thesis verbatim meaning

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9.3 Putting It Together: Steps to Complete Your Introduction

Learning objectives.

• Clearly identify why an audience should listen to a speaker.
• Discuss how you can build your credibility during a speech.
• Understand how to write a clear thesis statement.
• Design an effective preview of your speech’s content for your audience.

Erin Brown-John – puzzle – CC BY-NC 2.0.

Once you have captured your audience’s attention, it’s important to make the rest of your introduction interesting, and use it to lay out the rest of the speech. In this section, we are going to explore the five remaining parts of an effective introduction: linking to your topic, reasons to listen, stating credibility, thesis statement, and preview.

Link to Topic

After the attention-getter, the second major part of an introduction is called the link to topic. The link to topic is the shortest part of an introduction and occurs when a speaker demonstrates how an attention-getting device relates to the topic of a speech. Often the attention-getter and the link to topic are very clear. For example, if you look at the attention-getting device example under historical reference above, you’ll see that the first sentence brings up the history of the Vietnam War and then shows us how that war can help us understand the Iraq War. In this case, the attention-getter clearly flows directly to the topic. However, some attention-getters need further explanation to get to the topic of the speech. For example, both of the anecdote examples (the girl falling into the manhole while texting and the boy and the filberts) need further explanation to connect clearly to the speech topic (i.e., problems of multitasking in today’s society).

Let’s look at the first anecdote example to demonstrate how we could go from the attention-getter to the topic.

In July 2009, a high school girl named Alexa Longueira was walking along a main boulevard near her home on Staten Island, New York, typing in a message on her cell phone. Not paying attention to the world around her, she took a step and fell right into an open manhole. This anecdote illustrates the problem that many people are facing in today’s world. We are so wired into our technology that we forget to see what’s going on around us—like a big hole in front of us.

In this example, the third sentence here explains that the attention-getter was an anecdote that illustrates a real issue. The fourth sentence then introduces the actual topic of the speech.

Let’s now examine how we can make the transition from the parable or fable attention-getter to the topic:

The ancient Greek writer Aesop told a fable about a boy who put his hand into a pitcher of filberts. The boy grabbed as many of the delicious nuts as he possibly could. But when he tried to pull them out, his hand wouldn’t fit through the neck of the pitcher because he was grasping so many filberts. Instead of dropping some of them so that his hand would fit, he burst into tears and cried about his predicament. The moral of the story? “Don’t try to do too much at once.” In today’s world, many of us are us are just like the boy putting his hand into the pitcher. We are constantly trying to grab so much or do so much that it prevents us from accomplishing our goals. I would like to show you three simple techniques to manage your time so that you don’t try to pull too many filberts from your pitcher.

In this example, we added three new sentences to the attention-getter to connect it to the speech topic.

Reasons to Listen

Once you have linked an attention-getter to the topic of your speech, you need to explain to your audience why your topic is important. We call this the “why should I care?” part of your speech because it tells your audience why the topic is directly important to them. Sometimes you can include the significance of your topic in the same sentence as your link to the topic, but other times you may need to spell out in one or two sentences why your specific topic is important.

People in today’s world are very busy, and they do not like their time wasted. Nothing is worse than having to sit through a speech that has nothing to do with you. Imagine sitting through a speech about a new software package you don’t own and you will never hear of again. How would you react to the speaker? Most of us would be pretty annoyed at having had our time wasted in this way. Obviously, this particular speaker didn’t do a great job of analyzing her or his audience if the audience isn’t going to use the software package—but even when speaking on a topic that is highly relevant to the audience, speakers often totally forget to explain how and why it is important.

Appearing Credible

The next part of a speech is not so much a specific “part” as an important characteristic that needs to be pervasive throughout your introduction and your entire speech. As a speaker, you want to be seen as credible (competent, trustworthy, and caring/having goodwill). As mentioned earlier in this chapter, credibility is ultimately a perception that is made by your audience. While your audience determines whether they perceive you as competent, trustworthy, and caring/having goodwill, there are some strategies you can employ to make yourself appear more credible.

First, to make yourself appear competent, you can either clearly explain to your audience why you are competent about a given subject or demonstrate your competence by showing that you have thoroughly researched a topic by including relevant references within your introduction. The first method of demonstrating competence—saying it directly—is only effective if you are actually a competent person on a given subject. If you are an undergraduate student and you are delivering a speech about the importance of string theory in physics, unless you are a prodigy of some kind, you are probably not a recognized expert on the subject. Conversely, if your number one hobby in life is collecting memorabilia about the Three Stooges, then you may be an expert about the Three Stooges. However, you would need to explain to your audience your passion for collecting Three Stooges memorabilia and how this has made you an expert on the topic.

If, on the other hand, you are not actually a recognized expert on a topic, you need to demonstrate that you have done your homework to become more knowledgeable than your audience about your topic. The easiest way to demonstrate your competence is through the use of appropriate references from leading thinkers and researchers on your topic. When you demonstrate to your audience that you have done your homework, they are more likely to view you as competent.

The second characteristic of credibility, trustworthiness, is a little more complicated than competence, for it ultimately relies on audience perceptions. One way to increase the likelihood that a speaker will be perceived as trustworthy is to use reputable sources. If you’re quoting Dr. John Smith, you need to explain who Dr. John Smith is so your audience will see the quotation as being more trustworthy. As speakers we can easily manipulate our sources into appearing more credible than they actually are, which would be unethical. When you are honest about your sources with your audience, they will trust you and your information more so than when you are ambiguous. The worst thing you can do is to out-and-out lie about information during your speech. Not only is lying highly unethical, but if you are caught lying, your audience will deem you untrustworthy and perceive everything you are saying as untrustworthy. Many speakers have attempted to lie to an audience because it will serve their own purposes or even because they believe their message is in their audience’s best interest, but lying is one of the fastest ways to turn off an audience and get them to distrust both the speaker and the message.

The third characteristic of credibility to establish during the introduction is the sense of caring/goodwill. While some unethical speakers can attempt to manipulate an audience’s perception that the speaker cares, ethical speakers truly do care about their audiences and have their audience’s best interests in mind while speaking. Often speakers must speak in front of audiences that may be hostile toward the speaker’s message. In these cases, it is very important for the speaker to explain that he or she really does believe her or his message is in the audience’s best interest. One way to show that you have your audience’s best interests in mind is to acknowledge disagreement from the start:

Today I’m going to talk about why I believe we should enforce stricter immigration laws in the United States. I realize that many of you will disagree with me on this topic. I used to believe that open immigration was a necessity for the United States to survive and thrive, but after researching this topic, I’ve changed my mind. While I may not change all of your minds today, I do ask that you listen with an open mind, set your personal feelings on this topic aside, and judge my arguments on their merits.

While clearly not all audience members will be open or receptive to opening their minds and listening to your arguments, by establishing that there is known disagreement, you are telling the audience that you understand their possible views and are not trying to attack their intellect or their opinions.

Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is a short, declarative sentence that states the purpose, intent, or main idea of a speech. A strong, clear thesis statement is very valuable within an introduction because it lays out the basic goal of the entire speech. We strongly believe that it is worthwhile to invest some time in framing and writing a good thesis statement. You may even want to write your thesis statement before you even begin conducting research for your speech. While you may end up rewriting your thesis statement later, having a clear idea of your purpose, intent, or main idea before you start searching for research will help you focus on the most appropriate material. To help us understand thesis statements, we will first explore their basic functions and then discuss how to write a thesis statement.

Basic Functions of a Thesis Statement

A thesis statement helps your audience by letting them know “in a nutshell” what you are going to talk about. With a good thesis statement you will fulfill four basic functions: you express your specific purpose, provide a way to organize your main points, make your research more effective, and enhance your delivery.

Express Your Specific Purpose

To orient your audience, you need to be as clear as possible about your meaning. A strong thesis will prepare your audience effectively for the points that will follow. Here are two examples:

• “Today, I want to discuss academic cheating.” (weak example)
• “Today, I will clarify exactly what plagiarism is and give examples of its different types so that you can see how it leads to a loss of creative learning interaction.” (strong example)

The weak statement will probably give the impression that you have no clear position about your topic because you haven’t said what that position is. Additionally, the term “academic cheating” can refer to many behaviors—acquiring test questions ahead of time, copying answers, changing grades, or allowing others to do your coursework—so the specific topic of the speech is still not clear to the audience.

The strong statement not only specifies plagiarism but also states your specific concern (loss of creative learning interaction).

Provide a Way to Organize Your Main Points

A thesis statement should appear, almost verbatim, toward the end of the introduction to a speech. A thesis statement helps the audience get ready to listen to the arrangement of points that follow. Many speakers say that if they can create a strong thesis sentence, the rest of the speech tends to develop with relative ease. On the other hand, when the thesis statement is not very clear, creating a speech is an uphill battle.

When your thesis statement is sufficiently clear and decisive, you will know where you stand about your topic and where you intend to go with your speech. Having a clear thesis statement is especially important if you know a great deal about your topic or you have strong feelings about it. If this is the case for you, you need to know exactly what you are planning on talking about in order to fit within specified time limitations. Knowing where you are and where you are going is the entire point in establishing a thesis statement; it makes your speech much easier to prepare and to present.

Let’s say you have a fairly strong thesis statement, and that you’ve already brainstormed a list of information that you know about the topic. Chances are your list is too long and has no focus. Using your thesis statement, you can select only the information that (1) is directly related to the thesis and (2) can be arranged in a sequence that will make sense to the audience and will support the thesis. In essence, a strong thesis statement helps you keep useful information and weed out less useful information.

Make Your Research More Effective

If you begin your research with only a general topic in mind, you run the risk of spending hours reading mountains of excellent literature about your topic. However, mountains of literature do not always make coherent speeches. You may have little or no idea of how to tie your research all together, or even whether you should tie it together. If, on the other hand, you conduct your research with a clear thesis statement in mind, you will be better able to zero in only on material that directly relates to your chosen thesis statement. Let’s look at an example that illustrates this point:

Many traffic accidents involve drivers older than fifty-five.

While this statement may be true, you could find industrial, medical, insurance literature that can drone on ad infinitum about the details of all such accidents in just one year. Instead, focusing your thesis statement will help you narrow the scope of information you will be searching for while gathering information. Here’s an example of a more focused thesis statement:

Three factors contribute to most accidents involving drivers over fifty-five years of age: failing eyesight, slower reflexes, and rapidly changing traffic conditions.

This framing is somewhat better. This thesis statement at least provides three possible main points and some keywords for your electronic catalog search. However, if you want your audience to understand the context of older people at the wheel, consider something like:

Mature drivers over fifty-five years of age must cope with more challenging driving conditions than existed only one generation ago: more traffic moving at higher speeds, the increased imperative for quick driving decisions, and rapidly changing ramp and cloverleaf systems. Because of these challenges, I want my audience to believe that drivers over the age of sixty-five should be required to pass a driving test every five years.

This framing of the thesis provides some interesting choices. First, several terms need to be defined, and these definitions might function surprisingly well in setting the tone of the speech. Your definitions of words like “generation,” “quick driving decisions,” and “cloverleaf systems” could jolt your audience out of assumptions they have taken for granted as truth.

Second, the framing of the thesis provides you with a way to describe the specific changes as they have occurred between, say, 1970 and 2010. How much, and in what ways, have the volume and speed of traffic changed? Why are quick decisions more critical now? What is a “cloverleaf,” and how does any driver deal cognitively with exiting in the direction seemingly opposite to the desired one? Questions like this, suggested by your own thesis statement, can lead to a strong, memorable speech.

Enhance Your Delivery

When your thesis is not clear to you, your listeners will be even more clueless than you are—but if you have a good clear thesis statement, your speech becomes clear to your listeners. When you stand in front of your audience presenting your introduction, you can vocally emphasize the essence of your speech, expressed as your thesis statement. Many speakers pause for a half second, lower their vocal pitch slightly, slow down a little, and deliberately present the thesis statement, the one sentence that encapsulates its purpose. When this is done effectively, the purpose, intent, or main idea of a speech is driven home for an audience.

How to Write a Thesis Statement

Now that we’ve looked at why a thesis statement is crucial in a speech, let’s switch gears and talk about how we go about writing a solid thesis statement. A thesis statement is related to the general and specific purposes of a speech as we discussed them in Chapter 6 “Finding a Purpose and Selecting a Topic” .

Choose Your Topic

The first step in writing a good thesis statement was originally discussed in Chapter 6 “Finding a Purpose and Selecting a Topic” when we discussed how to find topics. Once you have a general topic, you are ready to go to the second step of creating a thesis statement.

Narrow Your Topic

One of the hardest parts of writing a thesis statement is narrowing a speech from a broad topic to one that can be easily covered during a five- to ten-minute speech. While five to ten minutes may sound like a long time to new public speakers, the time flies by very quickly when you are speaking. You can easily run out of time if your topic is too broad. To ascertain if your topic is narrow enough for a specific time frame, ask yourself three questions.

First, is your thesis statement narrow or is it a broad overgeneralization of a topic? An overgeneralization occurs when we classify everyone in a specific group as having a specific characteristic. For example, a speaker’s thesis statement that “all members of the National Council of La Raza are militant” is an overgeneralization of all members of the organization. Furthermore, a speaker would have to correctly demonstrate that all members of the organization are militant for the thesis statement to be proven, which is a very difficult task since the National Council of La Raza consists of millions of Hispanic Americans. A more appropriate thesis related to this topic could be, “Since the creation of the National Council of La Raza [NCLR] in 1968, the NCLR has become increasingly militant in addressing the causes of Hispanics in the United States.”

The second question to ask yourself when narrowing a topic is whether your speech’s topic is one clear topic or multiple topics. A strong thesis statement consists of only a single topic. The following is an example of a thesis statement that contains too many topics: “Medical marijuana, prostitution, and gay marriage should all be legalized in the United States.” Not only are all three fairly broad, but you also have three completely unrelated topics thrown into a single thesis statement. Instead of a thesis statement that has multiple topics, limit yourself to only one topic. Here’s an example of a thesis statement examining only one topic: “Today we’re going to examine the legalization and regulation of the oldest profession in the state of Nevada.” In this case, we’re focusing our topic to how one state has handled the legalization and regulation of prostitution.

The last question a speaker should ask when making sure a topic is sufficiently narrow is whether the topic has direction. If your basic topic is too broad, you will never have a solid thesis statement or a coherent speech. For example, if you start off with the topic “Barack Obama is a role model for everyone,” what do you mean by this statement? Do you think President Obama is a role model because of his dedication to civic service? Do you think he’s a role model because he’s a good basketball player? Do you think he’s a good role model because he’s an excellent public speaker? When your topic is too broad, almost anything can become part of the topic. This ultimately leads to a lack of direction and coherence within the speech itself. To make a cleaner topic, a speaker needs to narrow her or his topic to one specific area. For example, you may want to examine why President Obama is a good speaker.

Put Your Topic into a Sentence

Once you’ve narrowed your topic to something that is reasonably manageable given the constraints placed on your speech, you can then formalize that topic as a complete sentence. For example, you could turn the topic of President Obama’s public speaking skills into the following sentence: “Because of his unique sense of lyricism and his well-developed presentational skills, President Barack Obama is a modern symbol of the power of public speaking.” Once you have a clear topic sentence, you can start tweaking the thesis statement to help set up the purpose of your speech.

Add Your Argument, Viewpoint, or Opinion

This function only applies if you are giving a speech to persuade. If your topic is informative, your job is to make sure that the thesis statement is nonargumentative and focuses on facts. For example, in the preceding thesis statement we have a couple of opinion-oriented terms that should be avoided for informative speeches: “unique sense,” “well-developed,” and “power.” All three of these terms are laced with an individual’s opinion, which is fine for a persuasive speech but not for an informative speech. For informative speeches, the goal of a thesis statement is to explain what the speech will be informing the audience about, not attempting to add the speaker’s opinion about the speech’s topic. For an informative speech, you could rewrite the thesis statement to read, “This speech is going to analyze Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his speech, ‘A World That Stands as One,’ delivered July 2008 in Berlin.”

On the other hand, if your topic is persuasive, you want to make sure that your argument, viewpoint, or opinion is clearly indicated within the thesis statement. If you are going to argue that Barack Obama is a great speaker, then you should set up this argument within your thesis statement.

Use the Thesis Checklist

Once you have written a first draft of your thesis statement, you’re probably going to end up revising your thesis statement a number of times prior to delivering your actual speech. A thesis statement is something that is constantly tweaked until the speech is given. As your speech develops, often your thesis will need to be rewritten to whatever direction the speech itself has taken. We often start with a speech going in one direction, and find out through our research that we should have gone in a different direction. When you think you finally have a thesis statement that is good to go for your speech, take a second and make sure it adheres to the criteria shown in Table 9.1 “Thesis Checklist”

Table 9.1 Thesis Checklist

Preview of Speech

The final part of an introduction contains a preview of the major points to be covered within your speech. I’m sure we’ve all seen signs that have three cities listed on them with the mileage to reach each city. This mileage sign is an indication of what is to come. A preview works the same way. A preview foreshadows what the main body points will be in the speech. For example, to preview a speech on bullying in the workplace, one could say, “To understand the nature of bullying in the modern workplace, I will first define what workplace bullying is and the types of bullying, I will then discuss the common characteristics of both workplace bullies and their targets, and lastly, I will explore some possible solutions to workplace bullying.” In this case, each of the phrases mentioned in the preview would be a single distinct point made in the speech itself. In other words, the first major body point in this speech would examine what workplace bullying is and the types of bullying; the second major body point in this speech would discuss the common characteristics of both workplace bullies and their targets; and lastly, the third body point in this speech would explore some possible solutions to workplace bullying.

Key Takeaways

• Linking the attention-getter to the speech topic is essential so that you maintain audience attention and so that the relevance of the attention-getter is clear to your audience.
• Establishing how your speech topic is relevant and important shows the audience why they should listen to your speech.
• To be an effective speaker, you should convey all three components of credibility, competence, trustworthiness, and caring/goodwill, by the content and delivery of your introduction.
• A clear thesis statement is essential to provide structure for a speaker and clarity for an audience.
• An effective preview identifies the specific main points that will be present in the speech body.
• Make a list of the attention-getting devices you might use to give a speech on the importance of recycling. Which do you think would be most effective? Why?
• Create a thesis statement for a speech related to the topic of collegiate athletics. Make sure that your thesis statement is narrow enough to be adequately covered in a five- to six-minute speech.
• Discuss with a partner three possible body points you could utilize for the speech on the topic of volunteerism.
• Fill out the introduction worksheet to help work through your introduction for your next speech. Please make sure that you answer all the questions clearly and concisely.

Stand up, Speak out Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Definition of verbatim

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of verbatim  (Entry 2 of 2)

Did you know?

Get Wordy With Verbatim

Latin has a phrase for "exactly as written": verbatim ac litteratim , which literally means "word for word and letter for letter." Like the verbatim in that Latin phrase, the English verbatim means "word for word." As you may have noticed, there's a verb in verbatim —and that's no mere coincidence. Both verb and verbatim are derived from the Latin word for "word," which is verbum . Other common English words that share this root include adverb , proverb , and verbose . Even the word word itself is related. Verbatim can also be an adjective meaning "being in or following the exact words" (as in "a verbatim report") and a rarer noun referring to an account, translation, or report that follows the original word for word.

• word for word

Examples of verbatim in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'verbatim.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

borrowed from Medieval Latin verbātim , from Latin verbum "word, verb entry 1 " + -ātim (as in nōminātim "by name, expressly," formed from -ātus , past participle suffix and -im , adverbial suffix)

adjective derivative of verbatim entry 1

15th century, in the meaning defined above

1613, in the meaning defined above

Theme music by Joshua Stamper ©2006 New Jerusalem Music/ASCAP

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verbatim et litteratim

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“Verbatim.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/verbatim. Accessed 7 Apr. 2024.

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What is a thesis | A Complete Guide with Examples

Table of Contents

A thesis is a comprehensive academic paper based on your original research that presents new findings, arguments, and ideas of your study. It’s typically submitted at the end of your master’s degree or as a capstone of your bachelor’s degree.

However, writing a thesis can be laborious, especially for beginners. From the initial challenge of pinpointing a compelling research topic to organizing and presenting findings, the process is filled with potential pitfalls.

Therefore, to help you, this guide talks about what is a thesis. Additionally, it offers revelations and methodologies to transform it from an overwhelming task to a manageable and rewarding academic milestone.

What is a thesis?

A thesis is an in-depth research study that identifies a particular topic of inquiry and presents a clear argument or perspective about that topic using evidence and logic.

Writing a thesis showcases your ability of critical thinking, gathering evidence, and making a compelling argument. Integral to these competencies is thorough research, which not only fortifies your propositions but also confers credibility to your entire study.

Furthermore, there's another phenomenon you might often confuse with the thesis: the ' working thesis .' However, they aren't similar and shouldn't be used interchangeably.

A working thesis, often referred to as a preliminary or tentative thesis, is an initial version of your thesis statement. It serves as a draft or a starting point that guides your research in its early stages.

As you research more and gather more evidence, your initial thesis (aka working thesis) might change. It's like a starting point that can be adjusted as you learn more. It's normal for your main topic to change a few times before you finalize it.

While a thesis identifies and provides an overarching argument, the key to clearly communicating the central point of that argument lies in writing a strong thesis statement.

What is a thesis statement?

A strong thesis statement (aka thesis sentence) is a concise summary of the main argument or claim of the paper. It serves as a critical anchor in any academic work, succinctly encapsulating the primary argument or main idea of the entire paper.

Typically found within the introductory section, a strong thesis statement acts as a roadmap of your thesis, directing readers through your arguments and findings. By delineating the core focus of your investigation, it offers readers an immediate understanding of the context and the gravity of your study.

Furthermore, an effectively crafted thesis statement can set forth the boundaries of your research, helping readers anticipate the specific areas of inquiry you are addressing.

Different types of thesis statements

A good thesis statement is clear, specific, and arguable. Therefore, it is necessary for you to choose the right type of thesis statement for your academic papers.

Thesis statements can be classified based on their purpose and structure. Here are the primary types of thesis statements:

Argumentative (or Persuasive) thesis statement

Purpose : To convince the reader of a particular stance or point of view by presenting evidence and formulating a compelling argument.

Example : Reducing plastic use in daily life is essential for environmental health.

Analytical thesis statement

Purpose : To break down an idea or issue into its components and evaluate it.

Example : By examining the long-term effects, social implications, and economic impact of climate change, it becomes evident that immediate global action is necessary.

Expository (or Descriptive) thesis statement

Purpose : To explain a topic or subject to the reader.

Example : The Great Depression, spanning the 1930s, was a severe worldwide economic downturn triggered by a stock market crash, bank failures, and reduced consumer spending.

Cause and effect thesis statement

Purpose : To demonstrate a cause and its resulting effect.

Example : Overuse of smartphones can lead to impaired sleep patterns, reduced face-to-face social interactions, and increased levels of anxiety.

Compare and contrast thesis statement

Purpose : To highlight similarities and differences between two subjects.

Example : "While both novels '1984' and 'Brave New World' delve into dystopian futures, they differ in their portrayal of individual freedom, societal control, and the role of technology."

When you write a thesis statement , it's important to ensure clarity and precision, so the reader immediately understands the central focus of your work.

What is the difference between a thesis and a thesis statement?

While both terms are frequently used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings.

A thesis refers to the entire research document, encompassing all its chapters and sections. In contrast, a thesis statement is a brief assertion that encapsulates the central argument of the research.

Here’s an in-depth differentiation table of a thesis and a thesis statement.

Now, to craft a compelling thesis, it's crucial to adhere to a specific structure. Let’s break down these essential components that make up a thesis structure

15 components of a thesis structure

Navigating a thesis can be daunting. However, understanding its structure can make the process more manageable.

Here are the key components or different sections of a thesis structure:

Your thesis begins with the title page. It's not just a formality but the gateway to your research.

Here, you'll prominently display the necessary information about you (the author) and your institutional details.

• Title of your thesis
• Your full name
• Your department
• Your institution and degree program
• Your submission date
• Your Supervisor's name (in some cases)
• Your Department or faculty (in some cases)
• Your University's logo (in some cases)
• Your Student ID (in some cases)

In a concise manner, you'll have to summarize the critical aspects of your research in typically no more than 200-300 words.

This includes the problem statement, methodology, key findings, and conclusions. For many, the abstract will determine if they delve deeper into your work, so ensure it's clear and compelling.

Acknowledgments

Research is rarely a solitary endeavor. In the acknowledgments section, you have the chance to express gratitude to those who've supported your journey.

This might include advisors, peers, institutions, or even personal sources of inspiration and support. It's a personal touch, reflecting the humanity behind the academic rigor.

Table of contents

A roadmap for your readers, the table of contents lists the chapters, sections, and subsections of your thesis.

By providing page numbers, you allow readers to navigate your work easily, jumping to sections that pique their interest.

List of figures and tables

Research often involves data, and presenting this data visually can enhance understanding. This section provides an organized listing of all figures and tables in your thesis.

It's a visual index, ensuring that readers can quickly locate and reference your graphical data.

Introduction

Here's where you introduce your research topic, articulate the research question or objective, and outline the significance of your study.

• Present the research topic : Clearly articulate the central theme or subject of your research.
• Background information : Ground your research topic, providing any necessary context or background information your readers might need to understand the significance of your study.
• Define the scope : Clearly delineate the boundaries of your research, indicating what will and won't be covered.
• Literature review : Introduce any relevant existing research on your topic, situating your work within the broader academic conversation and highlighting where your research fits in.
• State the research Question(s) or objective(s) : Clearly articulate the primary questions or objectives your research aims to address.
• Outline the study's structure : Give a brief overview of how the subsequent sections of your work will unfold, guiding your readers through the journey ahead.

The introduction should captivate your readers, making them eager to delve deeper into your research journey.

Literature review section

Your study correlates with existing research. Therefore, in the literature review section, you'll engage in a dialogue with existing knowledge, highlighting relevant studies, theories, and findings.

It's here that you identify gaps in the current knowledge, positioning your research as a bridge to new insights.

To streamline this process, consider leveraging AI tools. For example, the SciSpace literature review tool enables you to efficiently explore and delve into research papers, simplifying your literature review journey.

Methodology

In the research methodology section, you’ll detail the tools, techniques, and processes you employed to gather and analyze data. This section will inform the readers about how you approached your research questions and ensures the reproducibility of your study.

Here's a breakdown of what it should encompass:

• Research Design : Describe the overall structure and approach of your research. Are you conducting a qualitative study with in-depth interviews? Or is it a quantitative study using statistical analysis? Perhaps it's a mixed-methods approach?
• Data Collection : Detail the methods you used to gather data. This could include surveys, experiments, observations, interviews, archival research, etc. Mention where you sourced your data, the duration of data collection, and any tools or instruments used.
• Sampling : If applicable, explain how you selected participants or data sources for your study. Discuss the size of your sample and the rationale behind choosing it.
• Data Analysis : Describe the techniques and tools you used to process and analyze the data. This could range from statistical tests in quantitative research to thematic analysis in qualitative research.
• Validity and Reliability : Address the steps you took to ensure the validity and reliability of your findings to ensure that your results are both accurate and consistent.
• Ethical Considerations : Highlight any ethical issues related to your research and the measures you took to address them, including — informed consent, confidentiality, and data storage and protection measures.

Moreover, different research questions necessitate different types of methodologies. For instance:

• Experimental methodology : Often used in sciences, this involves a controlled experiment to discern causality.
• Qualitative methodology : Employed when exploring patterns or phenomena without numerical data. Methods can include interviews, focus groups, or content analysis.
• Quantitative methodology : Concerned with measurable data and often involves statistical analysis. Surveys and structured observations are common tools here.
• Mixed methods : As the name implies, this combines both qualitative and quantitative methodologies.

The Methodology section isn’t just about detailing the methods but also justifying why they were chosen. The appropriateness of the methods in addressing your research question can significantly impact the credibility of your findings.

Results (or Findings)

This section presents the outcomes of your research. It's crucial to note that the nature of your results may vary; they could be quantitative, qualitative, or a mix of both.

Quantitative results often present statistical data, showcasing measurable outcomes, and they benefit from tables, graphs, and figures to depict these data points.

Qualitative results , on the other hand, might delve into patterns, themes, or narratives derived from non-numerical data, such as interviews or observations.

Regardless of the nature of your results, clarity is essential. This section is purely about presenting the data without offering interpretations — that comes later in the discussion.

In the discussion section, the raw data transforms into valuable insights.

Start by revisiting your research question and contrast it with the findings. How do your results expand, constrict, or challenge current academic conversations?

Dive into the intricacies of the data, guiding the reader through its implications. Detail potential limitations transparently, signaling your awareness of the research's boundaries. This is where your academic voice should be resonant and confident.

Practical implications (Recommendation) section

Based on the insights derived from your research, this section provides actionable suggestions or proposed solutions.

Whether aimed at industry professionals or the general public, recommendations translate your academic findings into potential real-world actions. They help readers understand the practical implications of your work and how it can be applied to effect change or improvement in a given field.

When crafting recommendations, it's essential to ensure they're feasible and rooted in the evidence provided by your research. They shouldn't merely be aspirational but should offer a clear path forward, grounded in your findings.

The conclusion provides closure to your research narrative.

It's not merely a recap but a synthesis of your main findings and their broader implications. Reconnect with the research questions or hypotheses posited at the beginning, offering clear answers based on your findings.

Reflect on the broader contributions of your study, considering its impact on the academic community and potential real-world applications.

Lastly, the conclusion should leave your readers with a clear understanding of the value and impact of your study.

References (or Bibliography)

Every theory you've expounded upon, every data point you've cited, and every methodological precedent you've followed finds its acknowledgment here.

In references, it's crucial to ensure meticulous consistency in formatting, mirroring the specific guidelines of the chosen citation style .

Proper referencing helps to avoid plagiarism , gives credit to original ideas, and allows readers to explore topics of interest. Moreover, it situates your work within the continuum of academic knowledge.

To properly cite the sources used in the study, you can rely on online citation generator tools  to generate accurate citations!

Here’s more on how you can cite your sources.

Often, the depth of research produces a wealth of material that, while crucial, can make the core content of the thesis cumbersome. The appendix is where you mention extra information that supports your research but isn't central to the main text.

Whether it's raw datasets, detailed procedural methodologies, extended case studies, or any other ancillary material, the appendices ensure that these elements are archived for reference without breaking the main narrative's flow.

For thorough researchers and readers keen on meticulous details, the appendices provide a treasure trove of insights.

Glossary (optional)

In academics, specialized terminologies, and jargon are inevitable. However, not every reader is versed in every term.

The glossary, while optional, is a critical tool for accessibility. It's a bridge ensuring that even readers from outside the discipline can access, understand, and appreciate your work.

By defining complex terms and providing context, you're inviting a wider audience to engage with your research, enhancing its reach and impact.

Remember, while these components provide a structured framework, the essence of your thesis lies in the originality of your ideas, the rigor of your research, and the clarity of your presentation.

As you craft each section, keep your readers in mind, ensuring that your passion and dedication shine through every page.

Thesis examples

To further elucidate the concept of a thesis, here are illustrative examples from various fields:

Example 1 (History): Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the ‘Noble Savage’ on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807 by Suchait Kahlon.

Example 2 (Climate Dynamics): Influence of external forcings on abrupt millennial-scale climate changes: a statistical modelling study by Takahito Mitsui · Michel Crucifix

Checklist for your thesis evaluation

Evaluating your thesis ensures that your research meets the standards of academia. Here's an elaborate checklist to guide you through this critical process.

Content and structure

• Is the thesis statement clear, concise, and debatable?
• Does the introduction provide sufficient background and context?
• Is the literature review comprehensive, relevant, and well-organized?
• Does the methodology section clearly describe and justify the research methods?
• Are the results/findings presented clearly and logically?
• Does the discussion interpret the results in light of the research question and existing literature?
• Is the conclusion summarizing the research and suggesting future directions or implications?

Clarity and coherence

• Is the writing clear and free of jargon?
• Are ideas and sections logically connected and flowing?
• Is there a clear narrative or argument throughout the thesis?

Research quality

• Is the research question significant and relevant?
• Are the research methods appropriate for the question?
• Is the sample size (if applicable) adequate?
• Are the data analysis techniques appropriate and correctly applied?
• Are potential biases or limitations addressed?

Originality and significance

• Does the thesis contribute new knowledge or insights to the field?
• Is the research grounded in existing literature while offering fresh perspectives?

Formatting and presentation

• Is the thesis formatted according to institutional guidelines?
• Are figures, tables, and charts clear, labeled, and referenced in the text?
• Is the bibliography or reference list complete and consistently formatted?
• Are appendices relevant and appropriately referenced in the main text?

Grammar and language

• Is the thesis free of grammatical and spelling errors?
• Is the language professional, consistent, and appropriate for an academic audience?
• Are quotations and paraphrased material correctly cited?

Feedback and revision

• Have you sought feedback from peers, advisors, or experts in the field?
• Have you addressed the feedback and made the necessary revisions?

Overall assessment

• Does the thesis as a whole feel cohesive and comprehensive?
• Would the thesis be understandable and valuable to someone in your field?

Ensure to use this checklist to leave no ground for doubt or missed information in your thesis.

After writing your thesis, the next step is to discuss and defend your findings verbally in front of a knowledgeable panel. You’ve to be well prepared as your professors may grade your presentation abilities.

Preparing your thesis defense

A thesis defense, also known as "defending the thesis," is the culmination of a scholar's research journey. It's the final frontier, where you’ll present their findings and face scrutiny from a panel of experts.

Typically, the defense involves a public presentation where you’ll have to outline your study, followed by a question-and-answer session with a committee of experts. This committee assesses the validity, originality, and significance of the research.

The defense serves as a rite of passage for scholars. It's an opportunity to showcase expertise, address criticisms, and refine arguments. A successful defense not only validates the research but also establishes your authority as a researcher in your field.

Here’s how you can effectively prepare for your thesis defense .

Now, having touched upon the process of defending a thesis, it's worth noting that scholarly work can take various forms, depending on academic and regional practices.

One such form, often paralleled with the thesis, is the 'dissertation.' But what differentiates the two?

Dissertation vs. Thesis

Often used interchangeably in casual discourse, they refer to distinct research projects undertaken at different levels of higher education.

To the uninitiated, understanding their meaning might be elusive. So, let's demystify these terms and delve into their core differences.

Here's a table differentiating between the two.

Wrapping up

From understanding the foundational concept of a thesis to navigating its various components, differentiating it from a dissertation, and recognizing the importance of proper citation — this guide covers it all.

As scholars and readers, understanding these nuances not only aids in academic pursuits but also fosters a deeper appreciation for the relentless quest for knowledge that drives academia.

It’s important to remember that every thesis is a testament to curiosity, dedication, and the indomitable spirit of discovery.

Good luck with your thesis writing!

Frequently Asked Questions

A thesis typically ranges between 40-80 pages, but its length can vary based on the research topic, institution guidelines, and level of study.

A PhD thesis usually spans 200-300 pages, though this can vary based on the discipline, complexity of the research, and institutional requirements.

To identify a thesis topic, consider current trends in your field, gaps in existing literature, personal interests, and discussions with advisors or mentors. Additionally, reviewing related journals and conference proceedings can provide insights into potential areas of exploration.

The conceptual framework is often situated in the literature review or theoretical framework section of a thesis. It helps set the stage by providing the context, defining key concepts, and explaining the relationships between variables.

A thesis statement should be concise, clear, and specific. It should state the main argument or point of your research. Start by pinpointing the central question or issue your research addresses, then condense that into a single statement, ensuring it reflects the essence of your paper.

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How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

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Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

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Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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12.1: Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper

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Learning Objectives

• Apply strategies for drafting an effective introduction and conclusion.
• Identify when and how to summarize, paraphrase, and directly quote information from research sources.
• Apply guidelines for citing sources within the body of the paper and the bibliography.
• Use primary and secondary research to support ideas.
• Identify the purposes for which writers use each type of research.

At last, you are ready to begin writing the rough draft of your research paper. Putting your thinking and research into words is exciting. It can also be challenging. In this section, you will learn strategies for handling the more challenging aspects of writing a research paper, such as integrating material from your sources, citing information correctly, and avoiding any misuse of your sources.

The Structure of a Research Paper

Research papers generally follow the same basic structure: an introduction that presents the writer’s thesis, a body section that develops the thesis with supporting points and evidence, and a conclusion that revisits the thesis and provides additional insights or suggestions for further research.

Your writing voice will come across most strongly in your introduction and conclusion, as you work to attract your readers’ interest and establish your thesis. These sections usually do not cite sources at length. They focus on the big picture, not specific details. In contrast, the body of your paper will cite sources extensively. As you present your ideas, you will support your points with details from your research.

Writing Your Introduction

There are several approaches to writing an introduction, each of which fulfills the same goals. The introduction should get readers’ attention, provide background information, and present the writer’s thesis. Many writers like to begin with one of the following catchy openers:

• A surprising fact
• A thought-provoking question
• An attention-getting quote
• A brief anecdote that illustrates a larger concept
• A connection between your topic and your readers’ experiences

The next few sentences place the opening in context by presenting background information. From there, the writer builds toward a thesis, which is traditionally placed at the end of the introduction. Think of your thesis as a signpost that lets readers know in what direction the paper is headed.

Jorge decided to begin his research paper by connecting his topic to readers’ daily experiences. Read the first draft of his introduction. The thesis is underlined. Note how Jorge progresses from the opening sentences to background information to his thesis.

Beyond the Hype: Evaluating Low-Carb Diets

I. Introduction

Over the past decade, increasing numbers of Americans have jumped on the low-carb bandwagon. Some studies estimate that approximately 40 million Americans, or about 20 percent of the population, are attempting to restrict their intake of food high in carbohydrates (Sanders and Katz, 2004; Hirsch, 2004). Proponents of low-carb diets say they are not only the most effective way to lose weight, but they also yield health benefits such as lower blood pressure and improved cholesterol levels. Meanwhile, some doctors claim that low-carb diets are overrated and caution that their long-term effects are unknown. Although following a low-carbohydrate diet can benefit some people, these diets are not necessarily the best option for everyone who wants to lose weight or improve their health.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Write the introductory paragraph of your research paper. Try using one of the techniques listed in this section to write an engaging introduction. Be sure to include background information about the topic that leads to your thesis.

Writers often work out of sequence when writing a research paper. If you find yourself struggling to write an engaging introduction, you may wish to write the body of your paper first. Writing the body sections first will help you clarify your main points. Writing the introduction should then be easier. You may have a better sense of how to introduce the paper after you have drafted some or all of the body.

Writing Your Conclusion

In your introduction, you tell readers where they are headed. In your conclusion, you recap where they have been. For this reason, some writers prefer to write their conclusions soon after they have written their introduction. However, this method may not work for all writers. Other writers prefer to write their conclusion at the end of the paper, after writing the body paragraphs. No process is absolutely right or absolutely wrong; find the one that best suits you.

No matter when you compose the conclusion, it should sum up your main ideas and revisit your thesis. The conclusion should not simply echo the introduction or rely on bland summary statements, such as “In this paper, I have demonstrated that.…” In fact, avoid repeating your thesis verbatim from the introduction. Restate it in different words that reflect the new perspective gained through your research. That helps keep your ideas fresh for your readers. An effective writer might conclude a paper by asking a new question the research inspired, revisiting an anecdote presented earlier, or reminding readers of how the topic relates to their lives.

writing at work

If your job involves writing or reading scientific papers, it helps to understand how professional researchers use the structure described in this section. A scientific paper begins with an abstract that briefly summarizes the entire paper. The introduction explains the purpose of the research, briefly summarizes previous research, and presents the researchers’ hypothesis. The body provides details about the study, such as who participated in it, what the researchers measured, and what results they recorded. The conclusion presents the researchers’ interpretation of the data, or what they learned.

Using Source Material in Your Paper

One of the challenges of writing a research paper is successfully integrating your ideas with material from your sources. Your paper must explain what you think, or it will read like a disconnected string of facts and quotations. However, you also need to support your ideas with research, or they will seem insubstantial. How do you strike the right balance?

You have already taken a step in the right direction by writing your introduction. The introduction and conclusion function like the frame around a picture. They define and limit your topic and place your research in context.

In the body paragraphs of your paper, you will need to integrate ideas carefully at the paragraph level and at the sentence level. You will use topic sentences in your paragraphs to make sure readers understand the significance of any facts, details, or quotations you cite. You will also include sentences that transition between ideas from your research, either within a paragraph or between paragraphs. At the sentence level, you will need to think carefully about how you introduce paraphrased and quoted material.

Earlier you learned about summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting when taking notes. In the next few sections, you will learn how to use these techniques in the body of your paper to weave in source material to support your ideas.

Summarizing Sources

When you summarize material from a source, you zero in on the main points and restate them concisely in your own words. This technique is appropriate when only the major ideas are relevant to your paper or when you need to simplify complex information into a few key points for your readers.

Be sure to review the source material as you summarize it. Identify the main idea and restate it as concisely as you can—preferably in one sentence. Depending on your purpose, you may also add another sentence or two condensing any important details or examples. Check your summary to make sure it is accurate and complete.

In his draft, Jorge summarized research materials that presented scientists’ findings about low-carbohydrate diets. Read the following passage from a trade magazine article and Jorge’s summary of the article.

Assessing the Efficacy of Low-Carbohydrate Diets

Adrienne Howell, Ph.D.

Over the past few years, a number of clinical studies have explored whether high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets are more effective for weight loss than other frequently recommended diet plans, such as diets that drastically curtail fat intake (Pritikin) or that emphasize consuming lean meats, grains, vegetables, and a moderate amount of unsaturated fats (the Mediterranean diet). A 2009 study found that obese teenagers who followed a low-carbohydrate diet lost an average of 15.6 kilograms over a six-month period, whereas teenagers following a low-fat diet or a Mediterranean diet lost an average of 11.1 kilograms and 9.3 kilograms respectively. Two 2010 studies that measured weight loss for obese adults following these same three diet plans found similar results. Over three months, subjects on the low-carbohydrate diet plan lost anywhere from four to six kilograms more than subjects who followed other diet plans.

In three recent studies, researchers compared outcomes for obese subjects who followed either a low-carbohydrate diet, a low-fat diet, or a Mediterranean diet and found that subjects following a low-carbohydrate diet lost more weight in the same time (Howell, 2010).

A summary restates ideas in your own words—but for specialized or clinical terms, you may need to use terms that appear in the original source. For instance, Jorge used the term obese in his summary because related words such as heavy or overweight have a different clinical meaning.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)

On a separate sheet of paper, practice summarizing by writing a one-sentence summary of the same passage that Jorge already summarized.

Paraphrasing Sources

When you paraphrase material from a source, restate the information from an entire sentence or passage in your own words, using your own original sentence structure. A paraphrased source differs from a summarized source in that you focus on restating the ideas, not condensing them.

Again, it is important to check your paraphrase against the source material to make sure it is both accurate and original. Inexperienced writers sometimes use the thesaurus method of paraphrasing—that is, they simply rewrite the source material, replacing most of the words with synonyms. This constitutes a misuse of sources. A true paraphrase restates ideas using the writer’s own language and style.

In his draft, Jorge frequently paraphrased details from sources. At times, he needed to rewrite a sentence more than once to ensure he was paraphrasing ideas correctly. Read the passage from a website. Then read Jorge’s initial attempt at paraphrasing it, followed by the final version of his paraphrase.

Dieters nearly always get great results soon after they begin following a low-carbohydrate diet, but these results tend to taper off after the first few months, particularly because many dieters find it difficult to follow a low-carbohydrate diet plan consistently.

People usually see encouraging outcomes shortly after they go on a low-carbohydrate diet, but their progress slows down after a short while, especially because most discover that it is a challenge to adhere to the diet strictly (Heinz, 2009).

After reviewing the paraphrased sentence, Jorge realized he was following the original source too closely. He did not want to quote the full passage verbatim, so he again attempted to restate the idea in his own style.

Because it is hard for dieters to stick to a low-carbohydrate eating plan, the initial success of these diets is short-lived (Heinz, 2009).

Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)

On a separate sheet of paper, follow these steps to practice paraphrasing.

• Choose an important idea or detail from your notes.
• Without looking at the original source, restate the idea in your own words.
• Check your paraphrase against the original text in the source. Make sure both your language and your sentence structure are original.
• Revise your paraphrase if necessary.

Quoting Sources Directly

Most of the time, you will summarize or paraphrase source material instead of quoting directly. Doing so shows that you understand your research well enough to write about it confidently in your own words. However, direct quotes can be powerful when used sparingly and with purpose.

Quoting directly can sometimes help you make a point in a colorful way. If an author’s words are especially vivid, memorable, or well phrased, quoting them may help hold your reader’s interest. Direct quotations from an interviewee or an eyewitness may help you personalize an issue for readers. And when you analyze primary sources, such as a historical speech or a work of literature, quoting extensively is often necessary to illustrate your points. These are valid reasons to use quotations.

Less experienced writers, however, sometimes overuse direct quotations in a research paper because it seems easier than paraphrasing. At best, this reduces the effectiveness of the quotations. At worst, it results in a paper that seems haphazardly pasted together from outside sources. Use quotations sparingly for greater impact.

When you do choose to quote directly from a source, follow these guidelines:

• Make sure you have transcribed the original statement accurately.
• Represent the author’s ideas honestly. Quote enough of the original text to reflect the author’s point accurately.
• Never use a stand-alone quotation. Always integrate the quoted material into your own sentence.
• Use ellipses (…) if you need to omit a word or phrase. Use brackets [ ] if you need to replace a word or phrase.
• Make sure any omissions or changed words do not alter the meaning of the original text. Omit or replace words only when absolutely necessary to shorten the text or to make it grammatically correct within your sentence.
• Remember to include correctly formatted citations that follow the assigned style guide.

Jorge interviewed a dietician as part of his research, and he decided to quote her words in his paper. Read an excerpt from the interview and Jorge’s use of it, which follows.

Personally, I don’t really buy into all of the hype about low-carbohydrate miracle diets like Atkins and so on. Sure, for some people, they are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well.

Registered dietician Dana Kwon (2010) admits, “Personally, I don’t really buy into all of the hype.…Sure, for some people, [low-carbohydrate diets] are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well.”

Notice how Jorge smoothly integrated the quoted material by starting the sentence with an introductory phrase. His use of ellipses and brackets did not change the source’s meaning.

Documenting Source Material

Throughout the writing process, be scrupulous about documenting information taken from sources. The purpose of doing so is twofold:

• To give credit to other writers or researchers for their ideas
• To allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired

You will cite sources within the body of your paper and at the end of the paper in your bibliography. For this assignment, you will use the citation format used by the American Psychological Association (also known as APA style). For information on the format used by the Modern Language Association (MLA style), see Chapter 13 .

Citing Sources in the Body of Your Paper

In-text citations document your sources within the body of your paper. These include two vital pieces of information: the author’s name and the year the source material was published. When quoting a print source, also include in the citation the page number where the quoted material originally appears. The page number will follow the year in the in-text citation. Page numbers are necessary only when content has been directly quoted, not when it has been summarized or paraphrased.

Within a paragraph, this information may appear as part of your introduction to the material or as a parenthetical citation at the end of a sentence. Read the examples that follow. For more information about in-text citations for other source types, see Chapter 13 .

Leibowitz (2008) found that low-carbohydrate diets often helped subjects with Type II diabetes maintain a healthy weight and control blood-sugar levels.

The introduction to the source material includes the author’s name followed by the year of publication in parentheses.

Low-carbohydrate diets often help subjects with Type II diabetes maintain a healthy weight and control blood-sugar levels (Leibowitz, 2008).

The parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence includes the author’s name, a comma, and the year the source was published. The period at the end of the sentence comes after the parentheses.

Creating a List of References

Each of the sources you cite in the body text will appear in a references list at the end of your paper. While in-text citations provide the most basic information about the source, your references section will include additional publication details. In general, you will include the following information:

• The author’s last name followed by his or her first (and sometimes middle) initial
• The year the source was published
• The source title
• For articles in periodicals, the full name of the periodical, along with the volume and issue number and the pages where the article appeared

Additional information may be included for different types of sources, such as online sources. For a detailed guide to APA or MLA citations, see Chapter 13 . A sample reference list is provided with the final draft of Jorge’s paper later in this chapter.

Using Primary and Secondary Research

As you write your draft, be mindful of how you are using primary and secondary source material to support your points. Recall that primary sources present firsthand information. Secondary sources are one step removed from primary sources. They present a writer’s analysis or interpretation of primary source materials. How you balance primary and secondary source material in your paper will depend on the topic and assignment.

Using Primary Sources Effectively

Some types of research papers must use primary sources extensively to achieve their purpose. Any paper that analyzes a primary text or presents the writer’s own experimental research falls in this category. Here are a few examples:

• A paper for a literature course analyzing several poems by Emily Dickinson
• A paper for a political science course comparing televised speeches delivered by two presidential candidates
• A paper for a communications course discussing gender biases in television commercials
• A paper for a business administration course that discusses the results of a survey the writer conducted with local businesses to gather information about their work-from-home and flextime policies
• A paper for an elementary education course that discusses the results of an experiment the writer conducted to compare the effectiveness of two different methods of mathematics instruction

For these types of papers, primary research is the main focus. If you are writing about a work (including nonprint works, such as a movie or a painting), it is crucial to gather information and ideas from the original work, rather than relying solely on others’ interpretations. And, of course, if you take the time to design and conduct your own field research, such as a survey, a series of interviews, or an experiment, you will want to discuss it in detail. For example, the interviews may provide interesting responses that you want to share with your reader.

Using Secondary Sources Effectively

For some assignments, it makes sense to rely more on secondary sources than primary sources. If you are not analyzing a text or conducting your own field research, you will need to use secondary sources extensively.

As much as possible, use secondary sources that are closely linked to primary research, such as a journal article presenting the results of the authors’ scientific study or a book that cites interviews and case studies. These sources are more reliable and add more value to your paper than sources that are further removed from primary research. For instance, a popular magazine article on junk-food addiction might be several steps removed from the original scientific study on which it is loosely based. As a result, the article may distort, sensationalize, or misinterpret the scientists’ findings.

Even if your paper is largely based on primary sources, you may use secondary sources to develop your ideas. For instance, an analysis of Alfred Hitchcock’s films would focus on the films themselves as a primary source, but might also cite commentary from critics. A paper that presents an original experiment would include some discussion of similar prior research in the field.

Jorge knew he did not have the time, resources, or experience needed to conduct original experimental research for his paper. Because he was relying on secondary sources to support his ideas, he made a point of citing sources that were not far removed from primary research.

Some sources could be considered primary or secondary sources, depending on the writer’s purpose for using them. For instance, if a writer’s purpose is to inform readers about how the No Child Left Behind legislation has affected elementary education, a Time magazine article on the subject would be a secondary source. However, suppose the writer’s purpose is to analyze how the news media has portrayed the effects of the No Child Left Behind legislation. In that case, articles about the legislation in news magazines like Time , Newsweek , and US News & World Report would be primary sources. They provide firsthand examples of the media coverage the writer is analyzing.

Avoiding Plagiarism

Your research paper presents your thinking about a topic, supported and developed by other people’s ideas and information. It is crucial to always distinguish between the two—as you conduct research, as you plan your paper, and as you write. Failure to do so can lead to plagiarism.

Intentional and Accidental Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of misrepresenting someone else’s work as your own. Sometimes a writer plagiarizes work on purpose—for instance, by purchasing an essay from a website and submitting it as original course work. In other cases, a writer may commit accidental plagiarism due to carelessness, haste, or misunderstanding. To avoid unintentional plagiarism, follow these guidelines:

• Understand what types of information must be cited.
• Understand what constitutes fair use of a source.
• Keep source materials and notes carefully organized.
• Follow guidelines for summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting sources.

When to Cite

Any idea or fact taken from an outside source must be cited, in both the body of your paper and the references list. The only exceptions are facts or general statements that are common knowledge. Common-knowledge facts or general statements are commonly supported by and found in multiple sources. For example, a writer would not need to cite the statement that most breads, pastas, and cereals are high in carbohydrates; this is well known and well documented. However, if a writer explained in detail the differences among the chemical structures of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, a citation would be necessary. When in doubt, cite.

In recent years, issues related to the fair use of sources have been prevalent in popular culture. Recording artists, for example, may disagree about the extent to which one has the right to sample another’s music. For academic purposes, however, the guidelines for fair use are reasonably straightforward.

Writers may quote from or paraphrase material from previously published works without formally obtaining the copyright holder’s permission. Fair use means that the writer legitimately uses brief excerpts from source material to support and develop his or her own ideas. For instance, a columnist may excerpt a few sentences from a novel when writing a book review. However, quoting or paraphrasing another’s work at excessive length, to the extent that large sections of the writing are unoriginal, is not fair use.

As he worked on his draft, Jorge was careful to cite his sources correctly and not to rely excessively on any one source. Occasionally, however, he caught himself quoting a source at great length. In those instances, he highlighted the paragraph in question so that he could go back to it later and revise. Read the example, along with Jorge’s revision.

Heinz (2009) found that “subjects in the low-carbohydrate group (30% carbohydrates; 40% protein, 30% fat) had a mean weight loss of 10 kg (22 lbs) over a 4-month period.” These results were “noticeably better than results for subjects on a low-fat diet (45% carbohydrates, 35% protein, 20% fat)” whose average weight loss was only “7 kg (15.4 lbs) in the same period.” From this, it can be concluded that “low-carbohydrate diets obtain more rapid results.” Other researchers agree that “at least in the short term, patients following low-carbohydrate diets enjoy greater success” than those who follow alternative plans (Johnson & Crowe, 2010).

After reviewing the paragraph, Jorge realized that he had drifted into unoriginal writing. Most of the paragraph was taken verbatim from a single article. Although Jorge had enclosed the material in quotation marks, he knew it was not an appropriate way to use the research in his paper.

Low-carbohydrate diets may indeed be superior to other diet plans for short-term weight loss. In a study comparing low-carbohydrate diets and low-fat diets, Heinz (2009) found that subjects who followed a low-carbohydrate plan (30% of total calories) for 4 months lost, on average, about 3 kilograms more than subjects who followed a low-fat diet for the same time. Heinz concluded that these plans yield quick results, an idea supported by a similar study conducted by Johnson and Crowe (2010). What remains to be seen, however, is whether this initial success can be sustained for longer periods.

As Jorge revised the paragraph, he realized he did not need to quote these sources directly. Instead, he paraphrased their most important findings. He also made sure to include a topic sentence stating the main idea of the paragraph and a concluding sentence that transitioned to the next major topic in his essay.

Working with Sources Carefully

Disorganization and carelessness sometimes lead to plagiarism. For instance, a writer may be unable to provide a complete, accurate citation if he didn’t record bibliographical information. A writer may cut and paste a passage from a website into her paper and later forget where the material came from. A writer who procrastinates may rush through a draft, which easily leads to sloppy paraphrasing and inaccurate quotations. Any of these actions can create the appearance of plagiarism and lead to negative consequences.

Carefully organizing your time and notes is the best guard against these forms of plagiarism. Maintain a detailed working bibliography and thorough notes throughout the research process. Check original sources again to clear up any uncertainties. Allow plenty of time for writing your draft so there is no temptation to cut corners.

Citing other people’s work appropriately is just as important in the workplace as it is in school. If you need to consult outside sources to research a document you are creating, follow the general guidelines already discussed, as well as any industry-specific citation guidelines. For more extensive use of others’ work—for instance, requesting permission to link to another company’s website on your own corporate website—always follow your employer’s established procedures.

Academic Integrity

The concepts and strategies discussed in this section of Chapter 12 connect to a larger issue—academic integrity. You maintain your integrity as a member of an academic community by representing your work and others’ work honestly and by using other people’s work only in legitimately accepted ways. It is a point of honor taken seriously in every academic discipline and career field.

Academic integrity violations have serious educational and professional consequences. Even when cheating and plagiarism go undetected, they still result in a student’s failure to learn necessary research and writing skills. Students who are found guilty of academic integrity violations face consequences ranging from a failing grade to expulsion from the university. Employees may be fired for plagiarism and do irreparable damage to their professional reputation. In short, it is never worth the risk.

Key Takeaways

• An effective research paper focuses on the writer’s ideas. The introduction and conclusion present and revisit the writer’s thesis. The body of the paper develops the thesis and related points with information from research.
• Ideas and information taken from outside sources must be cited in the body of the paper and in the references section.
• Material taken from sources should be used to develop the writer’s ideas. Summarizing and paraphrasing are usually most effective for this purpose.
• A summary concisely restates the main ideas of a source in the writer’s own words.
• A paraphrase restates ideas from a source using the writer’s own words and sentence structures.
• Direct quotations should be used sparingly. Ellipses and brackets must be used to indicate words that were omitted or changed for conciseness or grammatical correctness.
• Always represent material from outside sources accurately.
• Plagiarism has serious academic and professional consequences. To avoid accidental plagiarism, keep research materials organized, understand guidelines for fair use and appropriate citation of sources, and review the paper to make sure these guidelines are followed.

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Are verbatim transcripts necessary in applied qualitative research: experiences from two community-based intervention trials in Ghana

1 Institute for Global Health, University College London, 30 Guilford St., London, WC1N 1EH UK

Charlotte Tawiah-Agyemang

2 Kintampo Health Research Centre, P.O. Box 200, Kintampo, Ghana

Betty Kirkwood

3 London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT UK

Carl Kendall

4 Department of Global Community Health and Behavioral Sciences, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2350, New Orleans, LA 70112 USA

Associated Data

Conducting qualitative research within public health trials requires balancing timely data collection with the need to maintain data quality. Verbatim transcription of interviews is the conventional way of recording qualitative data, but is time consuming and can severely delay the availability of research findings. Expanding field notes into fair notes is a quicker alternative method, but is not usually recommended as interviewers select and interpret what they record. We used the fair note methodology in Ghana, and found that where research questions are relatively simple, and interviewers undergo sufficient training and supervision, fair notes can decrease data collection and analysis time, while still providing detailed and relevant information to the study team. Interviewers liked the method and felt it made them more reflective and analytical and improved their interview technique. The exception was focus group discussions, where the fair note approach failed to capture the interaction and richness of discussions, capturing group consensus rather than the discussions leading to this consensus.

The value of qualitative research within public health trials and programmes is increasingly recognized [ 1 , 2 ], as demonstrated by its prominence in the United Kingdom Medical Research Council framework for the development and evaluation of complex interventions [ 3 ]. When done well qualitative research can improve the design, conduct, interpretation and transferability of intervention trials [ 4 ]. This is most likely to happen when qualitative research is integral to the trial rather than peripheral or an add on [ 2 ].

Conducting integrated qualitative research within intervention trials requires balancing the need to make findings available to the team in a timely manner, with the need to maintain data quality. One of the most time consuming components of qualitative research is the transcription of interviews. Verbatim transcription, a word for word reproduction of the interview, is the convention, and is considered to enhance the rigour and accuracy of the data [ 5 , 6 ], but can severely delay the availability of research findings [ 7 ].

This paper highlights the lessons learnt in two large scale trials, conducted at the Kintampo Health Research Centre, Ghana, using expanded field notes, fair notes [ 8 ], to record data rather than verbatim transcription. Fair notes save time and capture the main topics of interviews, but are considered less accurate [ 7 , 9 ]. During the two trials we learned valuable lessons about enhancing the quality of the fair note method. This paper outlines the rational for choosing fair notes rather than verbatim transcription, and our experiences using the method.

The trials were conducted between 2000 and 2010. The Obaapvita trial tested the impact of Vitamin A supplementation on maternal mortality [ 10 ]; and the Newborn Home Intervention Trial (the Newhints trial) tested the impact of home visits by community health workers on neonatal mortality [ 11 ]. Within these trials, qualitative research was conducted prior to the trial to inform intervention design and data collection plans, and during the trial to identify emerging implementation issues, and to conduct process evaluations to understand the reasons why the interventions were or were not successful. In addition, specific sub studies were conducted exploring issues such as informal abortions and women’s understanding of being in a trial. This qualitative work included in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and trials of improved practice and resulted in eleven peer-reviewed articles [ 12 – 23 ]. The core qualitative data collection methods are shown in Table ​ Table1. 1 . In many cases these qualitative data were complemented by quantitative data.

Description of the qualitative methods used in the trials

Rationale for using fair notes

When we planned the formative research to design the communication strategy to maximise compliance with weekly vitamin A/placebo capsules in the ObaapaVitA trial, we were faced with a decision about how to record interview data. We had three choices:

• Audio record and take field notes during the interview, and use the audio recording to produce verbatim transcripts and the field notes to add non verbal communication and observations.
• Audio record and take field notes during the interview, and use the recording to expand the field notes into fair notes.
• Take field notes during the interview and expand on these into fair notes from memory [ 7 ].

With the advent of portable audio recording equipment verbatim transcription had replaced fair notes as the convention [ 24 ], and audio recording was advised if a fair note approach was used [ 9 ]. However, the time demands of transcription were problematic for the ObaapaVitA qualitative research team, who needed to deliver usable data to the trial team within a few months. The simplicity and rapidity of fair notes was attractive, so the team compared these data recording methods according to seven criteria as shown in Table ​ Table2 2 .

Comparison of different data recording methods

Table ​ Table2 2 shows that, although verbatim transcription is not an error free objective replication of the interview, it is the most complete method of recording data. It captures the respondent’s language most accurately, and permits quality assurance for the content of the interview. However, the ObapaVitA team calculated that if transcription was conducted by the interviewers, it would almost triple the duration of the formative research, especially as the interviewers were not expert typists. This meant that contracting transcription out would be the only feasible option to ensure that the formative research was compatible with the trial timeline. As shown in Table ​ Table2 2 contracting transcription out is problematic because it introduces an additional potential source of error into the analysis. It also means the research team loses control of the transcription process, and the team does not benefit from the analytical thinking that occurs during note-taking and transcription.

The ObaapaVitA team opted for the fair notes approach. This was mainly driven by time constraints, our relatively simple research questions, and a desire to keep data recording within the field team to enhance reflection and analytical thinking. Having decided on a field note approach we were faced with a choice of audio recording the interviews and using the audio recordings to expand the interviews, or using memory to expand the interviews. At the time the recording equipment available for the study was bulky, and the population we were working with was not used to the equipment. We were worried that being recorded would make participants feel nervous and inhibited. Although we knew that audio recording was recommended [ 9 ] we decided not to record the interviews.

Given the problems with expanding notes from memory that are outlined in Table ​ Table2, 2 , we planned for intensive training and supervision during data collection to help ensure important content was not lost, that the interviewers recorded the language of the participant as much as possible, and to aid in reflective and analytical thinking. The next section describes our experiences and lessons learnt in implementing this approach first describing our experience using the approach with interviews in the ObaapaVitA trial, the adaptation of the approach for the Newhints trial, and finally our experience using the approach for recording focus group discussions.

Use of fair notes in the ObaapaVitA trial

Data were collected by five interviewers across the different rounds of qualitative research. During a 1 week training on qualitative methods and on the study we discussed writing up using the fair notes method. This component of the training focused on:

• The importance of the research for the trial and of the trial itself. This was included to motivate the interviewers to write detailed fair notes.
• The intent of each question on the interview guides, so that interviewers understood why the question was being asked and would be able to identify relevant interview content to include in their notes.
• The importance of capturing the voice of the participants rather than their own voice, but that fair notes should say ‘she said that she went to the shop…’ rather than ‘I went to the shop’ to be clear that it is not a verbatim transcript.
• The importance of interviewers recording their own thought and reflections, but that these should be clearly recorded in the fair notes using brackets [….].

The qualitative team then conducted several practice interviews, initially with each other, then with staff at Kintampo Health Research Centre and finally in the community. The senior project researchers leading the training workshops observed the practice interviews. Interviewers completed practice fair notes and discussed the notes line by line with a senior researcher. The interviewers then added to or changed their notes based on the discussion. The research team then met as a whole to review key lessons learnt about note taking and key findings from the interviews. During data collection we continued with one to one feedback and group discussions.

Lessons learnt using fair notes in the ObaapaVitA trial

The practice interviews and write-ups identified three key problems with the fair note approach: taking detailed notes during the interviews, ‘tidying up’ fair notes and writing up brief fair notes.

Interviewers initially took very detailed notes during the interview, as they were fearful of forgetting things. This impacted on rapport building with the participant and meant that interviews were overlong. Senior researchers worked with the interviewers to help them trust their memories and interviewers practised taking concise, less obtrusive notes. Interviewers found that if they wrote up their interviews as soon as they returned to the field office, between 1 and 3 h after interviews were completed, they could easily remember what was discussed. This enhanced their confidence, reduced the length of the notes they took during the interviews and also increased the speed at which they wrote up their interviews. We developed a pattern of going to the field sites (1–2 h drive) early in the morning, conducting on average two interviews a day per fieldworker and then returning to the office to immediately start the write up which usually took the rest of the day. It was logistically easier to conduct two interviews a day, but this meant that interviewers had to rely more on their notes when converting the second interview into fair notes, whilst the write up of the first interview was always started between 1 and 3 h of data collection.

Interviewers wanted to make their fair notes read well, it was common for them to use technical terms that we knew were rarely used in the community. Whenever we saw such terms we used it as an opportunity to discuss ‘capturing the voice’ of the participant, for example we discussed the term ‘high blood pressure’, and found that the respondent had actually said ‘blood was up’. Through these discussions interviewers learnt that we were interested not just in what the participants said, but in capturing the words they used to say it.

Initially, despite detailed field notes, the fair notes were relatively brief summaries of the interviews, sometimes even bullet points extracted from more complete field notes taken during the interview. It took time for the interviewers to determine what a good fair note should consist of, this came through discussion and by asking interviewers to read each others write-ups. Discussing the intent of each question, and reviewing and discussing the fair notes, helped the interviewers understand the content that we were interested in. For example, we would read the fair notes and discuss why something was important for the study, and whether the respondent had said any more about the issue. Additional information would be added to the notes. We found that over one to two weeks the interviewers became aware of important content and the fair notes became longer and more detailed. We also found that the interviewers began to feel less like interviewers applying an interview guide and more like investigators—this enhanced the quality of the data in that interviewers probed more and were more likely to ask follow up questions on key issues, this was an unanticipated advantage of the approach. Interviewers who had previously transcribed interviews, reported that writing fair notes made them more reflective about their interviewing style, biases and perceptions and made them think analytically. They reported that this made writing up more enjoyable and enhanced their interviewing skills, they felt this increased their future employability and motivated them to do a good job.

It was important that interviews were conducted, written up, reviewed and corrected the same day when memories were fresh. Initially the process was quite slow, but as confidence grew and feedback reduced in length the process sped up, and interviewers were conducting and writing up an average of two interviews a day. The time it took to get to this stage varied by data collector but on average it took around two weeks. Keeping the interviewers motivated to complete quality write-ups was important. Senior researchers reviewing fair notes and going to the field with the interviewers showed that they cared about the study, and discussing findings made their use and importance clear. Interestingly interviewer motivation dipped at the same time data saturation was reached, as the interviewers complained that they were not learning new things and started to lose interest, this did not affect the quality of the fair notes, but interviews became shorter with fewer probes which was addressed through the feedback loop. Using the fair notes method, the research took 8 weeks of high intensity work, with an additional week of training. When the team reflected on the experience we felt that collecting data intensely over a short period of time enabled the interviewers to become immersed in the topic and maintain interest compared to our previous experience with transcription.

Adaptation of the approach for the Newhints trial

From our experiences with the ObaapaVitA trial we were satisfied that, given the type of qualitative research questions asked within a trial, we could get useful data using the fair note approach. Small and compact recording devices had now become available to the study team, and the study population had become used to devices such as mobile phones. Given these changes we decided that we should maintain the fair notes approach, but audio record the interviews to allow interviewers to check for missed content, check language, to add key verbatim quotes and to allow for quality checks.

Based on one of the senior researcher’s experience with using audio recordings to expand field notes (ZH), we encouraged interviewers to first write fair notes from memory and then listen to the recording to check for completeness and to add key quotes-this was a quick process for the experienced interviewers with one hour of interview taking 1.5–2 h to write up. In practice most of the interviewers found it difficult not to rely on the audio recording, and despite several discussions almost all the interviewers listened to the recording and wrote up their notes as they went, this was a slow process and meant that interviewers could conduct and write up only one interview every day and a half. Data collection and analysis for the formative component of Newhints trial took longer per interviewer than for the ObaapaVitA trial. It also meant that interviewers were less likely to complete their write up as soon as they returned to the office as they knew they had the audio recordings to rely on at a later date. This meant that, at times, interviews were written up several days after the data were collected, which inhibited iterative data collection, interviewer reflection and disrupted the flow of the data collection-write up cycle.

Using fair notes to record focus groups discussions

Both trials used focus group discussions as one of the data collection methods. Interviewers found these difficult to write up using the fair note method. They tended to record group consensus rather than the discussions that led to consensus being reached. We did not learn much from this data collection method, as the data were too summarized and not at all rich compared to the in-depth interview data. From the formative research for the ObaapaVitA trial, we realised that fair notes were not a good way of capturing focus group discussion data. For subsequent focus groups and for the Newhints trial all focus groups discussions were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Focus groups were a much richer and a more useful data source in this study, compared with in the ObaapaVitA trial, as the content and nuances of discussions were captured.

This paper adds to the few papers that provide practical advice on fair notes and transcription within qualitative research [ 5 ]. We found, as have others, that where research questions are relatively simple, and interviewers undergo sufficient training and supervision, fair notes can decrease data collection and analysis time [ 7 , 9 ]. Fair notes have been criticised for resulting in simplistic interpretations that underreport the participants’ words [ 7 , 8 ], but we found that with training and supervision they can provide detailed and relevant information to the study team, and can enhance the quality of interviews and analysis—which has not been previously reported. The exception was data collected through focus group discussions, which was very difficult to write up using the fair notes approach. As others have found, writing up while memories are fresh is beneficial [ 25 ], however this may need to be balanced with ensuring feasible fieldwork logistics.

Researchers that plan to use the fair note method must factor training and timely supervision into timelines and staff costs, as it can take a week of training and up to two weeks of intensive supervision for data collectors to become proficient with the method. Using the fair note approach, allowed the team to iterate steps and findings during data collection and think reflectively and analytically. Interviewers reported that writing fair notes improved their interviewing skills. Although the data were rich and relevant, it may be that the completeness and accuracy of the data are low.

Using audio recording to expand field notes allowed verbatim quotes to be added and the completeness of write-ups to be checked, and is recommended [ 9 ]. However, we found that interviewers relied on the tape recordings, and that this increased the write-up time and decreased reflection and analytical thinking. There is no consensus on how audio recording should be used to write fair notes [ 5 , 9 ]; our experience supports listening to the audio recording after the field notes have been expanded from memory, but this may face resistance from interviewers as the existence of the tape made the fieldworkers reluctant to rely on their memories.

Acknowledgements

The trials were both part of a long term collaboration between the Kintampo Health Research Centre (KHRC), Ghana Health Service and the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. The authors would like to thank these collaborating partners for their support and gratefully acknowledge all members of the qualitative research interview team and all those community members who generously gave their time and provided information needed to support the trials. Finally we thank the LSHTM Centre for Evaluation for funding the writing workshop at which this paper was developed.

Author contributions

ZH drafted the text, which was reviewed by CTA, BK and CK. ZH, CTA and CK were involved in the implementation of the fair note approach within the two trials; BK was the principal investigator of both. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

This study was supported in part by a Paper Writing Grant to Professor Betty Kirkwood from the Centre for Evaluation at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, and by Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation grants OPPGH5297 and OPP1138582 through the World Health Organisation. The funders had no role in the conceptualisation, writing or findings of this paper.

Availability of data and materials

Declarations.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Zelee Hill, Email: [email protected] .

Charlotte Tawiah-Agyemang, Email: ku.oc.oohay@gnameyga_ettolrahc , Email: [email protected] .

Betty Kirkwood, Email: [email protected] .

Carl Kendall, Email: ude.enalut@lladnekc .

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 2: Handling Qualitative Data

• Handling qualitative data
• Introduction

Introduction to transcripts in qualitative research

Understanding the transcription process, practical insights: transcription in action, using transcription services, challenges in transcription.

• Field notes
• Survey data and responses
• Visual and audio data
• Data organization
• Data coding
• Coding frame
• Auto and smart coding
• Organizing codes
• Qualitative data analysis
• Content analysis
• Thematic analysis
• Thematic analysis vs. content analysis
• Narrative research
• Phenomenological research
• Discourse analysis
• Grounded theory
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
• Qualitative data interpretation
• Qualitative analysis software

Research transcripts

Conducting qualitative interviews or focus groups is only the first part of data collection in a qualitative research project. For most qualitative data analysis , you need to turn those audio or video files into written transcripts. While this may seem self-evident to many researchers, much discussion has taken place about transcripts, best research practices for generating them, the debate between transcription services and human transcription, and so much more.

Qualitative data transcription holds a key role in research , acting as the building blocks from which findings are derived and conclusions are drawn. They are the textual representation of verbal data gathered through interviews , focus groups , and observational studies . Given their significance, it's essential to grasp why they are fundamental to qualitative research.

What is the importance of transcripts in research?

The importance of transcripts in research lies in their ability to convert spoken language into written form, making data analysis significantly more manageable. Transcripts act as the raw material for your analysis , creating a tangible record of the conversations and discussions that form the basis of your research. They provide a precise, detailed account of the verbal data collected, enabling researchers to review the information repeatedly and uncover layers of meaning that might be overlooked when listening to the recording .

Transcripts help researchers systematically organize and manage the data, especially when dealing with large volumes of information. They make it easier to search for specific themes, patterns, or keywords, thereby speeding up the data analysis process. Furthermore, transcripts facilitate the sharing of data among researchers, allowing for collaborative analysis and review. They also ensure the transparency of your research by providing a permanent record that can be scrutinized by other researchers, reviewers, or auditors.

How is transcribing used in qualitative research?

A transcript is used as a way to record and represent the rich, detailed, and complex data collected during qualitative studies such as interviews, focus groups, or observations. Without transcriptions, it would be challenging for researchers to dissect, understand, and interpret the in-depth experiences, perceptions, and opinions shared by the participants. Most research involving audio recordings of interviews requires recordings to undergo the transcription process in order for qualitative data analysis to proceed.

Transcribing, in qualitative research, doesn't merely involve verbatim transcription (the word-for-word rendering of verbal data into text). It can also encompass the translation of non-verbal cues such as laughter, pauses, or emotional expressions that can provide valuable context and insights into the participants' experiences and perspectives. By capturing these details, transcripts can help portray a fuller, more authentic picture of the data, enabling a more comprehensive and nuanced analysis.

In qualitative research, transcriptions are also used for data coding , a process where researchers label or categorize parts of the data based on their content, themes, or patterns. This step is critical for identifying trends and making sense of the data, and having a written transcript makes the coding process significantly more efficient and precise.

How are transcripts used in quantitative research?

Interview transcripts also have an important role in quantitative research , specifically in methods like content analysis and conversation analysis . Content analysis involves the systematic coding and quantifying of data within transcripts, such as the frequency of specific words or themes. This allows researchers to discern patterns and trends and gain insights into the prevalence of certain concepts or attitudes. For example, this could involve quantifying the occurrence of health-related discussions within interviews with healthcare providers.

On the other hand, conversation analysis , while often qualitative, can include quantifiable aspects. Transcripts record details of conversation structure and patterns, such as timing and sequence of speech. Quantitative measures like the count of certain conversational elements or the duration of pauses can be used to understand communication dynamics.

In essence, transcripts are not solely a tool for qualitative research methods but also provide a source of quantitative data and a foundation for quantitative analysis methods. They allow for a detailed, tangible record of spoken data, crucial for both qualitative understanding and quantitative measures, showcasing their versatility in the research field.

The transcription process is a critical stage in qualitative research . It refers to the conversion of recorded or observed speech into written text, turning the fluid and dynamic nature of spoken communication into a tangible and analyzable form . In this section, we will delve deeper into the process of transcription and how it is approached in qualitative research.

How do you create a research transcript?

Writing a research transcript starts with the raw data , usually an audio or video recording from interviews , focus groups , or observations . The first step is to carefully listen to the recording and begin writing down what is being said. This should be done with utmost accuracy, capturing not only the spoken words but also any significant pauses, laughter, or emotional expressions.

A crucial aspect of writing a transcript is deciding how detailed it should be. This varies depending on the research objectives and the nature of the data. For some research, a verbatim transcription, which includes every utterance, filler words, and non-verbal cues, is necessary. For other studies, a clean verbatim transcript, which omits irrelevant details like repeated words or stutters, is sufficient. After the initial transcription, the transcript should be reviewed and cross-checked with the recording for accuracy. During this revision process, the researcher may also add time stamps, annotations, or comments to enrich the transcript further.

Other details in transcripts

Depending on your research inquiry, you may consider more nuanced approaches to generating transcripts when you require the analysis of complex and multifaceted data. Apart from accurately rendering the spoken words into text, a qualitative research transcript can also capture the context, meaning, and nuances inherent in the spoken interaction.

This could involve noting the tone of voice, pauses, emotional expressions, body language, and interactions among participants. These non-verbal cues can provide rich insights into the participants' attitudes, emotions, and social dynamics, thus giving the researcher a deeper understanding of the data.

One unique aspect of transcribing qualitative data is the reflection and interpretative process embedded in it. Researchers often gain a deeper understanding of the data during transcription, as it forces them to engage closely with the data and notice details that might have been missed during the initial data collection.

How is data transcription done?

Data transcription can be done manually or with the assistance of transcription software. Manual transcription involves the researcher or a transcriptionist listening to the recording and typing out the conversation. This method is time-consuming but can lead to a higher level of accuracy and deeper immersion in the data.

Automated transcription software, on the other hand, uses automatic speech recognition (ASR) technology to transcribe audio recordings into text. While this method is faster and can handle large volumes of data, it may not be as accurate, especially when dealing with poor audio quality, heavy accents, or technical jargon.

Regardless of the method chosen, the transcribed data should be reviewed and edited for accuracy. This might involve repeated listening to the audio, making corrections, and refining the transcript until it accurately represents the original data.

In summary, the transcription process is a meticulous task that requires careful listening, accurate writing, and thoughtful interpretation. It is an essential step in transforming the raw data into a form suitable for in-depth analysis, thus laying the foundation for your qualitative research findings. By understanding how to write a research transcript, specifically a qualitative research transcript, and knowing how data transcription is done, you'll be well-equipped to handle this critical phase of your qualitative research process.

Types of data transcription in qualitative research

As qualitative data can be diverse and complex, it’s important to understand that not all transcripts are the same. Depending on the research objectives, data characteristics, and the resources available, researchers might opt for different types of transcriptions. Let's delve deeper into these different types and their applicability in qualitative research.

What are the different types of data transcription?

There are generally three main types of data transcription:

1. Verbatim transcription: This is the most detailed form of transcription. It involves transcribing every single word, including filler words (like "um," "uh," and "you know"), false starts, repetitions, and even non-verbal cues such as laughter, pauses, or sighs. Verbatim transcription is often used in research where the manner of speaking or the emotional context is as important as the content itself.

2. Clean verbatim transcription: This type of transcription also captures every word spoken but omits filler words, stutters, and false starts, resulting in a cleaner, more readable transcript. Clean verbatim transcription is usually preferred when the focus is on the content of the speech rather than the style or manner of speaking.

3. Intelligent transcription (or edited transcription): This form of transcription goes a step further in simplifying and clarifying the text. It not only removes filler words and repetitions but also corrects grammatical errors and may even rephrase sentences for clarity. Intelligent transcription is typically used for creating transcripts intended for publication or for audiences who are not directly involved in the research.

What are the different types of transcription in qualitative research?

In qualitative research, the type of transcription used often depends on the nature of the study and the level of detail required in the analysis.

For studies aiming to explore the content of the conversations, clean verbatim or intelligent transcriptions might be sufficient. These types provide a clear and concise account of the spoken data, allowing researchers to easily identify themes and patterns in the content.

However, for studies interested in the nuances of communication, such as sociolinguistic studies or discourse analysis, a verbatim transcription might be more appropriate. This type captures the exact words, speech patterns, and non-verbal cues, thus providing a richer and more authentic representation of the spoken interaction.

Choosing the right type of transcription for your qualitative research is crucial, as it can significantly impact the depth and quality of your data analysis . By understanding the different types of data transcription and their uses in qualitative research, you will be better positioned to make an informed decision that aligns with your research goals.

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Transcription is more than a technical process; it's a fundamental part of the journey from data collection to analysis in qualitative research . Understanding transcription in action means knowing how to do it, what to include, and how to record it for optimal use in your study.

What are examples of transcription?

Transcription can take various forms based on the nature of your research. For instance, a sociolinguistic study might require a detailed verbatim transcript, including non-verbal cues and speech anomalies.

Here's an example:

Interviewer: So, how are you feeling about the project? (in a concerned tone) Participant: Umm... Well, (laughs nervously) it's been a bit... um, overwhelming?

On the other hand, an interview transcript for a market research study might be a clean verbatim transcript, focusing on the content. Here's how it could look:

Interviewer: What do you like about our product? Participant: I really enjoy its user-friendly interface and the customer service is exceptional

How do you transcribe a research interview?

Transcribing a research interview involves several steps. First, ensure you have a good-quality audio or video recording of the interview . Listen to the recording carefully, typing out the conversation verbatim. You can also slow down the speed of the recording, and shortcut keys to rewind the recording a few seconds can be a great help. It's essential to maintain accuracy and include key details that might influence the interpretation of the data , such as significant pauses or emotional inflections.

Depending on your research aims, you may choose to transcribe in verbatim, clean verbatim, or intelligent transcription style. Once the initial transcription is complete, review and cross-check it against the recording for accuracy. Finally, anonymize the data if necessary to ensure participant confidentiality .

What should be included in an interview transcript?

An interview transcript should include everything that is said in the interview, but the level of detail can vary. Here are some elements that are typically included:

1. Identifiers: These help distinguish between different speakers. In the case of an interview, this would usually be the interviewer and the interviewee(s). 2. Verbal responses: All responses to the interview questions should be included in the transcript. 3. Non-verbal cues: Depending on the research objectives, non-verbal cues such as laughter, sighs, or pauses can provide additional context and should be included. 4. Time stamps: These help locate specific parts of the audio recording and can be very helpful during analysis. 5. Annotations: These might include comments or notes made by the transcriber about the context, the tone of voice, or background noises.

How do I record an interview transcript?

Recording an interview transcript starts with creating an audio or video recording of the interview. After the interview, use either manual transcription or automatic transcription software to convert the audio into written text. Make sure to include identifiers for each speaker, their verbal responses, and any relevant non-verbal cues. Review and revise the transcript for accuracy, adding time stamps or annotations as needed.

In summary, transcribing interviews is a meticulous task that requires careful attention to detail and accuracy. By understanding what to include in a transcript and how to record it, you'll be well-equipped to capture the richness and depth of your interview data, laying the groundwork for a robust analysis.

Benefits of transcription in qualitative research

In qualitative research , transcription represents more than a technical or administrative task. It’s the transformative process that turns spoken communication into a tangible, accessible text form that can be critically examined, dissected, and evaluated. This process forms the underpinning of the entire data analysis journey, creating the foundation upon which interpretations are built and conclusions are drawn.

Looking deeper into the benefits of transcription in qualitative research

Unearthing the multiple layers of transcription’s benefits in qualitative research reveals how it contributes to the efficacy and integrity of a study.

1. Facilitating data accessibility: One of the fundamental benefits of transcription is that it brings to life the spoken word, facilitating accessibility. It translates data into a format that is readable, searchable, and conducive to rigorous analysis. Transcripts can be reviewed multiple times, allowing researchers to revisit the data continually. They can be easily shared among team members or other researchers, enhancing the communicability of the study. Transcription also bridges barriers for those who are hearing-impaired or for whom the original language of the conversation might be a hurdle.

2. Enabling comprehensive analysis: Transcripts are the bedrock upon which qualitative analysis is built. They provide the raw material for various methods of qualitative data examination, whether it's the deep dive of a thematic analysis , the linguistic focus of discourse analysis , or the systematic categorization of content analysis . These written records allow researchers to delve into the data, identify recurring patterns, extract significant themes, and uncover insights that might be less discernible or entirely lost in the original audio or video format.

3. Promoting reflection and interpretation: Transcription is far from being a mechanical, dispassionate process. It necessitates active and continual engagement with the data , leading to a process of reflection and interpretation that forms the basis of qualitative analysis. During the act of transcribing, researchers can glean new insights, recognize overlooked details, and begin to make initial interpretations. It's often during this process that the data begin to speak, allowing researchers to discern their meaning and value.

4. Providing evidence and establishing an audit trail: Transcripts constitute a concrete, verifiable record of the data collected, the words expressed by the participants, their sentiments, and their experiences. This record acts as a form of evidence to substantiate the research findings, ensuring their credibility. Furthermore, they provide an audit trail, contributing to the transparency, accountability, and, thus, the overall trustworthiness of the study.

Justifying the use of transcription for qualitative data

The crucial role of transcription in qualitative research is underscored by its ability to capture the richness and multifaceted nature of spoken data and convert it into a format ripe for in-depth analysis. It provides a lens through which subtle nuances of communication - the ebb and flow of conversation, shifts in tone, or emotional expressions - can be understood. This is invaluable in qualitative research, where the aim is to capture and understand the depth and complexity of human experiences.

Transcripts also serve as a durable, enduring record of the data, preserving the words and voices of the participants. They ensure that the insights, stories, and experiences shared by participants are not transient but can be revisited, reviewed, and reinterpreted in future research.

Transcription services have revolutionized the way researchers process their data, offering a range of possibilities from manual transcription to advanced AI-driven software. These services often come with their own benefits and drawbacks, and understanding these is key to making an informed decision for your qualitative research project. This section will delve into the world of transcription services, helping you to explore your options and make the best choice for your research needs.

Types of transcription services

Broadly, transcription services fall into two main categories: human services and automated services.

Human transcription services employ professional transcribers to convert your audio or video files into text. These services often offer high-quality, accurate transcripts, as they benefit from the nuanced understanding and context interpretation abilities of a human transcriber.

Automated transcription services, on the other hand, use speech recognition software to transcribe audio or video files. They are typically faster and less expensive than human transcription services, but their accuracy can vary depending on the quality of the audio and the complexity of the language used.

Advantages and disadvantages of outside services

Choosing between human and automated transcription services often depends on your project's specific needs. Let's delve into some advantages and disadvantages of each.

Advantages of human services

1. Accuracy: Human transcribers can understand context, decipher accents, and make out words in poor-quality audio better than any software, ensuring high-quality transcripts.

2. Personalized service: They offer personalized service with attention to detail, including specific formatting requests or specialized transcription styles.

Disadvantages of human services

1. Time-consuming: Human transcription is slower than automated transcription, which can be an issue for projects with tight timelines.

2. Cost: Human transcription services can be expensive, especially for large volumes of data. Advantages of automated services

1. Speed: Automated services can transcribe audio or video files much faster than human transcribers.

2. Cost: They are usually more affordable than human transcription services, making them a good option for budget-conscious projects.

Disadvantages of automated services

1. Accuracy: While speech recognition technology has improved significantly, it still struggles with accents, poor audio quality, and complex terminology, which may lead to less accurate transcripts.

2. Lack of context: Automated services may not capture nuances in language or understand context the way a human transcriber can.

Tips for choosing the right service

Selecting the right transcription service should be based on the specific needs and constraints of your project. Here are a few tips to guide your choice:

1. Assess your needs: Consider the complexity of your data, the quality of your recordings, your budget, and your timeline.

2. Test the service: If possible, use a short sample of your data to test the service. This can give you a sense of the quality of the transcription and whether it meets your needs.

3. Read reviews: Check out reviews and ratings from other users to gauge the reliability and performance of the service.

These outside services can be a valuable resource in qualitative research, saving you time and effort. By understanding the benefits and drawbacks of human and automated services and evaluating your specific research needs, you can make an informed choice that best supports your research goals.

The transcription process, while invaluable to qualitative research , does not come without its fair share of challenges. The transformation of oral data into written format can be a complicated endeavor, particularly in cases where the audio quality is poor, speakers have heavy accents, or the conversation is filled with technical or specific jargon. Despite these hurdles, there are various strategies that can help you navigate these issues and ensure high-quality, accurate transcripts.

Audio quality

One of the most common challenges in transcription is dealing with poor audio quality. Background noise, low speaking volumes, or unclear pronunciations can make it difficult to distinguish what is being said. It's a good idea to invest in high-quality recording equipment and choose a quiet, controlled environment for your interviews or focus groups. Ensure that all participants speak clearly and loudly enough to be heard. If your data is already collected and the audio quality is poor, consider using noise-canceling software or hiring a professional transcription service that specializes in handling poor-quality audio.

Accents and dialects

Dealing with heavy accents or unfamiliar dialects can be challenging, particularly for automated transcription services that may not be programmed to handle a wide range of accents or dialects. Human transcribers can spend time familiarizing themselves with the accent or dialect to aid their comprehension. In some cases, it may be beneficial to engage a local transcriber who is familiar with the accent or dialect. For automated services, choosing a service that offers multilingual support or can handle a variety of accents can improve the accuracy of your transcripts.

Technical jargon and specific language

Transcribing conversations that include technical jargon, specific terminology, or industry-specific language can be a challenge, especially if the transcriber is not familiar with the terminology. If you are outsourcing your transcription to a human service, providing a glossary of terms to your transcriber can be very helpful. This can include definitions of technical terms, acronyms, or any specific language used in your study. If using an automated service, choose one that has capabilities to learn and adapt to specific terminology.

Time and resources

Transcription can be a time-consuming and resource-intensive process, especially for large volumes of data. Consider using transcription software or outsourcing to a transcription service to save time. If you’re transcribing manually, developing a systematic approach can increase efficiency. This can include using transcription software to speed up or slow down the audio, utilizing keyboard shortcuts, or creating a consistent formatting system.

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4 Rules of Verbatim Transcription and Its Importance in Qualitative Research

by MOS Legal | Published on Feb 28, 2017 | Verbatim Transcription

A verbatim transcription is a textual representation that mirrors the spoken words in an audio recording. In contrast to alternative transcription styles, this precise method captures every element within the dialogue, including stutters, errors, verbal idiosyncrasies, and pauses. Successfully completion of this transcription process requires a sharp sense of hearing, meticulous attention to detail, and the ability to accurately record spoken content while maintaining the authenticity of the conversation.

Seeking the assistance of a professional general transcription company is the best solution for accurate and efficient verbatim transcription of the recording. Let’s dive into the important rules to follow when doing verbatim transcription.

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4 Rules of Verbatim Transcription

• Get all the words right: When it comes to verbatim transcription, paraphrasing statements to convey the general idea instead of typing every word said is not the correct approach. Paraphrasing is acceptable for business transcription but not for researchers and academic analysts as they need to know exactly what is being said. The content should fit the practical design and theoretical foundation of each investigation. Therefore it is important to type each and every word accurately.
• Are you coming with me today?
• No! [Laughs] Maybe next time.
• Mention external sounds also: For qualitative research and market research, a detailed transcript is required that includes what happening in the surroundings when the interviewee is speaking. The external sounds may include opening a door, people walking, a side conversation between fellow participants, etc. All these external sounds and back ground noises should be duly captured in the transcript, along with the conversation. These sounds should be mentioned in brackets, and if necessary, along with time stamps.

Verbatim transcription of research data not only attempts to capture the meaning and perception or record the interview, but also records the context in which these were created. Text versions of audio recordings are easy to read and skim through much faster than listening to the audio.

Benefits of Verbatim Transcripts for Researchers

There are many reasons why verbatim is the preferred style for qualitative research transcription. Firstly, a detailed and verbatim account of participants’ responses allow for a comprehensive analysis of language nuances, expressions, and contextual subtleties. Inclusion of the original spoken words facilitates a thorough exploration of themes and patterns, which is crucial in qualitative research. Additionally, text documents offer a tangible and easily shareable format for collaboration among researchers, enabling a more straightforward exchange of ideas and interpretations. Moreover, textual data facilitates systematic coding and categorization, streamlining the organization of information for subsequent analysis. In academia, the written form also aligns with traditional scholarly documentation, making it easier for researchers to integrate qualitative findings into academic papers, theses, and presentations.

When a number of interviews and other audio recordings are involved that require verbatim transcription, researchers can rely on professional research transcription services that ensure customized turnaround time and affordable rates.

Streamline your audio-to-text conversion tasks with our audio transcription services .

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• Cambridge Dictionary +Plus

Meaning of verbatim in English

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• I can remember lines from movies verbatim.
• I know somebody who talks about their co-worker's private phone conversations verbatim.
• Orlov claimed that Khrushchev had lifted whole paragraphs verbatim from the Russian-language version of his book .
• authoritative
• for all the world idiom
• got it in one! idiom
• in so many words idiom
• strictly speaking idiom
• superaccurate
• These are verbatim quotations , not paraphrases .
• The verbatim copying of recipes online is violation of the copyright of the original author .
• What I wrote was verbatim - I'll never forgot what he said.

verbatim | American Dictionary

Examples of verbatim, translations of verbatim.

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small things or jobs of different types

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in exactly the same words; word for word: to repeat something verbatim.

corresponding word for word to the original source or text: a verbatim record of the proceedings.

skilled at recording or noting down speeches, proceedings, etc., with word-for-word accuracy: a verbatim stenographer.

Origin of verbatim

Words nearby verbatim.

• verbal noun
• verbatim et literatim
• verbenaceous
• verbena family

Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2024

How to use verbatim in a sentence

The Ministry of Truth’s employees were in charge of writing down the most negative things about Big Brother they could, by transcribing verbatim what came out of his mouth, and that seemed unfair to Winston.

This is one of those films I hope people will know thoroughly and verbatim .

At least three federal documents, including a 2019 report, repeat almost verbatim the project application’s claims for visitation, job creation and revenue generation.

You may want to sacrifice smooth readability occasionally for long-tail keywords verbatim .

Cajon Valley Union officials told me the same thing, almost verbatim , after they were able to bring some students back to campus.

I have it on good authority these quotes are 100 percent accurate, if not 100 percent verbatim .

But most of all he loved Monty Python and would regularly repeat their hilarious sketches verbatim .

He stuck them in his pocket, and would later copy them, almost verbatim , into his novel.

These and other famous pieces of revolutionary rhetoric repeat lines from the play more or less verbatim .

Check out this devastating Obama ad on that point, with regular citizens reading verbatim Romney's explanation.

And the conversations I can reproduce almost verbatim , for, according to my invariable habit, I kept full notes of all he said.

His chief guide is Julius Cæsar, whom he frequently quotes verbatim .

He (Stopford) wrote it down, in the ante-room, the moment he left the presence and I may take it as being as good as verbatim .

His editorial was the "Courier's" leader, and it appeared verbatim et literatim.

Mr. Drury can not claim to have recorded verbatim Prof. Vaughn's remarks, but has endeavored to give the substance.

British Dictionary definitions for verbatim

/ ( vɜːˈbeɪtɪm ) /

using exactly the same words; word for word

Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012

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Transcribing Interviews – A 5-Step Guide

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Transcribing interviews is a key methodology used in qualitative research to convert spoken language into written text, enabling a detailed and thorough analysis. It is a systematic approach to gather and interpret rich, nuanced data, serving as an essential step in understanding participants’ perspectives and experiences. Also, it is usually done word for word and is a common practice in conducting interviews. This article provides a comprehensive guide for transcribing interviews.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Transcribing Interviews – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Transcribing Interviews
• 3 Step 1 of transcribing interviews – Choosing a method
• 4 Step 2 of transcribing interviews – Changing the script
• 5 Step 3 of transcribing interviews – Formatting the script
• 6 Step 4 of transcribing interviews – Analyzing the transcript
• 7 Step 5 of transcribing interviews – Using transcription software

Transcribing Interviews – In a Nutshell

• Transcribing involves converting the recorded speech into text.
• You can use verbatim, intelligent verbatim , or editing transcription technique .
• After transcribing the interviews, you should clarify and edit the script.
• The aim of interview transcription is to allow easy data analysis in research using techniques like coding and categorizing, content analysis, and thematic analysis.

Definition: Transcribing Interviews

Transcribing interviews is converting the speech into a written document, word for word. Thus, interview transcribing helps you analyze the data collected during the interview. Interview transcription typically involves the following five steps:

• Selecting the ideal transcription method
• Using transcription software to transcribe the speech or audio
• Formatting the transcript (adding the speaker designation and time stamps)
• Clarifying the text
• Proofreading

Step 1 of transcribing interviews – Choosing a method

The first thing you should do before you begin transcribing interviews is to choose the transcription method you want to use. Basing your choice on the goal of your transcription would be wise. Below are some of the top methods you should consider.

Verbatim transcription

This method for transcribing interviews involves writing down every single word in the recording. Additionally, it includes emotional expressions like laughter, pauses, and hesitations, like (eeh..).

Verbatim transcription is commonly applied in the legal field. However, it is also an ideal technique for research where you are interested in what was said and how it was said.

Intelligent verbatim transcription

This is the most common method of transcribing interviews, especially in research. Intelligent verbatim transcription involves writing down every word, without irrelevant fillers, like hesitations, and words with no meanings, like ‘ehe’.

The goal of removing the filler or irrelevant words is to make the transcription more readable than verbatim. However, in intelligent verbatim transcription, you lose elements like emotions, hesitation, surprises, or pauses.

Edited transcription

Edited transcription involves writing an edited or summarized version of an intelligent verbatim transcript. Thus, aside from omitting irrelevant fillers, you also remove sentences that do not change the story’s meaning. You can use this method if you want your transcript to be straightforward and not as long.

Step 2 of transcribing interviews – Changing the script

Once you have determined the ideal method of transcription you want to use and transcribed the speech, the next step is altering the script. While this step is not mandatory, you may need to apply it if the audio quality is poor or if the conversation in the audio needs clarification. For instance, you can change the script if the audio does not indicate the speaker and can be confusing. 4

Some changes you can make to the script before transcription include:

• Adding a clarifying note, like “I asked him (the manager) to show me the proof.” The words “the manager” is the clarifying note.
• Clarifying important unspoken gestures, like “This (points at the date 14th May) is when I asked him to show me the proof.”
• Using ellipses to mark unclear or missing parts of the audio, like “I asked him…..me the proof.”
• Emphasizing words, for instance, I asked him to show me the proof.
• Patric: “We (the management) determined that introducing computers in the workplace helped improve productivity by 15%. We presented… to the board and had more of them (points at the computers) shipped to our other facilities. Months later (6 months), our productivity increased by 35%.”

Step 3 of transcribing interviews – Formatting the script

After altering the script, the next step is to format it. While there are no specific rules on how interview transcriptions should be formatted, you can do things like:

• Adding or making anonymous the names of the interviewer and interviewee
• Adding the date and time when the interview happened
• Indicating the location
• Indicating the speaker designation (Who says what in the interview)
• Interviewer: Ramon
• Interviewee: Patric Charles, manager
• Date and time: (10th December 2021, 11:00)
• Location: Coca-Cola headquarters, South Africa
• Ramon: How was the reception of the machines in your other facilities?

Step 4 of transcribing interviews – Analyzing the transcript

After preparing the complete transcription, the next step is to analyze the script. You can use various techniques, like coding and categorization.

The coding and categorization analyzing technique is where you link keywords to the answers you received from the interviewee. Doing this will help you link the connection between the answers of different correspondents. For instance, you can link the keywords “employee productivity” to the answers.

Other methods you can use are:

• Content analysis
• Thematic analysis
• Discourse analysis

Step 5 of transcribing interviews – Using transcription software

Transcribing interviews is more complex than it seems. For instance, the process takes time and requires incredible levels of accuracy. For these reasons, transcription software exists. You can use the software to develop transcriptions quickly. Good software for interview transcription should offer high accuracy levels. An accurate software features the following elements:

• Speaker recognition
• Stuttering omitting
• Comment and highlight element
• Correct capitalization
• Correct punctuation

What are the transcription methods?

There are basic methods for transcribing interviews; verbatim, intelligent verbatim, and edited transcription. Each method features distinct rules and characteristics.

What is the most common method for transcribing interviews?

The most common method is intelligent verbatim, which is more readable.

What is the value of transcribing interviews in research?

In research, the transcription helps make the data collected from an interview easier to analyze. It also helps with reporting.

When should you consider transcribing interviews?

You should transcribe interviews when you have so much recorded content and not enough time to go through it all by listening for analysis.

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