importance of ethics in law enforcement essay

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The Importance of Ethical Behavior in the Criminal Justice Profession

Statue of justice in front of law books.

The ethical pressures that criminal justice organizations face differ considerably from the ones facing private businesses and other public institutions. Given the amount of authority in the hands of most criminal justice professionals and the potential impact on citizens, it's vital that those working in the criminal justice system understand why ethics are so important.

We sat down with Shane Kelley , EdD, associate dean for Public Safety and Legal Studies programs at Purdue Global, to discuss the reasons ethical behavior is important in the criminal justice system.

Ethics Provide a Framework for Professional Conduct

According to the Law Enforcement Code of Ethics , published by the International Association of Chiefs of Police, a law enforcement officer’s fundamental duty is to “serve the community; to safeguard lives and property; to protect the innocent against deception, the weak against oppression or intimidation and the peaceful against violence or disorder; and to respect the constitutional rights of all to liberty, equality, and justice.”

Because they are in such a prominent position with such weighty influence, they must uphold the highest standards of ethical conduct and act in a manner consistent with the profession’s values and principles.

“Criminal justice professionals are the examples of what it means to be a law-abiding person, to be an ethical person,” says Kelley. “Law enforcement must set the example for integrity. You can't expect someone to follow your lead — especially as it pertains to ethical behavior — when you're not able to follow that behavior yourself.”

Kelley places equity, impartiality, and fairness as the three most important values in the field.

“You have to recognize your own biases and not let them be a weakness,” Kelley says. “It's okay to be passionate about your work but not when that passion causes you to be biased in any way against any group of people. You need to approach any situation with an open mind and heart. You need to be able to harness that passion to be able to act impartially in your interactions.”

Ethics Promote Public Trust

The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin states the following, “Because ethical conduct greatly impacts public trust, law enforcement agencies must closely examine their policies, reward systems, and training to ensure that their agency fosters a culture of firm ethical values.”

Unfortunately, numerous polls confirm that Americans' confidence in police has fallen to new lows:

A 2023 poll by ABC News and the Washington Post found that 39% of adults believe that police are adequately trained to avoid the use of excessive force; 41% are confident the police treat Black and White people equally. Contrast this with the same 2014 poll, in which 54% of adults believed that police were adequately trained to avoid excessive force, and 52% said the police treat Black and White people equally.
According to a 2021 poll by Pew Research Center, the percentage of respondents who said they had a “great deal of confidence” in police dropped to 20%. This is a 6 percentage point drop from the same 2020 survey.
In a 2022 Gallup survey , participants were asked how much confidence they had in the police. Forty-five percent said they had “a great deal/quite a lot,” which is down 6 percentage points from the same survey in 2021.

“Public trust is at an all-time low,” Kelley says. “We're visible to everybody, especially with the prevalence of recording devices and social media videos. If somebody catches you acting unethically, it's not just one person seeing it — it's thousands or possibly millions of people.”

In some communities, the idea that law enforcement was to be trusted by default was once commonplace. Law enforcement’s mistakes get amplified in the newer social media climate, and “that idea that law enforcement should be trusted by default is not there anymore,” Kelley says. “The onus falls on us to rebuild that trust, not the citizenry.”

Ethics Help Ensure the System Is Effective and Efficient

The criminal justice system is composed of various agencies and professionals who must work together. Adhering to ethical behavior helps these agencies work together efficiently, thereby carrying out the missions of the different agencies.

“Good interdepartmental and interagency communication and operations skills are critical,” says Kelley. “Attempting to collaborate in situations where one agency is not operationally effective can negatively impact everyone involved.”

An effective system means greater service to the community and improved public trust.

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If your criminal justice career goals include earning a degree, consider an online bachelor's degree in criminal justice or a master's degree in criminal justice .

Purdue Global's criminal justice degree and certificate programs can prepare you for roles in criminal investigations, law enforcement offices, juvenile detention facilities, court systems, private detection or investigation, and more. All classes are 100% online, so it’s easy to create a study schedule that fits your lifestyle. Reach out today for more information .

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Ethics in Law Enforcement

(11 reviews)

Steve McCartney

Rick Parent, Simon Fraser University

Publisher: BCcampus

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Christopher Sharp, Assistant Professor, Newberry College on 9/28/22

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The book does a great job of introducing basic ethical views and applying them to the job of policing. However, many of the discussions are superficial and there would be a great deal of additional reading and work for my course. There is a lack of a discussion on how ethics are impacted by worldview and vise versa, and an unrealistic view of military professionalism and impact on policing. There were several references to the negative side of law enforcement as a result of the paramilitary structure without a detailed analysis to back up the assertions. Since retiring from the military, many of the assertions in this book are not consistent with the American military experience. Additionally, there is a strong Canadian and British focus that would be perceived as disconnected from the American experience.

Content Accuracy rating: 2

There was a strong since of bias against the paramilitary structure (i.e. bureaucracy) without looking at how private industry and government has utilized the same structure. Additionally, some of the recommendations on use of force, arrest decisions, etc. are unrealistic in the American style of policing given the socio-political environment.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

I absolutely agree that ethical decision making in all aspects of governance is important and I have covered and taught ethics for 20 years. Unfortunately, this book does not go into a deeper analysis of how ethics can grown and change through the mechanisms of formal and informal socialization and how leaders and employees can use these to build a system of ethics that compliments the organization's mission.

Clarity rating: 3

The writing is very clear, albeit biased in several areas, but comes across as very dry. While the study of ethics can be dry, this is why it is so often avoided. Practical exercises to incorporate material, discussion points, etc. would have assisted in making the material more relevant and engaging.

Consistency rating: 3

The book was consistent throughout in how the information was presented but provides a myopic and sometimes biased view of the law enforcement experience. Unfortunately, this book is significantly shorter than the one that I currently use (which is already short) and does not get into the concept of defining moments and how a career and a life are defined by how we respond to these moments in light of ethical decision making.

Modularity rating: 3

There is a break in some of the chapters that make connections difficult. The portion about socialization and leadership should have been combined which would have provided very rich discussion for the application of ethical decision making to the on-boarding process for new officers.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The flow of the book is overall very logical, with the exception of the section on socialization that could have easily been incorporated into other areas. A reader could easily follow the thought process of the authors. A recommendation would be to have the ethical thought discussion, followed immediately by practical examples from the field at multiple organizational levels as examples of how ethics are applied and making it easier to internalize.

Interface rating: 4

There were no interface problems with the text, use of more illustrations and case studies would have helped with the ability to analyze, interpret, and practice the elements of the text.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The writing was not overly laden with acronyms or jargon, and no noted spelling errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

The concept of the book is extremely relevant to the field of criminal justice. However, the perceived anti-paramilitary discussion and practical application of some of the ethical schools (for instance in the decision to arrest and its impact) came across as very rudimentary and biased. I do not believe this was the intent, but I bristled at much of the discussion of the military influence and structure given my 20 year career in the military.

Reviewed by Wendy Perkins, Assistant Professor, Marshall University on 12/30/21

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

The book grounds itself in ethical theories and an application of these theories to several facets of law enforcement activities. Students are offered an examination of ethics related to general policing practices, individual police officer decisions, and police administration/management. It is an excellent introductory textbook that would have to be supplemented with other readings to explore some of the concepts more fully. I am particularly appreciative of the chapter about police culture. Policing ethics, at least in part, stem from the collective experiences of police officers who are responsible for socializing new officers into their departments and into the profession. This chapter provides a crucial discussion about the aggravating and mitigating effects of ‘real world of policing’ on officer/department ethics.

The sex offender notification section (6.3) does not quite fit with the rest of the issues discussed in the book. This seems to be more of an ethical issue for the criminal justice system as a whole rather than an ethical issue that is solely faced by the police.

An extended discussion about conformity would be beneficial. It was not entirely clear if these sections (4.3 & 4.4) were meant to be applied to police conforming to expectations (e.g. acting in an ethical manner) or the public conforming to expectations (e.g. following lawful police orders). Both applications would be beneficial to students.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The book provides accurate information. The authors strike a balance between classic works and relatively recent academic research to provide students with philosophical and historical context while addressing the unique ethical circumstances which confront police officers. While policing practices and the climate in which policing occurs change, those changes do not necessarily eclipse the basics of policing ethics.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The police are a societal fixture and ethical decision-making is always a concern. The book will continue to remain relevant well into the future as individual jurisdictions (or entire countries) consider their approaches to policing. Instructors will need to provide supplemental materials to account for current events and newer research, but this is common practice when using any textbook.

Clarity rating: 5

The authors have written a book that is exceptionally clear and easy-to-understand. The writing style is less academic and more conversational, which many students tend to appreciate.The structure of chapters is consistent throughout the book

Consistency rating: 5

The structure of chapters is consistent throughout the book.

Modularity rating: 5

The book is well-suited for module-based classes or classes in which the instructor wishes to assign smaller blocks of reading. The chapter sub-sections are clearly delineated by content which makes it easy for instructors to determine which sections will work best for the task at hand.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The book is organized from general ethics to more specific law enforcement ethics, which is a sensible way for students to learn the material.

Interface rating: 5

I did not experience any issues with the interface.

I did not note any grammatical issues

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

I am located in the United States, and the basic concepts in the book are applicable to policing in my country. I would provide students with policies and ethics standards from United States police agencies, and ask them to complete a comparative policing assignment. It would be helpful to include a discussion about the challenging relationship between police and people from different cultures and backgrounds, and how the police make ethical decisions within that context.

Reviewed by Cathryn Lavery, Professor of Criminal Justice, Pace University on 8/18/21

This book, although only eight chapters, provides the reader/student an excellent overview of ethical systems and how ethics is applied to law enforcement. Although written from a North American perspective (primarily Canadian) it does sync with the same issues and dilemmas faced by American law enforcement. It would be a good consideration if the authors would perhaps add a chapter focusing on various American policing systems as they range based on cities, states and impacted by social issues which may not be as similar in nature to other countries and agencies.

The book is structured in such a way that it gives the reader thought provoking questions and situations to consider. The authors write their chapters in a clear and easily comprehensive nature that can be follow by undergraduate students. Issues and dilemmas were presented objectively which does not only help with students' understanding of all the arguments, but can be a springboard for discussions in the classroom and applied to case examples in "real time". The overall content presented is done so in a non-biased perspective.

The book gives a good variation of examples and situations. Many case examples given can be applied today. The authors arranged the chapters in such a way that revised editions can be easily formatted and updated or the professor in the course can amend with their own learning objectives and with current and past examples. However, most examples given in the text are very relevant today in law enforcement.

Clarity rating: 4

The authors provide readers with the necessary terminology needed in the field of law enforcement and criminal justice. However, it is not overwhelming, nor difficult to understand. Ideas, definitions, issues and arguments are explained in a thorough, yet concise form. The book is relevant and be connected with not only policing but other areas of the field.

Consistency rating: 4

I enjoyed how the chapters were organized and flowed. It was easy to read through. I do feel that some areas could have given more recommendations for change or perhaps expand on discussion of what change can occur and how law enforcement can strengthen ethics and integrity. However, I also believe that the instructors can fill that with their own added material, so it is not a major concern.

Modularity rating: 4

The book is set up by authors to be able to fit into most instructors' lesson plans and learning objectives. It does not have to be followed sequentially and allows the instructor to construct their own modalities based on their syllabus and target areas to cover.

The book's organization structure is solid and flows from general theoretical concepts, which gives readers a good foundation on ethics. Then the issues flow to more law enforcement focused perspective which allows the students to build on the foundational concepts and relate specifically to the dilemmas faced by officers.

Interface rating: 3

The book is easy to navigate through, but I think for a revised edition, it may be prudent to add more pictures, related charts on studies and graphics to hold the attention of students. Other than that, it does not have have distortions or features which could confuse the reader or instructor.

I did not see any grammatical errors within the text.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

This book is not culturally insensitive and in fact presents many sensitive issues in a positive manner. Due to the complexities and recent social movements, especially in the United States around law enforcement, I cannot see a better time for this text. It is relevant for students, whether interested in criminal justice and policing or not. I would most likely use this book with a companion workbook on ethics in policing. I think that would compliment it and bring more depth and discussion into lectures.

I really liked this book and believe for any future editions it might be worthy to add focus on issues like systemic racism and its relationship with policing, current social movements and gender issues related to law enforcement. The book, overall, gives a solid overview on ethics and law enforcement and is an excellent open resource for students.

Reviewed by Adina Giannelli, Assistant Professor, Holyoke Community College on 6/1/21

Ethics in Law Enforcement offers a concise and accessible introduction to the topic of ethics in law enforcement, in a Canadian context. Learning objectives at outset of book are clearly worded; many chapters include thorough list of references/supplemental readings, which might be useful/of interest to faculty teaching the course (and/or students working on topical research projects).

Content Accuracy rating: 3

The textbook is well-researched and accurate. Certain examples and statements reflect authorial bias: “law enforcement agencies place a great emphasis on good behavior of their officers” (pp. 21-22). “While a common theme in academic discourse is that police culture is negative…” (p. 119).

Limited emphasis on ethical breaches—position that “widespread systemic corruption and lawbreaking in Canada is relatively rare” (p. 52); not necessarily transferable to US policing contexts.

Although the section of the textbook on Divine Command Theory offers criticisms, the section on religion is problematic in a secular teaching context in the U.S./while training future officers: “not only will some officers refer to scripture, so too will members of the public” (p. 26); “officers could use divine command theory to reaffirm in their own minds what is right, even when the Criminal Code or other legislation is unclear on a particular issue. By officers asking themselves what would God command or prohibit, they may be able to make a decision they can justify” (p. 27). For U.S. faculty in public higher education, this section would require significant contextualization.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

Policing in the US has been subject to much scrutiny over the last five years--and the last year in particular. Because this text was published 5+ years ago, in a rapidly changing and highly contentious ethical field, through no fault of the authors, there are some critical omissions and supplemental readings will be necessary for those assigning this text.

A potentially greater challenge for US/non-Canadian professors: with few exceptions, the text focus on Canadian examples, policy, jurisprudence, Criminal Code, and legal precedent—not transferable to the US context, and not necessarily legible to U.S. students/or non-Canadian learners. References administrative and governing bodies, laws, commissions, and charters (such as British Columbia’s Police Act, RCMP Police Act, Jurisdiction of the Current Commission for Public Complaints, Canadian Criminal Code, and the Canadian Charter of Rights ) with which the average non-Canadian student will have no familiarity. This is perfect for a Canadian audience, of course, but less relevant for transnational learners.

The text's section on sex offender laws and moral panics made very effective use of the US as a case study/reference, and the section on the ethics of private policing draws clearly on the US and other transnational examples. The section on discretion in policing was also highly transferable for US audiences.

With very few exceptions, the text is written in clear and accessible language.

The text is logical and internally consistent.

The text is easily divisible for purposes of creating modules--brief chapters are clearly subdivided into smaller, digestible readings organized thematically.

The topics are highly and logically organized, and easy to identify.

The interface is generally clear and free of significant issues. One minor exception: the bar graph on page 64 is blurry

The book is grammatically sound throughout.

The text references "minority rights" (p. 16) early in the text, and suggests that diversity of hiring practices could transform ethical issues in policing toward its conclusion: “newer officers are hired from a more diverse background that includes different sexual orientations, cultures, and races. This may enable the police subculture to adapt and overcome its more negative characteristics” (p. 121). Overall, the text could do more to address the issues of bias, disproportionality, and racism within policing, including in the Canadian context.

As someone who routinely teaches criminal justice ethics and is always looking for OER sources, I was excited to see McCartney & Parent’s text, and learned a great deal about Canadian policing from reading it! A reference to Canada in the title would be beneficial for potential textbook adopters.

Reviewed by Ronald Brevard, Professor Criminal Justice, Middlesex Community College on 6/22/20

The textbook was very comprehensive on the subject matter of ethics and law enforcement. Students can expect the content to be thoroughly researched by the authors with excellent and appropriate examples that are critical for understanding the concepts. An index would have been helpful at the end of each chapter, however, terms and major concepts were explained and defined within the chapter sections.

The textbook has an extensive list of references at the end of each chapter which supports the material as being accurate, error-free, and unbiased. The references will assist students who want to do further research on the various topics.

The material in the book is up to date and will not be obsolete within a short period of time. A versioning history section was added to the textbook so that the reader knows the latest changes and/or updates.

The style in which the textbook was written makes it very easy for students to understand. Students are provided with examples that are put into proper context so that the connection between ethical behavior and law enforcement is easily understood.

The framework of the individual chapters, subsections, and content makes it easy for students to follow.

The textbook is divided up into main chapters or headings along with subsections which make it easier to read and understand the concepts. Section six, Policing, includes subsections that are quite lengthy and should be broken up further with appropriate graphs or other visuals/information.

This area is one of the strong features of the textbook. The use of this textbook in the classroom is ideal because of the way the individual topics flow in logical sequence.

There were no significant interface or navigation problems with this textbook. One suggestion might be the addition of more appropriate visuals or graphs to underscore the concepts.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

There are some grammatical errors in this textbook, but not to the point where the intent and meaning of the text confuses the reader. For example in section 2.2, "The Problems with Utilitarianism" subsection "Happiness" the word planning was used instead of planting. A second example is in 2.9, "Social Contract Theory" where there are missing words in the second paragraph. Again, these errors do not take away from the meaning of the content.

There is one section, 4.4, on "Person, Gender, and Cultural Differences in Conformity" that contains some information to help students begin to understand the importance of cultural competence and its connection to ethics and policing in communities that are or fast becoming culturally diverse. There should be much more information devoted to this topic in this textbook. The current issues of ethics and law enforcement reveal a demand that this topic be covered with students in Criminal Justice.

I would definitely recommend this textbook to be used for students in Criminal Justice. It is a great introduction to ethics and law enforcement. The content of the book can be applied to American policing as well. The issues are relevant. I would like to see more case studies and scenarios where students can do additional critical thinking exercises by working in groups in the classroom. The textbook is very well done overall.

Reviewed by Patrick Barry, Adjunct Professor, Berkshire Community College on 6/19/20

I was astounded at how comprehensive this book is. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

I was astounded at how comprehensive this book is.

I did not notice any mistakes, or errors.

Very pertinent in this day and age of Covid restrictions, and the protests going on in America right now.

The book is written by Canadian authors, and references Canadian law, but the ethics apply equally to American policing.

Excellent consistency in terms of terminology and framework.

Very well ordered, and very easy to divide.

Excellent flow. Table of contents was laid out very well. Chapters flow in very good order.

No issues with interface observed.

None noticed in the sections I read. Just a few words are spelled the Canadian way, but it is very clear that they have the same meaning as the American version.

I did not detect any offensive or insensitive language.

I was very impressed with this book. It is extremely comprehensive and would serve as a great text book for a course in Ethics in Policing. Perhaps Berkshire Community College will want to have such a course as an elective. I may suggest it.

Reviewed by Connie Koski, Associate Professor of Criminal Justice, Longwood University on 4/5/19

This book provides an excellent and effective index/glossary for the information contained therein. However, the content of the book as a whole only contains 8 chapters that could most definitely be expanded upon for greater inclusivity of problems, challenges, and ethical issues facing law enforcement today. Moreover, although there are some U.S scholars cited and some U.S. ethical issues and incidents provided as illustrative examples, the book is written from a Canadian perspective. On the whole, this is not a major issue, given that they are also a democratic nation, but do face some uniquely different challenges than do American law enforcement officers in some instances.

I enjoyed reading this text. It is well written in plain, straight-forward language and poses genuinely thought-provoking questions for students to critically consider. I particularly enjoyed the fact that it was written in such a manner that, when appropriate, both sides of an argument or issue were objectively presented for the reader to weigh and consider based upon supporting evidence and assertions. This tone was set immediately by the authors in Chapter 1 with regard to the pros and cons of the "slippery slope" perspective; a very important one frequently debated in law enforcement.

The one great thing about a book on Ethics in law enforcement (and criminal justice more broadly) is that many of the dilemmas are the same across time and space. They will always be there. Thus, the only real issue is occasionally updating illustrative examples. That being said, however, some of the very best lessons and examples in Law Enforcement Ethics have happened in decades past and will forever remain timeless and important examples.

As noted above, this book was actually enjoyable to read and was clear, concise, and to the point. I think even someone not interested in becoming a future law enforcement practitioner could readily read and understand the contents and understand the discussion.

I felt as if it flowed properly and was not confusing; with the exception of the end. This text seemed to end abruptly without any sort of overall summary or reassessment of what had been discussed. It really did not tie together all of the key concepts throughout the book to explain why ethics are so important to law enforcement and/or how law enforcement might go about improving some of the pervasive lack of ethics in certain areas that has persisted over time. I really felt like the book almost "left me hanging," as it were.

Although this book does not follow the same order as the Ethics text I am currently using, I could see how it might be rearranged to closely model my goals for teaching a course like this.

I would say yes. It goes from general to specific so that the reader is first allowed to glean a foundational perspective of ethics in general, and then transition to applying that understanding to the ethical and moral dilemmas faced by law enforcement specifically.

I had no issues of this sort when reading this text. However, I might add that today's student is far more visual that someone from my generation. Thus, I would note that there were relatively few (to none) graphics and visual aids contained within this text. This may, for some students, be somewhat of a "turn off" leading to lack of interest. More photos, charts, tables & graphics would be helpful.

I did not observe any grammatical errors.

I found this book to be culturally appropriate, and as noted previously, non-biased in writing style as well as race/ethnicity where appropriate.

I would have no problem utilizing this textbook in a "pinch," or if it really made a different in my students lives. But it is definitely not my first choice. Further, it does not appear that it has any associated ancillaries whatsoever, so when at a high teaching load institution, I would have to create everything from scratch. While I often do this anyway, I don't always have the time to, and I would have no choice in the event that I adopted this text. given the importance to ethics for Law Enforcement, this class should be included in every Criminology/Criminal Justice program. I would say that with some "tweaks," this would be a fantastic Open resource for students and faculty alike.

Reviewed by Paul Bowdre, Director of Assessment/Coordinator of Criminal Justice Positions, Oakland City University on 2/26/19

The text begins with a good explanation of the foundations of expected ethical behavior in law enforcement careers and ethical systems. As one moves through the text, the focus expands on ethical dilemmas and ethical issues to individual and agency accountability. Additional topics addressed by the text include investigations due to ethical violations by law enforcement personnel, the role that agency leadership and supervisors are involved with and close with an examination of the law enforcement culture. The text includes The British Columbia Police Code of Ethics as an appendix. The text includes a detailed table of contents, and nearly every chapter of the text includes a brief glossary of key terms.

A reading of the text failed to identify any errors, and the information presented in the text is current and accurate. It is important to note that as one moves through the text, it is clear that the authors addressed the variety of topics in a manner free of bias.

The manner in which key topics are presented in the text will allow it to be current and relevant for many years. Chapters 3 and 5 address various criminal laws, accountability, and investigative methods. The laws and investigative models presented that may need to be supported with readily available supplemental material in the future. As with many law enforcement topics, a book published in 2015 and is reviewed in 2019 may need a small amount of support with recent material, but the foundation of the text is strong.

The text presents key issues surrounding ethics in law enforcement in a clear and lucid manner that includes an effort to increase student's understanding of important terminology. The manner in which the information is presented is easy to follow, and the information follows a logical path.

The organization or framework of the text lends itself to consistency in terms of information exposure, presentation of important concepts, and the connection between ethical behavior by law enforcement officers and societal expectations.

The organization of the text is separated into chunks of information at logical points. Any instructor could use the text and present the material in an order that fits their course and will find that the text is set-up to allow such actions. Several chapters may be too brief for some instructors, and the terminology that students are exposed to may need to be increased, but these efforts can be made simply and added to the text that would serve as the core material for the course.

The overall organization of the text is good, but not all instructors may appreciate the order information is presented. I very much appreciate the information presented in Chapters 1 and 2 and would have liked Chapter 8 on law enforcement culture presented earlier. How the author's present the information in the text is easy to navigate and understand.

The text does not present any concerns related interface and navigation issues. Moving through the text was easy and without hindrance.

No grammatical errors were noted in the text.

The manner in which the information was presented by the authors failed to reveal any obvious bias. The text describes situations and concerns related to the ethical conduct of law enforcement officers that would be acceptable to all genders, races, and ethnicities.

The text appears to be most appropriate for an undergraduate course that is focusing on ethical conduct by police officers. While the text was published in Canada, much of the material being presented is applicable in North America. The text is brief (only eight chapters) and may be best suited as a supplemental text and not as the primary text for a course. If used a the primary course text, additional resources may be necessary especially as the book ages. Finally, the fact that the material is presented in logical chunks of information and a neutral manner, few students would not find this book as anything other than a great resource.

Reviewed by Andrew Kozal, Lecturer, Bowling Green State University on 2/1/18

The text starts with a foundation of ethical systems and behavior and then provides the reader specific instances of ethical behavior in law enforcement. It is comprehensive, but also at times too brief in some topic areas i.e. Chapter 3, Ethical Dilemmas and the Process of Effective Resolution. A glossary of terms is located at the end of each chapter and again is brief in nature and may only contain one term.

The content appeared to be accurate, error-free and unbiased.

Much of the material will remain relevant for a long period of time. The foundations of ethical behavior have been similar and consistent for many years. The areas which may not remain relevant are areas such as Chapter 5 Accountability and Investigation and Chapter 7 Discretion, Supervision, and Leadership where new technology will transform law enforcement ethics and behavior in the future. The effects of social media also play an important role in law enforcement ethics and should be discussed in future texts. There are many examples from Canadian police departments that may differ from other police organizations.

It is very succinct and easy to read.

The book was consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

The book is set up in easily readable sections. However, some instructors utilizing the text may find that some of the sections are too brief in format and may use the text as a supplement to another text and/or course material.

The chapter sequence may not fit the personal needs of all instructors. For example, the last chapter, Chapter 8, discusses the Culture of Law Enforcement which may be better suited towards the beginning of the text. Otherwise, the topics are presented in a clear fashion.

The text is free of significant interface issues. When hyperlinks were utilized there were no navigation issues.

The text contains no grammatical errors.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

Overall the book covers the topic of Law Enforcement Ethics thoroughly in an easy to read format. This book ideally is a supplement to an undergraduate course on criminal justice ethics or to be used as a stand-alone text in law enforcement academies.

Reviewed by George Wilson, Professor, North Carolina Central University on 2/1/18

I I really liked the way the book introduced the importance of ethnic behavior first then followed ethnic in law enforcement. This set a framework to talk about the theory and philsophy of ethnic in the following chapter. I would add so material about the impact and importance of ethnic to the entire criminal justice to end the chapter. Law enforcement is the first stage of the criminal justice which influences the public views of the entire system.

The book was informative accurate and unbiased and addresses issues that are current today

The book was written so it could be easily updated or new materials added to the list of issues. The only issues that might be added to the next edition is material on politics and law enforcement with an emphasis on the professional duties.

The book is well written for undergraduate students. However, students using this book should have taken an introduction to law enforcement course so the can relate ethical issues to the operations of policing.

The book is consist during this period of political change that make influence some perception of the behavior. The may want to address the issues of poverty and race in a proactive manner making should that ethical and cultural addresses.

The book is written so that I can use and will build my face to face and online moduules around certain chapters.

The book is organized in the format that I plan to teach my course and I plan to use videos and other materials.

The interface was very good and easy to navigate.

I did a quick read for content issues and did not find any errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

See comment in last box

I really liked the book and would on add the material on politics, race and culture to the next edition. Black lives matter and gender issues implicit bias might be addressed.

Reviewed by William Lopez, Assistant Probessor, L.E. Fletcher Technical Community College on 6/20/17

The text is comprehensive yet concise. It covers all pertinent aspects of criminal justice ethics. The text covers a wide range of ethical systems. Various ethical concepts are applied to the three core components of the criminal justice system. read more

No inaccuracies or biases were observed.

I am reviewing this text in 2017, the copyright is 2015. The material seems to be very relevant and up-to-date. This book is a valuable source of information for both criminal justice students and law enforcement practitioners. Because of the veritable explosion of interest and news in the area of criminal justice ethics this book will remain relevant for years to come. At some point in the future a new edition would be appropriate. The text is structured in such a way that necessary updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement.

As a teaching instrument it is a valuable resource in that it is presented in a clear, succinct, fashion. It is very easy to follow. An example of one of the features that adds to the book's clarity is an alphabetized list of ethical values found in chapter 3.

Each chapter in the book was well organized and consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

The book was structured in such a format that it was easy to read and can be easily separated into modules for classroom discussion. The text was not excessively self-referential.

The topics in the text were presented in a logical and clear order.

No significant interface issues or navigation problems.

No grammatical errors were observed.

The content was presented in a culturally unbiased way. No offensive or insensitive wording was detected.

This publication seems appropriate for any undergraduate level criminal justice ethics college course. This book is well researched and well written. Overall, I like this text as a supplemental resource to other material I am currently using in my criminal justice ethics course. The clarity and conciseness of the material is the strength of this publication.

Chapter 1: Ethical Behaviour

1.1 The Importance of Ethical Behaviour
1.2 Ethics and the Pursuit of a Law Enforcement Career
1.3 As Employees in Law Enforcement Agencies

Chapter 2: Ethical Systems

2.1 Major Ethical Systems
2.2 Utilitarian Ethics
2.3 Deontology
2.4 Virtue Ethics
2.5 Ethics of Care
2.7 Religion or Divine Command Theory
2.8 Natural Law
2.9 Social Contract Theory
2.10 Rawls' Theory of Justice
2.11 Moral Relativism

Chapter 3: Ethical Dilemmas and the Process of Effective Resolution

3.1 Ethical Dilemmas
3.3 Solving Ethical Dilemmas

Chapter 4: Key Ethical Issues within Law Enforcement

4.1 Ethical Issues
4.2 The Ethics of Power and Authority
4.3 The Milgram Experiment
4.4 Person, Gender, and Cultural Differences in Conformity
4.5 Ethical Issues during an Investigation
4.6 Gratuities

Chapter 5: Accountability and Investigation

5.1 Autonomy and Accountability
5.2 British Columbia's Police Act
5.3 The Royal Canadian Mounted Police Act
5.4 Investigation Models
5.5 Independent Investigations Office

Chapter 6: Policing

6.1 Noble Cause Corruption
6.2 Policing Public Demonstrations and Crowd Control
6.3 Sex Offender Notification Laws
6.4 Ethics of Private Policing

Chapter 7: Discretion, Supervision, and Leadership

7.1 The Ethics Surrounding Discretion
7.2 Discretion and Supervision
7.3 Selective Enforcement
7.4 Loyalty
7.5 Ethical Leadership
7.6 Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Chapter 8: The Culture of Law Enforcement

8.1 Police Subculture
8.2 Socialization of Police
8.3 Skepticism and Cynicism
8.4 Moral Culpability versus Legal Culpability

Ancillary Material

About the book.

In this book, you will examine the moral and ethical issues that exist within law enforcement. This book will also familiarize you with the basic history, principles, and theories of ethics. These concepts will then be applied to the major components of the criminal justice system: policing, the courts, and corrections. Discussion will focus on personal values, individual responsibility, decision making, discretion, and the structure of accountability. Specific topics covered will include core values, codes of conduct, ethical dilemmas, organizational consequences, liability, and the importance of critical thinking. By the end of this book, you will be able to distinguish and critically debate contemporary ethical issues in law enforcement.

About the Contributors

Steve McCartney , MSc, retired from the Vancouver Police Department after 28 years of service. While with the V.P.D. he served in a variety of capacities including patrol, Detective Constable with Strike Force, Sexual Offence Squad, the Provincial Unsolved Homicide Unit and VPD Homicide Unit. After leaving the V.P.D., he was seconded to the B.C. Police Academy at the Justice Institute of British Columbia as an instructor in Investigation and Patrol. Upon retiring from the V.P.D. he became the Program Chair of Law Enforcement Studies at the Justice Institute of British Columbia, where he currently teaches Applied Ethics in Law Enforcement and Law Enforcement Communication Skills.

Rick Parent, PhD , is an Associate Professor at Simon Fraser University, School of Criminology – Police Studies. Rick completed 30 years of service as a police officer and is a former police recruit instructor at the B.C. Police Academy. His research and expertise is in the area of police ethics and accountability and, the police use of lethal force including the phenomena of “suicide by cop”. Dr. Parent is also the subject matter expert/author of the Canadian Police Knowledge Network course entitled “Police Ethics and Accountability”, the co-author of the book entitled “Community-Based Strategic Policing in Canada, 4th edition and, a senior researcher for the Canadian Network for Research on Terrorism, Security and Society (TSAS).

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Importance of Ethics and Values in Law Enforcement

How it works

Research shows that it is evident that police use of force in the United States is still a continuous issue regardless of an individual race, gender, and social class. This shows that there is a need to develop programs and policies that will reduce such conflicting incidents regarding the police force.

1.1 Addressing Anti-Racism and Understanding Biological Factors in Policing
1.2 The Need for Transparent Reporting Systems
1.3 Building Trust through Transparency: The Las Vegas Example
2.1 Works Cited

Training Practices and Community Involvement

One of these remedies is the need to create appropriate training practices. According to Smith, B., and Holmes (2014), police training during the academy and outside tends to focus more on technical and tactical aspects of policing.

Less attention is often emphasized on the importance of delivering excellent services to the people. There is, therefore, the need to develop training that focuses broadly on the importance of the community as partners in promoting safety. Research by Schanzer et al. (2015) shows that police officers often regard community members as enemies when it comes to preventing crime. Change in this aspect is likely to promote a positive relationship that will later help in the prevention of force.

Addressing Anti-Racism and Understanding Biological Factors in Policing

Training should also focus more on anti-racism, diversity, and culture. Police officers should be imparted skills that delve mostly into how to interact with people regardless of their social status, race, and gender. These skills will help them abstain from or de-escalate certain situations that are known to flare up violence. For instance, teenagers are known to use force even if it’s not appropriate because of various factors related to biological and psychological factors. Teaching the police about these factors will help them understand them as well as adopt the best strategies for obtaining compliance without necessarily using force.

The Need for Transparent Reporting Systems

Police departments do not have established protocols for reporting, maintenance, and regular analysis of data. According to Sumner et al. (2015), police departments are also unable to cognitively estimate the rate of the number of complaints reported on police forces, investigations tracking number, and evidence given in support of the filed cases. As shown in the literature review, individuals who have filed complaints about police brutality have reported being intimidated by the police officers and also threatened. To reduce these incidents and to promote public trust when it comes to such issues, there should be a transparent system that ensures the reporting of these incidents. Besides, the system should also compile this data regarding age, race, and type of disciplinary or physical measures used.

Building Trust through Transparency: The Las Vegas Example

The Las Vegas Police Department, for instance, has a running website that gives a statistical analysis of all types of criminal incidents that happen every year. The information is often detailed regarding the settings, shots involved, the police involved, gender, and race of the victims. Apart from the statistical analysis, it is the role of the police departments to communicate with the community involved. The police departments should inform the community how the process of the investigation is going through and the actions that have been taken with the involved officer. In most instances, the police department often refuses to release information as soon as possible. The lack of information has to be seen to increase tension in a community that is already grieving the loss of an unarmed young man. A different approach, such as bi-weekly meetings with the various leaders in the community on various hot spots involved in murder and indiscriminate shooting, can help in monitoring the police officers involved in the use of force. Similarly, various resources will be diverted to address the problems.

Sumner et al. (2015) assert that police still hold a culture that is characterized by certain norms, values, and behaviors. This kind of culture was first studied by Thompson and Hudson (2017) in their research on police norms and values. Thompson and Hudson (2017) characterized police as individuals who placed much emphasis on loyalty and secrecy. Any officer who broke these rules would face numerous consequences, including losing their job. Other values included the ability to outperform individuals whom they encounter, command respect and dominate every situation they are in. The renowned police culture has led to the nourishment of deep misconducts such as the use of police force.

Promoting a Culture of Accountability

To end this culture, police departments should implement policies that focus on misconduct and merit among police officers. This entails having an anonymous system so that other police, as well as the community, can report any misconduct by a police officer, especially the use of excessive force. Also, allowing the same system to report gallant behavior, as witnessed by coworkers, peers, and the community, to provide checks and balances. The New York City Police Department has a code of conduct that states that officers have an absolute duty to report any serious misconduct or corruption. Similarly, there are pieces of training that focus on educating police officers on the importance of reporting misconduct and the facts relevant to the misconduct. This kind of training should be instituted in various police departments in the United States. The change of behavior and culture can also be possible if the top leadership takes an active role by also ensuring that such policies are enforced, and the community prevents retaliatory actions.

Works Cited

Smith, B., & Holmes, R. (2014). Focus on police academy training: Technical vs. community service. Journal of Policing Studies.
Schanzer, D., et al. (2015). Community perceptions and police policy: An analysis of trust and force. Journal of Crime and Community Safety.
Sumner, C., et al. (2015). Protocols and perceptions: Reporting and analysis of use of force in U.S. police departments.
Thompson, L., & Hudson, M. (2017). Police culture: Values, norms, and conduct in law enforcement agencies. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology.

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Why individual integrity is a fundamental value in police leaders

As our nation struggles with the current uneasy state of police-community relations, police officers — and police leaders — who can instill community trust through their personal integrity are valuable assets.

The study of leadership — and the traits of a good leader — can be traced back thousands of years to the time of Aristotle (384-322 BC) who spoke to ethical practices in leadership. For example :

“[To] do this to the right person, to the right extent, at the right time, with the right motive, and in the right way, that is not for every one nor is it easy; wherefore goodness is both rare and laudable and noble.” — Aristotle, Ethics II.9

In simpler, more modern terms, consider the words of a speaker — whose name is long lost to memory — I heard a few years ago addressing integrity in policing:

“You don’t lose your integrity, you give it away.”

There is great truth in this simple statement. Integrity seems to be lacking among many leaders today, yet, ironically, integrity and other moral standards are core themes among the various leadership styles currently promoted. Let’s examine how personal integrity is a fundamental value in police leaders.

From Theory to Practice Many of the leadership theories promoted today include words that directly or indirectly speak to ethical behavior as the core of the leadership philosophy, or other personal traits. Principle-centered, authentic, morals-based, values-based, adaptive, true north, transformative, and servant are all terms found in the lexicon of modern leadership thinking.

It might appear that all you have to do is embrace one of these leadership “styles” and viola, you are a leader. The study of leadership theory and practice should be embraced by those who seek to be effective leaders, but no single theory of leadership is perfect — which is why they are theories, not rules.

Leadership is practiced by individuals even when these individuals are part of a larger organization (which may have an articulated leadership style), a leadership team, or even when working in a collaborative (or peer) environment.

How we, as individuals, practice our leadership is where the rubber of leadership theory hits the hard road of reality. It is not citing the latest book on leadership that motivates others to accept our influence, it is how they view our actions — past and present — that gain their respect. This is where integrity comes into play.

Personal Integrity in Police Leaders Consider two examples of how personal integrity is intertwined with our practice of leadership in law enforcement. The first example illustrates the role of integrity in a group environment, while the second illustrates how integrity impacts the lowest common denominator in leadership — when one person in a leadership position holds power over another person.

When working as part of a collaborative group, our actions reflect not only on the organization we represent, they reflect upon us as individuals as well. In this type of environment, your integrity can be measured by others through simple actions such as your level of active engagement. For example, are you being open and honest about the intentions of your organization? Do you promptly follow through on actions you promise to take?

Seemingly simple actions can take on larger meanings. As a police officer working as part of a collaborative team your actions will likely be interpreted on three levels:

1. As “the police” in general 2. As the police department you represent 3. As an individual

It is worth keeping in mind how your simple actions — or inaction — speak to your level of integrity on each of these three levels. As our nation struggles with the current uneasy state of police-community relations police officers — and police leaders — who can instill community trust through their personal integrity are valuable assets. Those who cannot do so are liabilities.

For the second example, think of the traditional superior and subordinate relationship. In this example, the integrity practiced by the superior sets the standard (or, rather, should set the standard) for all subordinates.

At the most basic level, leadership requires a minimum of two people — one who “leads” and one who “follows.” The superior with poor integrity will likely never have the true trust and respect of their subordinates.

Most of us can recall instances where a superior reprimanded a subordinate for doing something while that same superior had, in the past, made a similar transgression. When this happens we talk about double-standards, hypocrisy, and ultimately, poor leadership. Those who desire leadership roles — or are currently in leadership roles — should keep this example in mind. How will others see you when it comes to your personal integrity?

Individual Interpretations of Integrity The cumbersome part of this discussion is that integrity — like all traits — is open to interpretation. What some might define as poor integrity others may view as non-issues. For example, should the way a person acts in their personal life have any bearing on their leadership role at work?

In the end, how we choose to lead our own lives — and interpret how others live their lives — is itself a question of integrity. Leaders must be willing to consider how they define integrity, and how they wish to have their own integrity measured. Practicing a life of integrity is challenging, but it is a critical trait of a noble, effective leader.

John Vanek is a leadership, collaboration, and anti-human trafficking consultant and speaker working with law enforcement agencies, non-governmental and community-based organizations, academic institutions and private sector companies. John served 25 years with the San Jose Police Department (retiring in the rank of lieutenant), holds a Master of Arts in Leadership, and is an Adjunct Professor in the Graduate School of International Policy and Management at the Monterey Institute of International Studies.

Contact John Vanek

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Chapter 5: Accountability and Investigation

5.1 Autonomy and Accountability

The police must remain autonomous and free from the influence of government and mass media. Law enforcement executives should not be forced into decisions based upon the dictates of a mayor, premier, prime minister, or the media. Law enforcement executives should remain autonomous and concern themselves with the effective and efficient operation of their agencies to achieve an ethical law enforcement agency with high standards and values. Likewise, officers on the line must remain impartial, and, in doing so, should avoid comment on political and judicial matters. This does not mean that officers do not have the right to comment like everyone else, but that their comments should not be made in their capacity as police officers.

While the independence of law enforcement is important, oversight of law enforcement is also crucial. Oversight includes ensuring agencies are accountable to the public for resource allocation, are fiscally responsible, and have law enforcement policies and procedures. Law enforcement agencies must balance the need for accountability with the need for independence, but doing so can create tension. According to Reiner (2010) there are four ways in which law enforcement is held accountable:

Officers are charged and prosecuted for crimes (under the Criminal Code or the Police Act).
Officers are held civilly liable in court.
Judges ruling on cases find the evidence brought before them is as inadmissible.
Judicial review of policy forces changes upon the police.

Griffiths (2013, p.58) further identifies six processes that hold police accountable in Canada:

Political accountability to governing authorities
Legal accountability through the courts
Accountability to administrative agencies
Freedom of information legislation
Community policing committees
Special ad hoc mechanisms such as royal commissions

In cases that may not warrant a criminal investigation, police officers in British Columbia are governed by statutes. In British Columbia, municipal police officers are governed by the Police Act and RCMP officers are governed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Act. Offences alleged under these acts are often investigated by police officers in their own agencies. For more serious and/or high-profile cases, police officers from other agencies may conduct the investigations. These are known as internal investigations, professional standards investigations, or police act investigations.

These specialized investigations are conducted by units within departments, which are often referred to as Professional Standards Units.

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Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/justice-alitos-home-flew-a-u-s-flag-upside-down-after-jan-6-a-report-says

Justice Alito’s home flew a U.S. flag upside down after Jan. 6, a report says

WASHINGTON (AP) — An upside-down American flag, a symbol associated with former President Donald Trump’s false claims of election fraud, was displayed outside the home of Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito in January 2021, The New York Times reported.

A photo obtained and published by the newspaper on Thursday shows the flag flying on Jan. 17, 2021, days after the Republican’s supporters stormed the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6, 2021, to try to prevent certification of Democrat Joe Biden’s presidential election victory. Dozens of the pro-Trump rioters were carrying similarly inverted flags and chanting slogans like “Stop the Steal.”

The report could raise concerns about Alito’s impartiality as the court considers two major cases related to the Capitol attack, including charges faced by the rioters and whether Trump has immunity from prosecution on election interference charges. The justice said the flag was placed there by his wife amid a dispute with neighbors.

Democratic Sen. Dick Durbin of Illinois, chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee, called on Alito to recuse himself Friday from cases related to the 2020 election and the Jan. 6 Capitol insurrection.

“Flying an upside-down American flag — a symbol of the so-called ‘Stop the Steal’ movement — clearly creates the appearance of bias,” Durbin said in a statement.

Republican Sen. Tom Cotton of Arkansas, meanwhile, called the report an attempt to “intimidate justices,” in a social-media post.

EXPLAINER: Who is Ginni Thomas and why is she important to the Jan. 6 hearings?

It comes as another conservative justice, Clarence Thomas, has ignored calls to recuse himself from cases related to the 2020 election over his wife, Ginni Thomas’, support for Trump and as public trust in the Supreme Court is at its lowest point in at least 50 years. Judicial experts said the flag clearly violates ethics rules set to avoid even the appearance of bias.

At the time the flag was flying, the court was still considering whether to take up cases over the 2020 election. It ultimately rejected them over dissent from three conservative justices, including Alito, who was appointed by President George W. Bush, a Republican. He wrote that the court’s consideration of the cases would have no impact on the 2020 election but “would provide invaluable guidance for future elections.”

Alito acknowledged the presence of the flag at his home in Alexandria, Virginia, but said he had “no involvement whatsoever in the flying of the flag.”

“It was briefly placed by Mrs. Alito in response to a neighbor’s use of objectionable and personally insulting language on yard signs,” Alito said in an emailed statement to the newspaper.

Martha-Ann Alito had been in a dispute with another family in the neighborhood over an anti-Trump sign on their lawn, and neighbors also interpreted the flag as a political statement, the Times reported. It’s unclear how long the flag was flying.

Judicial ethics codes focus on the need for judges to be independent, avoiding political statements or opinions on matters they could be called on to decide. The Supreme Court had long gone without its own code of ethics, but it adopted one in November 2023 in the face of sustained criticism over undisclosed trips and gifts from wealthy benefactors to some justices. The code lacks a means of enforcement, however.

Amanda Frost, a law professor at the University of Virginia, told the newspaper that flying the flag upside down is “the equivalent of putting a ‘Stop the Steal’ sign in your yard, which is a problem if you’re deciding election-related cases.”

Even if it was placed by his spouse or someone else living in the home, “he shouldn’t have it in his yard as his message to the world,” she said.

The Supreme Court has warned its employees about public displays indicating partisan leanings, the newspaper reported. The court did not respond to questions about whether those rules apply to justices.

The U.S. Flag Code states that the American flag is not to be flown upside down “except as a signal of dire distress in instance of extreme danger to life or property.” It has been used as a protest symbol on both the left and the right on a range of issues over the decades. It took off as a symbol of Trump’s “Stop the Steal” campaign as he spread false claims that the election he lost to Biden had been stolen.

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Take My Wife, Please: For Political Damage Control, Just Blame Your Spouse

When Justice Samuel Alito and Senator Bob Menendez landed in hot water, they looked for a scapegoat close to home. Inside their homes, in fact.

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Bob and Nadine Menendez walking into court.

By Rebecca Davis O’Brien and Reid J. Epstein

It is a tale as old as Adam and Eve: A husband, faced with accusations of misconduct, blames the wife.

It is also a time-honored, bipartisan political strategy. This week, Justice Samuel A. Alito Jr. and Senator Bob Menendez of New Jersey pointed ringed fingers at their wives for episodes that have landed each man in political or legal trouble.

“It was briefly placed by Mrs. Alito,” Justice Alito, one of the Supreme Court’s most conservative members, told The New York Times in explaining an upside-down American flag — a “Stop the Steal” symbol of protest by Donald J. Trump’s supporters — flying on a pole in the family’s front lawn in the days before President Biden’s 2021 inauguration. The justice’s wife, Martha-Ann Alito, was in a feud with neighbors at the time over an anti-Trump sign, The Times reported.

In the case of Mr. Menendez, a Democrat, it was his lawyer who did the finger pointing. On Wednesday, in a federal courtroom in Manhattan, the lawyer, Avi Weitzman, blamed the senator’s wife and her financial troubles for what prosecutors have described as a bribery scheme involving foreign governments and hundreds of thousands of dollars in gifts.

“She tried to get cash and assets any which way she could,” Mr. Weitzman told the jury. “She kept him in the dark on what she was asking others to give her.” (Ms. Menendez also faces charges in the case but will be tried separately, after a breast cancer diagnosis . She has pleaded not guilty, and a lawyer representing her declined to comment.)

Casting blame on a spouse for perceived misdeeds may help relieve the immediate pressure on a public official, but it does so, necessarily, by exposing the most intimate of partnerships to scrutiny and scorn.

And, of course, there’s the reputational and interpersonal fallout from throwing your wife under the bus.

“Given how the public generally holds women to a higher ethical standard than men and expect them to take raps for behavior men routinely get away with, I could see how men might think blaming their wife for a misdeed could shield them from criticism,” said Jennifer Palmieri, a political strategist who knows about spousal controversy from working on the presidential campaigns of John Edwards and Hillary Clinton. “But not when it involves your wife. You just look like a coward.”

Sidestepping political controversy and pushing your wife directly into it is a move bound to prompt accusations of sexism, as it often plays on negative stereotypes of manipulative, ambitious or status-obsessed political wives with uncontrollable emotions and an outsize sense of entitlement.

Justice Alito’s claim about Mrs. Alito would seem to put her into a different category: A wife whose strongly held, unwisely advertised opinions become a professional liability for her husband. (Neither has been charged with a crime or formally accused of wrongdoing.)

Political spouse scandals often arise from the inevitable marital disruption created when one member of a couple rises to a high-visibility job that, at least in theory, is bound by particular laws and codes of ethics. Not only does it force the spouses into new public roles, it also means they can be natural scapegoats when something goes awry, whether they embrace it or not.

“This is not normal behavior; this is not normal marital strife,” said former Representative Brian Baird, a Democrat from Washington State, who was a practicing psychologist for two decades before spending a dozen years in Congress. “Lots of us go through marital strife, but that strife does not include acting in ways that are extraordinarily questionable or self-enriching or undermining the political system itself and then making excuses for that.”

One of the most important public corruption cases in recent decades centered on the marriage of Bob McDonnell, a Republican former governor of Virginia.

Mr. McDonnell and his wife, Maureen, both faced federal charges stemming from more than $165,000 in loans and gifts given to the family by a nutritional-supplements executive. At their trial, in 2014, Mr. McDonnell’s lawyers said the couple had been too estranged to engage in a conspiracy, seizing on a witness’s description of her as a “nutbag” and saying she had become fixated on luxury goods.

(In the case of charged crimes, blaming the wife can make for excellent legal strategy, since spouses cannot be compelled to testify against each other.)

Mr. McDonnell took the stand in his own defense, telling the jury that his wife had been disappointed in their financial circumstances and “overwhelmed” by the stress of her role in public office. Both were convicted, but the convictions were later overturned through a unanimous 2016 Supreme Court ruling that loosened federal bribery statutes. He filed for divorce three years later.

As with Ms. Menendez and Ms. McDonnell, politicians’ wives have faced legal consequences beyond public opprobrium.

In 2018, charged with stealing campaign money to support a lavish lifestyle, former Representative Duncan D. Hunter, a Republican from California, said his wife was responsible for the couple’s finances. Both later pleaded guilty to corruption.

There are also political couples whose professional ambitions and private transgressions are so closely intertwined that public condemnation flows freely between them, even when neither partner directly blames the other.

While Mrs. Clinton was first lady, her husband’s foes on the political right painted her as a dangerous and manipulative figure. Later, her own political aspirations often collided, at times extremely uncomfortably, with her husband’s infidelity and his postpresidential work.

Sometimes, spouses’ political roles or outside employment complicate their partners’ official business.

Another Supreme Court justice, Clarence Thomas, has faced calls for his recusal or resignation after correspondence showed that his wife, Virginia Thomas, a longtime right-wing activist, sought to overthrow the results of the 2020 election.

And former Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, who died in 2020 , faced criticism for not recusing herself from cases to which her husband, Martin Ginsburg, a tax lawyer, had direct or indirect ties.

Of course, Washington men behaving badly are sometimes called out by their wives. Just this week, Representative Rich McCormick, a Georgia Republican, filed for divorce and then watched as his wife, Debra Miller, publicly suggested that he had had an affair with a fellow member of Congress.

Women in public office have also gotten in trouble because of their romantic partners. In 2020, Gov. Gretchen Whitmer of Michigan, a Democrat, blamed her husband’s “poor attempt at humor” after reports that he had tried to cajole a marina owner into putting his boat in the water before the Memorial Day rush.

Before Carol Moseley Braun was sworn in as a Democratic senator from Illinois in 1993, she came under fire because of accusations that her boyfriend, who was also her campaign manager, had sexually harassed women on the campaign staff.

Ms. Moseley Braun said in an interview on Friday that political advisers at the time urged her to cast blame on her boyfriend and distance herself from him.

“I thought that would be cowardly of me to do,” she said. “I said, ‘This guy has not done anything wrong.’”

The typical posture from powerful men in Washington, she said, is the opposite.

“They just find somebody else to blame but me,” she said. “And the person closest to me is this woman over here, and you can kick her around as much as you want.”

Benjamin Weiser and Catie Edmondson contributed reporting.

Rebecca Davis O’Brien covers campaign finance and money in U.S. elections. She previously covered federal law enforcement, courts and criminal justice. More about Rebecca Davis O’Brien

Reid J. Epstein covers campaigns and elections from Washington. Before joining The Times in 2019, he worked at The Wall Street Journal, Politico, Newsday and The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. More about Reid J. Epstein

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