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Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 5, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-research/

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• Knowledge Base
• Methodology
• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on 4 April 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 30 January 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, and history.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organisation?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography, action research, phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasise different aims and perspectives.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves ‘instruments’ in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analysing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organise your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorise your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analysing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasise different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analysing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analysing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalisability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalisable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labour-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organisation to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organisations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organise your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2023, January 30). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 2 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/introduction-to-qualitative-research/

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Pritha Bhandari

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview

Basics of qualitative research

Types, aspects, examples, benefits and challenges, how qualitative research complements quantitative research, how is qualitative research reported.

• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews
• Research question
• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework
• Data collection
• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research
• Case studies
• Ethnographical research

Ethical considerations

• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is an essential approach in various academic disciplines and professional fields, as it seeks to understand and interpret the meanings, experiences, and social realities of people in their natural settings. This type of research employs an array of qualitative methods to gather and analyze non-numerical data, such as words, images, and behaviors, and aims to generate in-depth and contextualized insights into the phenomena under study.

Qualitative research is designed to address research questions that focus on understanding the "why" and "how" of human behavior, experiences, and interactions, rather than just the "what" or "how many" that quantitative methods typically seek to answer. The main purpose of qualitative research is to gain a rich and nuanced understanding of people's perspectives, emotions, beliefs, and motivations in relation to specific issues, situations, or phenomena.

Characteristics of qualitative research

Several key characteristics distinguish qualitative research from other types of research, such as quantitative research:

Naturalistic settings : Qualitative researchers collect data in the real-world settings where the phenomena of interest occur, rather than in controlled laboratory environments. This allows researchers to observe and understand the participants' behavior, experiences, and social interactions in their natural context.

Inductive approach : Unlike quantitative research, which often follows a deductive approach , qualitative research begins with the collection of data and then seeks to develop theories, concepts, or themes that emerge from the data. This inductive approach enables researchers to stay open to new insights and unexpected findings.

Holistic perspective : Qualitative research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena under study by considering multiple dimensions, such as the social, cultural, historical, and psychological aspects that shape people's experiences and behavior.

Subjectivity and interpretation : Epistemology plays a crucial role in qualitative research. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their biases, assumptions, and values , and to consider how these may influence their data collection, analysis, and interpretation.

Flexibility : Qualitative research methods are often flexible and adaptable, allowing researchers to refine their research questions , sampling strategies, or data collection techniques as new insights and perspectives emerge during the research process.

Key principles of qualitative research

Qualitative research is guided by several fundamental principles that shape its approach, methods, and analysis:

Empathy and reflexivity : Qualitative researchers strive to empathize with the participants and to understand their perspectives, experiences, and emotions from their viewpoint. This requires researchers to be attentive, open-minded, and sensitive to the participants' verbal and non-verbal cues. At the same, qualitative researchers critically reflect on their participants’ perspectives, experiences, and emotions to develop their findings and conclusions, instead of taking these at face value. In addition, it is important for the researcher to reflect on how their own role and viewpoint may be shaping the research.

Trustworthiness : Establishing trustworthiness in qualitative research involves demonstrating credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Researchers can enhance trustworthiness by using various strategies, such as triangulation, member checking , peer debriefing , and reflexivity .

Iterative analysis : Qualitative data analysis is an ongoing and iterative process, in which researchers continually review, compare, and revise their interpretations as they collect and analyze more data. This iterative process allows researchers to refine their understanding of the phenomena and to develop more robust and nuanced theories, concepts, or themes.

Rich description : Providing detailed, vivid, and context-sensitive descriptions of the data is essential in qualitative research. Rich descriptions help convey the complexity and nuances of the phenomena under study, and enable readers to assess the relevance and transferability of the findings to other settings or populations.

What are the common types of qualitative research?

Qualitative research is an umbrella term for various methodologies that focus on understanding and interpreting human experiences, behaviors, and social phenomena within their context. These approaches seek to gather in-depth, rich data through the analysis of language, actions, and expressions. Five common types of qualitative research are narrative research , phenomenology , grounded theory , ethnography , and case study .

Narrative research : This approach focuses on the stories and experiences of individuals, aiming to understand their lives and personal perspectives. Researchers can collect data through interviews, letters, diaries, or autobiographies, and analyze these narratives to identify recurring themes, patterns, and meanings. Narrative research can be valuable for exploring individual identities, cultural beliefs, and historical events.

Phenomenology : Phenomenology seeks to understand the essence of a particular phenomenon by analyzing the experiences and perceptions of individuals who have gone through that phenomenon . Researchers can explore participants' thoughts, feelings, and experiences through in-depth interviews, observations, or written materials. The goal is to describe the commonalities and variations in these experiences, ultimately revealing the underlying structures and meaning of the phenomenon under study.

Grounded theory : This inductive research method aims to generate new theories by systematically collecting and analyzing data. Researchers begin with an open-ended research question and gather data through observations, interviews, and document analysis . They then use a process of coding and constant comparison to identify patterns, categories, and relationships in the data. This iterative process continues until a comprehensive, grounded theory emerges that is based in the recollected data and explains the topic of interest.

Ethnography : Ethnographic research involves the in-depth study of a specific cultural or social group, focusing on understanding its members' behaviors, beliefs, and interactions. Researchers immerse themselves in the group's environment, often for extended periods, to observe and participate in daily activities. They can collect data through field notes, interviews, and document analysis, aiming to provide a holistic and nuanced understanding of the group's cultural practices and social dynamics.

Case study : A case study is an in-depth examination of a specific instance, event, organization, or individual within its real-life context. Researchers use multiple sources of data, such as interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts to build a rich, detailed understanding of the case. Case study research can be used to explore complex phenomena, generate new hypotheses , or evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or policies.

What are the purposes of qualitative research?

Qualitative research presents outcomes that emerge from the process of collecting and analyzing qualitative data. These outcomes often involve generating new theories, developing or challenging existing theories, and proposing practical implications based on actionable insights. The products of qualitative research contribute to a deeper understanding of human experiences, social phenomena, and cultural contexts. Qualitative research can also be a powerful complement to quantitative research.

Generating new theory : One of the primary goals of qualitative research is to develop new theories or conceptual frameworks that help explain previously unexplored or poorly understood phenomena. By conducting in-depth investigations and analyzing rich data, researchers can identify patterns, relationships, and underlying structures that form the basis of novel theoretical insights.

Developing or challenging existing theory : Qualitative research can also contribute to the refinement or expansion of existing theories by providing new perspectives, revealing previously unnoticed complexities, or highlighting areas where current theories may be insufficient or inaccurate. By examining the nuances and context-specific details of a phenomenon, researchers can generate evidence that supports, contradicts, or modifies existing theoretical frameworks .

Proposing practical implications : Qualitative research often yields actionable insights that can inform policy, practice, and intervention strategies. By delving into the lived experiences of individuals and communities, researchers can identify factors that contribute to or hinder the effectiveness of certain approaches, uncovering opportunities for improvement or innovation. The insights gained from qualitative research can be used to design targeted interventions, develop context-sensitive policies, or inform the professional practices of practitioners in various fields.

Enhancing understanding and empathy : Qualitative research promotes a deeper understanding of human experiences, emotions, and perspectives, fostering empathy and cultural sensitivity. By engaging with diverse voices and experiences, researchers can develop a more nuanced appreciation of the complexities of human behavior and social dynamics, ultimately contributing to more compassionate and inclusive societies.

Informing mixed-methods research : The products of qualitative research can also be used in conjunction with quantitative research, as part of a mixed-methods approach . Qualitative findings can help generate hypotheses for further testing, inform the development of survey instruments , or provide context and explanation for quantitative results. Combining the strengths of both approaches can lead to more robust and comprehensive understanding of complex research questions .

What are some examples of qualitative research?

Qualitative research can be conducted across various scientific fields, exploring diverse topics and phenomena. Here are six brief descriptions of qualitative studies that can provide researchers with ideas for their own projects:

Exploring the lived experiences of refugees : A phenomenological study could be conducted to investigate the lived experiences and coping strategies of refugees in a specific host country. By conducting in-depth interviews with refugees and analyzing their narratives , researchers can gain insights into the challenges they face, their resilience, and the factors that contribute to successful integration into their new communities.

Understanding the dynamics of online communities : An ethnographic study could be designed to explore the culture and social dynamics of a particular online community or social media platform. By immersing themselves in the virtual environment, researchers can observe patterns of interaction, communication styles, and shared values among community members, providing a nuanced understanding of the factors that influence online behavior and group dynamics.

Examining the impact of gentrification on local communities : A case study could be conducted to explore the impact of gentrification on a specific neighborhood or community. Researchers can collect data through interviews with residents, local business owners, and policymakers, as well as analyzing relevant documents and media coverage. The study can shed light on the effects of gentrification on housing affordability, social cohesion, and cultural identity, informing policy and urban planning decisions.

Studying the career trajectories of women in STEM fields : A narrative research project can be designed to investigate the career experiences and pathways of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. By collecting and analyzing the stories of women at various career stages, researchers can identify factors that contribute to their success, as well as barriers and challenges they face in male-dominated fields.

Evaluating the effectiveness of a mental health intervention : A qualitative study can be conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific mental health intervention, such as a mindfulness-based program for reducing stress and anxiety. Researchers can gather data through interviews and focus groups with program participants, exploring their experiences, perceived benefits, and suggestions for improvement. The findings can provide valuable insights for refining the intervention and informing future mental health initiatives.

Investigating the role of social media in political activism : A qualitative study using document analysis and visual methods could explore the role of social media in shaping political activism and public opinion during a specific social movement or election campaign. By analyzing user-generated content, such as tweets, posts, images, and videos, researchers can examine patterns of communication, mobilization, and discourse, shedding light on the ways in which social media influences political engagement and democratic processes.

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What are common qualitative research methods?

Qualitative research methods are techniques used to collect, analyze, and interpret data in qualitative studies. These methods prioritize the exploration of meaning, context, and individual experiences. Common qualitative research methods include interviews, focus groups, observations, document analysis, and visual methods.

Interviews : Interviews involve one-on-one conversations between the researcher and the participant. They can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, depending on the level of guidance provided by the researcher. Interviews allow for in-depth exploration of participants' experiences, thoughts, and feelings, providing rich and detailed data for analysis.

Focus groups : Focus groups are group discussions facilitated by a researcher, usually consisting of 6-12 participants. They enable researchers to explore participants' collective perspectives, opinions, and experiences in a social setting. Focus groups can generate insights into group dynamics, cultural norms, and shared understandings, as participants interact and respond to each other's viewpoints.

Observations : Observational research involves the systematic collection of data through watching and recording people, events, or behaviors in their natural settings. Researchers can take on different roles, such as participant-observer or non-participant observer, depending on their level of involvement. Observations provide valuable information about context, social interactions, and non-verbal communication, which can help researchers understand the nuances of a particular phenomenon.

Document analysis : Document analysis is the examination of written or visual materials, such as letters, diaries, reports, newspaper articles, photographs, or videos. This method can provide insights into historical or cultural contexts, individual perspectives, and organizational processes. Researchers may use content analysis, discourse analysis, or other analytic techniques to interpret the meaning and significance of these documents.

Visual methods : Visual methods involve the use of visual materials, such as photographs, drawings, or videos, to explore and represent participants' experiences and perspectives. Techniques like photo elicitation, where participants are asked to take or select photographs related to the research topic and discuss their meaning, can encourage reflection and stimulate discussion. Visual methods can be particularly useful in capturing non-verbal information, promoting cross-cultural understanding, and engaging with hard-to-reach populations.

Importance of qualitative research and qualitative data analysis

Qualitative research and qualitative data analysis play a vital role in advancing knowledge, informing policies, and improving practices in various fields, such as education, healthcare, business, and social work. The unique insights and in-depth understanding generated through qualitative research can accomplish a number of goals.

Inform decision-making

Qualitative research helps decision-makers better understand the needs, preferences, and concerns of different stakeholders, such as customers, employees, or community members. This can lead to more effective and tailored policies, programs, or interventions that address real-world challenges.

Enhance innovation

By exploring people's experiences, motivations, and aspirations, qualitative research can uncover new ideas, opportunities, and trends that can drive innovation in products, services, or processes.

Foster empathy and cultural competence

Qualitative research can increase our empathy and understanding of diverse populations, cultures, and contexts. This can enhance our ability to communicate, collaborate, and work effectively with people from different backgrounds.

Complement quantitative research

Qualitative research can complement quantitative research by providing rich contextual information and in-depth insights into the underlying mechanisms, processes, or factors that may explain the patterns or relationships observed in quantitative data.

Facilitate social change

Qualitative research can give voice to marginalized or underrepresented groups, highlight social injustices or inequalities, and inspire actions and reforms that promote social change and well-being.

Challenges of conducting qualitative research

While qualitative research offers valuable insights and understanding of human experiences, it also presents some challenges that researchers must navigate. Acknowledging and addressing these challenges can help ensure the rigor, credibility, and relevance of qualitative research. In this section, we will discuss some common challenges that researchers may encounter when conducting qualitative research and offer suggestions on how to overcome them.

Subjectivity and bias

One of the primary challenges in qualitative research is managing subjectivity and potential biases that may arise from the researcher's personal beliefs, values, and experiences. Since qualitative research relies on the researcher's interpretation of the data , there is a risk that the researcher's subjectivity may influence the findings.

Researchers can minimize the impact of subjectivity and bias by maintaining reflexivity , or ongoing self-awareness and critical reflection on their role, assumptions, and influences in the research process. This may involve keeping a reflexive journal, engaging in peer debriefing , and discussing potential biases with research participants during member checking .

Data collection and quality

Collecting high-quality data in qualitative research can be challenging, particularly when dealing with sensitive topics, hard-to-reach populations, or complex social phenomena. Ensuring the trustworthiness of qualitative data collection is essential to producing credible and meaningful findings.

Researchers can enhance data quality by employing various strategies, such as purposive or theoretical sampling, triangulation of data sources, methods or researchers, and establishing rapport and trust with research participants.

Data analysis and interpretation

The analysis and interpretation of qualitative data can be a complex, time-consuming, and sometimes overwhelming process. Researchers must make sense of large amounts of diverse and unstructured data, while also ensuring the rigor, transparency, and consistency of their analysis.

Researchers can facilitate data analysis and interpretation by adopting systematic and well-established approaches, such as thematic analysis , grounded theory , or content analysis . Utilizing qualitative data analysis software , like ATLAS.ti, can also help manage and analyze data more efficiently and rigorously.

Qualitative research often involves exploring sensitive issues or working with vulnerable populations, which raises various ethical considerations , such as privacy, confidentiality , informed consent , and potential harm to participants.

Researchers should be familiar with the ethical guidelines and requirements of their discipline, institution, or funding agency, and should obtain ethical approval from relevant review boards or committees before conducting the research. Researchers should also maintain open communication with participants, respect their autonomy and dignity, and protect their well-being throughout the research process.

Generalizability and transferability

Qualitative research typically focuses on in-depth exploration of specific cases or contexts, which may limit the generalizability or transferability of the findings to other settings or populations. However, the goal of qualitative research is not to produce statistically generalizable results but rather to provide a rich, contextualized, and nuanced understanding of the phenomena under study.

Researchers can enhance the transferability of their findings by providing rich descriptions of the research context, participants, and methods, and by discussing the potential applicability or relevance of the findings to other settings or populations. Readers can then assess the transferability of the findings based on the similarity of their own context to the one described in the research.

By addressing these challenges and adopting rigorous and transparent research practices, qualitative researchers can contribute valuable and meaningful insights that advance knowledge, inform policies, and improve practices in various fields and contexts.

Qualitative and quantitative research approaches are often seen as distinct and even opposing paradigms. However, these two approaches can be complementary, providing a more comprehensive understanding of complex social phenomena when combined. In this section, we will discuss how qualitative research can complement quantitative research and enhance the overall depth, breadth, and rigor of research findings.

Exploring and understanding context

Quantitative research excels at identifying patterns, trends, and relationships among variables using numerical data, while qualitative research provides rich and nuanced insights into the context, meaning, and underlying processes that shape these patterns or relationships. By integrating qualitative research with quantitative research, researchers can explore not only the "what" or "how many" but also the "why" and "how" of the phenomena under study.

For example, a quantitative study in health services research might reveal a correlation between social media usage and mental health outcomes, while a qualitative study could help explain the reasons behind this correlation by exploring users' experiences, motivations, and perceptions of social media. Qualitative and quantitative data in this case complement each other to contribute to a more robust theory and more informed policy implications.

Generating and refining hypotheses

Qualitative research can inform the development and refinement of hypotheses for quantitative research by identifying new concepts, variables, or relationships that emerge from the data. This can lead to more focused, relevant, and innovative quantitative research questions and hypotheses. For instance, a qualitative study on employee motivation might uncover the importance of meaningful work and supportive relationships with supervisors as key factors influencing motivation. These findings could then be incorporated into a quantitative study to test the relationships between these factors and employee motivation.

Validating and triangulating findings

Combining qualitative and quantitative research methods can enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of research findings through validation and triangulation. Validation involves comparing the findings from different methods to assess their consistency and convergence, while triangulation involves using multiple methods, data sources, or researchers to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomena under study.

For example, a researcher might use both quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews in a mixed methods research design to assess the effectiveness of a health intervention. If both methods yield similar findings, this can increase confidence in the results. If the findings differ, the researcher can further investigate the reasons for these discrepancies and refine their understanding of the intervention's effectiveness.

Enhancing communication and dissemination

Qualitative research can enhance the communication and dissemination of quantitative research findings by providing vivid narratives, case studies, or examples that bring the data to life and make it more accessible and engaging for diverse audiences, such as policymakers, practitioners, or the public.

For example, a quantitative study on the impact of a community-based program might report the percentage of participants who experienced improvements in various outcomes. By adding qualitative data, such as quotes or stories from participants, the researcher can illustrate the human impact of the program and make the findings more compelling and relatable.

In conclusion, qualitative research can complement and enrich quantitative research in various ways, leading to a more comprehensive, contextualized, and rigorous understanding of complex social phenomena. By integrating qualitative and quantitative research methods, researchers can harness the strengths of both approaches to produce more robust, relevant, and impactful findings that inform theory, policy, and practice.

Qualitative research findings are typically reported in various formats, depending on the audience, purpose, and context of the research. Common ways to report qualitative research include dissertations, journal articles, market research reports, and needs assessment reports. Each format has its own structure and emphasis, tailored to meet the expectations and requirements of its target audience.

Dissertations and theses : Doctoral,master's, or bachelor students often conduct qualitative research as part of their dissertation or thesis projects. In this format, researchers provide a comprehensive account of their research questions , methodology, data collection , data analysis , and findings. Dissertations are expected to make a significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge and demonstrate the researcher's mastery of the subject matter.

Journal articles : Researchers frequently disseminate their qualitative research findings through articles published in academic journals . These articles are typically structured in a way that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, and discussion sections. In addition, articles often undergo a peer-review process before being published in the academic journal. Journal articles focus on communicating the study's purpose, methods, and findings in a concise and coherent manner, providing enough detail for other researchers to evaluate the rigor and validity of the research so that they can cite the article and build on it in their own studies.

Market research reports : Market research often employs qualitative methods to gather insights into consumer behavior, preferences, and attitudes. Market research reports present the findings of these studies to clients, typically businesses or organizations interested in understanding their target audience or market trends. These reports focus on providing actionable insights and recommendations based on the qualitative data, helping clients make informed decisions and develop effective marketing strategies.

Needs assessment reports : Needs assessment is a process used to identify gaps or areas of improvement in a specific context, such as healthcare, education, or social services. Qualitative research methods can be used to collect data on the needs, challenges, and experiences of the target population. Needs assessment reports present the findings of this research, highlighting the identified needs and providing recommendations for addressing them. These reports are used by organizations and policymakers to inform the development and implementation of targeted interventions and policies.

Other formats : In addition to the aforementioned formats, qualitative research findings can also be reported in conference presentations, white papers, policy briefs, blog posts, or multimedia presentations. The choice of format depends on the target audience and the intended purpose of the research, as well as the researcher's preferences and resources. Regardless of the format, it is important for researchers to present their findings in a clear, accurate, and engaging manner, ensuring that their work is accessible and relevant to their audience.

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Qualitative Research Using R: A Systematic Approach pp 1–19 Cite as

Qualitative Research: An Overview

• Yanto Chandra 3 &
• Liang Shang 4  
• First Online: 24 April 2019

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Qualitative research is one of the most commonly used types of research and methodology in the social sciences. Unfortunately, qualitative research is commonly misunderstood. In this chapter, we describe and explain the misconceptions surrounding qualitative research enterprise, why researchers need to care about when using qualitative research, the characteristics of qualitative research, and review the paradigms in qualitative research.

• Qualitative research
• Gioia approach
• Yin-Eisenhardt approach
• Langley approach
• Interpretivism

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Qualitative research is defined as the practice used to study things –– individuals and organizations and their reasons, opinions, and motivations, beliefs in their natural settings. It involves an observer (a researcher) who is located in the field , who transforms the world into a series of representations such as fieldnotes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings and memos (Denzin and Lincoln 2011 ). Many researchers employ qualitative research for exploratory purpose while others use it for ‘quasi’ theory testing approach. Qualitative research is a broad umbrella of research methodologies that encompasses grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss 2017 ; Strauss and Corbin 1990 ), case study (Flyvbjerg 2006 ; Yin 2003 ), phenomenology (Sanders 1982 ), discourse analysis (Fairclough 2003 ; Wodak and Meyer 2009 ), ethnography (Geertz 1973 ; Garfinkel 1967 ), and netnography (Kozinets 2002 ), among others. Qualitative research is often synonymous with ‘case study research’ because ‘case study’ primarily uses (but not always) qualitative data.

The quality standards or evaluation criteria of qualitative research comprises: (1) credibility (that a researcher can provide confidence in his/her findings), (2) transferability (that results are more plausible when transported to a highly similar contexts), (3) dependability (that errors have been minimized, proper documentation is provided), and (4) confirmability (that conclusions are internally consistent and supported by data) (see Lincoln and Guba 1985 ).

We classify research into a continuum of theory building — >   theory elaboration — >   theory testing . Theory building is also known as theory exploration. Theory elaboration refers to the use of qualitative data and a method to seek “confirmation” of the relationships among variables or processes or mechanisms of a social reality (Bartunek and Rynes 2015 ).

In the context of qualitative research, theory/ies usually refer(s) to conceptual model(s) or framework(s) that explain the relationships among a set of variables or processes that explain a social phenomenon. Theory or theories could also refer to general ideas or frameworks (e.g., institutional theory, emancipation theory, or identity theory) that are reviewed as background knowledge prior to the commencement of a qualitative research project.

For example, a qualitative research can ask the following question: “How can institutional change succeed in social contexts that are dominated by organized crime?” (Vaccaro and Palazzo 2015 ).

We have witnessed numerous cases in which committed positivist methodologists were asked to review qualitative papers, and they used a survey approach to assess the quality of an interpretivist work. This reviewers’ fallacy is dangerous and hampers the progress of a field of research. Editors must be cognizant of such fallacy and avoid it.

A social enterprises (SE) is an organization that combines social welfare and commercial logics (Doherty et al. 2014 ), or that uses business principles to address social problems (Mair and Marti 2006 ); thus, qualitative research that reports that ‘social impact’ is important for SEs is too descriptive and, arguably, tautological. It is not uncommon to see authors submitting purely descriptive papers to scholarly journals.

Some qualitative researchers have conducted qualitative work using primarily a checklist (ticking the boxes) to show the presence or absence of variables, as if it were a survey-based study. This is utterly inappropriate for a qualitative work. A qualitative work needs to show the richness and depth of qualitative findings. Nevertheless, it is acceptable to use such checklists as supplementary data if a study involves too many informants or variables of interest, or the data is too complex due to its longitudinal nature (e.g., a study that involves 15 cases observed and involving 59 interviews with 33 informants within a 7-year fieldwork used an excel sheet to tabulate the number of events that occurred as supplementary data to the main analysis; see Chandra 2017a , b ).

As mentioned earlier, there are different types of qualitative research. Thus, a qualitative researcher will customize the data collection process to fit the type of research being conducted. For example, for researchers using ethnography, the primary data will be in the form of photos and/or videos and interviews; for those using netnography, the primary data will be internet-based textual data. Interview data is perhaps the most common type of data used across all types of qualitative research designs and is often synonymous with qualitative research.

The purpose of qualitative research is to provide an explanation , not merely a description and certainly not a prediction (which is the realm of quantitative research). However, description is needed to illustrate qualitative data collected, and usually researchers describe their qualitative data by inserting a number of important “informant quotes” in the body of a qualitative research report.

We advise qualitative researchers to adhere to one approach to avoid any epistemological and ontological mismatch that may arise among different camps in qualitative research. For instance, mixing a positivist with a constructivist approach in qualitative research frequently leads to unnecessary criticism and even rejection from journal editors and reviewers; it shows a lack of methodological competence or awareness of one’s epistemological position.

Analytical generalization is not generalization to some defined population that has been sampled, but to a “theory” of the phenomenon being studied, a theory that may have much wider applicability than the particular case studied (Yin 2003 ).

There are different types of contributions. Typically, a researcher is expected to clearly articulate the theoretical contributions for a qualitative work submitted to a scholarly journal. Other types of contributions are practical (or managerial ), common for business/management journals, and policy , common for policy related journals.

There is ongoing debate on whether a template for qualitative research is desirable or necessary, with one camp of scholars (the pluralistic critical realists) that advocates a pluralistic approaches to qualitative research (“qualitative research should not follow a particular template or be prescriptive in its process”) and the other camps are advocating for some form of consensus via the use of particular approaches (e.g., the Eisenhardt or Gioia Approach, etc.). However, as shown in Table 1.1 , even the pluralistic critical realism in itself is a template and advocates an alternative form of consensus through the use of diverse and pluralistic approaches in doing qualitative research.

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Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

• Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
• Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

• Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
• Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
• Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
• Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
• Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

• Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
• Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

• Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
• Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
• Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
• Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

• Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
• Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
• Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
• Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
• Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

• Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
• Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
• Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
• Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

• Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
• Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
• Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
• Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
• Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

• Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
• Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
• Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
• Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

Also see Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to use and assess qualitative research methods

Loraine busetto.

1 Department of Neurology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany

Wolfgang Wick

2 Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuro-Oncology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany

Christoph Gumbinger

Associated data.

Not applicable.

This paper aims to provide an overview of the use and assessment of qualitative research methods in the health sciences. Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions, and focussing on intervention improvement. The most common methods of data collection are document study, (non-) participant observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups. For data analysis, field-notes and audio-recordings are transcribed into protocols and transcripts, and coded using qualitative data management software. Criteria such as checklists, reflexivity, sampling strategies, piloting, co-coding, member-checking and stakeholder involvement can be used to enhance and assess the quality of the research conducted. Using qualitative in addition to quantitative designs will equip us with better tools to address a greater range of research problems, and to fill in blind spots in current neurological research and practice.

The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of qualitative research methods, including hands-on information on how they can be used, reported and assessed. This article is intended for beginning qualitative researchers in the health sciences as well as experienced quantitative researchers who wish to broaden their understanding of qualitative research.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is defined as “the study of the nature of phenomena”, including “their quality, different manifestations, the context in which they appear or the perspectives from which they can be perceived” , but excluding “their range, frequency and place in an objectively determined chain of cause and effect” [ 1 ]. This formal definition can be complemented with a more pragmatic rule of thumb: qualitative research generally includes data in form of words rather than numbers [ 2 ].

Why conduct qualitative research?

Because some research questions cannot be answered using (only) quantitative methods. For example, one Australian study addressed the issue of why patients from Aboriginal communities often present late or not at all to specialist services offered by tertiary care hospitals. Using qualitative interviews with patients and staff, it found one of the most significant access barriers to be transportation problems, including some towns and communities simply not having a bus service to the hospital [ 3 ]. A quantitative study could have measured the number of patients over time or even looked at possible explanatory factors – but only those previously known or suspected to be of relevance. To discover reasons for observed patterns, especially the invisible or surprising ones, qualitative designs are needed.

While qualitative research is common in other fields, it is still relatively underrepresented in health services research. The latter field is more traditionally rooted in the evidence-based-medicine paradigm, as seen in " research that involves testing the effectiveness of various strategies to achieve changes in clinical practice, preferably applying randomised controlled trial study designs (...) " [ 4 ]. This focus on quantitative research and specifically randomised controlled trials (RCT) is visible in the idea of a hierarchy of research evidence which assumes that some research designs are objectively better than others, and that choosing a "lesser" design is only acceptable when the better ones are not practically or ethically feasible [ 5 , 6 ]. Others, however, argue that an objective hierarchy does not exist, and that, instead, the research design and methods should be chosen to fit the specific research question at hand – "questions before methods" [ 2 , 7 – 9 ]. This means that even when an RCT is possible, some research problems require a different design that is better suited to addressing them. Arguing in JAMA, Berwick uses the example of rapid response teams in hospitals, which he describes as " a complex, multicomponent intervention – essentially a process of social change" susceptible to a range of different context factors including leadership or organisation history. According to him, "[in] such complex terrain, the RCT is an impoverished way to learn. Critics who use it as a truth standard in this context are incorrect" [ 8 ] . Instead of limiting oneself to RCTs, Berwick recommends embracing a wider range of methods , including qualitative ones, which for "these specific applications, (...) are not compromises in learning how to improve; they are superior" [ 8 ].

Research problems that can be approached particularly well using qualitative methods include assessing complex multi-component interventions or systems (of change), addressing questions beyond “what works”, towards “what works for whom when, how and why”, and focussing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation [ 7 , 9 – 12 ]. Using qualitative methods can also help shed light on the “softer” side of medical treatment. For example, while quantitative trials can measure the costs and benefits of neuro-oncological treatment in terms of survival rates or adverse effects, qualitative research can help provide a better understanding of patient or caregiver stress, visibility of illness or out-of-pocket expenses.

How to conduct qualitative research?

Given that qualitative research is characterised by flexibility, openness and responsivity to context, the steps of data collection and analysis are not as separate and consecutive as they tend to be in quantitative research [ 13 , 14 ]. As Fossey puts it : “sampling, data collection, analysis and interpretation are related to each other in a cyclical (iterative) manner, rather than following one after another in a stepwise approach” [ 15 ]. The researcher can make educated decisions with regard to the choice of method, how they are implemented, and to which and how many units they are applied [ 13 ]. As shown in Fig.  1 , this can involve several back-and-forth steps between data collection and analysis where new insights and experiences can lead to adaption and expansion of the original plan. Some insights may also necessitate a revision of the research question and/or the research design as a whole. The process ends when saturation is achieved, i.e. when no relevant new information can be found (see also below: sampling and saturation). For reasons of transparency, it is essential for all decisions as well as the underlying reasoning to be well-documented.

Iterative research process

While it is not always explicitly addressed, qualitative methods reflect a different underlying research paradigm than quantitative research (e.g. constructivism or interpretivism as opposed to positivism). The choice of methods can be based on the respective underlying substantive theory or theoretical framework used by the researcher [ 2 ].

Data collection

The methods of qualitative data collection most commonly used in health research are document study, observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups [ 1 , 14 , 16 , 17 ].

Document study

Document study (also called document analysis) refers to the review by the researcher of written materials [ 14 ]. These can include personal and non-personal documents such as archives, annual reports, guidelines, policy documents, diaries or letters.

Observations

Observations are particularly useful to gain insights into a certain setting and actual behaviour – as opposed to reported behaviour or opinions [ 13 ]. Qualitative observations can be either participant or non-participant in nature. In participant observations, the observer is part of the observed setting, for example a nurse working in an intensive care unit [ 18 ]. In non-participant observations, the observer is “on the outside looking in”, i.e. present in but not part of the situation, trying not to influence the setting by their presence. Observations can be planned (e.g. for 3 h during the day or night shift) or ad hoc (e.g. as soon as a stroke patient arrives at the emergency room). During the observation, the observer takes notes on everything or certain pre-determined parts of what is happening around them, for example focusing on physician-patient interactions or communication between different professional groups. Written notes can be taken during or after the observations, depending on feasibility (which is usually lower during participant observations) and acceptability (e.g. when the observer is perceived to be judging the observed). Afterwards, these field notes are transcribed into observation protocols. If more than one observer was involved, field notes are taken independently, but notes can be consolidated into one protocol after discussions. Advantages of conducting observations include minimising the distance between the researcher and the researched, the potential discovery of topics that the researcher did not realise were relevant and gaining deeper insights into the real-world dimensions of the research problem at hand [ 18 ].

Semi-structured interviews

Hijmans & Kuyper describe qualitative interviews as “an exchange with an informal character, a conversation with a goal” [ 19 ]. Interviews are used to gain insights into a person’s subjective experiences, opinions and motivations – as opposed to facts or behaviours [ 13 ]. Interviews can be distinguished by the degree to which they are structured (i.e. a questionnaire), open (e.g. free conversation or autobiographical interviews) or semi-structured [ 2 , 13 ]. Semi-structured interviews are characterized by open-ended questions and the use of an interview guide (or topic guide/list) in which the broad areas of interest, sometimes including sub-questions, are defined [ 19 ]. The pre-defined topics in the interview guide can be derived from the literature, previous research or a preliminary method of data collection, e.g. document study or observations. The topic list is usually adapted and improved at the start of the data collection process as the interviewer learns more about the field [ 20 ]. Across interviews the focus on the different (blocks of) questions may differ and some questions may be skipped altogether (e.g. if the interviewee is not able or willing to answer the questions or for concerns about the total length of the interview) [ 20 ]. Qualitative interviews are usually not conducted in written format as it impedes on the interactive component of the method [ 20 ]. In comparison to written surveys, qualitative interviews have the advantage of being interactive and allowing for unexpected topics to emerge and to be taken up by the researcher. This can also help overcome a provider or researcher-centred bias often found in written surveys, which by nature, can only measure what is already known or expected to be of relevance to the researcher. Interviews can be audio- or video-taped; but sometimes it is only feasible or acceptable for the interviewer to take written notes [ 14 , 16 , 20 ].

Focus groups

Focus groups are group interviews to explore participants’ expertise and experiences, including explorations of how and why people behave in certain ways [ 1 ]. Focus groups usually consist of 6–8 people and are led by an experienced moderator following a topic guide or “script” [ 21 ]. They can involve an observer who takes note of the non-verbal aspects of the situation, possibly using an observation guide [ 21 ]. Depending on researchers’ and participants’ preferences, the discussions can be audio- or video-taped and transcribed afterwards [ 21 ]. Focus groups are useful for bringing together homogeneous (to a lesser extent heterogeneous) groups of participants with relevant expertise and experience on a given topic on which they can share detailed information [ 21 ]. Focus groups are a relatively easy, fast and inexpensive method to gain access to information on interactions in a given group, i.e. “the sharing and comparing” among participants [ 21 ]. Disadvantages include less control over the process and a lesser extent to which each individual may participate. Moreover, focus group moderators need experience, as do those tasked with the analysis of the resulting data. Focus groups can be less appropriate for discussing sensitive topics that participants might be reluctant to disclose in a group setting [ 13 ]. Moreover, attention must be paid to the emergence of “groupthink” as well as possible power dynamics within the group, e.g. when patients are awed or intimidated by health professionals.

Choosing the “right” method

As explained above, the school of thought underlying qualitative research assumes no objective hierarchy of evidence and methods. This means that each choice of single or combined methods has to be based on the research question that needs to be answered and a critical assessment with regard to whether or to what extent the chosen method can accomplish this – i.e. the “fit” between question and method [ 14 ]. It is necessary for these decisions to be documented when they are being made, and to be critically discussed when reporting methods and results.

Let us assume that our research aim is to examine the (clinical) processes around acute endovascular treatment (EVT), from the patient’s arrival at the emergency room to recanalization, with the aim to identify possible causes for delay and/or other causes for sub-optimal treatment outcome. As a first step, we could conduct a document study of the relevant standard operating procedures (SOPs) for this phase of care – are they up-to-date and in line with current guidelines? Do they contain any mistakes, irregularities or uncertainties that could cause delays or other problems? Regardless of the answers to these questions, the results have to be interpreted based on what they are: a written outline of what care processes in this hospital should look like. If we want to know what they actually look like in practice, we can conduct observations of the processes described in the SOPs. These results can (and should) be analysed in themselves, but also in comparison to the results of the document analysis, especially as regards relevant discrepancies. Do the SOPs outline specific tests for which no equipment can be observed or tasks to be performed by specialized nurses who are not present during the observation? It might also be possible that the written SOP is outdated, but the actual care provided is in line with current best practice. In order to find out why these discrepancies exist, it can be useful to conduct interviews. Are the physicians simply not aware of the SOPs (because their existence is limited to the hospital’s intranet) or do they actively disagree with them or does the infrastructure make it impossible to provide the care as described? Another rationale for adding interviews is that some situations (or all of their possible variations for different patient groups or the day, night or weekend shift) cannot practically or ethically be observed. In this case, it is possible to ask those involved to report on their actions – being aware that this is not the same as the actual observation. A senior physician’s or hospital manager’s description of certain situations might differ from a nurse’s or junior physician’s one, maybe because they intentionally misrepresent facts or maybe because different aspects of the process are visible or important to them. In some cases, it can also be relevant to consider to whom the interviewee is disclosing this information – someone they trust, someone they are otherwise not connected to, or someone they suspect or are aware of being in a potentially “dangerous” power relationship to them. Lastly, a focus group could be conducted with representatives of the relevant professional groups to explore how and why exactly they provide care around EVT. The discussion might reveal discrepancies (between SOPs and actual care or between different physicians) and motivations to the researchers as well as to the focus group members that they might not have been aware of themselves. For the focus group to deliver relevant information, attention has to be paid to its composition and conduct, for example, to make sure that all participants feel safe to disclose sensitive or potentially problematic information or that the discussion is not dominated by (senior) physicians only. The resulting combination of data collection methods is shown in Fig.  2 .

Possible combination of data collection methods

Attributions for icons: “Book” by Serhii Smirnov, “Interview” by Adrien Coquet, FR, “Magnifying Glass” by anggun, ID, “Business communication” by Vectors Market; all from the Noun Project

The combination of multiple data source as described for this example can be referred to as “triangulation”, in which multiple measurements are carried out from different angles to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study [ 22 , 23 ].

Data analysis

To analyse the data collected through observations, interviews and focus groups these need to be transcribed into protocols and transcripts (see Fig.  3 ). Interviews and focus groups can be transcribed verbatim , with or without annotations for behaviour (e.g. laughing, crying, pausing) and with or without phonetic transcription of dialects and filler words, depending on what is expected or known to be relevant for the analysis. In the next step, the protocols and transcripts are coded , that is, marked (or tagged, labelled) with one or more short descriptors of the content of a sentence or paragraph [ 2 , 15 , 23 ]. Jansen describes coding as “connecting the raw data with “theoretical” terms” [ 20 ]. In a more practical sense, coding makes raw data sortable. This makes it possible to extract and examine all segments describing, say, a tele-neurology consultation from multiple data sources (e.g. SOPs, emergency room observations, staff and patient interview). In a process of synthesis and abstraction, the codes are then grouped, summarised and/or categorised [ 15 , 20 ]. The end product of the coding or analysis process is a descriptive theory of the behavioural pattern under investigation [ 20 ]. The coding process is performed using qualitative data management software, the most common ones being InVivo, MaxQDA and Atlas.ti. It should be noted that these are data management tools which support the analysis performed by the researcher(s) [ 14 ].

From data collection to data analysis

Attributions for icons: see Fig. ​ Fig.2, 2 , also “Speech to text” by Trevor Dsouza, “Field Notes” by Mike O’Brien, US, “Voice Record” by ProSymbols, US, “Inspection” by Made, AU, and “Cloud” by Graphic Tigers; all from the Noun Project

How to report qualitative research?

Protocols of qualitative research can be published separately and in advance of the study results. However, the aim is not the same as in RCT protocols, i.e. to pre-define and set in stone the research questions and primary or secondary endpoints. Rather, it is a way to describe the research methods in detail, which might not be possible in the results paper given journals’ word limits. Qualitative research papers are usually longer than their quantitative counterparts to allow for deep understanding and so-called “thick description”. In the methods section, the focus is on transparency of the methods used, including why, how and by whom they were implemented in the specific study setting, so as to enable a discussion of whether and how this may have influenced data collection, analysis and interpretation. The results section usually starts with a paragraph outlining the main findings, followed by more detailed descriptions of, for example, the commonalities, discrepancies or exceptions per category [ 20 ]. Here it is important to support main findings by relevant quotations, which may add information, context, emphasis or real-life examples [ 20 , 23 ]. It is subject to debate in the field whether it is relevant to state the exact number or percentage of respondents supporting a certain statement (e.g. “Five interviewees expressed negative feelings towards XYZ”) [ 21 ].

How to combine qualitative with quantitative research?

Qualitative methods can be combined with other methods in multi- or mixed methods designs, which “[employ] two or more different methods [ …] within the same study or research program rather than confining the research to one single method” [ 24 ]. Reasons for combining methods can be diverse, including triangulation for corroboration of findings, complementarity for illustration and clarification of results, expansion to extend the breadth and range of the study, explanation of (unexpected) results generated with one method with the help of another, or offsetting the weakness of one method with the strength of another [ 1 , 17 , 24 – 26 ]. The resulting designs can be classified according to when, why and how the different quantitative and/or qualitative data strands are combined. The three most common types of mixed method designs are the convergent parallel design , the explanatory sequential design and the exploratory sequential design. The designs with examples are shown in Fig.  4 .

Three common mixed methods designs

In the convergent parallel design, a qualitative study is conducted in parallel to and independently of a quantitative study, and the results of both studies are compared and combined at the stage of interpretation of results. Using the above example of EVT provision, this could entail setting up a quantitative EVT registry to measure process times and patient outcomes in parallel to conducting the qualitative research outlined above, and then comparing results. Amongst other things, this would make it possible to assess whether interview respondents’ subjective impressions of patients receiving good care match modified Rankin Scores at follow-up, or whether observed delays in care provision are exceptions or the rule when compared to door-to-needle times as documented in the registry. In the explanatory sequential design, a quantitative study is carried out first, followed by a qualitative study to help explain the results from the quantitative study. This would be an appropriate design if the registry alone had revealed relevant delays in door-to-needle times and the qualitative study would be used to understand where and why these occurred, and how they could be improved. In the exploratory design, the qualitative study is carried out first and its results help informing and building the quantitative study in the next step [ 26 ]. If the qualitative study around EVT provision had shown a high level of dissatisfaction among the staff members involved, a quantitative questionnaire investigating staff satisfaction could be set up in the next step, informed by the qualitative study on which topics dissatisfaction had been expressed. Amongst other things, the questionnaire design would make it possible to widen the reach of the research to more respondents from different (types of) hospitals, regions, countries or settings, and to conduct sub-group analyses for different professional groups.

How to assess qualitative research?

A variety of assessment criteria and lists have been developed for qualitative research, ranging in their focus and comprehensiveness [ 14 , 17 , 27 ]. However, none of these has been elevated to the “gold standard” in the field. In the following, we therefore focus on a set of commonly used assessment criteria that, from a practical standpoint, a researcher can look for when assessing a qualitative research report or paper.

Assessors should check the authors’ use of and adherence to the relevant reporting checklists (e.g. Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR)) to make sure all items that are relevant for this type of research are addressed [ 23 , 28 ]. Discussions of quantitative measures in addition to or instead of these qualitative measures can be a sign of lower quality of the research (paper). Providing and adhering to a checklist for qualitative research contributes to an important quality criterion for qualitative research, namely transparency [ 15 , 17 , 23 ].

Reflexivity

While methodological transparency and complete reporting is relevant for all types of research, some additional criteria must be taken into account for qualitative research. This includes what is called reflexivity, i.e. sensitivity to the relationship between the researcher and the researched, including how contact was established and maintained, or the background and experience of the researcher(s) involved in data collection and analysis. Depending on the research question and population to be researched this can be limited to professional experience, but it may also include gender, age or ethnicity [ 17 , 27 ]. These details are relevant because in qualitative research, as opposed to quantitative research, the researcher as a person cannot be isolated from the research process [ 23 ]. It may influence the conversation when an interviewed patient speaks to an interviewer who is a physician, or when an interviewee is asked to discuss a gynaecological procedure with a male interviewer, and therefore the reader must be made aware of these details [ 19 ].

Sampling and saturation

The aim of qualitative sampling is for all variants of the objects of observation that are deemed relevant for the study to be present in the sample “ to see the issue and its meanings from as many angles as possible” [ 1 , 16 , 19 , 20 , 27 ] , and to ensure “information-richness [ 15 ]. An iterative sampling approach is advised, in which data collection (e.g. five interviews) is followed by data analysis, followed by more data collection to find variants that are lacking in the current sample. This process continues until no new (relevant) information can be found and further sampling becomes redundant – which is called saturation [ 1 , 15 ] . In other words: qualitative data collection finds its end point not a priori , but when the research team determines that saturation has been reached [ 29 , 30 ].

This is also the reason why most qualitative studies use deliberate instead of random sampling strategies. This is generally referred to as “ purposive sampling” , in which researchers pre-define which types of participants or cases they need to include so as to cover all variations that are expected to be of relevance, based on the literature, previous experience or theory (i.e. theoretical sampling) [ 14 , 20 ]. Other types of purposive sampling include (but are not limited to) maximum variation sampling, critical case sampling or extreme or deviant case sampling [ 2 ]. In the above EVT example, a purposive sample could include all relevant professional groups and/or all relevant stakeholders (patients, relatives) and/or all relevant times of observation (day, night and weekend shift).

Assessors of qualitative research should check whether the considerations underlying the sampling strategy were sound and whether or how researchers tried to adapt and improve their strategies in stepwise or cyclical approaches between data collection and analysis to achieve saturation [ 14 ].

Good qualitative research is iterative in nature, i.e. it goes back and forth between data collection and analysis, revising and improving the approach where necessary. One example of this are pilot interviews, where different aspects of the interview (especially the interview guide, but also, for example, the site of the interview or whether the interview can be audio-recorded) are tested with a small number of respondents, evaluated and revised [ 19 ]. In doing so, the interviewer learns which wording or types of questions work best, or which is the best length of an interview with patients who have trouble concentrating for an extended time. Of course, the same reasoning applies to observations or focus groups which can also be piloted.

Ideally, coding should be performed by at least two researchers, especially at the beginning of the coding process when a common approach must be defined, including the establishment of a useful coding list (or tree), and when a common meaning of individual codes must be established [ 23 ]. An initial sub-set or all transcripts can be coded independently by the coders and then compared and consolidated after regular discussions in the research team. This is to make sure that codes are applied consistently to the research data.

Member checking

Member checking, also called respondent validation , refers to the practice of checking back with study respondents to see if the research is in line with their views [ 14 , 27 ]. This can happen after data collection or analysis or when first results are available [ 23 ]. For example, interviewees can be provided with (summaries of) their transcripts and asked whether they believe this to be a complete representation of their views or whether they would like to clarify or elaborate on their responses [ 17 ]. Respondents’ feedback on these issues then becomes part of the data collection and analysis [ 27 ].

Stakeholder involvement

In those niches where qualitative approaches have been able to evolve and grow, a new trend has seen the inclusion of patients and their representatives not only as study participants (i.e. “members”, see above) but as consultants to and active participants in the broader research process [ 31 – 33 ]. The underlying assumption is that patients and other stakeholders hold unique perspectives and experiences that add value beyond their own single story, making the research more relevant and beneficial to researchers, study participants and (future) patients alike [ 34 , 35 ]. Using the example of patients on or nearing dialysis, a recent scoping review found that 80% of clinical research did not address the top 10 research priorities identified by patients and caregivers [ 32 , 36 ]. In this sense, the involvement of the relevant stakeholders, especially patients and relatives, is increasingly being seen as a quality indicator in and of itself.

How not to assess qualitative research

The above overview does not include certain items that are routine in assessments of quantitative research. What follows is a non-exhaustive, non-representative, experience-based list of the quantitative criteria often applied to the assessment of qualitative research, as well as an explanation of the limited usefulness of these endeavours.

Protocol adherence

Given the openness and flexibility of qualitative research, it should not be assessed by how well it adheres to pre-determined and fixed strategies – in other words: its rigidity. Instead, the assessor should look for signs of adaptation and refinement based on lessons learned from earlier steps in the research process.

Sample size

For the reasons explained above, qualitative research does not require specific sample sizes, nor does it require that the sample size be determined a priori [ 1 , 14 , 27 , 37 – 39 ]. Sample size can only be a useful quality indicator when related to the research purpose, the chosen methodology and the composition of the sample, i.e. who was included and why.

Randomisation

While some authors argue that randomisation can be used in qualitative research, this is not commonly the case, as neither its feasibility nor its necessity or usefulness has been convincingly established for qualitative research [ 13 , 27 ]. Relevant disadvantages include the negative impact of a too large sample size as well as the possibility (or probability) of selecting “ quiet, uncooperative or inarticulate individuals ” [ 17 ]. Qualitative studies do not use control groups, either.

Interrater reliability, variability and other “objectivity checks”

The concept of “interrater reliability” is sometimes used in qualitative research to assess to which extent the coding approach overlaps between the two co-coders. However, it is not clear what this measure tells us about the quality of the analysis [ 23 ]. This means that these scores can be included in qualitative research reports, preferably with some additional information on what the score means for the analysis, but it is not a requirement. Relatedly, it is not relevant for the quality or “objectivity” of qualitative research to separate those who recruited the study participants and collected and analysed the data. Experiences even show that it might be better to have the same person or team perform all of these tasks [ 20 ]. First, when researchers introduce themselves during recruitment this can enhance trust when the interview takes place days or weeks later with the same researcher. Second, when the audio-recording is transcribed for analysis, the researcher conducting the interviews will usually remember the interviewee and the specific interview situation during data analysis. This might be helpful in providing additional context information for interpretation of data, e.g. on whether something might have been meant as a joke [ 18 ].

Not being quantitative research

Being qualitative research instead of quantitative research should not be used as an assessment criterion if it is used irrespectively of the research problem at hand. Similarly, qualitative research should not be required to be combined with quantitative research per se – unless mixed methods research is judged as inherently better than single-method research. In this case, the same criterion should be applied for quantitative studies without a qualitative component.

The main take-away points of this paper are summarised in Table ​ Table1. 1 . We aimed to show that, if conducted well, qualitative research can answer specific research questions that cannot to be adequately answered using (only) quantitative designs. Seeing qualitative and quantitative methods as equal will help us become more aware and critical of the “fit” between the research problem and our chosen methods: I can conduct an RCT to determine the reasons for transportation delays of acute stroke patients – but should I? It also provides us with a greater range of tools to tackle a greater range of research problems more appropriately and successfully, filling in the blind spots on one half of the methodological spectrum to better address the whole complexity of neurological research and practice.

Take-away-points

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations, authors’ contributions.

LB drafted the manuscript; WW and CG revised the manuscript; all authors approved the final versions.

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Market Research

Qualitative Research: Understanding the Goal and Benefits for Effective Analysis

As market trends evolve at lightning speed in the age of digital transformation, having an intimate understanding of consumer desires and motivations is more critical than ever. Enter qualitative research – the knight in shining armor of deep-dive data analysis. In this blog post, we’ll be exploring the profound purpose and impressive benefits behind qualitative research, unveiling how it anchors effective market analysis and strategy development. Brace yourselves for a mesmerizing journey into the realm of potent insights that power consequential decisions and breed groundbreaking innovation.

The primary goal of qualitative research is to obtain insights into participants’ experiences and understanding of the world. This type of research provides rich descriptions and explanations of processes in identifiable local contexts. Qualitative research has several benefits including providing an in-depth understanding, being flexible and adaptable, and generating descriptive data that can be used to create new theories using the inductive method. 

Qualitative Study’s Importance

Qualitative research holds a significant place in the realm of social science research and is integral for understanding the complexities of human behavior, experiences, and social interactions. Unlike quantitative research which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research collects non-numerical data and emphasizes interpreting meaning from social contexts.

The importance of qualitative research lies in its ability to provide rich descriptions and explanations of processes in identifiable local contexts. It allows researchers to gain insights into participants’ experiences and understand the world as another person experiences it. This deeper understanding paves the way for more comprehensive analyses and the development of theories that accurately represent the intricacies of human life.

For instance, imagine a sociologist interested in studying how individuals cope with unemployment during economic downturns. By conducting qualitative research , these sociologists can immerse themselves in the lives of unemployed individuals, observe their daily routines, conduct in-depth interviews, and analyze their personal narratives. This approach goes beyond simply quantifying unemployment rates; it provides an intimate understanding of how people navigate through difficult situations and sheds light on the emotional, psychological, and societal impacts.

In addition to providing rich insight into human experiences, qualitative research offers numerous other benefits that contribute to effective analysis.

• Qualitative research is essential in social science research as it allows for a deeper understanding of human behavior and social interactions. Its focus on non-numerical data collection and interpretation of meaning helps researchers gain insights into participants’ experiences and contextual factors. Qualitative research also provides rich descriptions and explanations of processes in identifiable local contexts, leading to the development of comprehensive analysis and accurate theories. Overall, qualitative research offers numerous benefits that contribute to effective analysis in social science research.

Goals & Benefits Driving Research

The goals of qualitative research are multifaceted. One primary objective is to investigate the meanings people attribute to their behavior and interactions within specific social contexts. This focus on subjective interpretations helps uncover individual perspectives that may be overlooked by quantitative methods alone. Additionally, qualitative research aims to explore social phenomena that are not easily measurable or quantifiable.

Qualitative research also generates descriptive data that requires rigorous methods of analysis. Researchers employ various techniques such as thematic analysis or grounded theory to identify patterns, themes, and categories within their data. These analytical approaches ensure systematic interpretation while maintaining the integrity of participants’ lived experiences.

Beyond these goals, qualitative research offers several benefits that aid in reliable analysis. Firstly, it provides an in-depth understanding of complex social issues by capturing the nuances and subtleties of human behavior. This depth allows researchers to generate rich descriptions and explanations that facilitate a comprehensive comprehension of social phenomena.

For example, consider a study exploring the experience of minority students in predominantly white institutions. Through qualitative research methods like interviews and focus groups, researchers can delve into the students’ lived experiences, their perceptions of inclusion or exclusion, and their strategies for navigating through institutional challenges. This level of detail paints a holistic picture that goes beyond quantitative statistics such as enrollment numbers.

Another advantage of qualitative research is its flexibility and adaptability. Researchers can modify their data collection methods to account for new insights or unexpected findings during the research process. This responsiveness allows for deeper exploration and ensures that no valuable information is left unexamined.

However, it is essential to acknowledge that qualitative research also has its limitations. These include the limited scope and generalizability of findings due to the smaller sample sizes typically used in qualitative studies. Additionally, there is a potential for researcher bias since the individuals collecting and analyzing the data play an active role in shaping the research process.

Nonetheless, while objectivity may be seen as a myth in qualitative research, researchers should be honest and transparent about their own biases and assumptions. Reflexivity, which involves acknowledging and critically examining one’s subjectivity throughout the research process, is integral to ensuring integrity and minimizing undue influence.

• According to a report from the Journal of Social Issues, as of 2022, around 45% of psychological studies used qualitative methods, signaling strong recognition in the field for its unique insights into human behavior.
• A study conducted by the Market Research Society confirmed that out of all market research carried out worldwide, approximately 20% utilize qualitative methodologies. This highlights its crucial role in understanding customer behaviors and motivations.
• The National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) indicated that nearly 70% of health research incorporates some elements of qualitative research, underscoring its importance in contributing to our understanding of complex health issues and interventions.

Comprehensive Approaches

When conducting qualitative research , adopting comprehensive approaches is essential for capturing the richness and depth of data required for effective analysis. These approaches involve a holistic perspective that considers multiple dimensions and contexts. One commonly used comprehensive approach is triangulation , which involves using multiple data sources, methods, or perspectives to cross-verify findings. By triangulating data, researchers can enhance the reliability and validity of their analysis.

Another important approach is thick description , which focuses on providing detailed and vivid accounts of participants’ experiences and contexts. This technique enables researchers to capture the nuances and complexities of social phenomena, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Thick descriptions typically include vivid narratives, dialogue excerpts, and detailed observations, providing readers with a rich portrayal of the study’s context.

Researchers may also adopt an iterative process in their analysis, where data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. This approach allows for constant refinement and adjustment of research questions and methods based on emerging findings. Through iteration, researchers can dive deeper into the topic, uncover unexpected insights, and explore various angles that contribute to a more comprehensive analysis.

It’s worth noting that comprehensive approaches in qualitative research require flexibility and openness to embracing emergent themes and unexpected directions. As researchers immerse themselves in the data, they should be willing to adapt their strategies accordingly.

Participant Engagement & Topic Exploration

Participant engagement plays a crucial role in qualitative research as it fosters a deeper understanding of participants’ perspectives and experiences. Effective engagement encourages open dialogue and trust between the researcher and participants, allowing for richer data collection. One way to promote participant engagement is through active listening . By attentively listening to participants’ stories, concerns, and viewpoints, researchers can demonstrate empathy and create a safe space for open expression.

Another aspect that greatly enhances participant engagement is establishing rapport . Building rapport involves creating a comfortable environment where participants feel at ease to share their thoughts and experiences. This can be achieved through transparent communication, respect for participants’ autonomy, and genuine interest in their stories. Researchers should establish a positive and respectful relationship with participants, positioning themselves as partners rather than authoritative figures.

In qualitative research, topic exploration is a dynamic and iterative process that allows researchers to uncover new insights and dimensions of the phenomenon under study. This involves probing deeper into participants’ responses, asking follow-up questions, and exploring unexpected avenues that emerge during data collection. By being open to revisiting research questions and digging deeper into topics, researchers can uncover valuable insights and gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

It’s important to note that participant engagement and topic exploration go hand in hand. Engaged participants are more likely to provide rich and detailed responses, leading to enhanced exploration of the research topic. Conversely, skillful topic exploration can foster deeper engagement from participants by demonstrating genuine interest and curiosity in their perspectives.

Effective Data Accumulation Methods

In qualitative research, the collection of rich and meaningful data is a crucial step toward understanding the complexities of human experiences. To ensure effective analysis, researchers need to employ appropriate data accumulation methods that capture the depth of participants’ perspectives and insights. Let’s explore some strategies that can facilitate this process.

One common method used in qualitative research is participant observation. This involves immersing oneself in the research setting, actively observing, and taking detailed notes on behaviors, interactions, and cultural nuances. By being present in the natural context, researchers gain a deeper understanding of the social dynamics and can document valuable data that may go unnoticed otherwise.

For instance, imagine a researcher interested in studying the experiences of healthcare workers in a hospital. Through participant observation, they can shadow these workers, witness their daily routines, the challenges they face, and even engage in conversations during breaks. This method provides an intimate look into their lives and generates valuable insights.

Another effective technique is in-depth interviews. These interviews allow researchers to establish a personal connection with participants and delve into their thoughts, feelings, and motivations regarding the research topic. It’s crucial to create an open and comfortable environment where participants feel safe sharing their views openly.

Additionally, focus groups are utilized as a powerful data accumulation method. Bringing together a small group of individuals who share similar characteristics or experiences allows for stimulating discussions that uncover diverse perspectives. Participants can build upon each other’s ideas and provide deeper insights collectively.

Having explored effective data accumulation methods like participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups, let’s now dive into another important aspect of qualitative research – harnessing sensory inputs & eliciting verbal responses.

Harnessing Sensory Inputs and Eliciting Verbal Responses

Qualitative research aims to understand phenomena from the perspective of individuals involved. One way to achieve this is by harnessing sensory inputs and eliciting verbal responses, allowing participants to express themselves fully. This approach taps into a range of human senses and encourages participants to describe their experiences vividly.

For instance, researchers might utilize photovoice techniques, where participants capture images related to the research topic using cameras or smartphones. These visual representations allow participants to share their perspectives in a unique and powerful way.

Imagine a study exploring the impact of urbanization on community well-being. Participants could be asked to take pictures of spaces they feel contribute positively or negatively to their quality of life. These images can then be used as stimuli for further discussion, sparking conversations about the emotional and sensory aspects of the built environment.

In addition to visuals, researchers can also engage participants’ sense of hearing through audio recordings. By recording interviews, focus group discussions, or even ambient sounds in a particular environment, researchers can capture subtle nuances that may not be conveyed through written transcripts alone.

By harnessing sensory inputs and giving participants the space for verbal expression, qualitative researchers foster an environment where rich and nuanced data can be collected. This multi-sensory approach enables a deeper understanding of individuals’ experiences and allows us to gain insights beyond mere words.

Parsing and Conclusion Derivation from Data

In qualitative research, one of the primary goals is to parse and derive meaningful conclusions from the collected data. Unlike quantitative research which relies on statistical analysis, qualitative research involves obtaining rich descriptions of participants’ experiences and understanding the world as another person experiences it. The process of parsing and deriving conclusions from qualitative data requires a meticulous examination of the data, identification of patterns, themes, and connections, and an inductive approach to theory development.

Qualitative researchers immerse themselves in the data collected through methods such as interviews, observations, and focus groups. They carefully analyze transcripts, field notes, or documents to identify recurring themes or significant incidents that shed light on the research question. Through this process of coding and categorizing, researchers start to make sense of the data and identify key findings that can be used to develop theories or inform specific contexts.

For example, imagine a researcher conducting an ethnographic study exploring the experiences of undocumented immigrants in their journey toward citizenship. Through interviews and participant observation, they gather compelling stories and narratives about the challenges faced by these individuals. By carefully analyzing these stories for common themes such as navigating legal systems or facing social stigma, the researcher can derive conclusions about the complex processes involved in seeking legal status.

“Analyzing qualitative data is like piecing together a puzzle. Each interview or observation provides a unique piece that contributes to the overall picture.”

However, it is important to note that deriving conclusions from qualitative data is not a simple linear process. It requires reflexivity on the part of the researcher to acknowledge their own biases and assumptions that may influence their interpretation of the data. Reflexivity encourages researchers to critically reflect on how their own subjectivity affects their analysis and conclusions.

Advantages & Drawbacks of This Research Type

Qualitative research offers several advantages that contribute to its effectiveness in providing rich insights into social phenomena. First and foremost, it allows researchers to gain an in-depth understanding of the experiences, perspectives, and meanings that individuals attribute to their behavior and interactions. This depth of understanding is often difficult to achieve through quantitative research methods alone.

Moreover, qualitative research is known for its flexibility and adaptability. Researchers can modify their research design or data collection methods as they delve deeper into the field, responding to emerging themes or new areas of investigation. The open-ended nature of qualitative research also enables participants to express themselves freely and provide nuanced responses, offering a more comprehensive view of complex social phenomena.

On the other hand, there are some drawbacks to consider when conducting qualitative research. One challenge is the limited scope and generalizability of findings. Due to the small sample sizes typically involved in qualitative studies, it can be challenging to extrapolate findings to broader populations or contexts. Additionally, there is potential for researcher bias as interpretations of qualitative data are subjective and influenced by researchers’ perspectives and assumptions.

Despite these limitations, the benefits of qualitative research outweigh its drawbacks in many cases. By providing detailed insights into participants’ experiences, qualitative research contributes valuable knowledge that can inform policy decisions, improve interventions, and enhance our understanding of social phenomena.

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9 methodologies for a successful qualitative research assignment

Qualitative research is important in the educational and scientific domains. It enables a deeper understanding of phenomena, experiences, and context. Many researchers employ such research activities in the fields of history, sociology, and anthropology. For such researchers, learning quality analysis insights is crucial. This way, they can perform well throughout their research journey. Writing a qualitative research assignment is one such way to practice qualitative interpretations. When students address various qualitative questions in these projects, they become efficient in conducting these activities at a higher level, such as for a master’s or Ph.D. thesis.

The FormPlus highlights why researchers prefer qualitative research over quantitative research. It is faster, scientific, objective, focused, and acceptable. Researchers who don’t know what to expect from the research outcomes usually choose qualitative research. In this guide, we will discuss the top methodologies that students can employ while writing their qualitative research assignments. This way, you can write an appealing document that perfectly demonstrates your qualitative research skills.

However, being stressed with academic and daily life commitments, if you find it challenging to manage time exclusively for such projects, availing of assignment writing services can make it manageable. Instead of doing anything wrong in the hustle, get it done by the professionals specifically working to handle these academic write-ups. Now, let’s define quality research before we discuss the actual topic.

What is meant by qualitative research?

Quality research is a market research method that gathers data from conversational and open-ended communication. In simple words, it is about what people think and why they think so. It relates to the nature or standard of something rather than dealing with its quantity. Such researchers collect nonnumerical data to understand opinions, concepts, and ideas.

How do you write a qualitative research assignment? Top 9 methodologies

Writing an assignment requires your command of various tasks. Qualitative research assignment design involves research, writing, structuring, and providing citations of the resources used. Assignment writing plays a crucial role in upgrading your grades.

So, you must make it accurate and authentic. Write it with the utmost care without skipping any important aspects. Sometimes, it can be hard, but it becomes easy if you correctly use effective methodologies. This is why we have brought together some of the common methodologies you can use to write your qualitative research assignments.

1. Interviews

A qualitative interview is mostly used in projects that involve market research. In this study personal interaction is required to collect in-depth information of the participants. In qualitative research for assignment, consider the interview as a personal form of research agenda rather than a focused group study. A qualitative interview requires careful planning so that you can gather meaningful data.

Here are the simple steps to consider for its implementation in a qualitative research assignment:

• Define research objectives.
• Identify the target population.
• Obtain informed consent of participants.
• Make an interview guideline.
• Select a suitable location.
• Conduct the interview.
• Show respect for participant’s perspectives.
• Analyse the data.

2. Observation

In qualitative observation, the researcher gathers data from five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. It is a subject approach that depends on the sensory organ of the researcher. This method allows you to better understand the culture, process, and people under study. Some of its characteristics to consider for writing a qualitative research assignment include,

• It is a naturalistic inquiry of the participants in a natural environment.
• This approach is subjective and depends on the researcher’s observation.
• It does not seek a definite answer to a query.
• The researcher can recognise their own biases when compiling findings.

3. Questionnaires

In this type of survey, the researcher asks open-ended questions to participants. This way, they price the long written or typed document. In writing qualitative research assignments, these questions aim to reveal the participants’ narratives and experiences. Once you know what type of information you need, you can start curating your questionnaire form. The questions must be specific and clear enough that the participants can comprehend them.

Below are the main points that must be considered when creating qualitative research questionnaires.

• Avoid jargon and ambiguity in the questions.
• Each question should contribute to the research objectives.
• Use simple language.
• The questions should be neutral and unbiased.
• Be precise, as the complex questions can overwhelm the respondents.
• Always conduct a pilot test.
• Put yourself in the respondent’s shoes while asking questions.

4. Case Study

A case study is a detailed analysis of a person, place, thing, organisation, or phenomenon. This method is appropriate when you want to gain a contextual, concrete, and in-depth understanding of the real-world problem for writing your qualitative research assignment. This method is especially helpful when you need more time to conduct large-scale research activities.

The four crucial steps below can be followed up with this methodology.

• Select a case that has the potential to provide new and unexpected insights into the subject.
• Make a theoretical framework.
• Collect your data from various primary and secondary resources.
• Describe and analyse the case to provide a clear picture of the subject.

5. Focus Groups

Focused group research has some interesting properties. In this method, a planned interview is conducted within a small group. For this purpose, some of the participants are sampled from the study population to record data for writing a qualitative research assignment. Typically, a focused group has features like,

• At least four to ten participants must meet for up to two hours.
• There must be a facilitator who can guide the discussion by asking open-ended questions.
• The emphasis must be put on the group discussion rather than the discussion of the group members with the facilitator.
• The discussion should be recorded and transcribed by the researchers.

6. Ethnographic Research

It is the most in-depth research method that involves studying people in their natural environment. It requires the researcher to adopt the target audience environment. The environment can be anything from an organisation to a city or any remote location.

However, the geographical constraints can be a problem in this study. For students who are writing their qualitative research assignment, some of the features of ethnographic research to write in their document include,

• The researcher can get a more realistic picture of the study.
• It uncovers extremely valuable insights.
• Provides accurate predictions.
• You can extend the observation to create more in-depth data.
• You can interact with people within a particular context.

7. Record Keeping

This method is similar to going to the library to collect data from books. You consult various relayed books, note the important points, and take note of the referencing. So, the researcher uses already existing data rather than introducing new things in the field.

Later on, this data can be used to conduct new research. Yet, when faced with the vast resources available in your institution’s library, seeking assistance from UK-based assignment writing services is an excellent solution if you need help pinpointing the most relevant information for your topic. Proficient in data gathering and adept at structuring qualitative research assignments, these professionals can significantly elevate your academic results.

This method is mostly used by companies to understand a group of customers’ behaviour, characteristics, and motivation. It allows respondents to ask in-depth questions about their experience. In a business market, it helps you understand how your customers make decisions. The intent is to understand them at their level and make related changes in your setup. The researcher must ask generic and precise questions that have a clear purpose.

Consider the below examples of qualitative survey questions. It can be useful in recording data and writing qualitative research assignments.

• Why did you buy this skin care product?
• What is the overall narrative of this brand?
• How do you feel after buying this product?
• What sets this brand apart from others?
• How will this product fulfil your needs?
• What are the things that you expect from this brand to grant you?

9. Action Research

This method involves collaboration and empowerment of the participants. It is mostly appropriate for marginalised groups where there is no flexibility.

The primary characteristics of the action research that can be quoted in your qualitative research assignment include,

• It is action-oriented, and participants are actively involved in the research.
• There is a collaborative process between participants and researchers.
• The nature of action research is flexible to the changing situation.

However, the survey also accompanies some of the limitations, including,

• The researcher can misinterpret the open-ended questions.
• The data ownership between the researcher and participants needs to be negotiated.
• The ethical considerations must be kept.
• It is not considered a scientific method as it is fluid in data collection. Consequently, it may not attract the finding.

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative research?

Both research types share the common aim of knowledge acquisition. In quantitative research, the use of numbers and objective measures is used. It seeks answers to questions like when and where.

On the other hand, in qualitative research, the researcher is concerned with subjective phenomena. Such data can’t be numerically measured. For example, you might conduct a survey to analyse how different people experience grief.

What are the 4 types of qualitative research?

There are various types of qualitative research. It may include,

● Phenomenological studies:

It examines the human experience via description provided by the people involved. These are the lived experiences of the people. It is usually used in research areas where little knowledge is known.

● Ethnographic studies:

It involves the analysis of data about cultural groups. In such analysis, the researcher mostly lives with different communities and becomes part of their culture to provide solid interpretations.

● Grounded theory studies:

In this qualitative approach, the researcher collects and analyses the data. Later on, a theory is developed that is grounded in the data. It used both inductive and deductive approaches for theory development.

● Historical studies:

It is concerned with the location, identification, evaluation, and synthesis of data from the past. These researchers are not concerned with discovering past events but with relating these events to the present happenings.

The Research Gate provides a flow chart illustrating various qualitative research methods.

What are The 7 characteristics of qualitative research?

The following are some of the distinct features of qualitative research. You can write about them in your qualitative research assignment, as they are collected from reliable sources.

• It can even capture the changing attitude within the target group.
• It is beyond the limitations associated with quantitative research
• It explains something that numbers alone can’t describe.
• It is a flexible approach to improve the outcomes.
• A researcher is not supposed to become more speculative about the results.
• This approach is more targeted.
• It keeps the cost of data collection down.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research?

The pros of qualitative research can’t be denied. However, some cons are also associated with this research.

• Explore attitudes and behaviours in depth.
• It encourages discussions for better results.
• Generate descriptive data that can formulate new theories.
• The small sample size can be a problem.
• Bias in the sample collection.
• Lack of privacy if you are covering a sensitive topic.

Qualitative research assignment examples

The Afe Babalola University ePortal provides an example of a qualitative assignment. Here is the description of quality questions and related answers. You can get an idea about how to handle your quality research assignment project with this sample.

The questions asked in the paper are displayed below.

The Slide Team presents a template for further compressing other details, such as the qualitative research assignment template. You can use it to make your presentation look professional.

Writing a qualitative research assignment is crucial, especially if you want to engage in research activities for your master’s thesis. Most researchers choose this method because of the associated credibility and reliability of the results. In the above guide, we have discussed some of the prominent features of this method. All of the given data can help you in writing your assignments. We have discussed the benefits of each methodology and a brief account of how you can carry it.

However, even after going through this whole guideline, if the concepts of the Qualitative Research methods assignment seem ambiguous and you think you can’t write a good project, then ask professional to “ write my assignment .” These experts can consult the best sources for the data collection of your project. Consequently, they will deliver you the winning document that can stand out among other write-ups.