write an essay on varieties of language

Definition and Examples of Language Varieties

These "lects" refer to the different ways people speak

Bantam 2006

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In  sociolinguistics , language variety—also called  lect —is a general term for any distinctive form of a language or linguistic expression. Linguists commonly use language variety (or simply variety ) as a cover term for any of the overlapping subcategories of a language, including dialect ,  register ,  jargon , and  idiolect .

To understand the meaning of language varieties, it's important to consider how lects differ from  standard English . Even what constitutes standard English is a topic of hot debate among linguists.

Standard English  is a controversial term for a form of the English language that is written and spoken by educated users. For some linguists, standard English is a synonym for  good  or  correct  English  usage . Others use the term to refer to a specific geographical dialect of English or a dialect favored by the most powerful and prestigious social group.

Varieties of language develop for a number of reasons: differences can come about for geographical reasons; people who live in different geographic areas often develop distinct dialects—variations of standard English. Those who belong to a specific group, often academic or professional, tend to adopt jargon that is known to and understood by only members of that select group. Even individuals develop idiolects, their own specific ways of speaking.

The word  dialect —which contains "lect" within the term—derives from the Greek words  dia- meaning "across, between" and  legein  "speak."   A  dialect  is a regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation ,  grammar , and/or  vocabulary . The term  dialect  is often used to characterize a way of speaking that differs from the standard variety of the language. Sarah Thomason of the  Linguistic Society of America  notes:

"All dialects start with the same system, and their partly independent histories leave different parts of the parent system intact. This gives rise to some of the most persistent myths about language, such as the claim that the people of Appalachia speak pure Elizabethan English."

Certain dialects have gained negative connotations in the U.S. as well as in other countries. Indeed, the term  dialect prejudice  refers to discrimination based on a person's dialect or way of  speaking . Dialect prejudice is a type of  linguicism —discrimination based on dialect. In their article "Applied Social Dialectology," published in " Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society ," Carolyn Temple and Donna Christian observe:

"...dialect prejudice is endemic in public life, widely tolerated, and institutionalized in social enterprises that affect almost everyone, such as education and the media. There is limited knowledge about and little regard for linguistic  study showing that all varieties of a language display systematicity and that the   elevated social position of standard varieties has no scientific linguistic basis."

Due to this kind of dialectic prejudice, Suzanne Romaine, in "Language in Society," notes: "Many linguists now prefer the term  variety  or  lect  to avoid the sometimes  pejorative  connotations that the term ' dialect ' has."

Register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances. Think about the words you choose, your tone of voice, even your body language. You probably behave very differently chatting with a friend than you would at a formal dinner party or during a job interview. These variations in formality, also called stylistic variation , are known as registers in linguistics.

They are determined by such factors as social occasion,  context ,  purpose , and  audience . Registers are marked by a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms, the use of jargon, and a difference in intonation and pace.

Registers are used in all forms of communication, including written, spoken, and signed. Depending on grammar, syntax, and tone, the register may be extremely rigid or very intimate. You don't even need to use an actual word to communicate effectively. A huff of exasperation during a debate or a grin while signing "hello" speaks volumes.

Jargon   refers to the specialized  language  of a professional or occupational group. Such language is often meaningless to outsiders. American poet  David Lehman  has described jargon as "the verbal sleight of hand that makes the old hat seem newly fashionable; it gives an air of novelty and specious profundity to ideas that, if stated directly, would seem superficial, stale, frivolous, or false."

George Packer describes jargon in a similar vein in a 2016 article in the New Yorker magazine:

“Professional jargon—on Wall Street, in humanities departments, in government offices—can be a fence raised to keep out the uninitiated and permit those within it to persist in the belief that what they do is too hard, too complex, to be questioned. Jargon acts not only to  euphemize  but to license, setting insiders against outsiders and giving the flimsiest notions a scientific aura.”​

Pam Fitzpatrick, a senior research director at Gartner, a Stamford, Connecticut-based research and advisory firm specializing in high tech, writing on LinkedIn, puts it more bluntly:

"Jargon is waste. Wasted breath, wasted energy. It absorbs time and space but does nothing to further our goal of persuading people to help us solve complex problems."

In other words, jargon is a faux method of creating a sort of dialect that only those on this inside group can understand. Jargon has social implications similar to dialect prejudice but in reverse: It is a way of making those who understand this particular variety of language more erudite and learned; those who are members of the group that understands the particular jargon are considered smart, while those on the outside are simply not bright enough to comprehend this kind of language.

Types of Lects

In addition to the distinctions discussed previously, different types of lects also echo the types of language varieties:

• Regional dialect: A variety spoken in a particular region.
• Sociolect: Also known as a social dialect, a variety of language (or register) used by a socioeconomic class, a profession, an age group, or any other social group.
• Ethnolect: A lect spoken by a specific ethnic group. For example, Ebonics, the vernacular spoken by some African-Americans, is a type of ethnolect, notes  e2f , a language-translation firm.
• Idiolect:  According to e2f, the language or languages spoken by each individual. For example, if you are multilingual and can speak in different registers and styles, your idiolect comprises several languages, each with multiple registers and styles.

In the end, language varieties come down to judgments, often "illogical," that are, according to Edward Finegan in "Language: Its Structure and Use":

"...imported from outside the realm of language and represent attitudes to particular varieties or to forms of expression within particular varieties."

The language varieties, or lects, that people speak often serve as the basis for judgment, and even exclusion, from certain social groups, professions, and business organizations. As you study language varieties, keep in mind that they are often based on judgments one group is making in regard to another.

• What Is Dialect Prejudice?
• Definition and Examples of Dialect in Linguistics
• Idiolect (Language)
• Social Dialect or Sociolect Definition and Examples
• Regional Dialects in English
• Definition and Examples of Acrolects in Language
• Standard English Definitions and Controversies
• Standard English (SE)
• Ethnic Dialects
• Diglossia in Sociolinguistics
• What Is Register in Linguistics?
• Linguistic Variation
• Standard American English (SAE)
• Definition and Examples of Linguistic Prestige
• General American English (Accent and Dialect)

Essays About Language: Top 5 Examples and 7 Prompts

Language is the key to expressive communication; let our essay examples and writing prompts inspire you if you are writing essays about language.

When we communicate with one another, we use a system called language. It mainly consists of words, which, when combined, form phrases and sentences we use to talk to one another. However, some forms of language do not require written or verbal communication, such as sign language. 

Language can also refer to how we write or say things. For example, we can speak to friends using colloquial expressions and slang, while academic writing demands precise, formal language. Language is a complex concept with many meanings; discover the secrets of language in our informative guide.

5 Top Essay Examples

1. a global language: english language by dallas ryan , 2. language and its importance to society by shelly shah, 3. language: the essence of culture by kelsey holmes.

• 4.  Foreign Language Speech by Sophie Carson
• 5. ​​Attitudes to Language by Kurt Medina

1. My Native Language

2. the advantages of bilingualism, 3. language and technology, 4. why language matters, 5. slang and communication, 6. english is the official language of the u.s..

“Furthermore, using English, people can have more friends, widen peer relationships with foreigners and can not get lost. Overall, English becomes a global language; people may have more chances in communication. Another crucial advantage is improving business. If English was spoken widespread and everyone could use it, they would likely have more opportunities in business. Foreign investments from rich countries might be supported to the poorer countries.”

In this essay, Ryan enumerates both the advantages and disadvantages of using English; it seems that Ryan proposes uniting the world under the English language. English, a well-known and commonly-spoken language can help people to communicate better, which can foster better connections with one another. However, people would lose their native language and promote a specific culture rather than diversity. Ultimately, Ryan believes that English is a “global language,” and the advantages outweigh the disadvantages

“Language is a constituent element of civilization. It raised man from a savage state to the plane which he was capable of reaching. Man could not become man except by language. An essential point in which man differs from animals is that man alone is the sole possessor of language. No doubt animals also exhibit certain degree of power of communication but that is not only inferior in degree to human language, but also radically diverse in kind from it.”

Shah writes about the meaning of language, its role in society, and its place as an institution serving the purposes of the people using it. Most importantly, she writes about why it is necessary; the way we communicate through language separates us as humans from all other living things. It also carries individual culture and allows one to convey their thoughts. You might find our list of TOEFL writing topics helpful.

“Cultural identity is heavily dependent on a number of factors including ethnicity, gender, geographic location, religion, language, and so much more.  Culture is defined as a “historically transmitted system of symbols, meanings, and norms.”  Knowing a language automatically enables someone to identify with others who speak the same language.  This connection is such an important part of cultural exchange”

In this short essay, Homes discusses how language reflects a person’s cultural identity and the importance of communication in a civilized society. Different communities and cultures use specific sounds and understand their meanings to communicate. From this, writing was developed. Knowing a language makes connecting with others of the same culture easier. 

4.   Foreign Language Speech by Sophie Carson

“Ultimately, learning a foreign language will improve a child’s overall thinking and learning skills in general, making them smarter in many different unrelated areas. Their creativity is highly improved as they are more trained to look at problems from different angles and think outside of the box. This flexible thinking makes them better problem solvers since they can see problems from different perspectives. The better thinking skills developed from learning a foreign language have also been seen through testing scores.”

Carson writes about some of the benefits of learning a foreign language, especially during childhood. During childhood, the brain is more flexible, and it is easier for one to learn a new language in their younger years. Among many other benefits, bilingualism has been shown to improve memory and open up more parts of a child’s brain, helping them hone their critical thinking skills. Teaching children a foreign language makes them more aware of the world around them and can open up opportunities in the future.

5. ​​ Attitudes to Language by Kurt Medina

“Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a person’s native language is an integral part of who that person is and marginalizing the language can have severe damaging effects on that person’s psyche. Many linguists consistently make a case for teaching native languages alongside the target languages so that children can clearly differentiate among the codes”

As its title suggests, Medina’s essay revolves around different attitudes towards types of language, whether it be vernacular language or dialects. He discusses this in the context of Caribbean cultures, where different dialects and languages are widespread, and people switch between languages quickly. Medina mentions how we tend to modify the language we use in different situations, depending on how formal or informal we need to be. 

6 Prompts for Essays About Language

In your essay, you can write about your native language. For example, explain how it originated and some of its characteristics. Write about why you are proud of it or persuade others to try learning it. To add depth to your essay, include a section with common phrases or idioms from your native language and explain their meaning.

Bilingualism has been said to enhance a whole range of cognitive skills, from a longer attention span to better memory. Look into the different advantages of speaking two or more languages, and use these to promote bilingualism. Cite scientific research papers and reference their findings in your essay for a compelling piece of writing.

In the 21st century, the development of new technology has blurred the lines between communication and isolation; it has undoubtedly changed how we interact and use language. For example, many words have been replaced in day-to-day communication by texting lingo and slang. In addition, technology has made us communicate more virtually and non-verbally. Research and discuss how the 21st century has changed how we interact and “do language” worldwide, whether it has improved or worsened. 

We often change how we speak depending on the situation; we use different words and expressions. Why do we do this? Based on a combination of personal experience and research, reflect on why it is essential to use appropriate language in different scenarios.

Different cultures use different forms of slang. Slang is a type of language consisting of informal words and expressions. Some hold negative views towards slang, saying that it degrades the language system, while others believe it allows people to express their culture. Write about whether you believe slang should be acceptable or not: defend your position by giving evidence either that slang is detrimental to language or that it poses no threat.

English is the most spoken language in the United States and is used in government documents; it is all but the country’s official language. Do you believe the government should finally declare English the country’s official language? Research the viewpoints of both sides and form a conclusion; support your argument with sufficient details and research. 

Check out our guide packed full of transition words for essays .If you’re stuck picking your next essay topic, check out our guide on how to write an essay about diversity .

Martin is an avid writer specializing in editing and proofreading. He also enjoys literary analysis and writing about food and travel.

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The power of language: How words shape people, culture

Speaking, writing and reading are integral to everyday life, where language is the primary tool for expression and communication. Studying how people use language – what words and phrases they unconsciously choose and combine – can help us better understand ourselves and why we behave the way we do.

Linguistics scholars seek to determine what is unique and universal about the language we use, how it is acquired and the ways it changes over time. They consider language as a cultural, social and psychological phenomenon.

“Understanding why and how languages differ tells about the range of what is human,” said Dan Jurafsky , the Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor in Humanities and chair of the Department of Linguistics in the School of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford . “Discovering what’s universal about languages can help us understand the core of our humanity.”

The stories below represent some of the ways linguists have investigated many aspects of language, including its semantics and syntax, phonetics and phonology, and its social, psychological and computational aspects.

Understanding stereotypes

Stanford linguists and psychologists study how language is interpreted by people. Even the slightest differences in language use can correspond with biased beliefs of the speakers, according to research.

One study showed that a relatively harmless sentence, such as “girls are as good as boys at math,” can subtly perpetuate sexist stereotypes. Because of the statement’s grammatical structure, it implies that being good at math is more common or natural for boys than girls, the researchers said.

Language can play a big role in how we and others perceive the world, and linguists work to discover what words and phrases can influence us, unknowingly.

How well-meaning statements can spread stereotypes unintentionally

New Stanford research shows that sentences that frame one gender as the standard for the other can unintentionally perpetuate biases.

Algorithms reveal changes in stereotypes

New Stanford research shows that, over the past century, linguistic changes in gender and ethnic stereotypes correlated with major social movements and demographic changes in the U.S. Census data.

Exploring what an interruption is in conversation

Stanford doctoral candidate Katherine Hilton found that people perceive interruptions in conversation differently, and those perceptions differ depending on the listener’s own conversational style as well as gender.

Cops speak less respectfully to black community members

Professors Jennifer Eberhardt and Dan Jurafsky, along with other Stanford researchers, detected racial disparities in police officers’ speech after analyzing more than 100 hours of body camera footage from Oakland Police.

How other languages inform our own

People speak roughly 7,000 languages worldwide. Although there is a lot in common among languages, each one is unique, both in its structure and in the way it reflects the culture of the people who speak it.

Jurafsky said it’s important to study languages other than our own and how they develop over time because it can help scholars understand what lies at the foundation of humans’ unique way of communicating with one another.

“All this research can help us discover what it means to be human,” Jurafsky said.

Stanford PhD student documents indigenous language of Papua New Guinea

Fifth-year PhD student Kate Lindsey recently returned to the United States after a year of documenting an obscure language indigenous to the South Pacific nation.

Students explore Esperanto across Europe

In a research project spanning eight countries, two Stanford students search for Esperanto, a constructed language, against the backdrop of European populism.

Chris Manning: How computers are learning to understand language​

A computer scientist discusses the evolution of computational linguistics and where it’s headed next.

Stanford research explores novel perspectives on the evolution of Spanish

Using digital tools and literature to explore the evolution of the Spanish language, Stanford researcher Cuauhtémoc García-García reveals a new historical perspective on linguistic changes in Latin America and Spain.

Language as a lens into behavior

Linguists analyze how certain speech patterns correspond to particular behaviors, including how language can impact people’s buying decisions or influence their social media use.

For example, in one research paper, a group of Stanford researchers examined the differences in how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online to better understand how a polarization of beliefs can occur on social media.

“We live in a very polarized time,” Jurafsky said. “Understanding what different groups of people say and why is the first step in determining how we can help bring people together.”

Analyzing the tweets of Republicans and Democrats

New research by Dora Demszky and colleagues examined how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online in an attempt to understand how polarization of beliefs occurs on social media.

Examining bilingual behavior of children at Texas preschool

A Stanford senior studied a group of bilingual children at a Spanish immersion preschool in Texas to understand how they distinguished between their two languages.

Predicting sales of online products from advertising language

Stanford linguist Dan Jurafsky and colleagues have found that products in Japan sell better if their advertising includes polite language and words that invoke cultural traditions or authority.

Language can help the elderly cope with the challenges of aging, says Stanford professor

By examining conversations of elderly Japanese women, linguist Yoshiko Matsumoto uncovers language techniques that help people move past traumatic events and regain a sense of normalcy.

Different Types of Language Varieties

by Phil Williams | Sep 8, 2020 | Definitions , General English , Words | 20 comments

I’ve had a few blog comments lately addressing how English is used or taught differently, and thought it would be a useful exercise to produce an article covering how we discuss varieties of a language. Some of the most active articles I have are ones where people offer different opinions on certain rules, inevitable as English has spread to so many different areas, so it’s definitely an area of interest.

I hope to look into specific different types of English in more detail eventually, but there are some great resources introducing language variations online already, so for now I’ve prepared a list of terms and examples with some links to where you can learn more.

Defining Language Variations

There are a handful of ways linguists categorise varieties of language; some definitions refer to word usage and rules, or merely to vocabulary, while others refer to the way language adapts culturally, in broader strokes. All of these terms, however, can cover variations in grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Below we’ll look at the following variety terms:

Standard / Polite / Formal

Colloquial / informal, regional dialect, social dialect, lingua franca.

We use the terms standard, polite and formal to refer to language that sticks to the rules and is essentially presented as the ‘proper’ form of English. In practice, this is not necessarily practical English, but rather the sort of English we’d expect to see in formal writing or polite situations. Standard English is what is generally taught where possible, but alternative forms may be taught in communities with developed variations.

Colloquial language is effectively anything that is not formal, often described as ‘spoken’ language. It is informal as the aim is to communicate rather than stick rigidly to rules, so it is where we see contractions and idiomatic language being used. There are countless varieties of this, and it is a blanket term that really covers all of the other terms below.

Regional dialects are varieties of language that emerge based on regionally specific use. There are many examples within the UK alone, from the broad differences between the English spoken in the North and South to the more specific, localised dialects, such as those spoken in certain cities, some of which have their own names (with Scouse from Liverpool, Geordie in Newcastle and Brummie in Birmingham to name just a few).

Social dialects emerge like dialects, but within a specific class or culture, instead of a region (though they can be further developed to fit certain regions). This may also be referred to as a minority dialect, highlighting the variation is not the predominant use. A major example of this is African American Vernacular English .

A lingua franca is a common language used between people who speak different languages. As the full purpose is bridging gaps in communication, this can be very adaptable and therefore will not necessarily stick to traditional language rules. English is used as a lingua franca all over the world, more commonly in fact than it is used by native speakers, and in some cases may even be taught in a specific form to fit these needs, rather than as standard English. You can read more about this on Wikipedia here .

A pidgin is a simplified version of a lingua franca, where people trying to communicate across different languages develop their own form of communication. Though this technically makes it a lingua franca, it often some from merging two or more languages together rather than as something true to one common language. Pidgins can therefore develop their own vocabulary and rules that can be very independent of the original source languages.

A creole is an established form of pidgin, where a language developed from communicating over two or more languages is taken up by a culture as a native language. Aspects that make a creole different to pidgin or dialects is that it has it will have unique rules with a full range of functions, and may be taught as a mother tongue. Examples of English-developed creoles include Gullah in South Carolina and Georgia and Nigerian Creole. Another interesting example is Louisiana Creole, which derives from French but is used by Americans so may be interspersed with English.

Vernacular is the term used to describe language as it is used naturally by a specific people. What it describes can therefore vary depending on what we wish to specify: we could speak about the vernacular of a country or a smaller community within a city, or of a certain time and place (for example, we have a modern vernacular which would include vocabulary that would not be part of the vernacular of, for example, fifty years ago).

Patois is a term used to refer to minority, non-standard use of a language, so this could cover all dialects, creoles and pidgins, but this carries somewhat negative connotations as it implies an inferiority.

Lingo is a term used to refer to any wording or phrasing that is specific to a certain group, including jargon or slang (see below). Lingo is roughly synonymous with argot and cant, both also referring to the language of specific groups.

Jargon is the words and phrases that emerge to cover ideas with in a specific community, often when specialist terminology is required (for example technical terms in a profession or sport). In some cases this is necessary, where specialist activities require new terminology, but jargon can also be seen as negative, where it is used to separate others from a conversation or to create a superior appearance (as is commonly associated with business jargon ).

Similar to jargon, slang is the language that emerges within a subgroup to describe new ideas, or to assign new words to existing ideas to develop a sense of identity. As with jargon, this can be exclusionary, though while jargon typically refers to specialisms, slang is more typically associated with social groups, for example the language of a younger generation. Extreme forms of slang may be used specifically to disguise conversation, such as rhyming slang .

I hope you’ve found this useful; varieties in language are fascinating areas. If you are interested in the development of language, and how it is used differently by different people, I strongly recommend looking into different vernaculars and creoles to see how other people speak. It can help to give you a stronger understanding of the rules of standard language when you see how it works when other people bend them!

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20 Comments

Great article!

Firstly, I’ve got a question about “Standard / Polite / Formal” English. I’ve heard the term “Queen’s English” thrown about often to mean Formal/Polite English – any validity in this?

Secondly, I’ve got a thing about..well..the word “thing”. For standard UK/US English, the Oxford Lexico Dictionary defines “thing” as “An action, activity, event, thought, or utterance”. My classmate then said that because that’s the definition of the word “thing”, “thing” can’t refer to anything else besides “action, activity, event, thought, or utterance”. My point however, is that “thing” is a word we often to use to refer in an approximate (or lazy) way to an idea, subject, event, action, etc. In other words, my point is that “thing” can refer to just about anything in general, and not just limited to oxford’s definition of “An action, activity, event, thought, or utterance”. Am I correct? Thanks!

Regards, Shizuka

Hi Shizuka,

Thank you. Yes, the Queen’s English is used to refer to polite language; it’s often a bit tongue-in-cheek, which is to say we’d use the phrase a little jokingly, to highlight especially formal language. It rather creates an image of an old schoolmaster insisting on speaking properly, where speaking ‘properly’ is not necessarily a reflection of speaking naturally!

On “thing”, that’s a very curious point – I, and I think most English speakers, would not have given it enough thought to separate “thing” from any meaning other than to refer to “something”, meaning, as you say, anything. I wonder if it wouldn’t fit naturally into everything we might define – I’d be interested to hear any examples of what it might *not* refer to – but certainly those five categories don’t cover it because “thing” could also be used to refer to any kind of physical object, perhaps one of its more common uses.

Truly remarkable article. Thank you.

Would you mind answering this question please ?

Is the” accent” not a variety of language ? If yes try and produce an article about it.

Hi Antonio, no problem, I am happy to answer. It’s a good question and perhaps a difference that is worthy of a post, yes – but essentially, no accent isn’t so much a language variety as a variety in how we pronounce words. It comes down to the difference between dialect and accent – dialect leads to regional differences in the way language is used, but accent is more limited to describing regional differences in the sounds of words. So it doesn’t really speak to different language use. But yes, I’ll look at doing something more detailed to explore that!

Hi Could you please share what is variation in language …is it differ from variety?

Variety and variation are very similar, and which you use might depend on context. Now you mention it, I do appear to have used them somewhat interchangeably myself in this article. Essentially, a “variation” is where we see a difference from the norm, whereas a “variety” tends to refer to a selection of different things. With reference to language, what we’re discussing is where language is adapted to form variations, so for example formal, informal or colloquial variations could all stem from one main language (e.g. formal English, colloquial English). This in turn creates a variety of types of language, even if they share similar qualities.

Hi there I would like to know is code switching related to varieties?

Good question – code-switching would certainly be related to varieties, as it would require that the speakers know more than one variety of language to switch between them. There are various ways it might appear; code-switching could be a case of bilingual speakers slipping between two languages understood by both parties, or they could be switching between certain dialects or slangs. The point would be that it’s a case where the speakers have more than one way to be understood, and are able to jump between them.

Patois, creole and pidgin languages would all comprise code-switching at some point, and even when they become established languages of their own might sound like people switching between other varieties.

I would you like to know where is the book or journal that discusses your formal and colloquial language varieties? thank you

That’s a good question that I’m afraid I don’t have a good answer for right now; I’m not familiar with a specific book myself, though tables often appear in more general grammar or language guides (for example I have some lists comparing formal and informal language in my own Advanced Writing Skills book, and there are comparisons in the likes of Murphy’s grammar books or Swan’s Practical English Usage , but these are not comprehensive). I’ll have to have a look and see if I can find something on this, but I’d appreciate if any other readers can recommend one!

Hi i wold you like to known what is the different between English language and pidgin language

English overall is standardised, and though it might have some variations regionally you’d expect it to mostly be used the same way. With pidgin English variations it will vary massively depending on who is using it – a pidgin language would take elements of English and mix them with elements of at least one other language, so it may have grammar or vocabulary completely unrelated to English, alongside more standard English words and structures. Pidgin is something that evolves very naturally and often out of necessity, so there could be all sorts of differences.

hey is diglossia related to language varieties ?

Yes, that would fit into the field of language varieties, referring to two versions of a language existing alongside each other (within the same community). It would cover certain of these varieties, even, if you ever have a situation where two of the forms listed above are in use in the same area (which is often the case with vernacular and creole varieties existing alongside a more official language.

Hi Pls Phil distinguish between spoken and written varieties of language

Sorry for the slow reply on this; in general most of these fall into spoken language varieties, whereas written language typically uses the most formal/common forms of English, though of course this depends a lot on context.

hi. what is socially and situational variety of language?

i need references to this work please

This was mostly written from my own knowledge and checked against various sources so I’m afraid I don’t have a specific reference list I could share.

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1 Your Language Experience

As you learned about in the “ Welcome ” section of this book, there are many different Englishes spoken around the world and even within the United States. A single person may speak multiple different Englishes depending on who they are with and what they are trying to communicate.  In this chapter you will watch a video and read a short story that illustrate some experiences of children of immigrants to the United States with various Englishes. You will then think about how these experiences are similar to or different from your own experiences and write a reflection on your own experience with Englishes and other languages.

Chapter contents:

“3 Ways to Speak English” by Jamila Lyiscott

“My Many Voices” by Wilsee Kollie

“Mother Tongue” by Amy Tan

Reflective Writing: Your Language Experiences

Jamila Lyiscott is the daughter of immigrants from Trinidad, and she grew up in Brooklyn, New York. She gave this speech when she was a doctoral student at Columbia University in New York, studying literature and race. Now she is a professor at University of Massachusetts, Amherst and the author of the book Black Appetite. White Food: Issues of Race, Voice, and Justice Within and Beyond the Classroom.   She made this speech to illustrate how she is articulate in three different types of English: the English of American academia that she uses at college, the Black American English that she speaks with friends in New York, and the Trinidadian English that she speaks at home with her parents. As you watch the video, think about all of the Englishes and other languages you are familiar with in the various contexts of your own life.

“3 Ways to Speak English” by Jamila Lyiscott, YouTube.com

Hint: If you’d like to read the transcript of the video or read a translation into a different language, go to the TED website to view the video along with these resources.

After watching the video, discuss or journal about these questions:

• Jamila Lyiscott says, “I speak three tongues. One for each: home, school, and friends.” What kinds of language do you use at home, at school, and with friends? Why do you think your language use is different in these different contexts?
• Jamila Lyiscott says, “Sometimes I fight back two tongues, while I use the other one in the classroom. And when I mistakenly mix them up, I feel crazy, like I’m cooking in the bathroom.” What do you think she means by this? Do you ever feel this way?
• Jamila Lyiscott says, “I have decided to treat all three of my languages as equals.” Do you treat all of your languages as equals? Why or why not?”

Wilsee Kollie is a student at Kirkwood Community College, and she won first place in Kirkwood’s 2023 code-meshing contest for her poem “My Many Voices.” In this poem Kollie reflects on the various voices that inhabit her consciousness and contribute to her identity as a young immigrant from Liberia to the United States. Listen to Wilsee read her poem in the video recording below.

It’s the rhythms and the blues that I feel in my voice, I rejoice in my tone, I speak and breathe infinity, My mind transporting you across the realm of equilibrium, Across the equator, as I am the narrator of my own story, Of my own truth, To be told through the voices of me.

One voice smoothly arousing your canals, as they travel through your drums bea-ting Slow-ly immersing you into an intimacy, Another voice speeding its way through the traffic of our days, As I stumble on the tracks of excitement, Around the world with people who give me a constant sense of comfort-ability.

I speak the way of the world, Masking into the person that you may want me to be. Native of a culture that I speak with my mother, As we grieve the loss of our country, But we keep and hold a part of our nation to our hand, as we say, “Woh you go’in, come here oh” And I answer in my sweet americanized accent of girl, “I am going to a place unknown” E-nun-ci-a-ted ev-er-y syll-a-ble on my own Cause that’s the way that I’ve learned, that i’ve been shown in the schools, The tools to alleviate my voice into what they call correct, Of what they call proper.

But what you need to know is, my voice is a prosperity Showing the inbetweens of my identity, Speaking informally, as I please, with my friends Speaking culturally, as a treat, with my fam And Speaking formal, as a need, in advance “Hello mam” “Yes sir” “Pardon…?”

This is a letter to my many voices, A pen pal to my many choices.

When we meet, I hope that you don’t just see the surface, But realize the many regions of my words, Coerced into a never ending loop of a modifying record, The reality of who I am, My voice is not only known by me, but a creation known by man.

• What lines of Wilsee Kollie’s “My Many Voices” did you personally connect with?
• Wilsee Kollie says that she writes this poem as “a letter to my many voices.” What are Kollie’s many voices? What voices do you have? Do you feel like you have a different personality or way of expressing yourself, depending on which voice you’re using?
• Wilsee Kollie refers to “what they call correct” when she talks about the language she was taught in school. Who is the  they she is referring to? How do you think these people determine what is considered “correct” or “proper” language?

“Mother Tongue” is an essay by American author Amy Tan, who is the daughter of immigrants from China. Tan’s most famous novel is The Joy Luck Club, a story of the relationships between mothers and daughters in the Chinese American community. In “Mother Tongue,” Tan illustrates how her immigrant mother’s so-called “broken English” affected how her mother was judged and treated by others in the U.S.

Read Amy Tan’s essay, “Mother Tongue” below, and listen to the audio of the essay as you read, if you like. As you read and listen, think about whether your experience with the English language is more similar to Amy Tan’s experience or her mother’s experience.

“Mother Tongue by Amy Tan (full audiobook)'” by Jordan Barclay, YouTube.com

I am not a scholar of English or literature. I cannot give you much more than personal opinions on the English language and its variations in this country or others.

I am a writer. And by that definition, I am someone who has always loved language. I am fascinated by language in daily life. I spend a great deal of my time thinking about the power of language — the way it can evoke an emotion, a visual image, a complex idea, or a simple truth. Language is the tool of my trade. And I use them all — all the Englishes I grew up with.

Recently, I was made keenly aware of the different Englishes I do use. I was giving a talk to a large group of people, the same talk I had already given to half a dozen other groups. The nature of the talk was about my writing, my life, and my book, The Joy Luck Club . The talk was going along well enough, until I remembered one major difference that made the whole talk sound wrong. My mother was in the room. And it was perhaps the first time she had heard me give a lengthy speech, using the kind of English I have never used with her. I was saying things like, “The intersection of memory upon imagination” and “There is an aspect of my fiction that relates to thus-and-thus’–a speech filled with carefully wrought grammatical phrases, burdened, it suddenly seemed to me, with nominalized forms, past perfect tenses, conditional phrases, all the forms of standard English that I had learned in school and through books, the forms of English I did not use at home with my mother.

Just last week, I was walking down the street with my mother, and I again found myself conscious of the English I was using, the English I do use with her. We were talking about the price of new and used furniture, and I heard myself saying this: “Not waste money that way.” My husband was with us as well, and he didn’t notice any switch in my English. And then I realized why. It’s because over the twenty years we’ve been together I’ve often used that same kind of English with him, and sometimes he even uses it with me. It has become our language of intimacy, a different sort of English that relates to family talk, the language I grew up with.

So you’ll have some idea of what this family talk I heard sounds like, I’11 quote what my mother said during a recent conversation which I videotaped and then transcribed. During this conversation, my mother was talking about a political gangster in Shanghai who had the same last name as her family’s, Du, and how the gangster in his early years wanted to be adopted by her family, which was rich by comparison. Later, the gangster became more powerful, far richer than my mother’s family, and one day showed up at my mother’s wedding to pay his respects. Here’s what she said in part: “Du Yusong having business like fruit stand. Like off the street kind. He is Du like Du Zong — but not Tsung-ming Island people. The local people call putong, the river east side, he belong to that side local people. That man want to ask Du Zong father take him in like become own family. Du Zong father wasn’t look down on him, but didn’t take seriously, until that man big like become a mafia. Now important person, very hard to inviting him. Chinese way, came only to show respect, don’t stay for dinner. Respect for making big celebration, he shows up. Mean gives lots of respect. Chinese custom. Chinese social life that way. If too important won’t have to stay too long. He come to my wedding. I didn’t see, I heard it. I gone to boy’s side, they have YMCA dinner. Chinese age I was nineteen.”

You should know that my mother’s expressive command of English belies how much she actually understands. She reads the Forbes report, listens to Wall Street Week, converses daily with her stockbroker, reads all of Shirley MacLaine’s books with ease–all kinds of things I can’t begin to understand. Yet some of my friends tell me they understand 50 percent of what my mother says. Some say they understand 80 to 90 percent. Some say they understand none of it, as if she were speaking pure Chinese. But to me, my mother’s English is perfectly clear, perfectly natural. It’s my mother tongue. Her language, as I hear it, is vivid, direct, full of observation and imagery. That was the language that helped shape the way I saw things, expressed things, made sense of the world.

Lately, I’ve been giving more thought to the kind of English my mother speaks. Like others, I have described it to people as ‘broken” or “fractured” English. But I wince when I say that. It has always bothered me that I can think of no way to describe it other than “broken,” as if it were damaged and needed to be fixed, as if it lacked a certain wholeness and soundness. I’ve heard other terms used, “limited English,” for example. But they seem just as bad, as if everything is limited, including people’s perceptions of the limited English speaker. I know this for a fact, because when I was growing up, my mother’s “limited” English limited my perception of her. I was ashamed of her English. I believed that her English reflected the quality of what she had to say. That is, because she expressed them imperfectly her thoughts were imperfect. And I had plenty of empirical evidence to support me: the fact that people in department stores, at banks, and at restaurants did not take her seriously, did not give her good service, pretended not to understand her, or even acted as if they did not hear her.

My mother has long realized the limitations of her English as well. When I was fifteen, she used to have me call people on the phone to pretend I was she. In this guise, I was forced to ask for information or even to complain and yell at people who had been rude to her. One time it was a call to her stockbroker in New York. She had cashed out her small portfolio and it just so happened we were going to go to New York the next week, our very first trip outside California. I had to get on the phone and say in an adolescent voice that was not very convincing, “This is Mrs. Tan.”

And my mother was standing in the back whispering loudly, “Why he don’t send me check, already two weeks late. So mad he lie to me, losing me money. And then I said in perfect English, “Yes, I’m getting rather concerned. You had agreed to send the check two weeks ago, but it hasn’t arrived.” Then she began to talk more loudly. “What he want, I come to New York tell him front of his boss, you cheating me?” And I was trying to calm her down, make her be quiet, while telling the stockbroker, “I can’t tolerate any more excuses. If I don’t receive the check immediately, I am going to have to speak to your manager when I’m in New York next week.” And sure enough, the following week there we were in front of this astonished stockbroker, and I was sitting there red-faced and quiet, and my mother, the real Mrs. Tan, was shouting at his boss in her impeccable broken English.

We used a similar routine just five days ago, for a situation that was far less humorous. My mother had gone to the hospital for an appointment, to find out about a benign brain tumor a CAT scan had revealed a month ago. She said she had spoken very good English, her best English, no mistakes. Still, she said, the hospital did not apologize when they said they had lost the CAT scan and she had come for nothing. She said they did not seem to have any sympathy when she told them she was anxious to know the exact diagnosis, since her husband and son had both died of brain tumors. She said they would not give her any more information until the next time and she would have to make another appointment for that. So she said she would not leave until the doctor called her daughter. She wouldn’t budge. And when the doctor finally called her daughter, me, who spoke in perfect English — lo and behold — we had assurances the CAT scan would be found, promises that a conference call on Monday would be held, and apologies for any suffering my mother had gone through for a most regrettable mistake.

I think my mother’s English almost had an effect on limiting my possibilities in life as well. Sociologists and linguists probably will tell you that a person’s developing language skills are more influenced by peers. But I do think that the language spoken in the family, especially in immigrant families which are more insular, plays a large role in shaping the language of the child. And I believe that it affected my results on achievement tests, I.Q. tests, and the SAT. While my English skills were never judged as poor, compared to math, English could not be considered my strong suit. In grade school I did moderately well, getting perhaps B’s, sometimes B-pluses, in English and scoring perhaps in the sixtieth or seventieth percentile on achievement tests. But those scores were not good enough to override the opinion that my true abilities lay in math and science, because in those areas I achieved A’s and scored in the ninetieth percentile or higher.

This was understandable. Math is precise; there is only one correct answer. Whereas, for me at least, the answers on English tests were always a judgment call, a matter of opinion and personal experience. Those tests were constructed around items like fill-in-the-blank sentence completion, such as, “Even though Tom was ______, Mary thought he was -______.” And the correct answer always seemed to be the most bland combinations of thoughts, for example, “Even though Tom was shy, Mary thought he was charming,” with the grammatical structure “even though” limiting the correct answer to some sort of semantic opposites, so you wouldn’t get answers like, “Even though Tom was foolish, Mary thought he was ridiculous.” Well, according to my mother, there were very few limitations as to what Tom could have been and what Mary might have thought of him. So I never did well on tests like that.

The same was true with word analogies, pairs of words in which you were supposed to find some sort of logical, semantic relationship — for example, “Sunset is to nightfall as ______ is to ______.” And here you would be presented with a list of four possible pairs, one of which showed the same kind of relationship: red is to stoplight, bus is to arrival, chills is to fever, yawn is to boring: Well, I could never think that way. I knew what the tests were asking, but I could not block out of my mind the images already created by the first pair, “sunset is to nightfall”–and I would see a burst of colors against a darkening sky, the moon rising, the lowering of a curtain of stars. And all the other pairs of words –red, bus, stoplight, boring–just threw up a mass of confusing images, making it impossible for me to sort out something as logical as saying: “A sunset precedes nightfall” is the same as “a chill precedes a fever.” The only way I would have gotten that answer right would have been to imagine an associative situation, for example, my being disobedient and staying out past sunset, catching a chill at night, which turns into feverish pneumonia as punishment, which indeed did happen to me.

I have been thinking about all this lately, about my mother’s English, about achievement tests. Because lately I’ve been asked, as a writer, why there are not more Asian Americans represented in American literature. Why are there few Asian Americans enrolled in creative writing programs? Why do so many Chinese students go into engineering? Well, these are broad sociological questions I can’t begin to answer. But I have noticed in surveys — in fact, just last week — that Asian students, as a whole, always do significantly better on math achievement tests than in English. And this makes me think that there are other Asian-American students whose English spoken in the home might also be described as “broken” or “limited.” And perhaps they also have teachers who are steering them away from writing and into math and science, which is what happened to me.

Fortunately, I happen to be rebellious in nature and enjoy the challenge of disproving assumptions made about me. I became an English major my first year in college, after being enrolled as pre-med. I started writing nonfiction as a freelancer the week after I was told by my former boss that writing was my worst skill and I should hone my talents toward account management.

But it wasn’t until 1985 that I finally began to write fiction. And at first I wrote using what I thought to be wittily crafted sentences, sentences that would finally prove I had mastery over the English language. Here’s an example from the first draft of a story that later made its way into The Joy Luck Club , but without this line: “That was my mental quandary in its nascent state.” A terrible line, which I can barely pronounce.

Fortunately, for reasons I won’t get into today, I later decided I should envision a reader for the stories I would write. And the reader I decided upon was my mother, because these were stories about mothers. So with this reader in mind–and in fact she did read my early drafts–I began to write stories using all the Englishes I grew up with: the English I spoke to my mother, which for lack of a better term might be described as “simple”; the English she used with me, which for lack of a better term might be described as “broken”; my translation of her Chinese, which could certainly be described as “watered down”; and what I imagined to be her translation of her Chinese if she could speak in perfect English, her internal language, and for that I sought to preserve the essence, but neither an English nor a Chinese structure. I wanted to capture what language ability tests can never reveal: her intent, her passion, her imagery, the rhythms of her speech and the nature of her thoughts.

Apart from what any critic had to say about my writing, I knew I had succeeded where it counted when my mother finished reading my book and gave me her verdict: “So easy to read.”

Tan, Amy. “Mother Tongue.” The Threepenny Review, vol. 43, Autumn, 1990, pp. 7-8, www.jstor.org/stable/4383908. (included on the basis of fair use)

After listening to and/or reading “Mother Tongue,” discuss or journal about these questions:

• Amy Tan says that due to her mother’s “broken English,” “people at department stores, at banks, at restaurants did not take her seriously, did not give her good service, pretended not to understand her, or even acted as if they did not hear her.” Have you or anyone you are close to ever experienced treatment like this because of the language that you speak?
• Why did Amy Tan’s teachers steer her away from writing and into math and science? Do you think this was the right decision for her teachers to make?
• Why was Amy Tan satisfied when her mother read her book and said it was, “So easy to read”? When you write, who do you usually envision as your reader? Do you think it is important to make your writing easy to read for other adult English learners?

Reflective Writing: Your Language Learning Experiences

Now that you have watched “3 Ways to Speak English” and read “Mother Tongue,” think about your own experience with speaking different languages and learning English or  Englishes. Write a short reflective essay about your experience with language learning.

Here are some questions you may consider in your essay, though you do not have to answer all of them, and you can include any other information that you like, too:

• What languages do you know? How did you learn these languages?
• What were your experiences with reading and writing as a child? How do those early experiences with language still affect you today?
• What languages have you spoken at home, at school, and with friends throughout your life?
• How have others judged you for the languages or variety of English you speak or write?
• Do you view yourself as an articulate person in any of your languages? How do you view yourself as a speaker and writer in English?
• Do you consider yourself a good writer in any of your languages? How do you view yourself as a writer in English?
• Would you use the term “broken English” to describe your English speaking or writing? Why or why not?
• Why did you decide to learn English? How do you hope knowing English will help you in your life?

Try to write your reflective essay like a story about your language learning. Include details that will interest the reader and help them empathize with your experiences. You should apply what you already know about the rules of academic English writing, but also feel free to get creative with your writing. You can include samples of dialogue from other languages or varieties of English that you speak, like we saw in “3 Ways to Speak English” and “Mother Tongue.” Merging two languages or varieties of language together in a single piece of writing or communicative act is called code-meshing or translanguaging, and it is a valuable skill that multilinguals often use to communicate more effectively. Feel free to practice code-meshing or translanguaging in your essay to help your reader get a better sense of the multiple languages and Englishes that you know.

This essay will not be graded. Rather, it is a way for your teacher to better understand your past and present experiences with learning languages, including English, and to see a sample of your current English writing to get an idea of what you already can do with your writing and what you will need to work on improving in this course.

Writing World Englishes Copyright © 2022 by Elizabeth Baertlein is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Relationship Between Language and Culture Essay

Introduction, what is culture, relationship between language and culture, role of language in cultural diversity, reference list.

How does culture influence language? An essay isn’t enough to answer this question in detail. The purpose of the paper is to clearly highlight the issue of intercultural communication with reference to language and identity.

Language and culture are intertwined. One cannot define or identify cultural orientations without citing variations in how we speak and write. Thus, to explore the relationship between language and culture, this essay will start by defining the terms separately.

Culture describes variations in values, beliefs, as well as differences in the way people behave (DeVito 2007). Culture encompasses everything that a social group develops or produces.

Element of culture are not genetically transmitted and as such, they have to be passed down from one generation the next through communication. This explains why it is easy to adopt a certain language depending on the shared beliefs, attitudes and values.

The existence of different cultures can be explained using the cultural relativism approach which stipulates that although cultures tend to vary, none is superior to the other (DeVito 2007).

Learning of cultural values can be done through enculturation whereby individuals learn the culture of their birth. Alternatively, one can be acculturated into a culture that is divergent from their basic culture (DeVito 2007).

Language is the verbal channel of communication by articulating words that an individual is conversant with. This is aimed at relaying information. In other words, it is the expression of one’s culture verbally (Jandt 2009).

Language is the first element that helps an individual to distinguish the cultural orientations of individuals. Through language, we are able to differentiate between for example, a Chinese national and a Briton. The main functions of language are generally for information purposes and for the establishment of relationships.

Different cultures perceive the use of language differently. Whereas an American regards it as a useful communication tool, a Chinese will use their language to relay their feelings and to establish relationships.

It is through such variances of language that different cultures have placed on the usage of their language show the link between the two study variables (Jandt 2009).

Intercultural communication refers to communication between people from different cultural backgrounds. Due to the differences in cultures, there is a high probability that a message will be misunderstood and distorted.

Difference in languages leads to challenges in the interpretation of for example, politeness, acts of speech and interaction management. Normally, differences in languages lead to impediments in understanding. This is due to the difference in perception in as far as values are concerned.

Language shapes our lines of thought and as such, it is the core element that shapes how people perceive the world. The way people communicate is largely due to their cultures of origin. Language increases the rate of ethnocentrism in individuals thus furthering their self-centeredness in culture.

As a result, they are less responsive to the different means of communication that are not similar to their own values and beliefs (McGregor eta al 2007).

Language further heightens the aspect of accelerating cultural differences as it openly showcases the variations in communication. In turn, this view tends to impede negatively on intercultural efforts, thereby having a negative impact on the communication between individuals of different cultural orientations.

There is need for individuals to evaluate the usage of language in order to effectively interpret the shared meanings that are meant to be communicated. It is important therefore that individuals from a multi cultural context look at each other beyond their differences in order to enable effective communication.

DeVito, J A. (2006) Human communication the basic course, 10 th edition. Boston, Mass: Pearson / Allyn and Bacon.

Jandt, F E. (2007) An introduction to intercultural communication: identities in global community . Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.

Mohan, T, McGregor, M T, Saunders, H & Archee, S. (2008) Communicating as a professional . Sydney, Australia: Cengage Learning.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, October 29). Relationship Between Language and Culture Essay. https://ivypanda.com/essays/relationship-between-language-and-culture/

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IvyPanda . 2023. "Relationship Between Language and Culture Essay." October 29, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/relationship-between-language-and-culture/.

1. IvyPanda . "Relationship Between Language and Culture Essay." October 29, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/relationship-between-language-and-culture/.

Bibliography

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26 Style and Linguistic Diversity

Here are a few things to look for as you revise for academic style:

• Academic (formal) tone—no “you” or “one” because these pronouns are broad and vague (but “I/we” are fine)​
• Appropriate language​
• Clichés and colloquial language​
• Sentence variety (simple, compound, complex)​
• Author voice ​
• Active vs. passive construction​ I wrote the paper. YES!​ The paper was written by me. NO!​

These are excellent suggestions, but certain phrases such as “appropriate” vs. “colloquial” language raise the question of what’s suitable for an academic audience.

These expectations are often interpreted to mean that students should practice “standard American English.” All other non-standard dialects, such as Black English or certain types of Southern slang, are viewed as inappropriate because they’re “lesser than” the standard.

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to a more nuanced and contextually-informed conversation about style, especially as it relates to standard English (also called standard American English, abbreviated SAE). Writing for an academic audience does often mean students will sound more formal and less like everyday speech, but it’s a mistake to view the latter, non-standard forms of writing and speech as lesser than academic communication.

Dash that Oxford Comma! Prestige and Stigma in Academic Writing

by Christie Bogle

The Comma Comma

Once upon a time, way back in the third grade, Mrs. MaGee told me never to put a comma before the “and” in my lists. She said that the “and” means the same thing as a comma.

And so I never did. I wrote “balls, bats and mitts.”

Years later, another teacher told me that I should  always  put a comma before the “and” in my lists because it clarifies that the last two items in my list are not a set. He said to write “Amal, Mike, Jose, and Lin.”

Logic told me that the third-grade teacher was right because, if the last two in the list were a set, the “and” would have come sooner as “balls and bats and mitts” or “Amal, Mike, and Jose and Lin.” But that is also just odd. What if I really did mean to have two sets? Now I felt like I had to write “Balls. Also, bats and mitts.” It felt like juggling. If this is confusing, I’m pretty sure that I’ve made my point. These rigid rules felt so awkward! Things I can say effortlessly outloud are, all of a sudden, impossible on paper. Who wrote these rules?

That’s actually a valid question. Who did write them? Novices to the study of language sometimes imagine that language started back in a day when there were pure versions of all the world languages that younger and lazier speakers continue to corrupt, generation after generation. They imagine a perfect book of grammar that we should all be able to reference. Nothing about that scenario is actually true.

History of English Grammar

So, why and how did we get all those rules? Way back around the 1700s, we finally started to get some books written about the structure of language, specifically for teaching. These, even then, were vastly different from the work being done by linguists in the field who were interested in marking language as it is, not how they thought it should be. As time went on, people introduced writing rules that originated in other languages, like Latin, and imposed them on English. These misapplications have followed us into modern times. Many of the guidebooks for writing are filled with these exceptions to the natural ways that English once worked. They include, surprisingly, the rule against double negatives (“we don’t need no stinking badges!”) and other standard prohibitions against language that was quite normal long ago (and still is in non-standard varieties of English).

Some more of those gems include “never say ‘I’ in an essay,” “don’t use passive voice,” and “don’t start a sentence with ‘and’ or ‘but.’” We can sprinkle in the Latin rule, “don’t split infinitives” (think  Star Trek ‘s “to boldly go”) and unnecessary restrictions like “adverbs go after the verb, not before.” These rules have interesting histories but the history doesn’t necessarily support their persistence. In fact, most of them can be dismissed as simple preferences of some dead white guy from centuries ago. They don’t obey any rule of logic, though some obey a system from a different language that has no application in English.

A great example is the double negative. In the 1700s the location of the royalty and their dialects determined what was “correct.” The south of England used double negatives but the north of England (where royalty lived) did not use them. Something so simple as location dictated what went into the books. Then in 1762, Robert Lowth wrote  Short Introduction to English Grammar  and relegated the southern usage to “uncultivated speech” instead of what it really is, which is an emphasis on the negative point being made. The American usage that developed from before Lowth’s writing is retained today in many dialects, but famously so in Southern varieties and African American Vernacular English (AAVE).

“Grammars,” Not Grammar

What is happening here? Am I arguing that grammar rules are okay to break sometimes? I am taking up an argument that seems to be at an academic impasse. Linguists believe that there is more than one grammar. We say “grammars.” Stephen Pinker, a cognitive psychologist, offers his take on this phenomenon in an article for  The Guardian  called “Stephen Pinker: 10 ‘Grammar Rules’ It’s Okay to Break Sometimes.” He characterizes the debate between descriptive and prescriptive grammarians like this:

Prescriptivists prescribe how language ought to be used. They uphold standards of excellence and a respect for the best of our civilisation, and are a bulwark against relativism, vulgar populism and the dumbing down of literate culture. Descriptivists describe how language actually is used. They believe that the rules of correct usage are nothing more than the secret handshake of the ruling class, designed to keep the masses in their place. Language is an organic product of human creativity, say the Descriptivists, and people should be allowed to write however they please.

His point is that some think that every rule of grammar is worth preserving lest the language devolves out of existence. Others believe that the actual use of the language (any language) and the natural changes that occur are a good thing. Sometimes, as is the case with the double negative, before the rule against it was made, people used “incorrect” phrases all the time. So, the argument about preserving rules and allowing change is kind of mixed up. Pinker describes the conflict experts have, but it’s even more complicated by the history.

Still, I reference Pinker because he is a cognitive psychologist that studies both linguistics and composition. Even more importantly, he is also a best-selling author of nonfiction. Pinker has made boring and dry topics like linguistics and neuroscience feel easy, even to the average reader. That’s a kind of magic that I want to bottle and sell. So, I look to him on matters of writing. Pinker and I agree that when it comes to grammar, it should be addressed with the goal of being understood, not of being “right.”

Navigating the rules of grammar is not just hard for those that speak in “dialects” (or different grammars) of English. It is hard even for those who grew up in a middle-class culture speaking a relatively standard form called Standard American English (SAE). Those born into families and communities speaking SAE struggle with the rules like these:

• What do I do with commas and semicolons?
• Do I use who or whom?
• Which word: there, they’re or their; too, two or to?

And so forth.

Even your professors make common speech errors. Try my favorite test. See how many times members of college faculty say “there’s” when they should have said “there are.” No one speaks like a textbook.

One of my favorite debates, because it is so utterly pointless, is of the Oxford comma. This phenomenon is the one I opened with. Do you always or never put a comma before the “and” in the list? The Oxford comma is the one that says “yes, always.” I was taught “no, never.” So, who wins?

John McWhorter pleads a case that I buy. He says neither side wins. In his article “Should we give a damn about the Oxford comma?” he argues that “to treat the failure to use the Oxford comma as a mark of mental messiness is a handy way to look down on what will perhaps always be a majority of people attempting to write English.” And that is a key argument for me. Much of what we do when looking down our nose at particular errors is to demonstrate disdain for our differences on the page. In fact, for the rest of this document, let’s not call them “errors.” Let’s call them “varieties of speech/writing.”

Stigma and Prestige

As frustrating or embarrassing it is to be called to the carpet for your variety of speech, these grammar scuffles are mere annoyances when they occur between English speakers of the same general class, race, and economic status. However, when we approach minority English language speakers and English language learners, we pass into a new territory that borders on classism and racism.

To understand this, you must understand the terms  stigma  and  prestige . These terms apply to a number of sociological situations. Prestige is, very simply, what we grant power and privilege to. Remember the history of the double negative from the 1700s? The book taught that single negation is a mark of  prestige .

On the other hand, stigmatized varieties of English are those that people try to train you out of using. If you were raised in the Appalachian region of America, you may have some varieties of speech that other people dislike and hope you will lose. Things like “y’all” and “a-” prefixes on “a huntin’ and a fishin’” are discouraged; some think it means the speaker is uneducated. By being negated, double negatives became  stigmatized .

This distinction is “classist” because it assumes characteristics and abilities based on a person’s variety of speech. It may sound strange, but speech is not a mark of intellect or ability. One famous example is of Eudora Welty, a renown Appalachian author. A story is told that during her stay in a college dormitory she was passed over by the headmistress for opportunities to have tickets to plays and cultured events. When she confronted the headmistress about the oversight, she explained that she had doubted Welty’s interest in the theater because of her accent. Of course, now, Welty is an honored and prestigious author. Her variety of speech did not affect her ability to produce effective writing that communicates to her audience.

Some varieties of English are stigmatized because they represent racial minority speech patterns, even though they are legitimately home-grown American English. How many of us can easily hear and understand what is culturally Black English, Spanglish, or Chicano English, but know that those varieties won’t go into your next essay for History 1700?

Students learning English, or even just Standard  American  English, will vary in their ability to represent prestigious language patterns, even though what they write or say is generally understood. For example, people from India may have grown up speaking a different variety of English. The same is true for some people from Hong Kong when it was a British holding. British English with a Chinese accent was their standard, and they struggle to be understood in America.

So, for multilingual and/or multivariety speakers, one challenge of writing is the expectation that they will sound as narrowly experienced in language as monolingual speakers. This is what Lippi-Green called  standard language ideology . It’s the practice of prestige and stigma. It is a rather bizarre sort of prestige to value evidence of less experience, but that’s exactly what unaccented language is. A middle- to upper-class white American who travels nowhere and learns nothing of consequence can still sound perfectly prestigious merely by speaking their natural English variety. We actually prefer (or privilege) the appearance of ignorance.

There are a rare few that can perfectly compartmentalize languages. Linguistic geniuses (I use that term loosely) exist—those who can sound perfectly natural in several varieties or languages. It is an ability that only the teensiest percentage of people with just the right exposure, talent, age, and experience will ever achieve. The rest of us can increase our range of speech and writing contexts, but our own idiosyncrasies will always exist, and we will be (unnecessarily) embarrassed by them.

What Teaching Experts Know

Teaching professionals continue to debate how to teach in a way that combats linguistic stigma and shifts toward preferring linguistic diversity. From the CCCC’s Students’ Right to Their Own Language (SRTOL) circa 1974, we read:

We affirm the students’ right to their own patterns and varieties of language—the dialects of their nurture or whatever dialects in which they find their own identity and style. Language scholars long ago denied that the myth of a standard American dialect has any validity. The claim that any one dialect is unacceptable amounts to an attempt of one social group to exert its dominance over another. Such a claim leads to false advice for speakers and writers, and immoral advice for humans. A nation proud of its diverse heritage and its cultural and racial variety will preserve its heritage of dialects. We affirm strongly that teachers must have the experiences and training that will enable them to respect diversity and uphold the right of students to their own language.

So, since before many of your teachers were born, an international body of composition instructors has acknowledged that students have a right to their own language. Ever since then, the struggle to maintain a standard and find ways to work with differences have played out in the profession. Today, we have experts in the field that suggest utilizing “vernacular speech” (that’s your everyday speech) to improve the quality of writing, to a point. Peter Elbow writes in his book  Vernacular Eloquence: What Speech Can Bring to Writing  about the ways that we can utilize spoken, everyday language as a way of improving the readability of text and ease the writing process.

Steven Pinker (you know—the one whose writing skill we should bottle and sell), like Peter Elbow, believes a more conversational tone in writing can improve its quality. He says that there are ways of scientifically assessing clarity and ease for readers. For example, this type of research takes on the debate of whether or not a typist should place one or two spaces after periods. It may seem trivial, but it’s a debate that has lasted since word processors were programmed to intelligently space punctuation. Researchers strapped people down in front of a computer screen and measured eye movement while reading to settle the debate. Much to my surprise, it turns out that two spaces are easier to read than one (Johnson).

What You, the Student, Should Know

I don’t know if I would always go so far as to do scientific experimentation on readers in order to make writing decisions, but choosing rules that make things easier feels like a really good idea, doesn’t it? The New SRTOL document authors argue, “it is one thing to help a student achieve proficiency in a written dialect and another thing to punish him for using variant expressions of that dialect.” So, in modern times, teachers want you to recognize and utilize a standard in writing without punishing your speech. You want to learn how to do the same with yourself and others.

However useful it is to accept variations in classroom English, there are, in fact, varieties of English that are native to the United States (not spoken anywhere else) that are not so easy to understand. Some examples are Louisiana’s Cajun creole and Hawai’ian Pidgin creole. Theorists that give nods of approval to teaching within varieties they understand may not be addressing a large enough group of English varieties. If we are suggesting a student use their native language ways to improve readability, sometimes the student’s writing will be unintelligible to the teacher and peers. It’s a whole different job to have everyone learn new languages in your composition class.

I assume that when CCCCs composed these sentences, “Language scholars long ago denied that the myth of a standard American dialect has any validity…We affirm strongly that teachers must have the experiences and training that will enable them to respect diversity and uphold the right of students to their own language,” they were being sincere, but it might be a stretch. Your teachers are not experts on every variety of English or the many creoles. Neither are you. There is still a way to manage the goals we have.

The updated version of the  Students’ Right to Their Own Language  makes a request of teachers when they say, “Since English teachers have been in large part responsible for the narrow attitudes of today’s employers, changing attitudes toward dialect variations does not seem an unreasonable goal, for today’s students will be tomorrow’s employers.” English faculty have continued to teach SAE (also called Educated American English or EAE) in one part because it’s what  the rest of the country  thinks that educated writers should use for speech and writing. So, even though teachers accept that the standard is a myth, we find the standard useful and the prestige/stigma problem lingers because we continue to use it. This is where you—the students—can help. Let’s revisit the value that standard language has and the work it does.

One of the undeniable benefits of a standard is that it is a  lingua franca.  This term roughly means “the language everyone shares.” With so many variations of English, it is just clearer to write in one variety than to learn them all. This different idea of a standard is about ease and convenience, not prestige. Teaching within one standard is a system-wide rhetorical choice to be understood by the largest audience possible. Ignoring what that  should be  and focusing on what that  is  seems like a better way of determining what we call the standard. So, most of us aim for a sort of amalgam of language that is acceptable to most people without sticking rigidly to arbitrary rules.

Lose the ‘Tude

What you, the students, probably want to know is how to write. The more important point that I hope you will walk away with is this: STROL says, “The  attitudes  that [you] develop in the English class will often be the criteria [you] use for choosing [your] own employees,” (emphasis mine). So, what you learn about writing in English class follows you as you make choices and impacts your options in the economy, but so do your attitudes about language and people. Spencer Kimball is often credited with this admonition, “Love people, not things; use things, not people.” I would apply a similar sentiment to language.

• Don’t only use language with people you understand.
• Use language to understand people.

As a student, you expect to leave school with more skills and greater flexibility. In that spirit, seeking diversity in your language education makes sense. As you become our future employers and employees, you will inherit the opportunity to reject stigma toward linguistic diversity.

You can do so by accepting these simple facts (adapted from Rosina Lippi-Green’s “Linguistic Facts of Life”):

• Language is complex and diverse.
• Language is not a moral marker.
• Language is not an intellectual marker.
• Language serves to communicate between people.
• Language changes.

By embracing these facts, you can feel less shame or stigma in your own language and others’. If you accept language differences as natural, you might choose to expose yourself to and understand more languages and varieties. You will write aiming to be understood by a majority of readers for convenience, not for fear of judgment.

So, fine, Oxford Comma when you wanna—but dash linguistic stigma.

AAVE – Why Do People Say “AX” Instead of “ASK”?

Spanglish is a Language Too! | Alondra Posada

 Works Cited

Conference on College Composition and Communication. Students’ Right to Their Own Language.  www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Groups/CCCC/NewSRTOL.pdf .

Elbow, Peter.  Vernacular Eloquence: What Speech Can Bring to Writing.  Oxford Press, 2012.

Johnson RL, et al. “Are two spaces better than one? The effect of spacing following periods and commas during reading.”  Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics.  2018 .  ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29691763  .

Lippi-Green, Rosina. “Chapter 1: Linguistic Facts of Life.” 1997.  English with an Accent.   people.cas.sc.edu/dubinsk/LING240/readings/Lippi-Green.1997.Chapter1.English.with.an.accent.pdf

McWhorter, John. “Should we give a damn about the Oxford comma?” CNN. March 19, 2017.  www.cnn.com/2017/03/19/opinions/oxford-comma-ambiguity-opinion-mcwhorter/index.html

Pinker, Stephen. “10 ‘grammar rules’ it’s okay to break sometimes.”  The Guardian.  August 15, 2014.  www.theguardian.com/books/2014/aug/15/steven-pinker-10-grammar-rules-break

—. “African American English Is Not Improper English.” YouTube Channel, General Turner. Sep 22, 2015.   youtu.be/kUiziVEoi1s

—. “On Standard English and Myths.” YouTube Channel, Grammar Revolution Movie. Nov 4, 2014.  youtu.be/jbHpGlvmp9A

—. “Linguistics, Style and Writing in the 21st Century – with Steven Pinker.” YouTube Channel, The Royal Institution. Oct 28, 2015.  youtu.be/OV5J6BfToSw

—. as cited in Radio Boston. September 30, 2014.  www.wbur.org/radioboston/2014/09/30/pinker-harvard-writing

Style and Linguistic Diversity Copyright © 2020 by Liza Long; Amy Minervini; and Joel Gladd is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Use Appropriate Language While Writing an Essay

Writing an essay can be quite a task! Be it an application essay or an assignment, there are multiple elements that separate a good essay from a great one. And language happens to be one such contributing element. Using appropriate language while writing an essay can help you communicate your ideas more effectively and thus convince readers of your point of view.

Tips for Using Suitable Language in an Essay

To make sure that your language is appropriate while writing an essay, you should: 

1. Use Clear, Concise Language

Any piece of writing can be made clear and concise by eliminating grammatical errors and avoiding complex sentences. In case there are complex sentences in your essay, use appropriate punctuation to separate their different parts and improve readability . Using active voice instead of passive voice too can contribute to crafting better essays. 

2. Avoid Jargon

Although jargon usage is often inevitable in academic writing, it is better to avoid unnecessary jargon while writing essays. Using complex language tends to confuse the reader and can make your essay difficult to understand. The reader may, for instance, misunderstand the context in which your essay is written. Using simple and plain language instead will allow the reader to grasp the content and context of your essay, making it easy to follow.

3. Read up about Homophones

Homophones are words that have the same pronunciation but different meaning and spelling. And without a good understanding of such words, you may end up confusing one word with another while writing. For example, you might use “your” while intending to use “you’re,” which can lead to grammatical errors in your essays. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention while using homophones and crosscheck to see if you are using the right word. 

4. Steer Clear of Direct Translation

If English isn’t your native language, then you must be all-too-familiar with the urge to use a quote or an idiom from your native language while writing an essay in English. While it is okay to use English quotes and idioms in essays, it is never a good idea to directly translate a quote or an idiom from your native language to English and use it in your essay. Since it is possible to get the translation wrong or incorrectly convey the context while translating, you’d be better off not using directly translated text. 

5. Understand the Different Levels of Formality

While most academic writing is formal in nature, students are sometimes allowed to use semi-formal or informal language while writing an essay. It is sometimes okay to use a little humor in your writing. However, you should refrain from using informal language and know how much informality is too much. It is better to check with your professor and the writing guidelines before you begin your essay to avoid having to rewrite it in a more formal tone. 

6. Avoid Slang and Idioms

As stated before, it is best to use formal or semi-formal language while writing an academic essay . Since slang and idioms are considered informal language, they are best avoided altogether. Besides, they can confuse non-native English readers, making essays difficult to understand. Also, since the relationship between a professor and a student is mostly formal, it makes little sense to use informal language while writing an essay. 

7. Use Positive Language

Consider this example to understand the importance of using positive language in your essays. If you’re asked to write a persuasive essay , then you should know how to use language that persuades the reader to see your point. Using biased language, expressing too much skepticism, or adopting an excessively negative stance instead can make the reader uncomfortable and put them off. Therefore, it is important to use positive language that is free of negative stereotypes and biases while writing your essay.

8. Employ a Descriptive Writing Style

Writing experts believe that the “show, don’t tell” writing technique is highly effective when it comes to any type of writing. Using descriptive language can make your writing interesting and hook your readers. Besides, sensory details can help a reader understand a setup or a situation better. For instance, instead of saying: “ I was scared when I saw something move in my basement ,” it is better to say “A chill ran down my spine when a shadowy presence in my basement suddenly caught my attention.”  

Besides these, a few other things you can do to write a great essay are:

• Avoid clichés. 
• Use appropriate verbs. 
• Avoid generalizations.
• Make sure that the transition from one paragraph to the next is smooth. The sentence at the end of a paragraph and the sentence at the beginning of the next should be written in a way that the transition isn’t too abrupt. Transition words and phrases prove to be particularly useful for this.
• Keep in mind that your argument should be logical and use appropriate evidence wherever necessary. Also, don’t forget to cite your sources. 
• Pay attention to the structure of your essay. Depending on the type of essay you are writing, the structure of your essay will vary. However, every essay should have a proper beginning, middle, and end.

Remember to check the essay guidelines before you begin writing your essay. If your professor expects you to follow a style guide or manual, make sure to thoroughly go through the writing rules mentioned in it. Also, get your essay read by a peer, senior, or family member and ask for their feedback or suggestions. 

Pay attention to language and grammar and always edit your essay before submitting.