how to cite data in a essay

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Data should be cited within our work for the same reasons journal articles are cited: to give credit where credit is due (original author/producer) and to help other researchers find the material. If you use data without citation, that is deeply problematic for academic integrity as well as reproducibility purposes. Pay attention to licenses (here's a page on those) and give attribution!

A data citation includes the typical components of other citations:

Author or creator: the entity/entities responsible for creating the data Date of publication: the date the data was published or otherwise released to the public Title: the title of the dataset or a brief description of it if it's missing a title Publisher: entity responsible for hosting the data (like a repository or archive) URL or preferably, a DOI: a link that points to the data Data Accessed: since most data are published without versions, it's important to note the time that you accessed the data in case newer releases are made over time.

Citation standards for data sets differ by journal, publisher, and conference, but you have a few options generally (depending on the situation):

• Use the format of a style manual as determined by a publisher or conference, such as IEEE or ACM. If you use a citation manager (highly recommended for organizing research reading!) like Zotero (which we support at NYU - check out our Zotero guide ), you can have them export your citations in whatever format you need.
• Use the author or repository's preferred citation that they list on the page where you downloaded the data initially.

Here's an example of how to find the citation information for a dataset hosted on Zenodo , a generalist repository that houses data, code, and more:

All scholarly or academic work requires that you cite your sources, whether you are writing a long paper or a quick report. Why is citing your research so important?

Researching and writing a paper ideally involves a process of exploring and learning. By citing your sources, you are showing your reader how you came to your conclusions and acknowledging the other people's work that brought you to your conclusions. Citing sources:

• Documents your research and scholarship
• Acknowledges the work of others whose scholarship contributed to your work
• Helps your reader understand the context of your argument
• Provides information for your reader to use to locate additional information on your topic
• Establishes the credibility of your scholarship
• Provides you with an opportunity to demonstrate your own integrity and understanding of academic ethics

Partially adapted from "When and Why to Cite Sources." SUNY Albany. 2008. Retrieved 14 Jan 2009.

• Data-Planet Data Basics Data Basics is a module in Data-Planet that provides resources and examples for citing datasets and statistics when incorporating them into research.
• IASSIST Quick Guide to Data Citation Includes examples from APA, MLA, and Chicago styles.
• How to Cite Data A comprehensive guide with examples from Michigan State University Libraries.
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• Last Updated: Apr 13, 2024 9:12 PM
• URL: https://guides.nyu.edu/datasources

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Citing Data and Statistics

Guide to data citation.

Whether you use a numeric dataset or a prepared statistical table from an existing source (print or electronic) you need to cite the source of your information.  

It is critical to correctly cite data and statistics. This ensures that research data and statistics can be:

• replicated for verification
• credited for recognition
• tracked to measure usage and impact

By citing your dataset or statistics, you ensure that your work can be reproduced, and you also attribute credit to those who provided the data or statistics.

Elements of Data Citation

It is important to identify the elements of your data and statistics, as these elements are organized into a properly formatted citation in accordance with your associations preferred style guide.

These are the minimum elements required for dataset identification and retrieval. Fewer or additional elements may be requested by author guidelines or style manuals. Be sure to include as many elements as needed to precisely identify the dataset or statistics you have used.

Arrange these elements following the order and punctuation specified by your style guide. If examples for datasets are not provided, the format for books is generally considered a generic format that can be modified for other source types.

Source: Quick Guide to Data Citation - IASSIST Special Interest Group on Data Citation (SIGDC)

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Data citation is an invaluable tool of scholarly work. For authors of datasets, it is important that they receive attribution for their work. Citing data also allows readers to locate, access and reuse the data for their own use or for replication.

When citing data, the following components should be used:

• Author name(s)
• Title or name of dataset
• Publication or release date
• Publisher name (i.e. database, repository)
• Edition, version, volume, vintage
• Software used for analysis
• Access information (URL, unique identifier, access date)

Always try to provide as much information as possible.

There is no one standard method for citing data. Many of the data repositories, archives, distributors or publishers have provided their own guidelines to assist researchers.

• Dataverse :  ​ Hanmer, Michael J.; Banks, Antoine J., White, Ismail K., 2013, "Replication data for: Experiments to Reduce the Over-reporting of Voting: A Pipeline to the Truth", http://dx.doi.org/10.7910/DVN/22893 , Harvard Dataverse, V2 [UNF:5:eJOVAjDU0E0jzSQ2bRCg9g==]
• Dryad : Sidlauskas, B. 2007. Data from: Testing for unequal rates of morphological diversification in the absence of a detailed phylogeny: a case study from characiform fishes. Dryad Digital Repository. doi:10.5061/dryad.20
• Zenodo : Franco, Luis et al (2013). "interactive" version of data associated with the eLife paper "Integrative genomic analysis of the human immune response to influenza vaccination." eLife: (2013) pp. 00299. 10.5281/zenodo.6960
• Roper Center

See also the DOI Citation Formatter from CrossRef

Note: Some sites may require further attribution such as the GES DISC .

Bibliographic & Data Citation Tools

Further Reading

Peter Buneman, "How to cite curated databases and how to make them citable," ssdbm, pp.195-203, 18th International Conference on Scientific and Statistical Database Management (SSDBM'06), 2006. Retrieved from http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/opb/papers/ssdbm2006.pdf . Altman, M., & King, G. (2007). A proposed standard for the scholarly citation of quantitative data. D-Lib Magazine , 13(3/4).  Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1045/march2007-altman Green, T. (2009). We need publishing standards for datasets and data tables. OECD Publishing White Paper. Paris: OECD Publishing. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/603233448430

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Cite data and statistics.

• How to Cite Data and Statistics
• Citing Sources

General Guidelines

When you use numeric datasets or a prepared statistical table you must cite where you retrieved the information.  Data and statistical tables contain unique elements not specifically addressed by most citation styles.  Citations for data or statistical tables should include at least the following pieces of information, which you will need to arrange according to the citation style you use.  

• Author or creator - the person(s), organization, issuing agency or agencies responsible for creating the dataset
• Date of publication  - the year the dataset was published, posted or otherwise released to the public (not the date of the subject matter).
• Title or description - complete title or  if no title exists, you must create a brief description of the data, including time period covered in the data if applicable
• Publisher  - entity (organization, database, archive, journal) responsible for hosting the data 
• URL or DOI   - the unique identifier if the data set is online

Certain styles may also ask for additional information such as:

• Edition or version
• Date accessed online (Note: APA does not require this)
• Format description e.g. data file, database, CD-ROM, computer software

Tips for finding additional citation guidance:

• Check to see if the publisher or distributor of your dataset provides suggestions for citing their data.  For example data providers like OECD and repositories like  ICPSR  and Dryad  offer guidance for formatting citations to the hundreds of datafiles they host or produce.
• Look through your style manual for instructions on using a similar format such as citation styles for electronic resources, electronic references, web pages, or tables.

This guide provides information for citing data and tables to include in your bibliography.  Consult the Purdue OWL for guidance on incorporating data and statistics in the body of your paper.

This guide is intended as a guideline only, check your citation manual, ask a librarian, or confer with your professor if your specific data set does not contain the elements needed to draft a useful citation. In general, it’s better to include more information than called for than to leave out information that could help the reader locate data you cite.

Examples - APA Style

Unless otherwise noted, the basic elements and guidelines described here are from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition (McHenry Reference Desk BF 76.7 .P83 2010).  You may also wish to consult the Purdue OWL  or How to Cite Data from Michigan State University for MLA examples and explanations.

1. Include format type in brackets [ ] to describe format , not title information (e.g. data set, data file and codebook).  [See APA guidelines for "Nonroutine information in titles" (pp. 186)]

2. Use “Available from” if the URL or DOI points you to a website or information on how to obtain or download data at a general site that houses data sets. Use “Retrieved from” if the URL or DOI takes you directly to the data table or database. (APA Style Manual, 2001 ed ., pp.281 or  Purdue OWL Electronic Sources : Data Sets)

Basic Elements:  [Follow APA guidelines for "Data set" (pp. 210-211) or online from MSU ] 

Author/Rightsholder, A. A. (Year). Title of publication or data set  (Version number if available) [Data File]. Retrieved from (or available from) http://xxxx

The title of the data set should be italicized unless the data set is included as part of a larger work or volume

The World Bank, World Development Indicators (2012). GNI per capita, Atlas method  [Data file]. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD

Example of  Table generated from an interactive data set:

Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce (2013).  U.S. Direct Investment Abroad, All U.S. Parent Companies 2009-2010 . [Data file].  Available from BEA.gov/iTable 

II. Table from a publication  

Basic Elements: [Follow APA guidelines for "entry in a reference work" (p. 205)] 

Author. (Year). Title of entry. In Editor (Edition),  Title of publication  (pp. xxx-xxx). Retrieved from http:// OR Location: Publisher OR doi:xxxx.

Example: (Note: Editor & Edition elements are not applicable in this example)

World Trade Organization. (2012). Table I.3: World merchandise trade and trade in commercial services by region and selected economy, 2005-2011.  In International Trade Statistics, 2012  (p. 22).  Retrieved from: http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/its2012_e/its12_toc_e.htm

The title of the data set should be italicized unless the data set is included as part of a larger work or volume , as in the example above.  

Quick Guides to Citing Data

• ICPSR: How to Cite Data
• IASSIST Quick Guide to Citing Data
• How to Cite Data - Michigan State University A longer guide with many examples of how to cite datasets and statistical tables
• Writing with Statistics - Purdue OWL Explains how to properly incorporate statistics into a paper, including inferential and descriptive statistics, and using visuals: tables, graphs, and charts
• Census Data & Tables (American Factfinder)

What is a DOI?

DOI stands for Digital Object Identifier and is a unique number used to precisely locate electronic items like webpages, articles, files, etc.  A DOI is persistent, which means it does not "break" the way a URL can when a website is updated.

• See: What is a DOI? (ICPSR)
• Next: Citing Sources >>

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The land acknowledgement used at UC Santa Cruz was developed in partnership with the Amah Mutsun Tribal Band Chairman and the Amah Mutsun Relearning Program at the UCSC Arboretum .

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• Referencing

A Quick Guide to Referencing | Cite Your Sources Correctly

Referencing means acknowledging the sources you have used in your writing. Including references helps you support your claims and ensures that you avoid plagiarism .

There are many referencing styles, but they usually consist of two things:

• A citation wherever you refer to a source in your text.
• A reference list or bibliography at the end listing full details of all your sources.

The most common method of referencing in UK universities is Harvard style , which uses author-date citations in the text. Our free Harvard Reference Generator automatically creates accurate references in this style.

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Table of contents

Referencing styles, citing your sources with in-text citations, creating your reference list or bibliography, harvard referencing examples, frequently asked questions about referencing.

Each referencing style has different rules for presenting source information. For in-text citations, some use footnotes or endnotes , while others include the author’s surname and date of publication in brackets in the text.

The reference list or bibliography is presented differently in each style, with different rules for things like capitalisation, italics, and quotation marks in references.

Your university will usually tell you which referencing style to use; they may even have their own unique style. Always follow your university’s guidelines, and ask your tutor if you are unsure. The most common styles are summarised below.

Harvard referencing, the most commonly used style at UK universities, uses author–date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical bibliography or reference list at the end.

Harvard Referencing Guide

Vancouver referencing, used in biomedicine and other sciences, uses reference numbers in the text corresponding to a numbered reference list at the end.

Vancouver Referencing Guide

APA referencing, used in the social and behavioural sciences, uses author–date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical reference list at the end.

APA Referencing Guide APA Reference Generator

MHRA referencing, used in the humanities, uses footnotes in the text with source information, in addition to an alphabetised bibliography at the end.

MHRA Referencing Guide

OSCOLA referencing, used in law, uses footnotes in the text with source information, and an alphabetical bibliography at the end in longer texts.

OSCOLA Referencing Guide

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In-text citations should be used whenever you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source (e.g. a book, article, image, website, or video).

Quoting and paraphrasing

Quoting is when you directly copy some text from a source and enclose it in quotation marks to indicate that it is not your own writing.

Paraphrasing is when you rephrase the original source into your own words. In this case, you don’t use quotation marks, but you still need to include a citation.

In most referencing styles, page numbers are included when you’re quoting or paraphrasing a particular passage. If you are referring to the text as a whole, no page number is needed.

In-text citations

In-text citations are quick references to your sources. In Harvard referencing, you use the author’s surname and the date of publication in brackets.

Up to three authors are included in a Harvard in-text citation. If the source has more than three authors, include the first author followed by ‘ et al. ‘

The point of these citations is to direct your reader to the alphabetised reference list, where you give full information about each source. For example, to find the source cited above, the reader would look under ‘J’ in your reference list to find the title and publication details of the source.

Placement of in-text citations

In-text citations should be placed directly after the quotation or information they refer to, usually before a comma or full stop. If a sentence is supported by multiple sources, you can combine them in one set of brackets, separated by a semicolon.

If you mention the author’s name in the text already, you don’t include it in the citation, and you can place the citation immediately after the name.

• Another researcher warns that the results of this method are ‘inconsistent’ (Singh, 2018, p. 13) .
• Previous research has frequently illustrated the pitfalls of this method (Singh, 2018; Jones, 2016) .
• Singh (2018, p. 13) warns that the results of this method are ‘inconsistent’.

The terms ‘bibliography’ and ‘reference list’ are sometimes used interchangeably. Both refer to a list that contains full information on all the sources cited in your text. Sometimes ‘bibliography’ is used to mean a more extensive list, also containing sources that you consulted but did not cite in the text.

A reference list or bibliography is usually mandatory, since in-text citations typically don’t provide full source information. For styles that already include full source information in footnotes (e.g. OSCOLA and Chicago Style ), the bibliography is optional, although your university may still require you to include one.

Format of the reference list

Reference lists are usually alphabetised by authors’ last names. Each entry in the list appears on a new line, and a hanging indent is applied if an entry extends onto multiple lines.

Different source information is included for different source types. Each style provides detailed guidelines for exactly what information should be included and how it should be presented.

Below are some examples of reference list entries for common source types in Harvard style.

• Chapter of a book
• Journal article

Your university should tell you which referencing style to follow. If you’re unsure, check with a supervisor. Commonly used styles include:

• Harvard referencing , the most commonly used style in UK universities.
• MHRA , used in humanities subjects.
• APA , used in the social sciences.
• Vancouver , used in biomedicine.
• OSCOLA , used in law.

Your university may have its own referencing style guide.

If you are allowed to choose which style to follow, we recommend Harvard referencing, as it is a straightforward and widely used style.

References should be included in your text whenever you use words, ideas, or information from a source. A source can be anything from a book or journal article to a website or YouTube video.

If you don’t acknowledge your sources, you can get in trouble for plagiarism .

To avoid plagiarism , always include a reference when you use words, ideas or information from a source. This shows that you are not trying to pass the work of others off as your own.

You must also properly quote or paraphrase the source. If you’re not sure whether you’ve done this correctly, you can use the Scribbr Plagiarism Checker to find and correct any mistakes.

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

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How to Cite Statistics

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If you’re quoting or referring to statistics in your academic papers, the short and simple answer is, yes, of course, you should always cite your sources. This will allow your reader—usually your lecturer—to check the statistic for themselves with a clear point of reference for reviewing the relevant study in more detail if they wish.

But What If It’s Common Knowledge?

Even if you’re referring to something that’s often quoted and could be considered common knowledge—for example, that 50% of marriages end in divorce, or that 80% of businesses fail in their first year—you should still back this up by quoting a study from a reputable source. You might even find that your “common knowledge” statistic isn’t as reliable as you originally thought.

So How Do I Cite a Statistic?

Assuming that you’ve found a reliable source for the statistic that you’re quoting or referring to, you now need to create a citation to point to that source. How you do this will depend on the citation format that you’re required to use and the actual source type of the statistic. Once you know whether you’re expected to cite your sources in MLA or APA style , citing a statistic is essentially no different from citing anything else from that particular type of source.

For example, if you took the statistic from a website, you cite it as you would any other website. The same goes for statistics found in books, journals, magazines, or databases—simply follow the usual citation method for each source.

Here is an example of a statistic found online and cited in MLA style (9 th Edition)

Full Citation Structure

Author’s last name, First name. “Title of Document/Webpage: Subtitle.” Title of Website, Publisher/Affiliated organization, Date published, URL.

More females than males attended college/university in the US in 2017.

Full Citation in Works Cited List

“Table 105.20: Enrollment in Elementary, Secondary, and Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions, by Level and Control of Institution, Enrollment Level, and Attendance Status and Sex of Student: Selected Years, Fall 1990 through Fall 2026.” Digest of Education Statistics , National Center for Education Statistics, February 2017, https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d16/tables/dt16_105.20.asp?current=yes.

Note the above example does not have author information available, so the citation starts with the title of the document. Also, the citation provides information for an individual data table on a webpage, rather than simply the webpage itself.

In-text Citation

An in-text citation in MLA is a parenthetical citation . The standard format for this citation is:

(Author, page number)

Creating an in-text citation for a webpage can be tricky due to the absence of page numbers (and, in this case, the absence of an author). The advice for MLA format is to include the first item of your full citation, whatever that may be. This will enable the reader to easily identify the full citation, which is, of course, the point of an in-text citation. You can condense the item if necessary.

So, for the above example, the in-text citation would be:

(“Table 105.20”)

That Seems Like A Lot of Information!

Generally, the more information you can give on a resource the better—so if it’s available, include it. However, it’s understood that sometimes you might have to leave some components out. If you follow the format as instructed by your lecturer and include enough information to enable them to find your sources, your citation should be correct.

Remember! Don’t rely on “common knowledge” to cite statistics. Your lecturer will want to see firm sources to validate those statistics. Citation Machine can help with quick citation creation, making it easy to back up those statistics with properly referenced sources. There are thousands of styles including the Chicago Manual of Style and many others.

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / MLA Format / How to Cite an Essay in MLA

How to Cite an Essay in MLA

The guidelines for citing an essay in MLA format are similar to those for citing a chapter in a book. Include the author of the essay, the title of the essay, the name of the collection if the essay belongs to one, the editor of the collection or other contributors, the publication information, and the page number(s).

Citing an Essay

Mla essay citation structure.

Last, First M. “Essay Title.” Collection Title, edited by First M. Last, Publisher, year published, page numbers. Website Title , URL (if applicable).

MLA Essay Citation Example

Gupta, Sanjay. “Balancing and Checking.” Essays on Modern Democracy, edited by Bob Towsky, Brook Stone Publishers, 1996, pp. 36-48. Essay Database, www . databaseforessays.org/modern/modern-democracy.

MLA Essay In-text Citation Structure

(Last Name Page #)

MLA Essay In-text Citation Example

Click here to cite an essay via an EasyBib citation form.

MLA Formatting Guide

MLA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Sample Paper
• Works Cited
• MLA 8 Updates
• MLA 9 Updates
• View MLA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all MLA Examples

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To cite your sources in an essay in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the author’s name(s), chapter title, book title, editor(s), publication year, publisher, and page numbers. The templates for in-text citations and a works-cited-list entry for essay sources and some examples are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the author on the first occurrence. For subsequent citations, use only the surname(s). In parenthetical citations, always use only the surname of the author(s).

Citation in prose:

First mention: Annette Wheeler Cafarelli

Subsequent occurrences: Wheeler Cafarelli

Parenthetical:

….(Wheeler Cafarelli).

Works-cited-list entry template and example:

The title of the chapter is enclosed in double quotation marks and uses title case. The book or collection title is given in italics and uses title case.

Surname, First Name. “Title of the Chapter.” Title of the Book , edited by Editor(s) Name, Publisher, Publication Year, page range.

Cafarelli, Annette Wheeler. “Rousseau and British Romanticism: Women and British Romanticism.” Cultural Interactions in the Romantic Age: Critical Essays in Comparative Literature , edited by Gregory Maertz. State U of New York P, 1998, pp. 125–56.

To cite an essay in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the author(s), the essay title, the book title, editor(s), publication year, publisher, and page numbers. The templates for citations in prose, parenthetical citations, and works-cited-list entries for an essay by multiple authors, and some examples, are given below:

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the author (e.g., Mary Strine).

For sources with two authors, use both full author names in prose (e.g., Mary Strine and Beth Radick).

For sources with three or more authors, use the first name and surname of the first author followed by “and others” or “and colleagues” (e.g., Mary Strine and others). In subsequent citations, use only the surname of the first author followed by “and others” or “and colleagues” (e.g., Strine and others).

In parenthetical citations, use only the author’s surname. For sources with two authors, use two surnames (e.g., Strine and Radick). For sources with three or more author names, use the first author’s surname followed by “et al.”

First mention: Mary Strine…

Subsequent mention: Strine…

First mention: Mary Strine and Beth Radick…

Subsequent mention: Strine and Radick…

First mention: Mary Strine and colleagues …. or Mary Strine and others

Subsequent occurrences: Strine and colleagues …. or Strine and others

…. (Strine).

….(Strine and Radick).

….(Strine et al.).

The title of the essay is enclosed in double quotation marks and uses title case. The book or collection title is given in italics and uses title case.

Surname, First Name, et al. “Title of the Essay.” Title of the Book , edited by Editor(s) Name, Publisher, Publication Year, page range.

Strine, Mary M., et al. “Research in Interpretation and Performance Studies: Trends, Issues, Priorities.” Speech Communication: Essays to Commemorate the 75th Anniversary of the Speech Communication Association , edited by Gerald M. Phillips and Julia T. Wood, Southern Illinois UP, 1990, pp. 181–204.

MLA Citation Examples

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It is important to cite not only the literature consulted but also the data or statistics used. The elements of a data/statistics citation include:

• Author(s)/Creator
• Year of publication: The date when the statistics/dataset was published or released (rather than the collection or coverage date)
• Publisher: the data center/repository
• Any applicable identifier (including edition or version)
• Availability and access: URL or other location information for the data/statistics

The following links provide you with useful guides to citing statistical data. Use these along with the citation style guide recommended by your instructor.

Statistics Canada's Guide " How to Cite Statistics Canada Products "

How to Cite Data   (UBC Library)

• Academic Integrity: APA Style Plagiarism is a big deal, and it’s not something you want to find out about the hard way. In this tutorial you will not only learn how to avoid plagiarism, but also pick up some good research tips too.
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In-text citation

Reference list.

• Artificial intelligence
• Audiovisual
• Books and chapters
• Government and industry publications
• Legal sources
• Theses and course materials
• Web and social media

Other sources

• Print this page
• Other styles AGLC4 APA 7th Chicago 17th (A) Notes Chicago 17th (B) Author-Date Harvard MLA 9th Vancouver
• Referencing home

(Author's surname Year)

Author's surname (Year)

This was seen in an Australian study (Couch 2017)

Couch (2017) suggests that . . .

• List the authors names in the same order as they appear in the article.
• Go to Getting started > In-text citation to view other examples such as multiple authors.

Use tables for exact values and information that is too detailed for the text. Use a table only if there isn't a simpler way to present your content such as a list or a diagram.

Tables should include a caption title row and column headings, information (exact values)

In-text table section

Use Table 1, Table 2 etc to caption tables and refer to them in the text.

See the Style Manual section on tables .

Author A or Name of Agency (Year) Title of data set [data set], Name of Website, accessed DD Month YYYY. URL

National Native Title Tribunal (2014) Native Title determination outcomes [data set], accessed 4 January 2020. data.gov.au/data/dataset/native-title-determination-outcomes

• If no date, use n.d.
• If name of website is the same as author, do not include the name of the website.

Personal communication and confidential unpublished material

A Author, personal communication, Day Month Year.

A Author, Type of Confidential Unpublished Material, Day Month Year.

M Smith (personal communication, 8 February 2020) wrote . . .

The radiologist's findings were further confirmed (P Alan, radiology report, 6 March 2021) . . .

• Don’t include an entry in the reference list.
• Personal communication may include materials such as emails from unarchived sources, private memos or unrecorded interview conversations.
• Confidential material may include medical charts, patient health records and other internal reports containing private information.
• Permission from the source is necessary before paraphrasing or citing from a confidential document.
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How to Cite Statistics

Last Updated: March 6, 2024 References

This article was co-authored by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Jennifer Mueller is a wikiHow Content Creator. She specializes in reviewing, fact-checking, and evaluating wikiHow's content to ensure thoroughness and accuracy. Jennifer holds a JD from Indiana University Maurer School of Law in 2006. There are 9 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been viewed 29,702 times. Learn more...

When you're working on a research paper, citing datasets and statistics you used is just as important as citing articles and other references from your research. It allows your readers to independently examine the data and verify the methodology used in collecting it. The basic information in your citation is similar, but the format may differ depending on whether you're using the Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), or Chicago citation style. [1] X Research source

• Example: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene.
• Individual author example: Sunshine, Sally.
• If there are 2 authors, place a comma after the first author's name, then type the word "and" and list the second author's name in first name-last name order. For example: Sunshine, Sally and Luna Wolfe.
• For more than 2 authors, type the first author's name and a comma followed by the abbreviation "et. al." For example: Sunshine, Sally, et. al.

• Example: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. "Community Health Profiles 2015, Brooklyn Community District 17: East Flatbush."

• Example: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. "Community Health Profiles 2015, Brooklyn Community District 17: East Flatbush." NYC.gov , New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2015.
• If a specific date is provided, use day-month-year format, abbreviating months with names longer than 4 letters. For example: 22 Feb. 2016.

• URL example: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. "Community Health Profiles 2015, Brooklyn Community District 17: East Flatbush." NYC.gov , New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2015. www1.nyc.gov/assets/doh/downloads/pdf/data/2015chp-bk17.pdf.
• DOI example: "Hazardous Drinking Rates, Drinkers Only, Population Aged 15-74." Tackling Harmful Alcohol Use: Economics and Public Health Policy , Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 24 Dec. 2015. OECD iLibrary , doi:10.1787/9789264181069-graph7-en.

• Example: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. "Community Health Profiles 2015, Brooklyn Community District 17: East Flatbush." NYC.gov , New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2015. www1.nyc.gov/assets/doh/downloads/pdf/data/2015chp-bk17.pdf. Accessed 24 Jan. 2017.

MLA Works Cited Entry Format:

Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of Document: Subtitle if Any." Title of Website or Publication , Name of Publisher, Day-Month-Year published or last modified. URL/DOI. Accessed Day-Month-Year.

• For example, you might write: Statistics show 30 percent of the adult residents of East Flatbush are obese (New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene 9).
• If the source isn't paginated, you only need to provide the author's last name in the parenthetical citation.
• If you mention the author's name in your text, provide a page number in the parenthetical. For example, you might write: According to the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 30 percent of the adult residents of East Flatbush are obese (9). If the source is not paginated, you don't need a parenthetical at all if you mention the author's name in your text.

• Example: National Center for Health Statistics.
• If there are 2 to 7 authors, list each name using the same last name-initials format. Place a comma between names and an ampersand before the final author's name. If there are more than 7 authors listed, place an ellipsis after the 6th author's name, then provide the last author's name. Never list more than 7 authors in an APA reference list entry. [9] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source

• Example: National Center for Health Statistics. (2016).

• Example: National Center for Health Statistics. (2016). Health, United States, 2015: With special feature on racial and ethnic health disparities [Statistical report].
• Examples of possible descriptions include "statistical report," "data file," "dataset," "preliminary report," or "statistical analysis."
• If there is a version number, include it in parentheses between the title and the description.

• URL example: National Center for Health Statistics. (2016). Health, United States, 2015: With special feature on racial and ethnic health disparities [Statistical report]. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus15.pdf
• DOI example: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (2015). Hazardous drinking rates, drinkers only, population aged 15-74 [Statistical report]. Retrieved from doi: 10.1787/9789264181069-graph7-en

APA Reference List Format:

Author Last Name, A. A. (Year). Title of document: Subtitle if any (Version # if available) [Description of document]. Retrieved from URL/DOI

• For example, you might write: In 2014, life expectancy for males increased 1.4 years (National Center for Health Statistics, 2016).
• If you mention the author in the text of your paper, include the year in parentheses immediately after the author's name. For example, you might write: According to the National Center for Health Statistics (2016), life expectancy for males increased by 1.4 years in 2014.
• If you happen to mention both the author's name and the year of publication in the text of your paper, there's no need for a parenthetical citation unless you have directly quoted the source. In that case, you would include the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence.

• Institutional author example: National Center for Health Statistics.
• Individual author example: Sunshine, Sally K.
• For 2 or 3 authors, list each author's name separated by commas with the word "and" before the final author's name All authors other than the first author are listed in first name-last name format. For example: Sunshine, Sally K. and Luna Wolfe.
• If there are more than 3 authors, type the first author's name followed by a comma and the abbreviation "et. al." For example: Sunshine, Sally K., et. al. [15] X Research source

• Example: National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2015: With Special Feature on Racial and Ethnic Disparities .

• Example: National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2015: With Special Feature on Racial and Ethnic Disparities . Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

• Example: National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2015: With Special Feature on Racial and Ethnic Disparities . Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Distributed by Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 2016.

• URL Example: National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2015: With Special Feature on Racial and Ethnic Disparities . Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Distributed by Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 2016. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus15.pdf.
• DOI example: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Hazardous Drinking Rates, Drinkers Only, Population Aged 15-74 . Paris, France: OECD iLibrary. doi: 10.1787/9789264181069-graph7-en.

Chicago Bibliography Format:

Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Document: Subtitle if Any. Location: Publisher. Distributed by Location: Distributor (if different from publisher), Year. URL/DOI.

• Example: National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 2015: With Special Feature on Racial and Ethnic Disparities , (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, distributed by Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 2016) https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus15.pdf, 65-86.

Expert Q&A

• If the statistics are reported in a book or journal article, rather than a statistical report or data set, cite to the book or journal article. There is no special format required because you're citing statistics rather than other content. [21] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/files/ICPSR/enewsletters/iassist.html
• ↑ https://guides.library.unr.edu/mlacitation/cite-statistics
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_in_text_citations_the_basics.html
• ↑ https://guides.library.ucsc.edu/citedata
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_author_authors.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/in_text_citations_the_basics.html
• ↑ https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=282964&p=3285995
• ↑ https://library.ulethbridge.ca/chicagostyle/books/multiple
• ↑ https://research.wou.edu/c.php?g=551307&p=3785233

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Quick guide to Harvard referencing (Cite Them Right)

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There are different versions of the Harvard referencing style. This guide is a quick introduction to the commonly-used Cite Them Right version. You will find further guidance available through the OU Library on the Cite Them Right Database .

For help and support with referencing and the full Cite Them Right guide, have a look at the Library’s page on referencing and plagiarism . If you need guidance referencing OU module material you can check out which sections of Cite Them Right are recommended when referencing physical and online module material .

This guide does not apply to OU Law undergraduate students . If you are studying a module beginning with W1xx, W2xx or W3xx, you should refer to the Quick guide to Cite Them Right referencing for Law modules .

Table of contents

In-text citations and full references.

• Secondary referencing
• Page numbers
• Citing multiple sources published in the same year by the same author

Full reference examples

Referencing consists of two elements:

• in-text citations, which are inserted in the body of your text and are included in the word count. An in-text citation gives the author(s) and publication date of a source you are referring to. If the publication date is not given, the phrase 'no date' is used instead of a date. If using direct quotations or you refer to a specific section in the source you also need the page number/s if available, or paragraph number for web pages.
• full references, which are given in alphabetical order in reference list at the end of your work and are not included in the word count. Full references give full bibliographical information for all the sources you have referred to in the body of your text.

To see a reference list and intext citations check out this example assignment on Cite Them Right .

Difference between reference list and bibliography

a reference list only includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text

a bibliography includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text AND sources that were part of your background reading that you did not use in your assignment

Back to top

Examples of in-text citations

You need to include an in-text citation wherever you quote or paraphrase from a source. An in-text citation consists of the last name of the author(s), the year of publication, and a page number if relevant. There are a number of ways of incorporating in-text citations into your work - some examples are provided below. Alternatively you can see examples of setting out in-text citations in Cite Them Right .

Note: When referencing a chapter of an edited book, your in-text citation should give the author(s) of the chapter.

Online module materials

(Includes written online module activities, audio-visual material such as online tutorials, recordings or videos).

When referencing material from module websites, the date of publication is the year you started studying the module.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

OR, if there is no named author:

The Open University (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Rietdorf, K. and Bootman, M. (2022) 'Topic 3: Rare diseases'. S290: Investigating human health and disease . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1967195 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

The Open University (2022) ‘3.1 The purposes of childhood and youth research’. EK313: Issues in research with children and young people . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1949633&section=1.3 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

You can also use this template to reference videos and audio that are hosted on your module website:

The Open University (2022) ‘Video 2.7 An example of a Frith-Happé animation’. SK298: Brain, mind and mental health . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2013014&section=4.9.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

The Open University (2022) ‘Audio 2 Interview with Richard Sorabji (Part 2)’. A113: Revolutions . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1960941&section=5.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

Note: if a complete journal article has been uploaded to a module website, or if you have seen an article referred to on the website and then accessed the original version, reference the original journal article, and do not mention the module materials. If only an extract from an article is included in your module materials that you want to reference, you should use secondary referencing, with the module materials as the 'cited in' source, as described above.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of message', Title of discussion board , in Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Fitzpatrick, M. (2022) ‘A215 - presentation of TMAs', Tutor group discussion & Workbook activities , in A215: Creative writing . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/forumng/discuss.php?d=4209566 (Accessed: 24 January 2022).

Note: When an ebook looks like a printed book, with publication details and pagination, reference as a printed book.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title . Edition if later than first. Place of publication: publisher. Series and volume number if relevant.

For ebooks that do not contain print publication details

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title of book . Available at: DOI or URL (Accessed: date).

Example with one author:

Bell, J. (2014) Doing your research project . Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Adams, D. (1979) The hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy . Available at: http://www.amazon.co.uk/kindle-ebooks (Accessed: 23 June 2021).

Example with two or three authors:

Goddard, J. and Barrett, S. (2015) The health needs of young people leaving care . Norwich: University of East Anglia, School of Social Work and Psychosocial Studies.

Example with four or more authors:

Young, H.D. et al. (2015) Sears and Zemansky's university physics . San Francisco, CA: Addison-Wesley.

Note: You can choose one or other method to reference four or more authors (unless your School requires you to name all authors in your reference list) and your approach should be consistent.

Note: Books that have an editor, or editors, where each chapter is written by a different author or authors.

Surname of chapter author, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of chapter or section', in Initial. Surname of book editor (ed.) Title of book . Place of publication: publisher, Page reference.

Franklin, A.W. (2012) 'Management of the problem', in S.M. Smith (ed.) The maltreatment of children . Lancaster: MTP, pp. 83–95.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference.

If accessed online:

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference. Available at: DOI or URL (if required) (Accessed: date).

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326.

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326. Available at: https://libezproxy.open.ac.uk/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/log... (Accessed: 27 January 2023).

Barke, M. and Mowl, G. (2016) 'Málaga – a failed resort of the early twentieth century?', Journal of Tourism History , 2(3), pp. 187–212. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/1755182X.2010.523145

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference if available. Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Mansell, W. and Bloom, A. (2012) ‘£10,000 carrot to tempt physics experts’, The Guardian , 20 June, p. 5.

Roberts, D. and Ackerman, S. (2013) 'US draft resolution allows Obama 90 days for military action against Syria', The Guardian , 4 September. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/04/syria-strikes-draft-resolut... (Accessed: 9 September 2015).

Surname, Initial. (Year that the site was published/last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Organisation (Year that the page was last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Robinson, J. (2007) Social variation across the UK . Available at: https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/social-variation... (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

The British Psychological Society (2018) Code of Ethics and Conduct . Available at: https://www.bps.org.uk/news-and-policy/bps-code-ethics-and-conduct (Accessed: 22 March 2019).

Note: Cite Them Right Online offers guidance for referencing webpages that do not include authors' names and dates. However, be extra vigilant about the suitability of such webpages.

Surname, Initial. (Year) Title of photograph . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Kitton, J. (2013) Golden sunset . Available at: https://www.jameskittophotography.co.uk/photo_8692150.html (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

stanitsa_dance (2021) Cossack dance ensemble . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/COI_slphWJ_/ (Accessed: 13 June 2023).

Note: If no title can be found then replace it with a short description.

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Home > Christian Resources > How to Quote a Bible Verse in an Essay

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How to Quote a Bible Verse in an Essay

Published: April 23, 2024

Learn the proper way to cite Bible verses in academic essays, ensuring accurate and respectful integration of scripture into your writing.

(Many of the links in this article redirect to a specific reviewed product. Your purchase of these products through affiliate links helps to generate commission for Christian.net, at no extra cost. Learn more )

Table of Contents

Choosing the right translation, determining the citation style, in-text citations, introducing bible verses, quoting longer passages, citing the bible in references/works cited, ethical considerations, additional tips.

Quoting Bible verses in an essay is a common practice, especially in religious studies, theology, or literature classes. However, it’s essential to do it correctly to maintain academic integrity and avoid unintentional plagiarism. In this comprehensive guide from Academized.com , I’ll walk you through the steps to quote Bible verses properly, ensuring your essay is well-structured and follows academic conventions.

The first step is to choose the right translation. The Bible has been translated into numerous languages and versions, each with slight variations in wording and phrasing. When quoting a Bible verse, it’s crucial to use a reputable and widely accepted translation that aligns with your specific academic or research purposes.

Some popular translations include the King James Version (KJV), New International Version (NIV), and English Standard Version (ESV). The KJV is known for its literary quality and poetic language, while the NIV and ESV are more modern translations aimed at preserving the original meaning while using contemporary language.

If you’re writing for a religious studies or theology course, it’s generally recommended to use a translation approved by the religious institution or denomination you’re studying, as discussed in this Academized review on https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/academized-review-2023-actually-good-mary-walton . For literature or general academic purposes, any widely accepted translation should suffice.

Read more : Christian Blogs To Follow Before Writing a Religious Essay

Next, you’ll need to determine the appropriate citation style. Different academic disciplines and institutions may have their own preferred citation styles. The most common citation styles for quoting Bible verses are:

• MLA (Modern Language Association) style: Commonly used in literature, arts, and humanities. 
• APA (American Psychological Association) style: Frequently used in social sciences, education, and psychology. 
• Chicago/Turabian style: Often used in history, religion, and some humanities fields.

Before you start writing, check with your instructor or consult the style guide to ensure you’re using the correct citation format. Adhering to the proper citation style is crucial for maintaining academic integrity and avoiding plagiarism.

When quoting a Bible verse within the body of your essay, you’ll need to include an in-text citation. The format for in-text citations varies depending on the citation style you’re using.

In MLA style, the in-text citation for a Bible verse should include the book name (abbreviated), chapter number, and verse number(s). For example: “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life” (John 3.16).

In APA style, the in-text citation for a Bible verse should include the book name (not abbreviated), chapter number, and verse number(s), separated by colons. For instance: “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life” (John 3:16).

In Chicago/Turabian style, the in-text citation for a Bible verse should include the book name (abbreviated), chapter number, and verse number(s), separated by periods, like this: “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life” (John 3.16).

It’s also important to introduce Bible verses properly within the context of your essay. You can provide context by explaining the situation or context in which the verse is being used or referenced. Alternatively, you can use a signal phrase to indicate that you’re quoting a Bible verse, such as “As stated in the Gospel of John,” or “The Bible says.”

Introducing the verse with context or a signal phrase helps to smoothly integrate the quotation into your writing and clarifies the source for the reader.

If you’re quoting a longer passage from the Bible that spans multiple verses, you’ll need to format it differently. In MLA style, for example, longer quotations (four or more lines) should be indented one inch from the left margin and double-spaced. Here’s an example:

As the Apostle Paul writes in his letter to the Ephesians:

For by grace are ye saved through faith; and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God: Not of works, lest any man should boast. For we are his workmanship, created in Christ Jesus unto good works, which God hath before ordained that we should walk in them. (Eph. 2.8-10)

Note the indentation and the use of a signal phrase to introduce the quotation. This format helps to visually separate the longer quotation from your own writing and makes it easier for the reader to follow.

Read more : 35 Beautiful And Inspirational Bible Verses For Daughters

In addition to in-text citations, you’ll need to include a full citation for the Bible in your references or works cited list at the end of your essay. The format for this citation varies depending on the citation style you’re using.

• MLA Style: In MLA style, the Bible citation should appear as: The Bible. Authorized King James Version, Oxford UP, 1998.
• APA Style: In APA style, the Bible citation should appear as: Bible. (Year of publication). (Version/Translation). (Publisher details). For example: Bible. (2011). New International Version. Biblica.
• Chicago/Turabian Style: In Chicago/Turabian style, the Bible citation should appear as: Bible. Translated by [Translation/Version]. [Publisher details]. For example: Bible. Translated by New International Version. Biblica, 2011.

Including a full citation in your reference list ensures that readers can easily locate the specific version of the Bible you’ve used in your research.

When quoting from the Bible, it’s important to consider ethical implications and potential biases. The Bible is a sacred text for many religions, and quotes should be handled with respect and sensitivity.

Avoid taking verses out of context or using them to promote harmful or discriminatory viewpoints. Be mindful of the historical and cultural contexts in which the verses were written, and strive for a balanced, objective analysis.

If you’re writing about controversial or sensitive topics related to the Bible, it’s advisable to consult with experts or religious authorities to ensure your interpretations are accurate and respectful.

While quoting Bible verses is important, you should also include your own analysis and interpretation, avoiding excessive quotation. Use quotations judiciously, only quoting verses that are directly relevant to your argument or analysis.

Provide context by explaining the significance of the quoted verse and how it relates to your essay’s main points. Don’t assume that the reader has the same level of familiarity with the Bible or the specific context of the verse.

When interpreting or analyzing Bible verses, be sure to back up your claims with evidence from reliable sources, such as scholarly works or authoritative religious texts.

By following these guidelines, you’ll be able to effectively quote Bible verses In your essay while maintaining academic integrity, adhering to citation conventions, and demonstrating a nuanced understanding of the material. Remember, quoting Bible verses is not just about including the text; it’s also about providing context, analysis, and demonstrating your knowledge of the subject matter.

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How Pew Research Center will report on generations moving forward

Journalists, researchers and the public often look at society through the lens of generation, using terms like Millennial or Gen Z to describe groups of similarly aged people. This approach can help readers see themselves in the data and assess where we are and where we’re headed as a country.

Pew Research Center has been at the forefront of generational research over the years, telling the story of Millennials as they came of age politically and as they moved more firmly into adult life . In recent years, we’ve also been eager to learn about Gen Z as the leading edge of this generation moves into adulthood.

But generational research has become a crowded arena. The field has been flooded with content that’s often sold as research but is more like clickbait or marketing mythology. There’s also been a growing chorus of criticism about generational research and generational labels in particular.

Recently, as we were preparing to embark on a major research project related to Gen Z, we decided to take a step back and consider how we can study generations in a way that aligns with our values of accuracy, rigor and providing a foundation of facts that enriches the public dialogue.

A typical generation spans 15 to 18 years. As many critics of generational research point out, there is great diversity of thought, experience and behavior within generations.

We set out on a yearlong process of assessing the landscape of generational research. We spoke with experts from outside Pew Research Center, including those who have been publicly critical of our generational analysis, to get their take on the pros and cons of this type of work. We invested in methodological testing to determine whether we could compare findings from our earlier telephone surveys to the online ones we’re conducting now. And we experimented with higher-level statistical analyses that would allow us to isolate the effect of generation.

What emerged from this process was a set of clear guidelines that will help frame our approach going forward. Many of these are principles we’ve always adhered to , but others will require us to change the way we’ve been doing things in recent years.

Here’s a short overview of how we’ll approach generational research in the future:

We’ll only do generational analysis when we have historical data that allows us to compare generations at similar stages of life. When comparing generations, it’s crucial to control for age. In other words, researchers need to look at each generation or age cohort at a similar point in the life cycle. (“Age cohort” is a fancy way of referring to a group of people who were born around the same time.)

When doing this kind of research, the question isn’t whether young adults today are different from middle-aged or older adults today. The question is whether young adults today are different from young adults at some specific point in the past.

To answer this question, it’s necessary to have data that’s been collected over a considerable amount of time – think decades. Standard surveys don’t allow for this type of analysis. We can look at differences across age groups, but we can’t compare age groups over time.

Another complication is that the surveys we conducted 20 or 30 years ago aren’t usually comparable enough to the surveys we’re doing today. Our earlier surveys were done over the phone, and we’ve since transitioned to our nationally representative online survey panel , the American Trends Panel . Our internal testing showed that on many topics, respondents answer questions differently depending on the way they’re being interviewed. So we can’t use most of our surveys from the late 1980s and early 2000s to compare Gen Z with Millennials and Gen Xers at a similar stage of life.

This means that most generational analysis we do will use datasets that have employed similar methodologies over a long period of time, such as surveys from the U.S. Census Bureau. A good example is our 2020 report on Millennial families , which used census data going back to the late 1960s. The report showed that Millennials are marrying and forming families at a much different pace than the generations that came before them.

Even when we have historical data, we will attempt to control for other factors beyond age in making generational comparisons. If we accept that there are real differences across generations, we’re basically saying that people who were born around the same time share certain attitudes or beliefs – and that their views have been influenced by external forces that uniquely shaped them during their formative years. Those forces may have been social changes, economic circumstances, technological advances or political movements.

When we see that younger adults have different views than their older counterparts, it may be driven by their demographic traits rather than the fact that they belong to a particular generation.

The tricky part is isolating those forces from events or circumstances that have affected all age groups, not just one generation. These are often called “period effects.” An example of a period effect is the Watergate scandal, which drove down trust in government among all age groups. Differences in trust across age groups in the wake of Watergate shouldn’t be attributed to the outsize impact that event had on one age group or another, because the change occurred across the board.

Changing demographics also may play a role in patterns that might at first seem like generational differences. We know that the United States has become more racially and ethnically diverse in recent decades, and that race and ethnicity are linked with certain key social and political views. When we see that younger adults have different views than their older counterparts, it may be driven by their demographic traits rather than the fact that they belong to a particular generation.

Controlling for these factors can involve complicated statistical analysis that helps determine whether the differences we see across age groups are indeed due to generation or not. This additional step adds rigor to the process. Unfortunately, it’s often absent from current discussions about Gen Z, Millennials and other generations.

When we can’t do generational analysis, we still see value in looking at differences by age and will do so where it makes sense. Age is one of the most common predictors of differences in attitudes and behaviors. And even if age gaps aren’t rooted in generational differences, they can still be illuminating. They help us understand how people across the age spectrum are responding to key trends, technological breakthroughs and historical events.

Each stage of life comes with a unique set of experiences. Young adults are often at the leading edge of changing attitudes on emerging social trends. Take views on same-sex marriage , for example, or attitudes about gender identity .

Many middle-aged adults, in turn, face the challenge of raising children while also providing care and support to their aging parents. And older adults have their own obstacles and opportunities. All of these stories – rooted in the life cycle, not in generations – are important and compelling, and we can tell them by analyzing our surveys at any given point in time.

When we do have the data to study groups of similarly aged people over time, we won’t always default to using the standard generational definitions and labels. While generational labels are simple and catchy, there are other ways to analyze age cohorts. For example, some observers have suggested grouping people by the decade in which they were born. This would create narrower cohorts in which the members may share more in common. People could also be grouped relative to their age during key historical events (such as the Great Recession or the COVID-19 pandemic) or technological innovations (like the invention of the iPhone).

By choosing not to use the standard generational labels when they’re not appropriate, we can avoid reinforcing harmful stereotypes or oversimplifying people’s complex lived experiences.

Existing generational definitions also may be too broad and arbitrary to capture differences that exist among narrower cohorts. A typical generation spans 15 to 18 years. As many critics of generational research point out, there is great diversity of thought, experience and behavior within generations. The key is to pick a lens that’s most appropriate for the research question that’s being studied. If we’re looking at political views and how they’ve shifted over time, for example, we might group people together according to the first presidential election in which they were eligible to vote.

With these considerations in mind, our audiences should not expect to see a lot of new research coming out of Pew Research Center that uses the generational lens. We’ll only talk about generations when it adds value, advances important national debates and highlights meaningful societal trends.

• Age & Generations
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• Greatest Generation
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• Silent Generation

Kim Parker is director of social trends research at Pew Research Center

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

MLA Formatting and Style Guide

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

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The following overview should help you better understand how to cite sources using MLA  9 th edition, including how to format the Works Cited page and in-text citations.

Please use the example at the bottom of this page to cite the Purdue OWL in MLA. See also our MLA vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel .

Creating a Works Cited list using the ninth edition

MLA is a style of documentation that may be applied to many different types of writing. Since texts have become increasingly digital, and the same document may often be found in several different sources, following a set of rigid rules no longer suffices.

Thus, the current system is based on a few guiding principles, rather than an extensive list of specific rules. While the handbook still describes how to cite sources, it is organized according to the process of documentation, rather than by the sources themselves. This gives writers a flexible method that is near-universally applicable.

Once you are familiar with the method, you can use it to document any type of source, for any type of paper, in any field.

Here is an overview of the process:

When deciding how to cite your source, start by consulting the list of core elements. These are the general pieces of information that MLA suggests including in each Works Cited entry. In your citation, the elements should be listed in the following order:

• Title of source.
• Title of container,
• Other contributors,
• Publication date,

Each element should be followed by the corresponding punctuation mark shown above. Earlier editions of the handbook included the place of publication and required different punctuation (such as journal editions in parentheses and colons after issue numbers) depending on the type of source. In the current version, punctuation is simpler (only commas and periods separate the elements), and information about the source is kept to the basics.

Begin the entry with the author’s last name, followed by a comma and the rest of the name, as presented in the work. End this element with a period.

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.

Title of source

The title of the source should follow the author’s name. Depending upon the type of source, it should be listed in italics or quotation marks.

A book should be in italics:

Henley, Patricia. The Hummingbird House . MacMurray, 1999.

An individual webpage should be in quotation marks. The name of the parent website, which MLA treats as a "container," should follow in italics:

Lundman, Susan. "How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow, www.ehow.com/how_10727_make-vegetarian-chili.html.*

A periodical (journal, magazine, newspaper) article should be in quotation marks:

Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voice of the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai Tudu." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature , vol. 15, no. 1, 1996, pp. 41-50.

A song or piece of music on an album should be in quotation marks. The name of the album should then follow in italics:

Beyoncé. "Pray You Catch Me." Lemonade, Parkwood Entertainment, 2016, www.beyonce.com/album/lemonade-visual-album/.

*The MLA handbook recommends including URLs when citing online sources. For more information, see the “Optional Elements” section below.

Title of container

The eighth edition of the MLA handbook introduced what are referred to as "containers," which are the larger wholes in which the source is located. For example, if you want to cite a poem that is listed in a collection of poems, the individual poem is the source, while the larger collection is the container. The title of the container is usually italicized and followed by a comma, since the information that follows next describes the container.

Kincaid, Jamaica. "Girl." The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories, edited by Tobias Wolff, Vintage, 1994, pp. 306-07.

The container may also be a television series, which is made up of episodes.

“94 Meetings.” Parks and Recreation, created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur, performance by Amy Poehler, season 2, episode 21, Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios, 2010.

The container may also be a website, which contains articles, postings, and other works.

Wise, DeWanda. “Why TV Shows Make Me Feel Less Alone.”  NAMI,  31 May 2019,  www.nami.org/Blogs/NAMI-Blog/May-2019/How-TV-Shows-Make-Me-Feel-Less-Alone . Accessed 3 June 2019.

In some cases, a container might be within a larger container. You might have read a book of short stories on Google Books , or watched a television series on Netflix . You might have found the electronic version of a journal on JSTOR. It is important to cite these containers within containers so that your readers can find the exact source that you used.

“94 Meetings.” Parks and Recreation , season 2, episode 21, NBC , 29 Apr. 2010. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/70152031?trackId=200256157&tctx=0%2C20%2C0974d361-27cd-44de-9c2a-2d9d868b9f64-12120962.

Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.” Historical Journal , vol. 50, no. 1, 2007, pp. 173-96. ProQuest, doi:10.1017/S0018246X06005966. Accessed 27 May 2009.

Other contributors

In addition to the author, there may be other contributors to the source who should be credited, such as editors, illustrators, translators, etc. If their contributions are relevant to your research, or necessary to identify the source, include their names in your documentation.

Foucault, Michel. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. Translated by Richard Howard , Vintage-Random House, 1988.

Woolf, Virginia. Jacob’s Room . Annotated and with an introduction by Vara Neverow, Harcourt, Inc., 2008.

If a source is listed as an edition or version of a work, include it in your citation.

The Bible . Authorized King James Version, Oxford UP, 1998.

Crowley, Sharon, and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. 3rd ed., Pearson, 2004.

If a source is part of a numbered sequence, such as a multi-volume book or journal with both volume and issue numbers, those numbers must be listed in your citation.

Dolby, Nadine. “Research in Youth Culture and Policy: Current Conditions and Future Directions.” Social Work and Society: The International Online-Only Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, 2008, www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/60/362. Accessed 20 May 2009.

Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Translated by H. E. Butler, vol. 2, Loeb-Harvard UP, 1980.

The publisher produces or distributes the source to the public. If there is more than one publisher, and they are all are relevant to your research, list them in your citation, separated by a forward slash (/).

Klee, Paul. Twittering Machine. 1922. Museum of Modern Art, New York. The Artchive, www.artchive.com/artchive/K/klee/twittering_machine.jpg.html. Accessed May 2006.

Women's Health: Problems of the Digestive System . American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2006.

Daniels, Greg and Michael Schur, creators. Parks and Recreation . Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios, 2015.

Note : The publisher’s name need not be included in the following sources: periodicals, works published by their author or editor, websites whose titles are the same name as their publisher, websites that make works available but do not actually publish them (such as  YouTube ,  WordPress , or  JSTOR ).

Publication date

The same source may have been published on more than one date, such as an online version of an original source. For example, a television series might have aired on a broadcast network on one date, but released on  Netflix  on a different date. When the source has more than one date, it is sufficient to use the date that is most relevant to your writing. If you’re unsure about which date to use, go with the date of the source’s original publication.

In the following example, Mutant Enemy is the primary production company, and “Hush” was released in 1999. Below is a general citation for this television episode:

“Hush.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer , created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah Michelle Gellar, season 4, Mutant Enemy, 1999 .

However, if you are discussing, for example, the historical context in which the episode originally aired, you should cite the full date. Because you are specifying the date of airing, you would then use WB Television Network (rather than Mutant Enemy), because it was the network (rather than the production company) that aired the episode on the date you’re citing.

“Hush.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer, created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah Michelle Gellar, season 4, episode 10, WB Television Network, 14 Dec. 1999 .

You should be as specific as possible in identifying a work’s location.

An essay in a book or an article in a journal should include page numbers.

Adiche, Chimamanda Ngozi. “On Monday of Last Week.” The Thing around Your Neck, Alfred A. Knopf, 2009, pp. 74-94 .

The location of an online work should include a URL.  Remove any "http://" or "https://" tag from the beginning of the URL.

Wheelis, Mark. "Investigating Disease Outbreaks Under a Protocol to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention." Emerging Infectious Diseases , vol. 6, no. 6, 2000, pp. 595-600, wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/6/6/00-0607_article. Accessed 8 Feb. 2009.

When citing a physical object that you experienced firsthand, identify the place of location.

Matisse, Henri. The Swimming Pool. 1952, Museum of Modern Art, New York .

Optional elements

The ninth edition is designed to be as streamlined as possible. The author should include any information that helps readers easily identify the source, without including unnecessary information that may be distracting. The following is a list of optional elements that can be included in a documented source at the writer’s discretion.

Date of original publication:

If a source has been published on more than one date, the writer may want to include both dates if it will provide the reader with necessary or helpful information.

Erdrich, Louise. Love Medicine. 1984. Perennial-Harper, 1993.

City of publication:

The seventh edition handbook required the city in which a publisher is located, but the eighth edition states that this is only necessary in particular instances, such as in a work published before 1900. Since pre-1900 works were usually associated with the city in which they were published, your documentation may substitute the city name for the publisher’s name.

Thoreau, Henry David. Excursions . Boston, 1863.

Date of access:

When you cite an online source, the MLA Handbook recommends including a date of access on which you accessed the material, since an online work may change or move at any time.

Bernstein, Mark. "10 Tips on Writing the Living Web." A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 16 Aug. 2002, alistapart.com/article/writeliving. Accessed 4 May 2009.

As mentioned above, while the MLA handbook recommends including URLs when you cite online sources, you should always check with your instructor or editor and include URLs at their discretion.

A DOI, or digital object identifier, is a series of digits and letters that leads to the location of an online source. Articles in journals are often assigned DOIs to ensure that the source is locatable, even if the URL changes. If your source is listed with a DOI, use that instead of a URL.

Alonso, Alvaro, and Julio A. Camargo. "Toxicity of Nitrite to Three Species of Freshwater Invertebrates." Environmental Toxicology , vol. 21, no. 1, 3 Feb. 2006, pp. 90-94. Wiley Online Library, doi: 10.1002/tox.20155.

Creating in-text citations using the previous (eighth) edition

Although the MLA handbook is currently in its ninth edition, some information about citing in the text using the older (eighth) edition is being retained. The in-text citation is a brief reference within your text that indicates the source you consulted. It should properly attribute any ideas, paraphrases, or direct quotations to your source, and should direct readers to the entry in the Works Cited list. For the most part, an in-text citation is the  author’s name and the page number (or just the page number, if the author is named in the sentence) in parentheses :

When creating in-text citations for media that has a runtime, such as a movie or podcast, include the range of hours, minutes and seconds you plan to reference. For example: (00:02:15-00:02:35).

Again, your goal is to attribute your source and provide a reference without interrupting your text. Your readers should be able to follow the flow of your argument without becoming distracted by extra information.

How to Cite the Purdue OWL in MLA

Entire Website

The Purdue OWL . Purdue U Writing Lab, 2019.

Individual Resources

Contributors' names. "Title of Resource." The Purdue OWL , Purdue U Writing Lab, Last edited date.

The new OWL no longer lists most pages' authors or publication dates. Thus, in most cases, citations will begin with the title of the resource, rather than the developer's name.

"MLA Formatting and Style Guide." The Purdue OWL, Purdue U Writing Lab. Accessed 18 Jun. 2018.

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Canada's Aamjiwnaang First Nation declared a state of emergency due to the excessive release of harmful chemicals from INEOS Styrolution's plastic manufacturing plant, the Indigenous group said.

The French industry minister Roland Lescure on Friday launched a call for interest for carbon capture at various sites to help carbon-intense industries abate emissions.

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Aid shipments to Gaza from Cyprus resumed late on Friday, a Cypriot source said, with a ship carrying food to the besieged Palestinian enclave after a pause following Israel's killing of seven aid workers.

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Uri Berliner, NPR editor who criticized the network of liberal bias, says he's resigning

By Aimee Picchi

Edited By Anne Marie Lee

April 17, 2024 / 12:21 PM EDT / CBS News

Uri Berliner, a senior editor at National Public Radio who had been suspended from his job after claiming the network had "lost America's trust" by pushing progressive views while suppressing dissenting opinions, said he is resigning from the broadcaster.

"I am resigning from NPR, a great American institution where I have worked for 25 years," Berliner wrote in his resignation letter to NPR CEO Katherine Maher, and which he posted in part on X, the former Twitter. "I cannot work in a newsroom where I am disparaged by a new CEO whose divisive views confirm the very problems at NPR I cite in my Free Press essay."

My resignation letter to NPR CEO @krmaher pic.twitter.com/0hafVbcZAK — Uri Berliner (@uberliner) April 17, 2024

Berliner's resignation comes eight days after he published an  essay  in the Free Press that caused a firestorm of debate with his allegations that NPR was suppressing dissenting voices. In response to his critique, some conservatives, including former President Donald Trump, called on the government to "defund" the organization. 

Maher, who became NPR's CEO in March, wrote a staff memo a few days after publication of Berliner's essay addressing his criticisms of the organization's editorial process. Among Berliner's claims are that NPR is failing to consider other viewpoints and that it is fixated on diversity, equity and inclusion initiatives.

"Questioning whether our people are serving our mission with integrity, based on little more than the recognition of their identity, is profoundly disrespectful, hurtful and demeaning," Maher wrote. 

Some of Berliner's NPR colleagues also took issue with the essay, with "Morning Edition" host Steve Inskeep  writing on his Substack  that the article was "filled with errors and omissions."

"The errors do make NPR look bad, because it's embarrassing that an NPR journalist would make so many," Inskeep wrote.

Berliner's suspension, which occurred Friday, was  reported  by NPR media correspondent David Folkenflik. NPR declined to comment to CBS News about Berliner's resignation. "NPR does not comment on individual personnel matters," a spokesperson said.

Aimee Picchi is the associate managing editor for CBS MoneyWatch, where she covers business and personal finance. She previously worked at Bloomberg News and has written for national news outlets including USA Today and Consumer Reports.

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Title: how good are low-bit quantized llama3 models an empirical study.

Abstract: Meta's LLaMA family has become one of the most powerful open-source Large Language Model (LLM) series. Notably, LLaMA3 models have recently been released and achieve impressive performance across various with super-large scale pre-training on over 15T tokens of data. Given the wide application of low-bit quantization for LLMs in resource-limited scenarios, we explore LLaMA3's capabilities when quantized to low bit-width. This exploration holds the potential to unveil new insights and challenges for low-bit quantization of LLaMA3 and other forthcoming LLMs, especially in addressing performance degradation problems that suffer in LLM compression. Specifically, we evaluate the 10 existing post-training quantization and LoRA-finetuning methods of LLaMA3 on 1-8 bits and diverse datasets to comprehensively reveal LLaMA3's low-bit quantization performance. Our experiment results indicate that LLaMA3 still suffers non-negligent degradation in these scenarios, especially in ultra-low bit-width. This highlights the significant performance gap under low bit-width that needs to be bridged in future developments. We expect that this empirical study will prove valuable in advancing future models, pushing the LLMs to lower bit-width with higher accuracy for being practical. Our project is released on this https URL and quantized LLaMA3 models are released in this https URL .

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