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Color and psychological functioning: a review of theoretical and empirical work

In the past decade there has been increased interest in research on color and psychological functioning. Important advances have been made in theoretical work and empirical work, but there are also important weaknesses in both areas that must be addressed for the literature to continue to develop apace. In this article, I provide brief theoretical and empirical reviews of research in this area, in each instance beginning with a historical background and recent advancements, and proceeding to an evaluation focused on weaknesses that provide guidelines for future research. I conclude by reiterating that the literature on color and psychological functioning is at a nascent stage of development, and by recommending patience and prudence regarding conclusions about theory, findings, and real-world application.

The past decade has seen enhanced interest in research in the area of color and psychological functioning. Progress has been made on both theoretical and empirical fronts, but there are also weaknesses on both of these fronts that must be attended to for this research area to continue to make progress. In the following, I briefly review both advances and weaknesses in the literature on color and psychological functioning.

Theoretical Work

Background and recent developments.

Color has fascinated scholars for millennia ( Sloane, 1991 ; Gage, 1993 ). Theorizing on color and psychological functioning has been present since Goethe (1810) penned his Theory of Colors , in which he linked color categories (e.g., the “plus” colors of yellow, red–yellow, yellow–red) to emotional responding (e.g., warmth, excitement). Goldstein (1942) expanded on Goethe’s intuitions, positing that certain colors (e.g., red, yellow) produce systematic physiological reactions manifest in emotional experience (e.g., negative arousal), cognitive orientation (e.g., outward focus), and overt action (e.g., forceful behavior). Subsequent theorizing derived from Goldstein’s ideas has focused on wavelength, positing that longer wavelength colors feel arousing or warm, whereas shorter wavelength colors feel relaxing or cool ( Nakashian, 1964 ; Crowley, 1993 ). Other conceptual statements about color and psychological functioning have focused on general associations that people have to colors and their corresponding influence on downstream affect, cognition, and behavior (e.g., black is associated with aggression and elicits aggressive behavior; Frank and Gilovich, 1988 ; Soldat et al., 1997 ). Finally, much writing on color and psychological functioning has been completely atheoretical, focused exclusively on finding answers to applied questions (e.g., “What wall color facilitates worker alertness and productivity?”). The aforementioned theories and conceptual statements continue to motivate research on color and psychological functioning. However, several other promising theoretical frameworks have also emerged in the past decade, and I review these frameworks in the following.

Hill and Barton (2005) noted that in many non-human animals, including primate species, dominance in aggressive encounters (i.e., superior physical condition) is signaled by the bright red of oxygenated blood visible on highly vascularized bare skin. Artificial red (e.g., on leg bands) has likewise been shown to signal dominance in non-human animals, mimicking the natural physiological process ( Cuthill et al., 1997 ). In humans in aggressive encounters, a testosterone surge produces visible reddening on the face and fear leads to pallor ( Drummond and Quay, 2001 ; Levenson, 2003 ). Hill and Barton (2005) posited that the parallel between humans and non-humans present at the physiological level may extend to artificial stimuli, such that wearing red in sport contests may convey dominance and lead to a competitive advantage.

Other theorists have also utilized a comparative approach in positing links between skin coloration and the evaluation of conspecifics. Changizi et al. (2006) and Changizi (2009) contend that trichromatic vision evolved to enable primates, including humans, to detect subtle changes in blood flow beneath the skin that carry important information about the emotional state of the conspecific. Increased red can convey anger, embarrassment, or sexual arousal, whereas increased bluish or greenish tint can convey illness or poor physiological condition. Thus, visual sensitivity to these color modulations facilitates various forms of social interaction. In similar fashion, Stephen et al. (2009) and Stephen and McKeegan (2010) propose that perceivers use information about skin coloration (perhaps particularly from the face, Tan and Stephen, 2012 ) to make inferences about the attractiveness, health, and dominance of conspecifics. Redness (from blood oxygenization) and yellowness (from carotenoids) are both seen as facilitating positive judgments. Fink et al. (2006) and Fink and Matts (2007) posit that the homogeneity of skin coloration is an important factor in evaluating the age, attractiveness, and health of faces.

Elliot and Maier (2012) have proposed color-in-context theory, which draws on social learning, as well as biology. Some responses to color stimuli are presumed to be solely due to the repeated pairing of color and particular concepts, messages, and experiences. Others, however, are presumed to represent a biologically engrained predisposition that is reinforced and shaped by social learning. Through this social learning, color associations can be extended beyond natural bodily processes (e.g., blood flow modulations) to objects in close proximity to the body (e.g., clothes, accessories). Thus, for example, red may not only increase attractiveness evaluations when viewed on the face, but also when viewed on a shirt or dress. As implied by the name of the theory, the physical and psychological context in which color is perceived is thought to influence its meaning and, accordingly, responses to it. Thus, blue on a ribbon is positive (indicating first place), but blue on a piece of meat is negative (indicating rotten), and a red shirt may enhance the attractiveness of a potential mate (red = sex/romance), but not of a person evaluating one’s competence (red = failure/danger).

Meier and Robinson (2005) and Meier (in press ) have posited a conceptual metaphor theory of color. From this perspective, people talk and think about abstract concepts in concrete terms grounded in perceptual experience (i.e., they use metaphors) to help them understand and navigate their social world ( Lakoff and Johnson, 1999 ). Thus, anger entails reddening of the face, so anger is metaphorically described as “seeing red,” and positive emotions and experiences are often depicted in terms of lightness (rather than darkness), so lightness is metaphorically linked to good (“seeing the light”) rather than bad (“in the dark”). These metaphoric associations are presumed to have implications for important outcomes such as morality judgments (e.g., white things are viewed as pure) and stereotyping (e.g., dark faces are viewed more negatively).

For many years it has been known that light directly influences physiology and increases arousal (see Cajochen, 2007 , for a review), but recently theorists have posited that such effects are wavelength dependent. Blue light, in particular, is posited to activate the melanopsin photoreceptor system which, in turn, activates the brain structures involved in sub-cortical arousal and higher-order attentional processing ( Cajochen et al., 2005 ; Lockley et al., 2006 ). As such, exposure to blue light is expected to facilitate alertness and enhance performance on tasks requiring sustained attention.

Evaluation and Recommendations

Drawing on recent theorizing in evolutionary psychology, emotion science, retinal physiology, person perception, and social cognition, the aforementioned conceptualizations represent important advances to the literature on color and psychological functioning. Nevertheless, theory in this area remains at a nascent level of development, and the following weaknesses may be identified.

First, the focus of theoretical work in this area is either extremely specific or extremely general. A precise conceptual proposition such as red signals dominance and leads to competitive advantage in sports ( Hill and Barton, 2005 ) is valuable in that it can be directly translated into a clear, testable hypothesis; however, it is not clear how this specific hypothesis connects to a broader understanding of color–performance relations in achievement settings more generally. On the other end of the spectrum, a general conceptualization such as color-in-context theory ( Elliot and Maier, 2012 ) is valuable in that it offers several widely applicable premises; however, these premises are only vaguely suggestive of precise hypotheses in specific contexts. What is needed are mid-level theoretical frameworks that comprehensively, yet precisely explain and predict links between color and psychological functioning in specific contexts (for emerging developments, see Pazda and Greitemeyer, in press ; Spence, in press ; Stephen and Perrett, in press ).

Second, the extant theoretical work is limited in scope in terms of range of hues, range of color properties, and direction of influence. Most theorizing has focused on one hue, red, which is understandable given its prominence in nature, on the body, and in society ( Changizi, 2009 ; Elliot and Maier, 2014 ); however, other hues also carry important associations that undoubtedly have downstream effects (e.g., blue: Labrecque and Milne, 2012 ; green: Akers et al., 2012 ). Color has three basic properties: hue, lightness, and chroma ( Fairchild, 2013 ). Variation in any or all of these properties could influence downstream affect, cognition, or behavior, yet only hue is considered in most theorizing (most likely because experientially, it is the most salient color property). Lightness and chroma also undoubtedly have implications for psychological functioning (e.g., lightness: Kareklas et al., 2014 ; chroma: Lee et al., 2013 ); lightness has received some attention within conceptual metaphor theory ( Meier, in press ; see also Prado-León and Rosales-Cinco, 2011 ), but chroma has been almost entirely overlooked, as has the issue of combinations of hue, lightness, and chroma. Finally, most theorizing has focused on color as an independent variable rather than a dependent variable; however, it is also likely that many situational and intrapersonal factors influence color perception (e.g., situational: Bubl et al., 2009 ; intrapersonal: Fetterman et al., 2015 ).

Third, theorizing to date has focused primarily on main effects, with only a modicum of attention allocated to the important issue of moderation. As research literatures develop and mature, they progress from a sole focus on “is” questions (“Does X influence Y?”) to additionally considering “when” questions (“Under what conditions does X influence Y and under what conditions does X not influence Y?”). These “second generation” questions ( Zanna and Fazio, 1982 , p. 283) can seem less exciting and even deflating in that they posit boundary conditions that constrain the generalizability of an effect. Nevertheless, this step is invaluable in that it adds conceptual precision and clarity, and begins to address the issue of real-world applicability. All color effects undoubtedly depend on certain conditions – culture, gender, age, type of task, variant of color, etc. – and acquiring an understanding of these conditions will represent an important marker of maturity for this literature (for movement in this direction, see Schwarz and Singer, 2013 ; Tracy and Beall, 2014 ; Bertrams et al., 2015 ; Buechner et al., in press ; Young, in press ). Another, more succinct, way to state this third weakness is that theorizing in this area needs to take context, in all its forms, more seriously.

Empirical Work

Empirical work on color and psychological functioning dates back to the late 19th century ( Féré, 1887 ; see Pressey, 1921 , for a review). A consistent feature of this work, from its inception to the past decade, is that it has been fraught with major methodological problems that have precluded rigorous testing and clear interpretation ( O’Connor, 2011 ). One problem has been a failure to attend to rudimentary scientific procedures such as experimenter blindness to condition, identifying, and excluding color deficient participants, and standardizing the duration of color presentation or exposure. Another problem has been a failure to specify and control for color at the spectral level in manipulations. Without such specification, it is impossible to know what precise combination of color properties was investigated, and without such control, the confounding of focal and non-focal color properties is inevitable ( Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1990 ; Valdez and Mehrabian, 1994 ). Yet another problem has been the use of underpowered samples. This problem, shared across scientific disciplines ( Maxwell, 2004 ), can lead to Type I errors, Type II errors, and inflated effect sizes ( Fraley and Vazire, 2014 ; Murayama et al., 2014 ). Together, these methodological problems have greatly hampered progress in this area.

Although some of the aforementioned problems remain (see “Evaluation and Recommendations” below), others have been rectified in recent work. This, coupled with advances in theory development, has led to a surge in empirical activity. In the following, I review the diverse areas in which color work has been conducted in the past decade, and the findings that have emerged. Space considerations require me to constrain this review to a brief mention of central findings within each area. I focus on findings with humans (for reviews of research with non-human animals, see Higham and Winters, in press ; Setchell, in press ) that have been obtained in multiple (at least five) independent labs. Table Table1 1 provides a summary, as well as representative examples and specific references.

Research on color and psychological functioning.

In research on color and selective attention, red stimuli have been shown to receive an attentional advantage (see Folk, in press , for a review). Research on color and alertness has shown that blue light increases subjective alertness and performance on attention-based tasks (see Chellappa et al., 2011 , for a review). Studies on color and athletic performance have linked wearing red to better performance and perceived performance in sport competitions and tasks (see Maier et al., in press , for a review). In research on color and intellectual performance, viewing red prior to a challenging cognitive task has been shown to undermine performance (see Shi et al., 2015 , for a review). Research focused on color and aggressiveness/dominance evaluation has shown that viewing red on self or other increases appraisals of aggressiveness and dominance (see Krenn, 2014 , for a review). Empirical work on color and avoidance motivation has linked viewing red in achievement contexts to increased caution and avoidance (see Elliot and Maier, 2014 , for a review). In research on color and attraction, viewing red on or near a female has been shown to enhance attraction in heterosexual males (see Pazda and Greitemeyer, in press , for a review). Research on color and store/company evaluation has shown that blue on stores/logos increases quality and trustworthiness appraisals (see Labrecque and Milne, 2012 , for a review). Finally, empirical work on color and eating/drinking has shown that red influences food and beverage perception and consumption (see Spence, in press , for a review).

The aforementioned findings represent important contributions to the literature on color and psychological functioning, and highlight the multidisciplinary nature of research in this area. Nevertheless, much like the extant theoretical work, the extant empirical work remains at a nascent level of development, due, in part, to the following weaknesses.

First, although in some research in this area color properties are controlled for at the spectral level, in most research it (still) is not. Color control is typically done improperly at the device (rather than the spectral) level, is impossible to implement (e.g., in web-based platform studies), or is ignored altogether. Color control is admittedly difficult, as it requires technical equipment for color assessment and presentation, as well as the expertise to use it. Nevertheless, careful color control is essential if systematic scientific work is to be conducted in this area. Findings from uncontrolled research can be informative in initial explorations of color hypotheses, but such work is inherently fraught with interpretational ambiguity ( Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1990 ; Elliot and Maier, 2014 ) that must be subsequently addressed.

Second, color perception is not only a function of lightness, chroma, and hue, but also of factors such as viewing distance and angle, amount and type of ambient light, and presence of other colors in the immediate background and general environmental surround ( Hunt and Pointer, 2011 ; Brainard and Radonjić, 2014 ; Fairchild, 2015 ). In basic color science research (e.g., on color physics, color physiology, color appearance modeling, etcetera; see Gegenfurtner and Ennis, in press ; Johnson, in press ; Stockman and Brainard, in press ), these factors are carefully specified and controlled for in order to establish standardized participant viewing conditions. These factors have been largely ignored and allowed to vary in research on color and psychological functioning, with unknown consequences. An important next step for research in this area is to move to incorporate these more rigorous standardization procedures widely utilized by basic color scientists. With regard to both this and the aforementioned weakness, it should be acknowledged that exact and complete control is not actually possible in color research, given the multitude of factors that influence color perception ( Committee on Colorimetry of the Optical Society of America, 1953 ) and our current level of knowledge about and ability to control them ( Fairchild, 2015 ). As such, the standard that must be embraced and used as a guideline in this work is to control color properties and viewing conditions to the extent possible given current technology, and to keep up with advances in the field that will increasingly afford more precise and efficient color management.

Third, although in some research in this area, large, fully powered samples are used, much of the research remains underpowered. This is a problem in general, but it is particularly a problem when the initial demonstration of an effect is underpowered (e.g., Elliot and Niesta, 2008 ), because initial work is often used as a guide for determining sample size in subsequent work (both heuristically and via power analysis). Underpowered samples commonly produce overestimated effect size estimates ( Ioannidis, 2008 ), and basing subsequent sample sizes on such estimates simply perpetuates the problem. Small sample sizes can also lead researchers to prematurely conclude that a hypothesis is disconfirmed, overlooking a potentially important advance ( Murayama et al., 2014 ). Findings from small sampled studies should be considered preliminary; running large sampled studies with carefully controlled color stimuli is essential if a robust scientific literature is to be developed. Furthermore, as the “evidentiary value movement” ( Finkel et al., 2015 ) makes inroads in the empirical sciences, color scientists would do well to be at the leading edge of implementing such rigorous practices as publically archiving research materials and data, designating exploratory from confirmatory analyses, supplementing or even replacing significant testing with “new statistics” ( Cumming, 2014 ), and even preregistering research protocols and analyses (see Finkel et al., 2015 , for an overview).

In both reviewing advances in and identifying weaknesses of the literature on color and psychological functioning, it is important to bear in mind that the existing theoretical and empirical work is at an early stage of development. It is premature to offer any bold theoretical statements, definitive empirical pronouncements, or impassioned calls for application; rather, it is best to be patient and to humbly acknowledge that color psychology is a uniquely complex area of inquiry ( Kuehni, 2012 ; Fairchild, 2013 ) that is only beginning to come into its own. Findings from color research can be provocative and media friendly, and the public (and the field as well) can be tempted to reach conclusions before the science is fully in place. There is considerable promise in research on color and psychological functioning, but considerably more theoretical and empirical work needs to be done before the full extent of this promise can be discerned and, hopefully, fulfilled.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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MINI REVIEW article

Color and psychological functioning: a review of theoretical and empirical work.

$\r\nAndrew J. Elliot*$

Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA

Theoretical Work

Background and recent developments.

Evaluation and Recommendations

Empirical Work

Although some of the aforementioned problems remain (see “Evaluation and Recommendations” below), others have been rectified in recent work. This, coupled with advances in theory development, has led to a surge in empirical activity. In the following, I review the diverse areas in which color work has been conducted in the past decade, and the findings that have emerged. Space considerations require me to constrain this review to a brief mention of central findings within each area. I focus on findings with humans (for reviews of research with non-human animals, see Higham and Winters, in press ; Setchell, in press ) that have been obtained in multiple (at least five) independent labs. Table 1 provides a summary, as well as representative examples and specific references.

TABLE 1. Research on color and psychological functioning.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords : color, psychological functioning, hue, lightness, chroma

Citation: Elliot AJ (2015) Color and psychological functioning: a review of theoretical and empirical work. Front. Psychol. 6:368. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00368

Received: 25 November 2014; Accepted: 16 March 2015; Published online: 02 April 2015.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2015 Elliot. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Andrew J. Elliot, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Intercampus Drive, Rochester, NY 14627, USA [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Honors Theses

Psychology of poster design: the power of color and other design elements.

Kelsi B. Strawzell , Eastern Kentucky University Follow

This project examines the influence of color theory and its application, as well as the impact of typography, imagery, and layout, within print design by discussing how these elements affect an audience’s emotional response. A culmination of research explains how and why different colors have a direct effect on a person’s emotion, and how/why they can produce specific outcomes if manipulated correctly in relation to their context. Distinctive colors and color groupings affect audiences differently and specific examples of such are discussed including: blue, red, yellow, orange, green, violet, white, black, browns, warm/cool, light/dark, etc. Typography, when used appropriately can communicate a pointed and effective message to viewers, while imagery is recognized to make a person feel connected, repulsed, or fascinated by a subject. These elements together form the layout of print design, and principles such as the gestalt theory explain that the factors’ placement and arrangement can cause a viewer’s mind to formulate associations. Understanding the psychology of these elements allow a designer the ability to manipulate an audience’s reaction to a design, advertisement, or artwork. Taking this research into account, posters were designed utilizing these elements and exemplifying how the desired psychological response is attained.

Semester/Year of Award

Spring 2013

Ida Kumoji-Ankrah

Mentor Department Affiliation

Art and Design

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Bachelor Thesis

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Honors Scholars

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Strawzell, Kelsi B., "Psychology of Poster Design: The Power of Color and Other Design Elements" (2013). Honors Theses . 116. https://encompass.eku.edu/honors_theses/116

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Architecture Beyond Form and Function: The Psychology of Colour

Several conscious and unconscious cues in our psycho-spatial relationship are caused by colors and how we perceive them. It exists everywhere despite its presence and variances. Have you ever considered the function it plays in architecture?

Color in architecture refers to the deliberate use of diverse colors, tones, and saturations of color to create the visual and emotional experience of a space.

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Along with the structural components that make up an architectural product, color application on surfaces affects how the space is perceived by users. Israel Pedrosa states that “A colorful sensation is produced by the nuances of light refracted or reflected by a material, commonly the word color is designated to those shades that function as stimuli in a chromatic sensation.”

History And Color

In architecture, color was frequently used because people wanted to pay homage to deities or kings or to celebrate the magnificence of the building itself. Ancient Greek stone statues and temples, which were once thought to be austere and neutral, have recently been found to be exquisitely painted with colors drawn from jewel stones to flora and minerals.

The Egyptian temples, tombs, and rooms were previously adorned with brilliant hieroglyphics and representations of pharaohs. The palaces and temples of China, as well as the cathedrals of medieval Europe, were all painted, and color symbolism was used liberally.

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Other than religious buildings if we look at some architects from history, Luis Barragán’s work exemplifies color’s spatial purity as a component that produces emotions, in contrast to Siza Vieira, who keeps to the achromatism of surfaces. Red is incorporated into some of Lina Bo Bardi’s architectural features, and Legorreta uses brilliant hues that are influenced by Mexican culture.

Color And Architecture

Colors have an essential role in forming our impression of the world around us, and this is especially true in architecture.

Color in architecture refers to the deliberate use of diverse colors, tones, and saturations of color to create the visual and emotional experience of a space. It is an essential part of the design process and can be employed on a variety of architectural elements such as walls, floors, ceilings, facades, and even the surrounding landscape.

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Color is used to create a desired mood, guide the viewer’s eye, add depth and movement, and even impact how people interact with a space. Color is used in architecture to shape the appearance of a structure and how it interacts with its surroundings, not just the interior.

Color Perception in Architecture

Biological reactions to color are entirely physical. Instead of the obvious optical reaction to color, it is a reaction to the energy of the light waves. According to studies, even when a person is blindfolded, his or her pulse increases when exposed to red and decreases when exposed to blue or green.

Color is an essential component of our world, not just in the natural environment but also in man-made architectural environments. The environment and its colors are perceived, and the brain processes and judges what it perceives on an objective and subjective basis.

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Psychological impact, communication, information, and psychological effects are all parts of our perceptual judgment processes. As a result, the purposes of color design in an architectural environment are not limited to ornamentation alone. Empirical observations and scientific studies, particularly over the last eleven decades, have demonstrated that human-environment-reaction in the architectural environment is, to a considerable extent, based on sensory perception of color.

The Emotional And Psychological Impacts of Color

Color is important in affecting a user’s experience and perception of space, establishing moods, influencing behavior, and invoking specific emotions and connections that are intimately tied to cultural and symbolic meanings. Color can represent volume or constructive detail, or it can visually simulate certain qualities of space. It can also deliver a collection of emotions or visual effects.

When we design a setting with walls, floors, and neutral ceilings, we obtain diverse visual impacts when we apply different colors to the various surfaces. For example, if we apply a darker shade to the ceiling, the sensation of a lower space is produced; if we apply color to the central wall of space, the idea of a certain “spatial shortening” is visually created; whereas, if it is applied to all walls, the perception of a space longer than it is produced.

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When only the lateral walls of the area are painted, the environment appears to narrow; but, when the central wall and ceiling are painted in the same hue, the environment appears to expand. If you want to lower the height of the area or put the attention at the height of the observer’s gaze, we may achieve this by painting all the surfaces at half height and putting the darker tones on the top surfaces.

Color’s Cultural And Symbolic Associations

Color has varied meanings and connections in different cultures, and we must consider this when designing for a specific cultural environment. In traditional Chinese architecture, for example, red is considered a lucky color and is frequently used in auspicious situations, but white is typically linked with purity and innocence in Western architecture.

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Geometric patterns and brilliant colors are commonly utilized in traditional Islamic architecture to produce a sense of awe and to convey a spiritual connection.

Furthermore, color’s cultural and symbolic connections might differ within a culture. Black, for example, is generally linked with elegance and refinement in Western civilizations, but sadness and death in Eastern traditions.

The Impact of Light on Color Perception

Light has a significant influence on color perception, with different colors appearing differently under natural and artificial light.

Natural light has a big impact on how we see colors. Warm colors, such as red and orange, appear brighter and more brilliant in natural light , but cold colors, such as blue and green, appear muted and subdued. Natural light can be used to improve or alter a person’s visual perception of a space, as well as the emotional impact of color. For example, we can create a warm and inviting ambiance by constructing a space with large windows to take advantage of natural light.

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Artificial light can also have a substantial impact on color perception. Different types of artificial light, such as incandescent, fluorescent, and LED, can alter the look of a color. Incandescent light, for example, can make warm colors appear more yellow, whereas fluorescent light can make cool colors appear more blue.

Furthermore, the intensity, direction, and quality of light have an equal impact. The strength and direction of light can have a significant impact on color perception, with bright light making colors appear more brilliant and dark light making colors appear more muted. Color perception can also be influenced by light quality, with warm light making colors appear more yellow and cool light making colors appear more blue.

Visual Impact of Colors

Color may significantly alter how we perceive depth, movement, and texture in our environment. Cool colors like blue and green can make a place feel wider and more expansive, while warm colors like red, orange, and yellow can make a space feel smaller and more cozy.

This is because warm colors tend to go forward while cool colors prefer to move backward. This effect can be used by designers to give a space a sense of depth and movement, making it seem larger or smaller than it is.

Furthermore, the illusion of texture can be produced through the use of contrasting colors. We can use contrasting colors to provide the impression of texture or use several tones of the same color to give the impression of depth and movement. For instance, placing a light-colored wall next to a dark-colored wall might provide the impression of texture, adding interest and vibrancy to the room.

To highlight particular sections or aspects, such as a focal point, or to add drama, contrasting colors can be utilized to create a sense of hierarchy. This method is frequently employed to draw the user’s attention to certain aspects or features.

Blue is a common choice for rooms where serenity and peace are needed since it is a cold, calming color that is frequently linked to tranquility and security. For instance, it is frequently utilized to establish a tranquil and calming ambiance in bedrooms, bathrooms, and other relaxing locations. It exudes an optimistic, assured, and secure feeling.

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Yellow is a striking and eye-catching color that, when employed in architecture, can have a big impact. It attracts the eye due to its vivid nature. In terms of psychology , yellow depicts optimism, curiosity, joy, and a cheerful mood. It is widely used to draw pedestrian attention in commercial venues or eateries. The color yellow can be utilized to establish a positive, upbeat environment.

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Warm and brilliant red can elicit a variety of feelings and connections. It is a common option for interiors where energy and excitement are sought because it is frequently connected with passion, excitement, and warmth, exudes vigor and impulsivity. For instance, it is frequently employed to create a vibrant and energetic ambiance at restaurants, nightclubs, and other entertainment venues.

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Green is not a color that is frequently utilized in architecture, but it has a lot of power in calming and relaxing the environment. Particularly successful in this regard are shades of pastel or emerald green. Even neon green can seem more serene than other neon colors, despite both being extremely bright. Brings about feelings of peace, tranquility, and well-being. Hospitals and relaxation centers are only two examples of places where it is frequently employed.

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Orange, a color created by mixing yellow and red, conjures up images of fervor, innovation, happiness, and passion. Offices, studios, and educational institutions that foster creativity frequently use it. Banking institutions and offices utilize it because, when combined with blue, it suggests impulsivity and trust.

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Purple, like blue, can have a calming effect, especially when utilized in pastel hues with indirect lighting. However, neon purple may bring a sense of playfulness, brightness, and excitement to a space, especially when used in lighting. It conveys tranquility, gentleness, and happiness.

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White is a popular color in modern architecture because it conveys purity, cleanliness, and simplicity. Its ability to generate a sense of minimalism and an uncluttered aesthetic makes it a popular choice for contemporary residences and art galleries.

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White may also convey a sense of quiet and serenity, making it a popular option for spas, meditation rooms, and other settings where relaxation and tranquility are crucial. White walls and ceilings can help disperse light, making interior spaces feel brighter and more expansive.

Black is not a frequent color utilized in architecture, but when used intelligently, it can produce a cold and introspective atmosphere. It may be utilized to produce a sense of mystery and elegance, making it a useful color for rooms that seek to create a sense of intrigue or secret.

Black is also linked with power and authority, making it a popular option for venues such as government buildings, legal offices, and other places where power and authority are crucial. It may impart a sense of seriousness and heaviness, making it a popular choice for settings such as courtrooms and other places where a sense of gravity is crucial.

Color is important in shaping a user’s experience of a space. The way a room is colored can have profound implications on how its users feel, whilst the way a façade is colored can be interpreted in dramatically different ways.

Architects utilize color in a variety of ways to achieve certain emotional and visual effects and highlight the richness and complexities of the color-architecture relationship. Color in architecture is an important part of design that can considerably improve a building’s overall user experience.

The progression of color in architecture is defined through senses, comfort, mood, and history. Without color, architecture loses its personality. It is essential in architecture, construction, and urban planning, as well as in everyday life. Color is much more than an aesthetic component of design.

Matheus Pereira (2018). The Role of Color in Architecture: Visual Effects and Psychological Stimuli. [online] ArchDaily. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/895498/the-role-of-color-in-architecture-visual-effects-and-psychological-stimuli.

www.archisoup.com. (2023). Color in Architecture: How color affects the emotions & visual effects of buildings – archisoup | Architecture Guides & Resources. [online] Available at: https://www.archisoup.com/color-in-architecture.

Online Sources

Anon, (2023). How Color Affects Architecture And Design. [online] Available at: https://urbandesignlab.in/how-color-affects-architecture-and-design/ .

Anon, (2022). Colour And Architecture: Why Is Colour Psychology Important In Architecture? | The Design Gesture. [online] Available at: https://thedesigngesture.com/colour-and-architecture/ .

GreenBuilt (2010). Color Psychology in Architecture – GreenBuilt. [online] Greenbuilt.no. Available at: https://www.greenbuilt.no/en/2018/01/04/color-psychology-in-architecture/.

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(PDF) The psychological dimension of colors: a systematic literature
Psychology" in 40 pages, 41 texts were obtained, bei ng one disse rtation and 40 articles, and with the words "Color Psychology Thesis" in 40 pages, resulted i n five works, one dissertation ...
Color and psychological functioning: a review of theoretical and
Theorizing on color and psychological functioning has been present since Goethe (1810) penned his Theory of Colors, in which he linked color categories (e.g., the "plus" colors of yellow, red-yellow, yellow-red) to emotional responding (e.g., warmth, excitement). Goldstein (1942) expanded on Goethe's intuitions, positing that certain ...
Color Psychology and Graphic Design Applications
Whether audiences are. conscious or unconscious of color's impact, its hypnotic potential makes it a worthy asset. for any visual communicator. A study assessed the point, if any, at which the joint effects. of brightness and saturation cause a viewer to prefer a yellow color to a blue color. Color Psychology and Graphic Design Applications.
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Abstract: This review study aims to explore the relationship between color psychology and. cognitive design in various environments, w ith a focus on human perception and vi sual. comfort. By ...
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color perception and psychological functioning, and variations and deﬁciencies in color perception. The Handbook of Color Psychology seeks to facilitate cross-fertilization among researchers, both within and across disciplines and areas of research, and is an essential resource for anyone interested in color psychology in both theoretical and ...
Color Psychology: Effects of Perceiving Color on Psychological
Color is a ubiquitous perceptual stimulus that is often considered in terms of aesthetics. Here we review theoretical and empirical work that looks beyond color aesthetics to the link between color and psychological functioning in humans. We begin by setting a historical context for research in this area, particularly highlighting methodological issues that hampered earlier empirical work.
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In support of this proposal, Gu ́eguen (2012a) demonstrated that men rate women wearing red as more sexually receptive, and Pazda et al. (2012, 2013) showed that this influence of red on perceived sexual receptivity accounts for the effect of red on perceived attractiveness and sexual desirability.
The Development of Color Perception and Cognition
Color is a pervasive feature of our psychological experience, having a role in many aspects of human mind and behavior such as basic vision, scene perception, object recognition, aesthetics, and communication. Understanding how humans encode, perceive, talk about, and use color has been a major interdisciplinary effort. Here, we present the current state of knowledge on how color perception ...
The psychological dimension of colors: a systematic literature review
Bearing this in mind, color psychology studies the influence that some colors have on the human mind (Ferreira Júnior, 2015) and identifies the sensations of the environment and how they influence the perception of what is around us. For . Research, Society and Development, v. 11, n. 5, e34111528027, 2022
Psychology of Color: Similarities Between Abstract and Clothing Color
Knowledge of color preferences is useful for planning colors of consumer products, but color preferences may be product specific. The 15 to 25% of subjects who selected different colors as most preferred for abstract color and clothing color present an obstacle to using clothing colors as indicators of personality traits.
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We live in a world of color (Huchendorf, 2007, p. 1).According to the various researches, the color that surrounds us in our daily lives has a profound effect on our mood and on our behavior (e.g., Babin, Hardesty, & Suter, 2003; Kwallek, Lewis, & Robbins, 1988; Kwallek, Woodson, Lewis, & Sales, 1997; Rosenstein, 1985).In clothing, interiors, landscape, and even natural light, a color can ...
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The bulk of Dr. Goldstein's work was done in the late 1950's and early 1960's. About the aspects of color in our everyday lives he wrote: "Life is a condition alternating between excitation, destruc tion, and unbalance [followed by] reorganization1 equilibrium and rest. In the course of life colors play their role.
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Similar to color, natural light and artificial ligh t can be used to enhance the utility of a room. Natural light has many. known benefits such as boosting Vitamin D and keepi ng the human ...
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This Honors College Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Honors College at The Aquila Digital ... People who study color theory and color psychology have found that colors that are used in both residential and commercial spaces can affect the moods of the people who use them. For example, the color orange is believed to ...
Frontiers
Theorizing on color and psychological functioning has been present since Goethe (1810) penned his Theory of Colors, in which he linked color categories (e.g., the "plus" colors of yellow, red-yellow, yellow-red) to emotional responding (e.g., warmth, excitement). Goldstein (1942) expanded on Goethe's intuitions, positing that certain ...
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Strawzell, Kelsi B., "Psychology of Poster Design: The Power of Color and Other Design Elements" (2013). Honors Theses. 116. This project examines the influence of color theory and its application, as well as the impact of typography, imagery, and layout, within print design by discussing how these elements affect an audience's emotional ...
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Color Psychology American Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (ARJHSS) ISSN (Online) : 2378-7031 Volume 2, 2016, 1- 6 pages DOI: 10.21694/2378-7031.16009 Research Article Open Access. Page 2 The primary colors, Red, Blue, and Yellow form a basis for all the other shades and cannot be created by ...
Color psychology
Color psychology is the study of hues as a determinant of human behavior. Color influences perceptions that are not obvious, such as the taste of food. Colors have qualities that can cause certain emotions in people. [1] How color influences individuals may differ depending on age, gender, and culture. [2]
Architecture Beyond Form and Function: The Psychology of Colour
Without color, architecture loses its personality. It is essential in architecture, construction, and urban planning, as well as in everyday life. Color is much more than an aesthetic component of design. References. Articles; Matheus Pereira (2018). The Role of Color in Architecture: Visual Effects and Psychological Stimuli. [online] ArchDaily.
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