicated for the benefit of humans who suffer from diseases, cancer, infertility, etc., they do so at the cost of a fertilized human egg. Many religious, social, and political groups claim that this research is equivalent to killing unborn children. In their opinion, it is immoral to remove protection from an innocent human life and cause it harm when it cannot defend itself. Other religious arguments are in support of the idea that science should not be able to create life, only God can and should.

Societal Implications of Human Cloning

It can be argued that introducing human clones into the world would have a profound impact on society and human interactions. Some groups feel that cloning could lead the world down a path where human beings would eventually lose their individuality. As replicas of DNA lead to the creation of identical human beings, there exists the fear that people will have fewer distinguishing qualities. Individuality is considered an integral part of what makes a person who they are, as well as the impact that he or she has on the world. If this problem is analyzed from the perspective of clones, clones also have the potential to become insecure; in this new society, there might be high levels of pressure to meet expectations created by the original owner of their DNA.

Human cloning could also change roles and values within families. Perhaps cloned children will begin to be viewed by their parents as products or purchases rather than offspring. Concerns could also be raised that these children will not be treated the same way as children created/born through sexual reproduction. It might be hard for parents to psychologically wrap their minds around the idea that their child was born from replicated DNA.

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Human Cloning: Is it biological plagiarism?

This lesson guides students to learn the science behind cloning, explore the benefits and consequences of human cloning, and communicate their knowledge and points of view. Students begin by reading an article titled Primer on Ethics and Cloning by Dr. Glenn McGee, available for free on the AIBS's ActionBioscience.org website. The lesson provides questions for the instructor to guide a class discussion about the article. Instructors can then choose from different activities to engage students further in this issue. One activity has students role play advisory teams providing information to a committee on the ethical issues of human cloning. The teams conduct research online, keep a journal recording their research paths, and answer questions in presentation format. Another activity has students researching and presenting information on human cloning. Through their research students can learn about cloning technology and related laws, as well as the perspectives of groups or individual scientist's viewpoints. Included are web site evaluation worksheets that are useful for student internet searches on any topic.

Expand for more detail

Activity Classification and Connections to Related Resources Collapse

Grade level, learning goals.

Students will:

• develop an understanding of the science of cloning using data, theories, principles, and models
• communicate and apply scientific concepts in genetics
• examine prominent positions on the issue of human cloning
• apply scientific principles to personal and social views on the subject of human cloning

Context for Use

These activities are for upper level high school students or first year undergraduate biology students. Students should have an understanding of basic genetics (or the issue can be used as a jumping off point to teach students about genetics). The activities can be modified to accommodate different class sizes and can be done primarily in-class or as take-home work, and there is a wide variety of possible time frames in which the assignments can be completed. Student research will take outside class time unless the instructor is prepared to make use of class time. Presentations or debates will take at least 20 minutes per group.

Description and Teaching Materials

The lesson by Latourelle provides the teaching materials needed for this example. It includes notes to the instructor, instructions for students, and student handouts. Here is an additional strategy to use as you guide your students as they explore this real-world issue:

1. Introduce the issue of human cloning as a contemporary relevant concern faced by the scientific discipline through the article titled Primer on Ethics and Cloning by Dr. Glenn McGee, available for free on the AIBS's ActionBioscience.org website.  2. Then pose a question to the class (e.g., Will human cloning be detrimental or beneficial for society?) and ask the students to think of an initial answer based upon the article they read. Have the students write down their opinion. 3. Ask the students what else they might need to know to be able to substantiate their opinion. Guide them to understand they will need scientific facts to comprehend the issue. Provide them with information or make information available to them to answer their questions about the issue. Students can also be assigned to complete their research out of class and bring results to the following class. 4. Ask the class to use what they learned to discuss the issue in small groups and come up with a view or resolution of the issue.  5. Present the set of guiding rules (in the How to section of this module) for discussing the issue as a hand-out or projected on a screen. 6. Give students ample time in class to resolve the issue. Periodically ask the students about their progress and whether a resolution is near.  7. Guide a discussion with all students, allowing them to reflect on the issue. 

If you wish to extend the activity, students can be assigned to write a short paper, outlining their point of view and providing scientific information to support their position.

Teaching Notes and Tips

There is no universal formula for using real-world issues in the classroom. The "Preparation" section of the lesson by Latourelle provides different options for engaging students in the issues surrounding ethics and cloning. Regardless of which activity is used, the issue must be pertinent to the topic covered in that particular session and time in class should be made available for the students to reflect upon their resolutions to the issue. During this time, it is recommended that the instructor explain the relationship between the issue and the concepts covered in class. Feedback for the take-home assignment can be presented to the whole class based on a synopsis of the student reports. Any student arguments or disagreements should be directed back to the facts related to the issue. Instructors can share their viewpoints as long as they explain how they use to facts to come up with their view or resolution.

• Journals: Make a list of the things you would like to see included in the students' journals. Should they have a list of all of the additional references they read? Should the journal be legible to you (not just to them)? Should all of the website evaluation checklists be complete? Should there be a minimum number of references included? Do you want them to turn in their journals on a regular basis? Create a rubric by assigning a point value to each item and determine whether there are variations which would receive fewer points. Share this rubric with your students before they begin their journals. You may want to share tips about setting up a journal and the Swarthmore College's Biology website has advice on keeping a laboratory notebook, which may be more detailed than needed for this assignment, however it can help students learn about the importance of keep record of their observations for future science research.
• Oral Presentations: The SERC website has information and rubrics for Assessment by Oral Presentation
• Debates: EducationWorld.com has many resources on facilitating student debates and grading them: http://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/lesson/lesson304b.shtml .
• If you assign a paper, you will want to let students know ahead of time what you will be looking for in their papers. Create a rubric based upon your learning goals for them, provide it to them ahead of time, and then use it to score their papers. For more guidance, see the SERC page, Assessing Written Reports .
• If you facilitate a class or small group discussion, you can assess their participation in the discussion. The College of Education at Purdue University has a Classroom Participation Rubric (http://www.edci.purdue.edu/phillion/edci205/welcome.html) online available for free.
• Getting Results: A Professional Development Course for Community College Educators, Module 6: Assessing Student Learning .
• SERC's On The Cutting Edge : Professional Development for Geosciences Faculty has a terrific suite of resources on assessment. Go to Observing and Assessing Student Learning to learn about the different types of assessment and techniques for finding out what your students are learning as you use new teaching approaches.
• Field-tested Learning Assessment Techniques : Provides an overview of classroom assessment and details on how to use specific techniques.

References and Resources

"Primer on Ethics and Human Cloning" by Glenn McGee, published on ActionBioscience.org and available for free at https://www.kyrene.org/cms/lib2/AZ01001083/Centricity/Domain/968/Primer%20on%20Ethics%20and%20Human%20Cloning.pdf .

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Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Table of Contents

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

• Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
• Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
• Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
• Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

• Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
• Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
• Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
• Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
• Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

• Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
• Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
• Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
• Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
• Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
• Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

• Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
• Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
• Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
• Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

• Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
• Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
• Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
• Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
• Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
• Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

• Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
• Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
• Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

• Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
• Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
• Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
• Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

Need a helping hand?

Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications. If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

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The effectiveness of scenario-based virtual laboratory simulations to improve learning outcomes and scientific report writing skills

Hakeemah al-nakhle.

Department of Medical Laboratories Technology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Almadinah Almonawarah, Saudi Arabia

Associated Data

All data available from the following link: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.21430521 .

The use of virtual laboratory simulations in various disciplines, which provide important educational benefits, has increased. Several studies show that laboratory activities, including scenario-based virtual laboratory simulation (SB-VLS), stimulate cognitive and non-cognitive skills. However, the effects of the SB-VLS when integrated into molecular biology courses, on the development of cognitive skills, such as scientific report writing skills, remain unexplored. A pre-post-test, randomized, quasi-experimental design was used. Thirty-five female students were randomly assigned to experimental or control groups. The control group (n = 17) attended a traditional lecture and video lab demonstration (VLD), while the experimental group (n = 18) participated in SB-VLS on molecular cloning. Findings revealed statistically significant differences, with large effects sizes in the SB-VLS group between pre- and post-test in intrinsic motivation (2.9 vs 3.86, p = 0 . 042 , Cohen’s d = 4.17), self-efficacy (3.31 vs 3.85, p = 0 . 002 , Cohen’s d = 1.071), and knowledge gain scales (50.93 vs 75.93, p = 0 . 001 , Cohen’s d = 1.46). Moreover, between-group effect sizes of the experimental and control groups were also large for intrinsic motivation ( dppc2 = 1.441), self-efficacy ( dppc2 = 0.766), and knowledge ( dppc2 = 1.147), indicating that the effect of the SB-VLS was significant, which may be due to the activities and techniques used in SB-VLS to develop learning outcomes. Additionally, the SB-VLS group had statistically better lab report scores as compared to the control group (3.92 vs . 4.72, p < 0 . 0001 ). Collectively, our data show that SB-VLS is an innovative teaching strategy and an effective tool for developing non-cognitive and cognitive skills, especially scientific report writing skills.

Introduction

Virtual lab simulations are being increasingly used to enhance the development of professional skills in various fields, such as healthcare [ 1 ] and education, including courses in chemistry [ 2 , 3 ], biotechnology [ 4 ], and medical genetics [ 5 ]. Virtual learning simulations have also been applied to organs [ 6 , 7 ] virtual dissections [ 8 ], and in human patient simulators [ 9 ]. Advantages of virtual laboratory simulations include cost-effectiveness, increased engagement of students with learning materials, and elimination of biosafety concerns [ 10 ]. They also allow students to observe the otherwise unobservable phenomena by reducing the time required to conduct experiments which require more time if conducted physically [ 10 ]. Learning through simulations provides students an opportunity to engage in inquiry-based learning that enables them to gain conceptual knowledge independently. Simulations also motivate and challenge students by providing continuous feedback in an environment that is tailored as per their individual interests and learning needs [ 11 ].

The molecular biology course in our medical laboratories technology program outlines the following five learning domains: knowledge, cognitive skills, interpersonal skills, responsibility, communication, and psychomotor skills. One of the course objectives is to develop cognitive skills, such as students’ abilities to interpret experimental outcomes and find justifications. I have observed a decline in students’ ability to justify their experimental findings through report writing.

In our molecular biology course, students’ laboratory reports do not indicate the depth of scientific writing skills, as they submit a report according to the laboratory manual without focusing on the techniques or employing analytical and communication skills. Students are not required to internalize content, justify findings, or master scientific practices in laboratory reports. This problem can be solved if laboratory exercises are integrated with interactive learning technologies containing problem-based scenarios, such as scenario-based virtual laboratory simulation (SB-VLS).

Improvement of scientific writing skills based on knowledge acquired from simulation can allow students to construct knowledge, relate it to prior information, and generate new findings, which can then be recorded in the scientific report. Indirectly, assessment using SB-VLS would benefit students in the final year as they would receive early research experience before their graduation project. Effective SB-VLSs direct students to questions, facilitate investigation of problems, and promote the process of inquiry. Furthermore, they allow students to apply creativity and critical thinking to find solutions to issues, including real-world problems.

An increasing body of evidence suggests that virtual laboratory simulations enhance learning outcomes by increasing students’ motivation and self-efficacy. Specifically, gamified laboratory simulations may facilitate better learning outcomes as compared to traditional teaching [ 4 ]. In preparing students for microbiology physical laboratory activities, virtual laboratory simulations are reportedly as efficient as face-to-face tutorials [ 12 ]. Furthermore, virtual laboratory simulations increase motivation and self-efficacy in students with low engagement [ 12 ]; integration of virtual laboratory simulations and physical laboratory activities is likely to improve students’ intrinsic motivation. Virtual learning simulations may provide positive learning experiences and hence are a valuable tool for developing cognitive and non-cognitive skills. This study examines motivation and self-efficacy as non-cognitive skills crucial in students’ academic achievement and improved writing abilities.

Students with higher self-efficacy show greater engagement and greater proficiency in completing writing tasks [ 13 ]. Additionally, they are more likely to participate actively and focus on the problem in case of a difficult learning task [ 13 ]. An increase in students’ self-efficacy and motivation improves writing abilities [ 14 ]. Consequently, one can posit that SB-VLS stimulates student’s self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, thereby promoting knowledge acquisition and consequently, influencing their writing abilities when generating a scientific report.

It is critical for students who are studying molecular biology to be able to write and communicate scientific knowledge effectively to readers, and relate new information to previous knowledge fostering meaningful learning [ 15 ]. These skills are vital in order to present and justify scientific findings effectively. Such skills not only require searching for reliable information, but also justifying and discussing the results [ 16 ]. Writing not only facilitates deeper understanding of the subject but also aids in explicit learning [ 17 ].

Several studies have found that virtual lab simulations improve scientific writing skills, as evidenced in the lab reports [ 18 – 20 ]. Laboratory activities—particularly one employing inquiry-based laboratory learning strategy—can help students develop their scientific writing skills [ 21 – 24 ]. Indeed, students who use higher-order cognition in virtual laboratories exhibit better writing skills while preparing lab reports than students who use virtual laboratories for verification [ 22 ]. This improvement can be attributed to the active learning strategies associated with virtual laboratories that require higher-order cognition. In traditional laboratories, students report results on the basis of their observation without further analysis or without comparing their findings with the scientific literature.

In this study, cognitive skills were developed through SB-VLS, when students conducted a virtual experiment involving a problem, literature search, application of theories learned in lectures, and demonstration of critical thinking during problem solving. The non-cognitive skills focus on students’ motivation to improve their scientific writing and self-efficacy.

The cognitive theory of multimedia learning by Mayer [ 25 ] is used as a comprehensive theoretical framework to understand how virtual laboratory simulations may influence students’ learning outcomes, such as motivation and metacognition skills ( Fig 1 ). The theory proposes a variety of constructs and mechanisms relevant to learning outcome development. This theory is based on three principles of information processing: first, dual processing: Learners process verbal and visual information differently. Second, limited capacity: Information can be stored only in a finite amount in the working memory. Finally, active processing: To acquire meaningful knowledge, learners must interact with information displayed in the simulation, organize it, use prior knowledge from the long-term memory and integrate it into their mental structures. As the learner actively processes information and strives to achieve the highest score on the quizzes embedded with the simulation, self-regulation skills, motivation, and self-efficacy are enhanced. Students gain metacognitive knowledge through learning about cognitive processes, i.e., learning how to control cognitive processes. Metacognition is the ability to reflect, conclude, and apply these conclusions in real-life situations [ 26 ]. Molecular biology experiment courses require metacognitive skills for solving problems related to experiments. In order to solve problems, students must be able to understand the problem, simulate models, perform experiments, and interpret and justify the solutions obtained in their lab reports [ 27 ].The specific objectives of this study were (i) to determine the effectiveness of using SB-VLS to enhance learning outcomes, including self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, and (ii) to evaluate the impact of SB-VLS on improving knowledge and scientific report writing skills. In pursuance of the objectives, three research questions were formulated:

Adapted from [ 25 ].

Research question 1. Does an SB-VLS lead to improvement intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy, related to the topic of molecular cloning?

Research question 2. Does an SB-VLS lead to improved student knowledge of the study topic, namely molecular cloning?

Research question 3. Does an SB-VLS lead to improved scientific report writing skills, as evidenced by improved lab report scores compared with a control group?

Materials and methods

Ethical approval.

The Research Ethics Committee of the College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University (2021/102/101/MLT), approved this study. Before the formal survey, all students were informed of the research objectives, and their consent was obtained. All participants’ data were kept confidential, and responses were kept anonymous.

Participants, research design, sample size, and power analysis

Undergraduate medical laboratory technology students enrolled at the College of Applied Medical Sciences at Taibah University, Saudi Arabia, were recruited for this pilot study. The participants included 35 female students in the third year of their academic program in 2021. A pre-post-test, randomized, quasi-experimental design was used. The students who volunteered to participate were randomly assigned to experimental or control groups. An SB-VLS was used to develop cognitive skills (scientific writing skills and knowledge) and non-cognitive skills (self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation) of the experimental group (n = 18), while traditional instruction and video lab demonstration (VLD) were used in the control group (n = 17).

The magnitude of the SB-VLS effect was assessed based on the statistical significance and estimates of effect size. An effect size of 0.10–0.29 was considered small, 0.30–0.49 was considered moderate, and ≥ 0.50 was considered large, based on Cohen’s proposal for interpreting effect sizes [ 28 , 29 ]. Additionally, post-hoc power analysis was performed using an online statistical program to determine whether the SB-VLS and VLD group sizes were sufficiently large to detect a statistical difference between the two dependent means, with an alpha level of 0.05 [ 28 ]. Moreover, the effect sizes (η 2 and d for a non-parametric test) were calculated for the lab report score data (see S8 Table as reference for determination of the effect size η 2 and d). The d ppc2 values were also calculated to estimate the effect size between groups. The d ppc2 values were interpreted according to the criteria suggested by Cohen (1988): a value from 0.2 to 0.5 indicated a small effect, 0.5 to 0.8 indicated a moderate effect, and greater than 0.8 indicated a large effect.

Study instrument and measurement of the main outcomes

The questionnaire consisted of items that assessed the students’ knowledge (cognitive skills) and those that measured intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy (non-cognitive skills). Baseline knowledge of molecular cloning was assessed using six multiple-choice questions ( S1 Text ), and motivation was assessed using three questions adapted from the Interest/Enjoyment Scale of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory [ 30 ] ( S1 Text ). Self-efficacy for learning molecular biology was assessed using eight questions adapted from the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire [ 31 ] ( S1 Text ). Students rated their responses to the motivation and self-efficacy items on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Completely Disagree) to 5 (Completely Agree). An MCQ test comprising six items was administered to students in both groups to measure their knowledge ( S1 Text ).

The reliability and validity of the instrument that generated all study outcome variables for the pre- and post-test for both groups was estimated using Cronbach’s α coefficient, for which a value ≥ 0.70 represented good internal consistency of the items included in the questionnaire [ 32 ].

The effect of SB-VLS on the development of students’ scientific report writing skills was measured using lab report scores assigned to students in the VLD and SB-VLS groups.

Students were randomly divided into the control group (VLD) or experimental group (SB-VLS), and administered a pre-test to determine their baseline knowledge of molecular cloning, intrinsic motivation to study molecular biology, and self-efficacy; it also helped assess the equivalence of achievement between the two groups.

The VLD group received traditional learning for the practical portion (theoretical background and VLD). After completing traditional learning for 6 hrs on subjects relevant to molecular cloning, students were given a post-test to reassess their knowledge of molecular cloning, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy. Additionally, the students were asked to write a scientific lab report based on the lab manual, instructor’s instructions, VLD, and writing guidelines ( S2 Text ).

The SB-VLS session comprised 3 hrs of molecular cloning simulation followed by a 45 min post-test to estimate students’ cognitive and non-cognitive skills. The SB-VLS session takes less time than the VLD session because one of the advantages of the virtual labs is that they are able to provide more knowledge than traditional classes. This factor will not influence how we interpret the findings pertaining to group differences. Following the SB-VLS session, students were asked to write a scientific lab report to answer the research question, “Determine the function of radiation-sensitive 52 ( RAD52 ) a DNA repair gene using molecular cloning techniques,” and to amalgamate their scientific findings from virtual experiments with their existing knowledge on relevant scientific literature. Students used the following learning tools to answer the research question: a laboratory manual provided by Labster, theoretical notes, and Labster video simulation related to molecular cloning. Students were allowed to repeat the simulations in their own time. They then collected and analyzed the data individually to explain and discuss their findings. This step investigated the effectiveness of the SB-VLS in improving scientific writing skills. The content of lab report for both groups included introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions.

Molecular cloning simulation scenario

Labster™ virtual simulation (molecular cloning case) was used in this study as an SB-VLS [ 33 ], as its simulation content aligns with the intended learning outcomes of molecular cloning topics, including DNA repair, mutation, and recombinant DNA technology. Students must choose individual protocols during the simulation, similar to real-life research. Furthermore, they can collect and interpret data before moving on to the next series of experiments. Students have access to experiments and molecular techniques which are unavailable in traditional undergraduate laboratories.

The simulation consisted of advanced laboratory equipment, including PCR and gel electrophoresis equipment, as well as 3D video animation; and learning tools, including theoretical and background information. For instance, students can visualize DNA duplication during the PCR process (which cannot be visualized in traditional laboratories) and how DNA samples run in gel electrophoresis and turn into DNA profiles. Additionally, students can work with a realistic case containing a central problem. They can utilize the equipment available in the virtual laboratory to solve a problem or answer research questions. While progressing through the simulation, students can learn concepts and techniques relevant to the case problem. They respond to MCQs throughout the simulation to assess whether they learned the concept; they cannot move to the next step until they answer all questions correctly [ 11 ].

Molecular cloning simulation introduces students to a scenario in which a researcher examines the function of RAD52 protein and its role in DNA repair. During virtual experiments, students can examine the function of RAD52, a DNA repair gene, and recognize several molecular cloning techniques, including DNA extraction and preparation, ligation, transformation, plate streaking, and antibiotic selection. The scenarios enable students to learn how to assemble an expression vector containing a specific regulator (TetOff) of the RAD52 , and GFP genes and control the expression level of RAD52 using doxycycline.

Rubrics for assessing scientific report writing skills

The data score for scientific report writing skills was obtained by assessing scientific lab reports from both groups (VLD and SB-VLS). All reports were graded based on the same criteria, and each section ( introduction , methods, results, discussion, and conclusion) was evaluated independently based on a scoring rubric ( S7 Table ) adapted from [ 34 ]. The total score out of 50 was divided by 10 to give a final score out of 5. All lab reports were blind marked by one tutor.

Data analysis

The data collected during the research were analyzed using Graph Pad Prism 5.0 (Graph Pad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA). The construct reliability was determined using Cronbach’s alpha to estimate whether the instrument consisting of a multiple Likert-scale items was reliable. A Cronbach’s alpha value ≥ 0.70 is generally accepted as indicating good internal consistency in most social science research studies [ 32 ]. The paired t-test was used to determine if any differences existed within groups (between pre-test and post-test). The unpaired t-test was used to determine if any differences existed between the groups. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was used to determine the normality. The Mann–Whitney U test for unpaired samples was used to compare the lab report scores. Cohen’s d for pre-versus post-treatment effect sizes within groups was calculated. To adjust the baseline measurements, the effect size dppc2 was computed for the pre-post comparison of the experimental and control groups [ 35 ].

Means and standard deviations (SDs) of pre- and post-test scores for the three outcome variables (knowledge of molecular cloning, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy) are illustrated in Table 1 for both groups.

Note . mean; SD, standard deviation; df, degrees of freedom; CI, confidence interval; SB-VLS, scenario-based virtual laboratory simulation; VLD, video lab demonstration; d ppc2 , pre-test-post-test control group design

As shown in Table 1 , paired t -tests were used for each group to estimate if a significant increase in knowledge pertaining to molecular cloning, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy occurred from the pre-to post-test. For the SB-VLS group, a significant increase in knowledge was detected from a mean of 50.93% correct responses on the pre-test to 75.93% correct responses on the post-test, (t (18) = 6.708, p = 0.001, df = 5) ( S5 Table ). Post-hoc power analysis for the SB-VLS group for the knowledge gain scale revealed that a sample of 18 students provided a power of 91% for detecting statistical differences for the effect size given by the mean scores. A significant increase in intrinsic motivation was found, from a mean of 2.902 on a scale of 1 to 5 in the pre-test to 3.863 in the post-test (t (18) = 4.693, p = 0.0425, df = 2) ( S4B and S4D Table ). Moreover, post-hoc power analysis of the intrinsic motivation scale revealed that a sample of 18 students provided a power of 100% for detecting statistical differences for the effect size given by the mean scores. Finally, self-efficacy increased significantly in this group, from a mean of 3.331 in the pre-test to 3.846 in the post-test (t (18) = 4.757, p = 0.0021, df = 7) ( S3B and S3D Table ). Post-hoc power analysis revealed the sample size of this group to be inadequate, with a statistical power of over 70% (according to S9 Table , the study should have at least 80% power to detect the intervention effect).

For the VLD group, paired sample t-tests showed no significant differences in knowledge gain scale, intrinsic motivation, or self-efficacy.

Table 1 also reveals a large effect size within the SB-VLS group for intrinsic motivation (Cohen’s d = 4.17), self-efficacy (Cohen’s d = 1.071) and knowledge (Cohen’s d = 1.46). Between-group effect sizes of the experimental and control groups were also large for intrinsic motivation ( d ppc2 = 1.441), self-efficacy ( d ppc2 = 0.766) and knowledge ( d ppc2 = 1.147), indicating that the effect of the SB-VLS was significant, which may be due to the activities and techniques used in the SB-VLS to develop learning outcomes.

Additionally, the degree of internal reliability of the two outcome measures (intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy scales) in the pre- and post-test for both groups were evaluated by Cronbach’s alpha. As shown in Table 1 , for the SB-VLS group, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient of the intrinsic motivation scale was 0.82 for the pre-test and 0.73 for the post-test, while for the self-efficacy scale, it was 0.78 and 0.71, respectively ( S3A and S3C , S4A and S4C Tables). For the VLD group, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient of the intrinsic motivation scale was 0.809 for the pre-test and 0.8125 for the post-test, while for the self-efficacy scale, it was 0. 717 and 0.721, respectively ( S1A and S1C , S2A and S2C Tables).

Controlling possible confounding variables

To ensure that the participants were equivalent in their scores in the possible confounding variables, a pre-test was administered to both the groups. Pre-tests can assess variables that might influence the outcomes of the study and avoid any possible external interference. An independent sample t-test was used to compare means between experimental and control groups for all study variables. Table 2 shows the mean and the SD of each group in the pre-test. The analysis indicated that no statistically significant differences were present between the experimental and control groups. Furthermore, the means and SDs of both groups on the post-test were calculated using independent sample t-tests to assess the significance of any differences. Table 3 shows that statistically significant differences were present between the experimental and control groups for self-efficacy and knowledge at post-test, whereas no significant differences were observed between the experimental and control groups in intrinsic motivation at post-test.

Assessment of scientific report writing skills

Descriptive statistics for the grades assigned to lab reports for the control and experimental groups are shown in Table 4 . The mean scores for the control and experimental groups were 3.918 (SD = 0.5753) and 4.72 (SD = 0.34), respectively ( S6 Table ). A significant difference was observed in the mean scores between the groups. The results showed that students in the SB-VLS group obtained higher average scores on the scientific lab reports as compared with the VLD group.

Table 4 shows that the effect size of the SB-VLS was large, indicating that the effect of the SB-VLS was pronounced, which may be due to the activities and techniques used in the SB-VLS to develop students’ scientific report writing skills.

This study found that SB-VLS could be a good formative assessment tool for evaluating learning outcomes, particularly cognitive and non-cognitive skills, among medical laboratory technology students. Our findings revealed that the knowledge level, scientific report writing skills, self-efficacy, and intrinsic motivation increased significantly in the experimental group as compared to the control group with respect to the topic “Molecular Cloning”, suggesting that engaging in simulation-based learning activities can lead to positive cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes.

The development of cognitive skills, such as knowledge and scientific report writing skills, is a crucial learning outcome and the main objective of an educational activity. However, growing evidence suggests that non-cognitive skills are also crucial in academic success [ 36 ]. Increased self-efficacy is associated with greater educational and life outcomes [ 13 ]. Furthermore, intrinsic motivation is essential as a mediator of short- and long-term educational outcomes [ 37 ].

The first research question asked if SB-VLS would influence non-cognitive skills. Our findings revealed a significant increase in self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation compared with traditional learning. These results are consistent with the previous findings [ 4 , 12 ]. Therefore, it is evident that the SB-VLS approach is more effective than traditional learning in developing students’ self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation toward molecular biology. Indeed, improving non-cognitive skills significantly influences educational outcomes and academic success. Furthermore, students with high self-efficacy achieve complex tasks, enjoy challenges, work harder, and have a greater commitment to goals [ 5 ].

The second research question explored whether the SB-VLS affected students’ cognitive skills. Knowledge gain was compared through pre- and post-tests; results indicated a significant increase in knowledge when the students were exposed to the SB-VLS compared with the VLD, suggesting that the SB-VLS promotes knowledge gain. These results align with other studies’ findings that virtual laboratory simulation increases knowledge and the level of understanding [ 4 ].

The third research question examined integrating the SB-VLS into molecular biology courses to improve students’ scientific report writing skills. The students’ achievements in scientific report writing were evaluated based on their ability to write a lab report, and find information, comprehend it, and build critical thinking in the process of justifying their experimental findings. The results showed that students who used the SB-VLS approach had better average scores than the control group in the lab reports, suggesting that the former had a positive effect on scientific report writing skills.

Scientific report writing skills can be developed when students engage in a virtual experiment that answers research questions, allowing them to apply the knowledge taught through lectures to real-life situations to solve problems. The SB-VLS engages students with real-life tasks. Consequently, as students conduct authentic investigations, they become more involved in the writing process—particularly persuasive writing—when they contribute to finding solutions to real problems. This teaching strategy enables students to communicate scientifically while thoroughly understanding the problem and cause-effect relationships [ 22 ]. We, therefore, speculate that students who rely on the VLD approach are unable to improve their scientific report writing skills. Moreover, the effect size within the SB-VLS group was large, the effect of the SB-VLS was significant as the activities and techniques of the strategy contributed to the development of scientific report writing skills. These activities included an interactive research scenario that brought science to life, embedded quizzes, and video animations. It is encouraging to compare our findings with those of Sapriadil et al. [ 22 ], who reported that the scientific writing skills of students using higher-order thinking virtual laboratories were higher than those of students in a lab implementation class. Thus, our collective findings highlight the success of SB-VLS as an approach for improving students’ scientific report writing skills and learning outcomes. Moreover, this approach serves to enhance students’ critical thinking, creativity, conceptual understanding skills, motivation, and subject interest.

Conclusion and future recommendations

The SB-VLS is an innovative teaching strategy that provides educational benefits and improves cognitive and non-cognitive skills. Our findings confirmed that the SB-VLS approach can be a valuable tool for improving students’ scientific report writing skills by utilizing the unique features of virtual lab simulations. This improvement was associated with strengthening students’ self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and knowledge.

SB-VLS may enhance several learning skills, including problem-solving skills, critical thinking, creativity, conceptual understanding, science process skills, motivation, interest, and help attain better learning outcomes, leading to improved scientific report writing skills. Studying SB-VLS’s impact on scientific report writing skills in the future research can be accomplished by measuring these learning skills. As part of students training programs in medical laboratories’ technology programs, they could be expected to be able to apply SB-VLS customized to their curriculum to develop their scientific report writing skills.

Study limitations

The primary limitation of the current study was the small number of participants. Therefore, it is necessary to perform additional studies with a larger population to facilitate the generalization of these findings and for verifying the current results. Furthermore, only female students were included due to time limitations; there was insufficient time available to include male students, who study on a separate campus. Thus, future studies must incorporate participants from other genders.

Supporting information

A-D. Percentage of student responses and Cronbach’s alpha calculation of student responses on the questionnaire of the self-efficacy (pre and post-test /control group).

A-D. Percentage of student responses and Cronbach’s alpha calculation of student responses on the questionnaire of the academic intrinsic motivation (pre and post-test /control group).

A-D. Percentage of student responses and Cronbach’s alpha calculation of student responses on the questionnaire of the self-efficacy (pre and post-test / experimental group).

A-D. Percentage of student responses and Cronbach’s alpha calculation of student responses on the questionnaire of the academic intrinsic motivation (pre and post-test / experimental group).

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank the medical laboratory technology undergraduate students in the College of Applied Medical Sciences at Taibah University in Madinah for participating in this study. I would also like to thank Labster for providing us with Labster™ virtual simulation (molecular cloning case) as a gift to use in this study.

Funding Statement

The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Data Availability