flipped learning critical thinking

Flipped learning: What is it, and when is it effective?

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September 28, 2021

Instructors are constantly on the lookout for more effective and innovative ways to teach. Over the last 18 months, this quest has become even more salient, as COVID-19 has shaken up the academic landscape and pushed teachers to experiment with new strategies for engaging their students. One innovative teaching method that may be particularly amenable to teaching during the pandemic is flipped learning. But does it work?

In this post, we discuss our new report summarizing the lessons from over 300 published studies on flipped learning. The findings suggest that, for many of us who work with students, flipped learning might be worth a try.

What is flipped learning?

Flipped learning is an increasingly popular pedagogy in secondary and higher education. Students in the flipped classroom view digitized or online lectures as pre-class homework, then spend in-class time engaged in active learning experiences such as discussions, peer teaching, presentations, projects, problem solving, computations, and group activities. In other words, this strategy “flips” the typical presentation of content, where class time is used for lectures and example problems, and homework consists of problem sets or group project work. (See Roehling, 2018 , for information on how to construct and implement flipped learning.)

Flipped learning is not simply a fad. There is theoretical support that it should promote student learning. According to constructivist theory, active learning enables students to create their own knowledge by building upon pre-existing cognitive frameworks, resulting in a deeper level of learning than occurs in more passive learning settings. Another theoretical advantage of flipped learning is that it allows students to incorporate foundational information into their long-term memory prior to class. This lightens the cognitive load during class, so that students can form new and deeper connections and develop more complex ideas. Finally, classroom activities in the flipped model can be intentionally designed to teach students valuable intra- and interpersonal skills.

Since 2012, the research literature on the effectiveness of flipped learning has grown exponentially. However, because these studies were conducted in many different contexts and published across a wide range of disciplines, a clear picture of whether and when flipped classrooms outperform their traditional lecture-based counterparts has been difficult to assemble.

To address this issue, we conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of flipped pedagogies ; this review focused specifically on higher education contexts. For our meta-analysis, we combined data from 317 studies (51,437 participants) that compared the effectiveness of flipped and lecture-based courses taught by the same instructor.

We assembled all of these studies to examine the efficacy of flipped versus lecture-based learning for fostering a variety of outcomes in higher education. Specifically, we examined outcomes falling into three broad categories:

• Academics , including exams and assignments measuring foundational knowledge, higher-order thinking, and applied/professional skills;
• Intra-/interpersonal aptitudes , including student engagement and identification with the course or discipline, metacognitive skills, and interpersonal skills; and
• Satisfaction with the course and instruction as reported by students.

We also explored the extent to which factors related to educational context (e.g., discipline, geographic location) and course design (e.g., the use of quizzes to motivate pre-class preparation) may shape the effectiveness of flipped learning. Below, we outline some of the key takeaways of our meta-analytic synthesis.

Is flipped learning more effective than lecture-based learning?

Yes, it certainly can be. Students in flipped classrooms performed better than those in traditionally taught classes across all of the academic outcomes we examined. In addition to confirming that flipped learning has a positive impact on foundational knowledge (the most common outcome in prior reviews of the research), we found that flipped pedagogies had a modest positive effect on higher-order thinking. Flipped learning was particularly effective at helping students learn professional and academic skills.

Importantly, we also found that flipped learning is superior to lecture-based learning for fostering all intra-/interpersonal outcomes examined, including enhancing students’ interpersonal skills, improving their engagement with the content, and developing their metacognitive abilities like time management and learning strategies.

In which educational settings is flipped learning most effective?

Flipped learning was shown to be more effective than lecture-based learning across most disciplines. However, we found that flipped pedagogies produced the greatest academic and intra-/interpersonal benefits in language, technology, and health-science courses. Flipped learning may be a particularly good fit for these skills-based courses, because class time can be spent practicing and mastering these skills. Mathematics and engineering courses, on the other hand, demonstrated the smallest gains when implementing flipped pedagogies.

The relative benefits of flipped learning also vary based upon geographic location across the globe. Whereas flipped courses outperformed lecture courses in all of the regions that were adequately represented in our meta-analysis, flipped classes in Middle Eastern and Asian countries produced greater academic and intra-/interpersonal gains than flipped courses implemented in Europe, North America, or Australia. These findings suggest that flipped learning may have the greatest impact in courses that, in the absence of flipped learning, adhere more strictly to a lecture-format, as is often the case in the Middle East and Asia. However, we might expect benefits in any context where active learning is used less regularly.

How can you design an effective flipped course?

When designing a flipped course, the conventional wisdom has been that instructors should use pre-class quizzes and assignments to ensure that students are prepared to participate in and benefit from the flipped class period. Surprisingly, we found little support for this in our analysis. While using in-class quizzes did not affect learning outcomes, using pre-class quizzes and assignments to hold students accountable actually produced lower academic gains. It’s unclear why this is the case. It may be that pre-class assignments shift the focus of student preparation; rather than striving to understand the course material, students focus on doing well on the quiz. This suggests that, to hold students accountable for pre-class preparation, instructors should consider using in-class quizzes and assessments rather than pre-class assignments.

We also found that more isn’t always better. Compared to courses where all (or nearly all) class sessions followed the flipped model (“fully flipped”), courses that combined flipped and lecture-based approaches (“partially flipped”) tended to produce better academic outcomes. Given the time and skill required to design effective flipped class sessions, partially flipped courses may be easier for instructors to implement successfully, particularly when they are new to the pedagogy. Partially flipped courses also give instructors the flexibility to flip content that lends itself best to the model, while saving more complex or foundational topics for in-class instruction.

What about student satisfaction?

Another reason to consider flipped learning is student satisfaction. We found that students in flipped classrooms reported greater course satisfaction than those in lecture-based courses. The size of this overall effect was fairly small, so flipping the classroom is not a silver bullet for instantly boosting course evaluations. But in no context did flipping the classroom hurt course ratings, and in some settings, including mathematics courses and courses taught in Asia and Europe, we observed more pronounced increases in student satisfaction.

Adopting a new pedagogy can be daunting, and a significant barrier to converting a course to a flipped format is the substantial time commitment involved in creating digitized lectures. However, during the 2020-2021 pandemic surges, many instructors were encouraged (if not forced) to find new ways of teaching, leading many to record their lectures or create other supplementary digital content. For instructors who have now created such digital content, this could be a great time to experiment with flipped learning.

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• Review article
• Open access
• Published: 30 November 2023

Flipped classroom in higher education: a systematic literature review and research challenges

• Maria Ijaz Baig 1 &
• Elaheh Yadegaridehkordi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1576-9210 2  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  20 , Article number:  61 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Flipped learning has garnered substantial attention as a potential means to enhance student engagement, improve learning outcomes, and adapt to the evolving educational landscape. However, despite the growing interest and potential benefits of flipped learning, several challenges and areas of concern persist. This systematic literature review critically examines the implementation of the flipped classroom in higher education by focusing on the role of technologies and tools, pedagogical activities and courses, and existing challenges. Using a systematic approach, a total of 30 research articles published between 2014 and 2023 were chosen for the review. This study identified video creation tools, learning management systems (LMS), content repositories, collaborative platforms, podcasts, and online assessment tools as technologies that play a central role in the flipped classroom. Moreover, this study identifies specific pedagogical activities within different courses that contribute to the effectiveness of flipped learning in higher education. The implementation challenges that teachers and students may face in the flipped classroom were presented, and potential strategies to alleviate these challenges were provided. This study will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of flipped learning's benefits, technologies and tools, challenges, and potential to improve higher education.

Introduction

The flipped learning approach has recently gained popularity as an educational innovation in educational technology, especially as it applies to higher education (Divjak et al., 2022 ). The most effective way to motivate students is by using technology-enhanced teaching methods that go beyond traditional lectures (Yıldız et al., 2022 ). Technology plays a crucial role in enhancing student engagement and satisfaction (Wang et al., 2019 ), with the flipped classroom model relying heavily on technology (Tomas et al., 2019 ). Flipping a classroom involves turning the usual classroom on its side (Güler et al., 2023 ). Outside of class, students are encouraged to actively learn new material by reading or watching recorded lectures. It demands that students retain and analyze the knowledge supplied for the class (Bachiller & Badía, 2020 ). The student is then asked to use what they have learned in class to complete group problem-solving exercises using peer instruction (Huang et al., 2023 ). As a result, students gain a deeper learning experience by gaining a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. Compared to the conventional lecture approach, this form of learning is more dynamic and student-centered (Karjanto & Acelajado, 2022 ). A flipped classroom can reduce the amount of time spent lecturing, provide hands-on experience, and help students become more prepared and motivated for their studies (Jiang et al., 2022 ). As a result, it can also enhance students' academic performance, engagement with the material, and comprehension, as well as their self-assurance and critical thinking abilities (Mortaza Mardiha et al., 2023 ). Flipping the classroom offers time-pressed students the benefit of following course material at their own pace (Torío, 2019 ). Teachers provide pre-recorded videos for students to access, allowing them to adjust their learning pace and time based on their proficiency level. Teachers and students may both become more tech-literate (Huang et al., 2023 ). Additionally, a flipped classroom encourages student collaboration and offers additional chances for teacher-student engagement throughout the teaching and learning process (Güler et al., 2023 ).

Flipped learning in higher education offers a cost-effective, student-centered approach to accommodate growing enrollments and can mitigate funding and structural issues that prioritize faculty research over student learning (Zou et al., 2020 ). Meanwhile, it equips students with 21st-century skills needed for global challenges (Zhao et al., 2021 ) and knowledge needed to meet current market demand (Ng & Lo, 2022 ). The flipped classroom approach enhances critical thinking, teamwork, and problem-solving skills in real-world settings, enhancing learning, academic performance, and practical knowledge (Castedo et al., 2018 ; Rodríguez-Chueca et al., 2019 ; Sevillano-Monje et al., 2022 ). Students with strong academic backgrounds as well as a set of practical knowledge, skills, and abilities are always preferred by employers. Employers favor hiring people with the abilities and dispositions necessary to turn ideas into reality (Pattanaphanchai, 2019 ). Due to the obsolete teacher-centered teaching methodology, the traditional education system has failed to build crucial employability skills, behaviors, traits, and competences (Khan & Abdou, 2021 ). In the traditional teacher-centered teaching approach, the development of necessary abilities and inspiring students by personalizing learning around their interests are disregarded. Students are unable to put their theories into practice in a real-world working environment (Lopes et al., 2019 ). The above-mentioned problems with traditional teaching methods could be resolved by flipped learning. It involves students practicing theories and necessary skills in a variety of student-centered activities such as presentations, group activities, and hands-on activities while being guided by the instructors (Galway et al., 2014 ; McLean & Attardi, 2018 ).

Numerous systematic review studies on flipped classrooms have been published, covering a wide range of significant topics. These review studies have limited publishing coverage, focus on one learner category, or focus on a single academic field. Huang et al. ( 2023 ) suggested video tutorials for a systems programming course in a flipped classroom to enhance students' learning interest. Senali et al. ( 2022 ) provided the state-of-the-art in flipped classroom business and entrepreneurship education. Another review conducted by Divjak et al. ( 2022 ) highlighted the flipped classroom methods used during the pandemic. Jiang et al. ( 2022 ) summarized the studies in flipped language teaching by using articles from the social sciences citation index. Flipped learning in higher education is gaining popularity, but systematic literature review (SLR) is lacking on investigating technologies, pedagogical activities, and courses. This can be helpful for teachers to apply technology according to the nature of the course. Moreover, the identified pedagogical activities can be helpful for other teachers to enhance students learning. Furthermore, this study identifies the challenges of implementing flipped classrooms and provides recommendations on how to overcome them. The recommendations can be helpful for teachers and students to cope with issues related to the flipped classroom.

The research objectives (RO) for the study are presented as:

RO1: To analyze the role of technologies and tools that are being used in the flipped classroom to support teaching and learning in higher education.

RO2: To identify the pedagogical activities and courses that make flipped classrooms effective for higher education.

RO3: To identify the challenges of implementing flipped classrooms in higher education and how they can be overcome.

Review methodology

A method for analyzing, understanding, and assessing the plan is called a systematic review. It discusses the topic and relevant research issues. Understanding and evaluating the existing studies, are the goals of a systematic review.

The study follows Kitchenham and Charters' ( 2007 ) methodology, which includes six fundamental phases: review protocol, inclusion/exclusion criteria, search procedure, selection procedure, quality evaluation and extracting data and synthesizing. The objective aligns with the findings, and the study adheres to the SLR's planning, doing, and reporting steps for a comprehensive analysis.

Review protocol

The major goal of the review methodology is to lessen research bias. The likelihood of bias in the review is reduced by outlining the approaches in advance.

Inclusion and exclusion

Inclusion and exclusion criteria were established in order to make sure that only studies that are extremely relevant to this analysis are included (Table 1 ). Finding domain-relevant articles requires conducting a thorough keyword search. The titles, abstracts, and keywords were therefore searched for relevant terms. For this review, empirical research is taken into account. Continuous examination and revision of the work are benefits of an empirical method (Rodríguez-Chueca et al., 2019 ). It raises the standard and reliability of the research being done. In addition, English is the language that is read and written the most. Additionally, the flipped classroom trend became more widespread in 2014 (Galway et al., 2014 ; Li & Li, 2022 ). The analysis encompassed all relevant research that had been published in English between January 2014 and July 2023. This study's objective is to describe flipped classroom technologies, courses, and activities. Therefore, only studies that provide a detailed description of flipped classroom practices and methodologies are considered in this review.

Search procedure

The search process consists of two steps, namely manual search and automatic search. The primary studies of the flipped classroom and higher education sectors were initially located using a manual search. Science Direct, Taylor & Francis, MDPI, SAGE, Springer Link, Wiley, and IEEE Xplore were all thoroughly researched. They provide comprehensive coverage of journal and conference articles, ensuring a more thorough analysis of the subject (Kitchenham & Charters, 2007 ).

The search used a comprehensive set of keywords to minimize the risk of overlooking any crucial documents. Boolean operators were employed in the search queries to extract the most pertinent documents. In the first step of the search, combinations of (“flipped” OR “inverted”) AND (“classroom” OR “learning” OR “teaching” OR “pedagogy”) AND ("higher education" OR "higher education institute" OR “university” OR “universities”).

Kitchenham ( 2004 ) suggested conducting a manual screening of the primary study resources. Thus, a manual search through all of the initial research's references is also conducted in the second stage.

Selection process

The selection process is used to find research studies that respond to the review study's research questions. The selection process for the study is shown in Fig.  1 . An automatic search that used the keyword string yielded a total of 493 studies. The 405 studies were eliminated since they did not qualify as empirical research. Kitchenham and Charters ( 2007 ) suggested excluding pointless studies from the reviews. Therefore, inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to the remaining 88 studies. As a result, 64 articles were deleted for failing to explain flipped classroom implementation, leaving 24 articles discussing it in higher education. The snowball method was applied to make sure the results of the automatic search were comprehensive. The second phase was conducting a manual Google Scholar search on all related papers (Fig.  1 ).

There were a total of 12 studies found while using Google Scholar. The 36 studies were subjected to the quality assessment requirements. The study included 30 relevant research articles after disqualifying 6 studies due to quality assessment criteria.

Assessing quality

According to Kitchenham and Charters ( 2007 ), the evaluation procedure is essential for determining the caliber of the study. The foundation of the evaluation process may be a component checklist or a series of questions. A list and a number of questions are used to assess each study's quality. This study established four quality measurement standards to evaluate the efficacy of each research endeavor. The following are the assessing quality (AQ) criteria:

AQ1. Does the study's topic address flipped learning in higher education?

AQ2. Did the author use an empirical method in this article?

AQ3. Does the paper mention the flipped classroom technology used?

AQ4. Does the article demonstrate how flipped learning is implemented?

The study evaluated the integrity of 36 selected papers using four assessment parameters: weak, medium, and high. The quality of each study was determined by summing its overall scores. A score of 2 was awarded for every requirement met, 1 for only a portion, and 0 for no fulfillment ( Appendix A ). Studies were classified as weak if their aggregate grade is less than 4, medium if it is exactly 4, and strong if it exceeds four. 6 studies were excluded due to non-compliance with the quality assessment standard.

Synthesis and extraction

The 30 studies were examined to complete the data extraction and synthesis. The essential data was then extracted after carefully reviewing the papers. The objective of this stage is to compile the required data from studies. Table 2 provides detailed descriptions of each item. The procedures for data synthesis and extraction are described in the upcoming sections.

Research findings

To analyze the role of technologies and tools that are being used in the flipped classroom to support teaching and learning in higher education (ro1).

A flipped classroom, a vibrant and collaborative learning environment, is a key component of technology integration in higher education (Günbatar, 2021 ). It enhances student engagement and academic results by incorporating interactive multimedia and digital platforms, such as simulations and gamification, into lesson plans (Yıldız et al., 2022 ). Previous studies utilized various tools and technologies, including video creation, learning management systems (LMS), content repositories, collaboration, podcasts, and online assessment, for teaching and learning in higher education (Table 3 ).

Video creation tools

It has been found that previous studies have used multiple tools for video creation. Park et al. ( 2018 ) study reported that Camtasia were used for video creation. TechSmith developed and released the Camtasia software package, also known as Camtasia. It is used for making and recording screencasts or direct recording plug-ins for Microsoft PowerPoint. Background narration and voice tracks can all be added individually or simultaneously with other multimedia recordings (microphone, camera, and system audio).

Steen-Utheim and Foldnes ( 2017 ) used video screencasts for developing course lectures. A screencast is a type of educational video that includes voice narration and screen recording, often a digital recording of a computer screen. These videos, similar to screenshots, are excellent for teaching or sharing concepts and are also known as screen capture videos or screen recordings.

Most of the studies reported that they uploaded videos to YouTube and the course-related website for student viewing (Al-Zahrani, 2015 ; Castedo et al., 2018 ; Park et al., 2018 ). Online video watching is made simple by the free video-sharing platform YouTube.

Learning management systems (LMS)

A learning management system (LMS) functions as a centralized platform for hosting and arranging educational information, such as videos, readings, assignments, and supplemental resources. Zou et al. ( 2020 ) study employed an interactive learning platform, namely Moodle. A learning management system (LMS) called Moodle is used to plan, carry out, and assess online training and education. Moodle is undoubtedly a popular LMS platform and is conceivably the most well-known of its sort. Moodle is used in universities and other sectors for blended learning, distance learning, flipped classrooms, and other online learning projects. Ng and Lo ( 2022 ) and Bachiller and Bada ( 2020 ) develop learning materials and videos and upload them on Moodle for students.

Mortaza Mardiha et al. ( 2023 ) used BigBlueButton software as an online learning system. BigBlueButton is a virtual classroom application created for online learning. The application, which may be accessed most frequently through different LMSs, offers analytics and engagement capabilities for teachers to communicate with their students remotely.

Lopes et al. ( 2019 ) employed MatActiva. The major objective of the mathematics project MatActiva, which was created on the Moodle platform, is to inspire students, encourage them to overcome their challenges through self-study, boost their confidence, and pique their interest in mathematics.

Online assessment tools

Online assessment tools have been developed to provide auto-evaluation, report generation, and even grading functions that speed up the typically lengthy marking process. It has been found that McLaughlin et al. ( 2016 ) employed clickers for in-class assessment. With the help of an interactive tool called a clicker, teachers can ask students questions and instantly compile and examine the entire class's responses. Multiple-choice questions are presented by instructors (verbally or via clicker software). Students enter their responses using remote transmitters. The technology instantaneously tabulates the results, which teachers can monitor and save.

Hao et al. ( 2016 ) used an instant response system in class. This system may evaluate student responses based on pre-set stored answers to swiftly produce a summary report of their findings. Students used an instant response system through smartphones, laptops, and tablets.

Sevillano-Monje et al. ( 2022 ) used Kahoot to create a questionnaire and test student’s knowledge. Kahoot is a Norwegian site that offers educational games. The platform offers educational games, or "Kahoots," which are user-created multiple-choice tests accessible through a web browser or the Kahoot application.

Content repositories and resources

A place where materials are kept is called a content repository. A Resource, on the other hand, is an artifact that aids in the learning process. McLaughlin et al. ( 2016 ) reported the use of Pharmaville and Pharmatopia for pharmacy students. Pharmville is a teaching tool that integrates real-world issues into undergraduate degrees, addressing the undervaluation of sciences and challenges in integrating information across disciplines. It provides context and supports the application of academic theory to students. Pharmatopia aims to provide problem-based pharmacy learning modules for universities and industry, utilizing a shared-practice model where educators create modules tailored to specific training needs.

McLaughlin et al.'s ( 2016 ) study utilized Khan Academy, which offers practice exercises, instructional videos, and a personalized learning dashboard for students to learn at their own pace.

Galway et al. ( 2014 ) employed NextGenU. The NextGenU free online learning platform, NextGenU.org, allows anybody to enroll in university- and graduate-level courses through reputable, approved institutions and organizations for personal interest or for free credit.

Yıldız et al.'s ( 2022 ) study highlighted the use of electronic books (e-books) for digital distribution and screen reading. E-books can be created from printer source files or from databases. Zhao et al. ( 2021 ) used printers for learning pre-class material.

Collaboration tools

Collaboration tools enable one-on-one and group communication, real-time messaging, group chat, file sharing, shared calendaring, and project management through voice and video. Li and Li ( 2022 ) used cloud classrooms on desktops and mobile devices for both students and teachers to collaborate. Cloud classrooms provide spaces for collaboration and facilitate communications between faculty and students. Khan and Abdou ( 2021 ) study reported the use of Zoom, Facebook, Gmail groups, and Google Drive.

Zoom and Facebook are communication platforms used for synchronous and asynchronous interactions. Zoom allows phone, chat, video, and audio interactions, while Facebook allows users to connect and share views, opinions, and content. Khan and Abdou ( 2021 ) used Facebook for educational purposes.

Google Groups enable students to communicate, create chat sessions, is invited to Google Meets, and share documents. Google Drive, a file syncing and storage service, allows data sharing and cloud storage.

The creation and dissemination of audio files is known as podcasting. Mortaza Mardiha et al. ( 2023 ) and Khan and Abdou ( 2021 ) used audio with PowerPoint slides for lectures. PowerPoint can record both video and audio simultaneously.

To identify the pedagogical activities and courses that make flipped classrooms effective for higher education (RO2)

Activity-based learning involves actively participating in various tasks or activities to learn (Zou et al., 2020 ). Activity-based learning involves students actively participating in tasks, enhancing problem-solving, logical reasoning, and imaginative thinking. This approach fosters meaningful experiences, promoting independent investigation and learning in a personal learning environment.

Flipped classrooms involve various activities that enhance students' understanding and collaboration. They improve retention of information and higher-order skills (Bachiller & Badía, 2020 ). Effective implementation depends on selecting appropriate learning activities based on the specific needs of the area (Wang & Zhu, 2019 ). Designing activities that align with the course content can better inspire and encourage students to enjoy their educational experience through activity-based learning. It assists students in learning and retaining information by encouraging active intellectual participation in the learning process. Through this process, students are able to recall and comprehend lessons based on their own experiences. The following sections provide information on pedagogical activities and courses that make flipped classrooms effective for higher education.

Accounting and management courses

The accounting and management domain contains a total of 7 (23.3%) courses presented in Table 4 . In this domain, multiple class activities were conducted, including multiple-choice questionnaires (MCQs), gamification competitions, online exercises, quizzes, multiple-choice-style game, problem solving cases, assignments, question and answer, assignments for hands-on practice, (e.g., Mortaza Mardiha et al., 2023 ; Ng & Lo, 2022 ).

In the classroom, students apply technology-based resources and cooperative learning methods to develop MCQs. Teachers use various technologies to solve problems and apply module content. Competitions, including gamification, test students' learning. Problem-solving case studies enhance writing, analytical abilities, teamwork, and communication skills in accounting and management curricula. This approach boosts and enhances student motivation (Ng & Lo, 2022 ). Multiple choices and online exercises effectively gauge accounting learning by providing immediate feedback and assessing cognitive ability beyond mere data memorization (Zhao et al., 2021 ). In accounting and management domain, students were able to clarify some "grey" concepts in their heads through discussion, and solve problems by asking questions. The teachers provided supervision and assistance in numerous conversations regarding certain assignments.

Science courses

The science realm contains a total of 5 (16.6%) courses. The domain involved various activities such as worksheet exercises, instructor discussions, debates, group discussions, online exercises, multiple-choice questions, assignments, and focused explanations (Karjsnto & Acelajado, 2022 ; Wang & Zhu, 2019 ).

Worksheets aid in assessing students' science knowledge, outcomes, and processes, while tracking progress. Encouraging scientific thinking through experimentation and worksheet completion can enhance participation (Steen-Utheim & Foldnes, 2017 ). Debates form the foundation for science courses, teaching students evidence-based reasoning, research conduct, idea generation, peer interaction, opposing viewpoints, and new judgments.

In science courses, group discussions provide students with a safe space to express their ideas and opinions, fostering a deeper understanding of the subject matter and enhancing their analytical skills and critical thinking abilities (Wang & Zhu, 2019 ).

Science blogging is an informal platform for sharing scientific knowledge and opinions. It helps students learn through quizzes, online exercises, and multiple-choice questions, aiding teachers in identifying areas for assistance and enhancing their understanding of the topic (Karjsnto & Acelajado, 2022 ; Wang & Zhu, 2019 ).

A focused explanation is necessary to accomplish specific goals (Yıldız et al., 2022 ). Therefore, in science courses, focused explanations and strategies are helpful to accomplish the objectives.

Arts and education courses

The art and education domain contained a total of 8 (26.6%) courses. In this realm, discussion, quizzes, MCQS and blank filling questions, mind map construction, online assignment, group’s discussion and debate were utilized for flipped class activities (Khan & Abdou, 2021 ; Sevillano-Monje et al., 2022 ). Discussion and debate in art and education enhance students' critical thinking skills by allowing them to process information rather than just consume it (Fraga & Harmon, 2015 ).

Quizzes, MCQs, and fill-in-the-blank exercises assess arts students' memory and comprehension of knowledge. They help students respond accurately and encourage critical thinking (Hao et al., 2016 ). Arts teachers can use these tools to assess concepts covered in class or reading materials.

A mind map is essentially used to "brainstorm" a topic and is an excellent method for arts students (Tomas et al., 2019 ). Mind mapping in arts and education courses facilitates assessment activities, allowing students to apply classroom learning and instructors to evaluate their progress through well-designed assignments (Sevillano-Monje et al., 2022 ).

Medical courses

The medical domain contained a total of 4 (13.3%) courses. This realm conducted several activities, including class debate, problem solving, quizzes and explanations, literature analysis, and debate on patient profiles (McLaughlin et al., 2016 ; McLean & Attardi, 2018 ).

Debates are crucial in the medical field for a thorough examination of topics, enabling evaluation, critique, and problem-solving (Galway et al., 2014 ). They also help medical students identify issues to resolve, as healthcare professionals constantly encounter new evidence and must distinguish reliable from unreliable.

Quizzes are beneficial in medical courses as they assess the class's understanding of concepts and help students identify their knowledge gaps (Van Vliet et al., 2015 ).

Moreover, literature analysis is important for medical courses. Medical students can develop their critical thinking skills through literature (McLaughlin et al., 2016 ). Literature can help to understand the viewpoint, the experiences, and the ailments of the patient better.

Debate on patient profiles enables tailoring interactions with patients and gives healthcare organizations a patient-centric emphasis. They also help gain a better understanding of their needs and preferences.

Engineering courses

The engineering domain contained a total of 6 (20%) courses. This realm conducted several activities, including design and simulation, problem solving and feedback, questions and exercises, practice (Castedo et al., 2018 ; Park et al., 2018 ).

Design simulation is necessary for engineering courses as it enables to validate and confirm the intended use of a product in development as well as the product's ability to be manufactured. The design simulation's objective is to assist students in producing an original, creative, and innovative animated engineering product (Park et al., 2018 ).

It helps engineering students employ moving components created using Autodesk Maya, simulated with it, and produced with 3D printers (Castedo et al., 2018 ).

For engineering courses, problem-solving, questions, and exercises are accomplished by putting a focus on science and technology, as they do with most disciplines. In an engineering course, problem-solving might entail creating innovations.

Discussion, exercises, and providing feedback to students were helpful for engineering courses. It improves students' learning, particularly in terms of higher-order thinking abilities like programming (Al-Zahrani, 2015 ). Compilation of the programming codes and practice in the computer lab can be helpful for students to thoroughly understand the topics.

To identify the challenges of implementing flipped classrooms in higher education and how they can be overcome (RO3)

Although flipped classrooms provide many benefits for educational settings, there are also some challenges to this method. This study identified a number of issues in implementing flipped classrooms and also reported how to overcome these obstacles (Table 5 ).

Time consumption

Despite the fact that there are many educational videos available online, some teachers report that they are having difficulty locating them or that they do not exactly correspond to what they want their students to learn (Hao et al., 2016 ). As a result, a lot of teachers try to make their own materials, which takes a lot of time and work. Therefore, flipping the classroom necessitates an increase in instructor preparation time during the initial transformation. Teachers are still struggling to flip large numbers of classes and maintain the effort necessary to enable student learning (Zou et al., 2020 ). Teachers have been criticized for claiming that the pre-class workload in flipped classrooms is more time-consuming than in traditional courses (Sevillano-Monje et al., 2022 ).

A teacher may not be able to create full course materials for a flipped class at once. It could be more feasible to focus on the half-course first and add related preexisting material initially. Another choice is for a group of teachers to create a course while working together to produce the material. Moreover, a teaching assistant can be provided to lessen the work load of the main teacher.

Instructors should estimate the time needed for traditional homework and plan their pre-class activities accordingly because a flipped course should have the same amount of work as a regular course. It is important to keep in mind that because students frequently stop and rewind videos, they will watch them for longer periods of time than the actual playtime. Therefore, the maximum amount of video content for each class should be 5–10 min.

Lack of motivation for pre-class work

Flipped classrooms face challenges in directing students to participate in pre-class learning activities, potentially reducing their effectiveness due to inadequate preparation, as teaching techniques heavily rely on pre-class tasks (Ng & Lo, 2022 ).

Gamification, an increasing trend in education, appears to boost student engagement and motivation (Yıldız et al., 2022 ). This method often includes awarding badges to students and monitoring their development on a leader board. Some learning management systems, like Moodle, have game components integrated right into them (Steen-Utheim & Foldnes, 2017 ). Additionally, there are third-party programs that provide every student access to an online activity that they can personalize as they accrue points by finishing pre-class assignments. This method will be helpful for teachers to motivate students for pre-class work.

Lack of guidance out of class

In traditional classrooms, students simultaneously ask questions if they face any difficulty in the lecture. However, during pre-class activities, several students complained that they were unable to ask questions. Unanswered queries can lead to misunderstandings or knowledge gaps, making in-class activities more challenging for students who frequently apply newly learned material in subsequent class time.

In a flipped classroom, students require more support outside of class because it is difficult to study the subject independently. Creating channels of communication for students to communicate with one another and their teacher outside of the classroom might be helpful. This may be accomplished with online discussion boards and many learning management systems, such as Moodle, chat forums, etc.

Quality of recorded lectures

Videos of pre-class education that are poorly made may unintentionally hinder learning. For instance, some students lose interest while watching lectures and stop halfway through (Li & Li, 2022 ). Other students express dissatisfaction with videos, saying they distance themselves from the teacher appearing on screen. They consequently observe inertly and overlook crucial ideas (Torio, 2019 ).

According to experts on multimedia learning, students watch videos for an average of ten minutes before losing interest. Therefore, longer topics should be divided into smaller ones. Additionally, more conversational videos will enhance engagement by fostering a deeper sense of connection between students and the teacher.

Lack of technological resources

Flipped classrooms utilize video conferencing, screencasting programs, and cloud-based platforms for teacher development and delivery (Mortaza Mardiha et al., 2023 ). However, poor quality, defective, and outdated ICT equipment can hinder implementation (Al-Zahrani, 2015 ; Bachiller & Badía, 2020 ). Students need internet access and a computer or mobile device at home for flipped learning, so ensuring technology accessibility is crucial for all students.

To get around this, teachers should set up a backup plan for all students, including what to do in the event that the internet is down or they are without a device.

Adoption of the flipped classroom

Teachers who were recently exposed to the flipped classroom could not comprehend the method or the benefits of the strategy (Galway et al., 2014 ; Lopes et al., 2019 ). Many students were unfamiliar with the flipped classroom method (Li & Li, 2022 ). It may make it difficult for them to grasp its benefits and adapt to new information outside of traditional classroom settings (Hao et al., 2016 ).

The demand for related training should rise as flipped and blended learning become more widespread. Training in lesson planning and video production could introduce new teachers to a wider range of teaching strategies and forge a stronger link between educational theory and practice (Tomas et al., 2019 ).

Teachers should establish a line of interaction with students before flipping to ensure they understand the benefits of the flipped classroom. Teachers should encourage students to express concerns, provide guidance, and provide specific directions for group work to reduce stress. They should also provide examples of effective video learning and group work.

Discussion and conclusions

The applicability of the flipped classroom in higher education was thoroughly assessed using SLR in this study. This study had three objectives to identify the flipped classroom technologies, activities according to courses, and implementation-related challenges. A set of criteria was utilized to extract relevant studies from Science Direct, Taylor & Francis, MDPI, SAGE, Springer Link, Wiley and IEEE Xplore and Google Scholar databases. Finally, a total of 30 papers that were released between January 2014 and July 2023 were chosen to be a part of this study. The summary of findings is illustrated in Fig.  2 .

Summary of findings

This study analyzed the technology and tools that are being used for flipped classrooms in the higher education sector. The findings revealed that most of the studies used tools for creating videos. In today's digital environment, tools for creating videos, such as Camtasia, screencasts, and YouTube, are crucial. Each of these technologies has a specific function and helps in different ways with content production, sharing, and communication. These instruments revolutionized education, communication, and ideas in the digital age (Ng & Lo, 2022 ). They enable higher education in ways that were never imagined producing, distribute, and engage with a variety of groups (Sevillano-Monje et al., 2022 ).

It has been found that the LMS significantly contributes to and supports flipped classroom learning. In a flipped classroom, students independently review their readings before class, and conversation, problem-solving, and active learning take place during that time. The flipped classroom model is made more effective by the LMS (Bachiller & Badía, 2020 ). It makes sure that both teachers and students have the resources and equipment they need to be successful in this cutting-edge pedagogical strategy (Mortaza Mardiha et al., 2023 ).

Online assessment tools are a helpful technology of the flipped classroom model. Clickers and instant response platforms like Kahoot provide real-time feedback and increased interactivity for both teachers and students (McLaughlin et al., 2016 ; Torio, 2019 ). They assist teachers in gauging students' comprehension of class materials and offer insightful information for customizing activities (Hao et al., 2016 ).

The flipped classroom concept relies on resources and content repositories for access to various educational materials such as Pharmaville and Pharmatopia, Khan Academy, NextGenU, and e-books, allowing learners to progress at their own schedule. It promotes diverse learning styles and fosters collaboration for data-driven improvements in teaching and learning (Yıldız et al., 2022 ). It has been found that creating podcasts via Microsoft PowerPoint has emerged as an important and powerful medium for flipped learning. It provides a variety of interesting, accessible content, making it a useful tool for learning, entertaining, and maintaining knowledge on a variety of subjects (Khan & Abdou, 2021 ). Students can participate in pre- and in-class discussions, ask questions, and share ideas using collaboration platforms like online classrooms, Zoom, Facebook, Gmail groups, and Google Drive (Li & Li, 2022 ). It ensures they are well-prepared for class and actively participate in productive discussions (Khan & Abdou, 2021 ).

Secondly, this study analyzed the pedagogical activities and courses that make flipped classrooms effective for higher education. The findings indicated that the accounting and management domain involves multiple activities like multiple-choice questionnaires, gamification competitions, online exercises, quizzes, and problem-solving cases. These activities align with the nature of accounting, a discipline that demands precision, critical thinking, and effective communication. They contribute to the enhancement of students' skills. The science realm involves activities like worksheet exercises, discussions, debates, group discussions, multiple-choice questions, assignments, and focused explanations. These activities offer benefits for students and educators. Science often involves complex problem-solving and the application of theoretical concepts. Thus, worksheet exercises provide valuable practice and application opportunities. Discussions encourage critical thinking, communication, and diverse perspectives, while debates require critical thinking, persuasive communication, and research. They provide a platform for students to analyze and debate various scientific concepts, fostering a deeper understanding of complex topics. Multiple-choice questions provide immediate feedback and help identify areas of weakness (Karjsnto & Acelajado, 2022 ). Focused explanations provide clarity, confidence, and personalized guidance, promoting personal growth and understanding of complex scientific concepts.

Flipped class activities in the art and education domains involve discussion, quizzes, multiple-choice questions, blank-filling questions, mind map construction, online assignments, group discussion, and debate. Discussions encourage critical thinking and a deep understanding of complex topics. In both the art and education domains, discussion is a valuable activity that makes the exchange of ideas and diverse viewpoints more effective. Quizzes and multiple-choice questions cover diverse content, requiring higher-order thinking skills (Li & Li, 2022 ). In art, they can evaluate students' understanding of art history, techniques, and concepts. In education, they serve as formative assessments to gauge students' comprehension of educational theories and practices. Mind maps are versatile tools that assist in analyzing art movements, brainstorming ideas, and visualizing complex educational theories. Group discussions and debates promote collaboration, critical thinking, and communication skills (Khan & Abdou, 2021 ). Such activities assist students in learning from one another's creative ideas. Meanwhile, aligning with the cooperative nature of teaching and learning, collaborative projects foster teamwork and the sharing of knowledge.

The medical domain courses involve activities like class debate, problem-solving, quizzes, literature analysis, and patient profile debates. Debates require medical students to think critically, analyze information, and develop persuasive arguments. Quizzes assess medical students' understanding, provide immediate feedback, and help them retain information (Van Vliet et al., 2015 ). Literature analysis requires critical thinking, writing skills, and empathy (McLean & Attardi, 2018 ). Patient profile debates help develop clinical reasoning skills, communication skills, ethical considerations, and teamwork. By incorporating these activities into the curriculum, the higher education sector can create dynamic learning environments that prepare medical students for success in academic and real-world contexts. Engineering courses utilize design, simulation, problem-solving, feedback, exercises, and practice activities to foster innovation, reduce risk, and improve practical skills (Günbatar, 2021 ). As a result, information retention and networking possibilities are improved. These activities fill the gap between academic knowledge and practical application.

Finally, this study focused on the challenges associated with the execution of flipped classrooms in higher education and proposed strategies to overcome these challenges. The identified challenges include time consumption, lack of motivation for pre-class work, lack of guidance out of class, quality of recorded lectures, lack of technological resources, and adoption of the flipped classroom. Despite these challenges, the flipped classroom model is often a valuable approach that enhances student learning. Therefore, with careful planning, support, and ongoing assessment, these challenges can often be mitigated or overcome.

Limitations and directions for future research

This study obtained articles from well-reputed databases and publishers, including Science Direct, Taylor & Francis, MDPI, SAGE, Springer Link, Wiley, IEEE Xplore, and Google Scholar. Even though these sources cover a broad spectrum of scholarly literature, future studies can include additional databases and publishers in order to ensure more comprehensive coverage of the available literature. This study mainly focused on flipped learning in the higher education sector. Future studies may expand the scope by examining the efficiency and effectiveness of flipped classrooms in other educational settings such as school, training and professional development, and vocational and technical education, as the educators and students may have distinct expectations.

This study analyzed the tools and technologies that are being used in higher education. Future studies can analyze the developments in flipped classroom technology that are influenced by a variety of factors, including pedagogical research, developing technologies, and changing demands on both students and teachers. This study did not explore the implementation of cutting-edge technologies such as augmented reality and artificial intelligence in flipped classrooms. Future studies can focus on such technologies and their impact on student engagement and success. Future investigations can also focus on the application of augmented reality and artificial intelligence to fulfill the unique learning needs and expectations of various academic majors and courses within the context of flipped classrooms. Additionally, the adoption and effectiveness of flipped classrooms can differ across different cultures and geographical regions. This study has not explicitly considered such variations. Therefore, examining the influence of cultural and geographical factors on the outcomes of flipped classrooms is recommended in future studies.

This study identified the pedagogical activities and courses in the flipped classroom. The future of flipped classroom course activities can be shaped by a blend of innovative technologies, pedagogical research, and a focus on enhancing the learning experience for students. Future studies can investigate how instructors can tailor pedagogical activities to match specific learning objectives and student needs in different subject areas by assessing the adaptability of these activities across various disciplines. Finally, this study primarily reported the immediate outcomes of using flipped classrooms in higher education. Future longitudinal studies are recommended to trace the effectiveness of this pedagogical approach on students' learning, success, and retention rates in the long-term.

Research implication

This investigation can shed light on the current state of flipped learning as an emerging educational approach and its implications for teaching and learning. This study can help researchers, educators, and institutions better understand how flipped learning is being implemented, its impact on students and instructors, and its potential benefits and challenges.

The identified flipped classroom technologies have numerous implications for educators, researchers, and institutions. The identified technologies (e.g., Camtasia and Screencast) for flipped classrooms can be helpful for educators to tailor content according to student needs. Educators can provide additional resources for struggling students and challenge more advanced learners accordingly. In flipped classrooms, technology (such as clickers and instant response) can automate assessment and provide quick feedback. These can allow educators to spot problem areas and modify their instruction accordingly. Flipped classroom technology can be implemented at scale, making it a cost-effective solution for institutions looking to improve teaching and learning outcomes. Moreover, researchers can explore the effectiveness of the indicated technologies to see what works best for different subjects and student populations.

Through research, educators can gain insights into effective strategies for using flipped learning in their classrooms, and institutions can make informed decisions about adopting and supporting this pedagogical approach. The analysis of flipped classroom technologies can direct pedagogical approaches and resource allocation, eventually influencing how higher education develops in the future. The results of the study will show the extent to which technology is integrated into higher education for the purpose of flipped learning. In this way, institutions can better plan to use technologies that work well in flipped classrooms in order to maintain their competitiveness and deliver high-quality instruction. Resources may need to be set aside by universities and colleges to train teachers in the efficient use of these technologies. Programs for faculty development, workshops, and continuous assistance for teachers are needed to make the most of these tools. Meanwhile, understanding the technologies being used can affect how curriculum is designed. Lecturers and curriculum designers can match their courses with the flipped classroom model by incorporating technology-friendly content and activities into their lessons.

Secondly, this study explored the pedagogical activities and courses that make flipped classrooms effective for higher education. Recognizing that different subject domains may require distinct pedagogical activities highlights the importance of tailoring teaching strategies to suit the nature of the course. New teachers can benefit immensely from this insight as it encourages them to avoid conventional way of teaching. They can adapt their teaching methods to align with the specific content and learning goals of their courses. This can lead to effective resource allocation. When teachers are aware of which activities are most effective for particular subjects, they can allocate their time and resources more efficiently. This knowledge allows them to focus on developing and implementing activities that are known to work well for their subject matter, optimizing the learning experience for their students. The right class activity provides the structure that will allow students to build on what they have already learned. This approach will ultimately result in increased student participation, greater comprehension, and better information retention.

It has been found that gamification activities can be an effective flipped classroom strategy in accounting and management courses. Educators can design gamification activities in a manner to reinforce important ideas, promote critical thinking, and make learning memorable for students. In science courses, problem-solving-based activities were found to be very important. Educators can design the problem-solving activity, ensuring it is engaging and interactive. Educators can consider various formats, such as case studies, experiments, simulations, or research projects. It has been found that interactive activities can improve art and education courses by encouraging student creativity and a deeper comprehension of artistic ideas. Institutions and educators can provide online resources for students to experience virtual museum tours and art galleries. Students can talk about well-known pieces of art, styles, and artists. Additionally, institutions might schedule routine art critique events where students can exhibit their work and get input from their peers.

It has been observed that a literature analysis helps students understand the current state of knowledge in a particular medical area, ensuring that their practice is evidence-based. Therefore, institutions can provide free access to databases and journals to medical students. It has been found that computer-based practice exercises hold significant importance for engineering courses. Educators can organize the computer-based practice exercises with a clear structure. Educators can employ multimedia components including simulations, and augmented reality to illustrate questions in computer-based tasks.

Lastly, the identification of challenges in implementing flipped classrooms serves as a roadmap for future research endeavors. Other researchers can use these challenges as a starting point to investigate specific issues in greater detail. This can lead to more targeted and experimental studies aimed at finding practical solutions. Educational institutions can use the identified solutions as a basis for professional development. They can provide training and resources to better incorporate flipped classroom techniques and overcome challenges. Meanwhile, institutions can allocate resources to support the implementation of the identified solutions. This can include investing in technology and creating support structures for students to navigate challenges successfully. The identified solutions can contribute to the creation of more conducive learning environments. Students and teachers can implement these solutions to manage challenges effectively, resulting in a more productive and engaging learning experience. Finally, the solutions offered can have a direct impact on student success. Effective management of challenges by students and teachers can lead to better comprehension of course material, and increased academic achievement.

Availability of data and materials

This is a review paper and all data has been presented throughout the paper.

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Baig, M.I., Yadegaridehkordi, E. Flipped classroom in higher education: a systematic literature review and research challenges. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 20 , 61 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00430-5

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Measuring the Impact of Augmented Reality in Flipped Learning Mode on Critical Thinking, Learning Motivation, and Knowledge of Engineering Students

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Digital electronics is a fundamental subject for engineering students, and it enables the students to learn design-based approaches and solve complex engineering problems. Students learn about minimization techniques for reducing the hardware components and size of the circuit by solving complex Boolean equations. The Karnaugh map (K-map) is one such technique utilized in digital electronics to solve complex Boolean equations and design AND-OR-INVERT (AOI) logical diagrams. The K-map technique involves several steps to solve the Boolean expression, and students often find it difficult to follow the K-map process. In this study, an AR-based learning system was developed using Unity 3D and Vuforia SDK that aimed to teach the students about the step-wise operation of the K-map technique. An experimental study was conducted with 128 undergraduate engineering students to determine the impact of the AR learning system on the critical thinking skills, learning motivation, and knowledge gain of students. The students were divided into two groups: experimental group ( N  = 64) and control group ( N  = 64). The AR learning system was implemented in flipped learning mode and utilized to provide in-class activities during the learning. The experimental group students utilized the AR learning system for in-class activities whereas control group students performed in-class activities using the traditional approach. The experimental outcomes indicate that the use of AR technology has a significant positive impact on the critical thinking skills, learning motivation, and knowledge gain of students. The study also found that critical thinking skills and learning motivation have a significant positive correlation with the knowledge gain of students in the experimental group.

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Introduction

The policymakers and leaders of modern universities often find it difficult with the changing demands of the students in modern education setup (Liu & Chen Jan., 2018 ). Traditional teaching methods are not sufficient enough in providing better learning opportunities. The traditional teaching style exchanges information from textbooks with students, but should be applied to solving real-world problems (Bansal et al., 2020 ; Tadesse et al., 2019 ). Innovative learning methodologies are evolving, addressing the changing demands of education, and have the potential to improve the education system. Innovative techniques of teaching or learning that make use of cutting-edge technology are essential in the digital age. The modern education system is based on an interactive learning paradigm in which students learn through social networks, collaboration, immersion, think-pair-share, and information collection for self-exploration (Zainuddin & Perera Aug., 2017 ). Several learning methodologies, such as active learning, collaborative learning, cooperative learning, flipped learning, guided learning, peer evaluation, video sharing, synchronous sharing, inquiry-based learning, and contextual mobile learning, have been adopted by educators in recent times to enhance the learning (Chi et al., 2017 ; Lai & Hwang, 2015 ).

The Flipped Learning Approach (FLA) is a teaching methodology based on the “Inverted Classroom” principle. The FLA setting is the inverse of a regular classroom, which implies lectures are moved from the university classroom to students’ activities at home. The traditional teaching method emphasizes the “sage on the stage” where the teacher is focused on lecture delivery and the process is more teacher-oriented, whereas FLA emphasizes “guide by side” where the teacher’s role is of facilitator and guiding the students (Strayer Jul., 2012 ). FLA has four pillars: flexible environment, learning, instructional content, and professional educator (Sams et al., 2012 ). Bergman and Sams are the pioneers of the FLA approach. They recorded the lectures and posted them to the students who missed the class (Sams et al., 2012 ). They noticed that students who attend the class also take advantage of the recorded video lectures. As a result, they utilize lecture time on user interactions with the students. The FLA approach contains three essential elements: the creation of lecture videos, the planning of in-class activities, and evaluation. In the foremost step, the instructor prepares online videos and posts them to students through the university portal, email, YouTube channels, canvas, etc. Secondly, during class time, the instructor designs activities to interest the students, resulting in enhanced peer interaction. To assess the student’s performance, the instructor can create multiple-choice questions, short answer type questions, design-based problems, and rubrics, among other things.

In-class activities are of great importance for the effectiveness of the FLA because student learning is directly associated with the objectives of the learning activity. Technology intervention could affect to a greater extent enhancing student learning experience during in-class activities (Hwang et al., Dec. 2015 ). E-learning tools make use of animated images, web pages with text and images, and flash content (Malhotra & Verma, 2020 ). The content offered on these platforms is two-dimensional and lacks interactivity (Mejías Borrero & Andújar Márquez, 2012 ). Consequently, there is a need to incorporate interactive learning techniques so that effective learning can occur during class time. When the activity-based design is blended with interactive learning technology, it can significantly improve student abilities, knowledge, and motivation. Augmented reality technology can dynamically present the learning content and provide immersive learning to the students. AR overlays virtual objects in the real-world view with the help of computer graphics and image processing techniques (Yilmaz, 2016 ). It enables the users to interact with the virtual content which further enhances the user experience (Wang et al., Oct. 2018 ). AR has various applications in the field of military, education, entertainment, medicine, marketing, psychology, and advertisement (Azuma, 1997 ; Kesim & Ozarslan, 2012 ).

In this paper, AR technology is employed to develop a learning system that could help the students to learn about Karnaugh maps in electronics engineering. In electronics engineering, digital electronics is an important subject that deals with the design-based approach. In digital electronics, students learn about logic design and the basic organization of the circuits in digital devices. Students learn about minimization techniques for reducing the hardware components and size of the circuit by solving complex Boolean equations. The Karnaugh map (K-map) is one such technique utilized in digital electronics to solve complex Boolean equations and design AND-OR-INVERT (AOI) logical diagrams. The K-map technique involves several steps to solve the Boolean expression, and students often find it difficult to follow the K-map process. Also, while implementing the K-map technique, they make lots of errors that result in wrong logical solutions. So, there is a requirement for a learning environment where students follow the K-map steps to get the correct logical solutions. In this study, an AR-based learning environment was developed which aimed to address students’ problems while learning about K-map. The AR-based mobile application is an active-learning platform that provides step-wise operation of the K-map technique to students. While learning with the AR application, students get instant feedback about the logic design. They can interact with the application and develop an AOI logical diagram for any Boolean expression. The AR application was developed using the Unity3D game engine and can act as a self-guiding tool for individual learners. The main objective of this research study is to determine the impact of AR applications on the critical thinking skills, learning motivation, and knowledge of students in the flipped learning environment. Learning motivation relates to the desire of learners to learn and pick up new information, abilities, and attitudes. It motivates them to participate in pursuits that advance their intellectual, professional, and personal development. Critical thinking involves engaging in cognitive activities that require the use of mental processes, such as attention, selection, and judgment, to arrive at the most optimal solution. Students’ knowledge is not static and can be enhanced through various techniques, including training, practice, and experience. It is crucial to understand that everyone has different learning strengths and weaknesses and that some may do well in some subjects while others struggle. The following research questions were addressed in this study:

How does the use of an AR learning system in flipped learning mode impact students’ critical thinking skills?

How does the use of the AR learning system in flipped learning mode influence the learning motivation of students?

How does the use of an AR learning system in flipped learning mode impact the student’s knowledge?

What is the correlation between the critical thinking skills, learning motivation, and knowledge gain of students who learned using an AR learning system?

This paper is organized into the following sections: “ Related Work ” presents the related works, “ AR Learning System ” presents the development process of the AR learning environment, and “ Methodology ” presents the research methodology. Experimental analysis and results are presented in “ Experimental Results .” “ Discussion and Conclusion ” presents the discussion and conclusion.

Related Work

According to the literature, AR-based applications enhance students’ learning abilities and learning outcomes by facilitating user engagement, providing direct input (particularly contextual information), and being enjoyable to use (Algayres & Triantafyllou, 2019 )–[44]. Also, the use of AR in flipped learning mode enhances the instructional content in a significant way (Chen et al., 2017 ). Chang and Hwang ( 2018 ) proposed an AR-based flipped learning technique for school students and suggested that AR can improve the learning enthusiasm, satisfaction, ability to think objectively, self-efficacy, and cognitive load of students (Chang & Hwang Oct., 2018 ). Weinhandl et al. ( 2020 ) recommended that GeoGebra’s flipped learning approach helped strengthen students’ academic attitudes toward mathematical education. GeoGebra is an immersive framework of geometry primarily used to teach children in primary school (Weinhandl et al., 2020 ). Table 1 presents the use of AR applications in science education, language learning, and engineering education.

AR is an efficient learning technology as it utilizes class time effectively and provides an immersive experience to students. The combination of AR and flipped learning could be an efficient solution for both students and teachers, as it provides an interactive and engaging environment for the students.

Critical thinking is extremely important to Millennial learners, and it is often linked to other abilities such as metacognition, creative thinking, and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. (Moeti et al., 2016 ). It has a strong relationship with the cognitive thinking of the students (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) (Bloom et al., 1956 ). Most universities have embraced critical thinking skills as a real student-centered learning strategy, encouraging and guiding students to “how to think critically” (Anta & de Barrón, 2018 ). Tsui states critical thinking is highly related to instructional factors, which means the instructor should be aware of the needs of the students and accordingly adjust the teaching methodology (Tsui, 2002 ). Besides, an instructor must include in-class activities, research-oriented tasks, working in groups, and case studies, so that they critically analyze the solution to the problem and can discuss it with their peers. The use of AR in flipped learning mode can be a driving factor to influence the critical thinking, learning motivation, and knowledge of students.

AR Learning System

This section presents the steps involved in the design and development of the AR learning system. Figure  1 presents the different stages of implementation of the AR learning system in flipped learning mode.

Different stages of implementation of AR learning system in flipped learning mode

Concept Formulation of AR learning system

The AR learning system is developed to enhance the critical thinking skills, learning motivation, and knowledge gain of students in digital electronics courses. The mobile AR application will act as a self-guiding tool that helps the students to learn through the blended learning environment. To develop the AR application, the learning objectives are defined to achieve the desired learning outcomes. The following are the learning objectives of the application:

LO1: To implement simple logical operations using combinational logic circuits.

LO2: To obtain a basic level of digital electronics knowledge and set the stage to perform the analysis and design of complex digital electronic circuits using K-map.

The Karnaugh map (K-map) is a minimization technique utilized in digital electronics to solve complex Boolean equations and design AND-OR-INVERT (AOI) logical diagrams. K-Map represents the pictorial view of the Boolean equations in tabular form. According to the binary input variables present in the equation, the size of the K-map varies. The following expression presents the relation between several input variables and the size of the K-map:

where n  = number of input variables.

M  = No. of cells in K-map (size of K-map).

Figure  2 presents the different K-maps for the number of input variables.

K-Maps with 2, 3, and 4 input variables

Design and Development of AR Learning System

The AR learning system uses a mobile AR application to teach the concept of K-map to engineering students and helps them to design the simplified circuit in a real-time scenario. The AR application will be used in a flipped learning mode where students watch videos and assess pre-learning material before the class and will use the AR learning system for in-class activities. In the present work, in-class activities to teach K-map are designed using AR technology. In the AR learning system, students can learn the steps of K-map simplifications: form the pairs, equate Boolean equations, and draw AOI logic diagrams. The system was developed using Unity 3D game engine and Vuforia SDK (Kumar et al., 2019 ; Kaur et al., 2063 ; Singh et al., 2019 ). The AR application will scan the paper markers using a mobile camera and allows the user to perform various tasks like binary-pair formation, selecting the right Boolean expressions, and building an AOI logic diagram.

An Arduino interface is also developed in the application for physical hardware circuit verification. The Arduino Uno is interfaced with the HC-05 Bluetooth module which will send the data to Unity 3D Bluetooth Plugin. The Arduino interface will verify the output of the designed circuit built on a breadboard and the Bluetooth module will send the information about the circuit’s correctness to the Unity 3D Bluetooth Plugin. The Unity 3D will display the message on the AR application as “Correct Connection” or “Incorrect Connection.” Fig.  3 represents the block diagram of the mobile AR application and the Arduino interface. Figure  4 presents the AR learning system.

Block diagram of an augmented reality-based system for K-map

The designed augmented reality-based system for K-map

Workflow of AR Learning System

This section presents the workflow of using the AR learning system for solving 2-variable Boolean expressions using K-map. The API of the developed AR application is shared with the students, and they were asked to install the application on their smartphones. After the installation of an AR application, students were given paper markers for the application along with the Arduino kit for physical hardware verification. An example of an OR gate (logic gate) is explained below to show the working of an AR learning system. Firstly, the truth table of an OR gate was posted by the teacher. According to the truth table, students were supposed to place the markers in the correct position.

Step 1: Place the markers as per the truth table mentioned and scan them through mobile cameras as shown in Fig.  5 .

Scanning of markers through a mobile camera

Steps 2 and 3: Populate the K-Map cells and form the pairs by clicking on the “Make Pair” tab as mentioned in Fig.  6 .

Formation of pair by clicking on the “Make Pair” tab

Step 4: The equation screen mentioned in Fig.  7 appeared to the students only if the paired formation was correct, else the students had to form the pairs again.

Selection of correct equation

Step 5: Once the correct equation was chosen then choose the correct AOI logic diagram as mentioned in Fig.  8 .

Selection of AOI diagram

Step 6: The internal structure of the logic gate appeared on the screen after choosing the AOI diagram, which helped the students to make OR gate connections in real time (with the help of IC 7432, breadboard, connecting wires, and LED as shown in Fig.  9 ).

Selection of the internal structure of the logic gate

Step 7: Once the student had made the connection (on a breadboard), then one question was expected to cross their minds, “whether the connections are correct or not?” The Arduino with Bluetooth plugin was used to transmit the real-time output to the unity application to answer this question. Students can verify the hardware connections by clicking on the “Check” button as given in Fig.  10 .

Verification of hardware connection with mobile application

Step 8: If the connections were correct, then the “correct connection” was displayed on the screen (as shown in step 8 of Fig.  11 ). Otherwise, “wrong connections” would appear on the screen. Figure  12 represents the graphical representation of the AR in the flipped learning system.

Verification of hardware connections

Graphical representation of design flow for AR in flipped learning

In this way, this self-guiding tool helped the students to learn and build a bridge between real and virtual environments through AR. With the help of this application, teachers could utilize more time on designing the applications related to K-map (which is a must for employability). Figure  12 represents the graphical workflow of the application.

Students could perform any activity related to the 2-variable on this learning platform. They had to place the markers according to the truth table, and they could design any logic gate (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR, etc.) on the learning platform. As students learned through brainstorming, it helped improve their critical thinking skills and understand complex topics through this application.

Methodology

An experimental study was conducted with engineering students to determine the impact of AR learning systems on the critical thinking skills, learning motivation, and knowledge gain of students. This section presents the participant details, experimental design, and measurement instruments of the study.

Participants

In the present work, a total of 128 s-year undergraduate students (mentioned in Table 2 ) from electronics engineering voluntarily participated in the study. The participants have no or very less knowledge of digital logic design using K-map. Also, they do not have any prior experience in learning AR technology. At the beginning of the experimental study, students were arbitrarily divided into two groups: the experimental group ( N  = 64) and the control group ( N  = 64). The random division of students was done by the other teacher who was not aware of the different interventions during the study. The experimental group was treated with an AR learning system in flipped learning mode, where students are provided with pre-class material in the form of videos to understand the basics of digital electronics. During class time, they are allowed to perform class activities with the help of the AR learning system. Whereas the students of the control group were treated using a conventional flipped learning approach, in which they are also provided with the same videos as pre-class material to learn at home, the control group students are allowed to perform in-class activities without the support of the AR learning system. Also, the students of both groups were facilitated by the same teacher having more than 10 years of teaching experience in electronics engineering.

Experimental Process

Initially, a pre-test was carried out with the students to evaluate their critical thinking ability and their knowledge about the subject before the experiment. After the pre-test, students were divided randomly into the experimental group (EG) and control group (CG). Students from the EG were taught using the AR learning system in a flipped learning mode, where they were allowed to watch videos as pre-class material and perform in-class activities using the AR learning system. The control group students were taught using the traditional flipped learning mode, in which they also watched the videos at home and performed the in-class activities using a standard laboratory manual. The teaching intervention for both groups was carried out for 1 week, and students learned about digital logic building using Karnaugh maps (K-maps). Students have applied the concept of K-maps to solve the digital logic building problems and designed the electronic circuit on the breadboard using logic gate ICs. Table 3 presents the details of the treatment given to both groups. The pre-class material is provided to the students in the form of videos using a “YouTube” channel named “Learn2Know”; students were instructed to watch the videos before attending the class. In-class activities are of great importance for improving the critical thinking skills of the students as they enable them to think critically, develop logic, and design electronic circuits. The in-class activities were designed to solve the application-based problem statements on digital electronics logic building. During the in-class activities, small groups of students were formed, nd they discussed their ideas with their peers and came up with optimized solutions. Activities were designed by keeping in mind the higher-order thinking level of Bloom’s taxonomy. The in-class activities enable the students to comprehend the facts, apply problem-solving strategies, think critically, infer from them, and then connect them to other concepts to achieve success. Appendix 1 provides information about the in-class activities. While conducting in-class activities, students of EG used the AR application for self-evaluation, whereas CG sought advice from the teacher. After the learning activity, a post-test was conducted to evaluate the knowledge of the two groups. Students were also asked to respond to the critical thinking and learning motivation questionnaire. The details of the experimental study are given in Fig.  13 .

Experimental design

Measurement Tools

The questionnaire developed by Chai et al. (Sep. 2015 ) was modified and adapted to measure students’ critical thinking skills as mentioned in Appendix 2. It includes six items (e.g., “When using augmented reality-based flipped learning approach, I would think about what I have learned correctly” and “When doing augmented reality-based flipped learning approach, I will try to understand from different perspectives on what I have learned”). Students were asked to respond on a 5-point Likert scale. The Cronbach’s alpha of the survey questionnaire was 0.72 showing the internal consistency of the questionnaire. Appendix 2 presents the survey questionnaire used for evaluating the critical thinking skills of the students.

For measuring the learning motivation of students, a questionnaire designed by Keller ( 1987 ) was used. ARCS model is a student-centered model and consists of four elements: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction. “Attention” deals with students’ interest in the lecture, “Relevance” relates to the content’s usefulness, “Confidence” deals with the belief of students, and “Satisfaction” relates directly to motivation. The questionnaire consisted of 36 open-ended questions, and students had to answer on a 5-point Likert scale. The Cronbach’s alpha for four elements of the ARCS model were the following: Attention = 0.821, Relevance = 0.709, Confidence = 0.719, and Satisfaction = 0.765, showing the reliability of the questionnaire.

A pre and post-test approach was used to measure the knowledge gained of the students for K-map. A subject expert having more than 10 years of teaching experience designed the knowledge test. The pre-test consisted of 20 multiple choice-based questions on digital electronics, and students were given 20 min to complete the test. The perfect score for the pre-test was 20. The post-test consisted of 15 multiple choice questions and five design-based questions on digital circuits. Students were given 40 min to complete the test, and the maximum score for the post-test was 30.

Experimental Results

Rq1: how does the use of ar learning systems in flipped learning mode impact students’ critical thinking skills.

To assess the difference in critical thinking skills of both groups before the learning activity, the pre-test was conducted. As shown in Table 4 , the results indicated that there is no significant difference in the mean values of pre-test scores for the experimental group and control group. To evaluate the impact of AR intervention on critical thinking skills, the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test was applied to post-test scores. In ANCOVA analysis of post-test scores, the pre-test scores of critical thinking are considered as a control variable. Table 5 presented the post-test score. The mean value of critical thinking skills of the experimental group was 4.17 and for the control group was 3.41. F  = 41.43, with a p -value less than 0.01 indicating a significant difference in the critical thinking abilities of both groups. The ANCOVA test analysis showed that the use of AR technology had a significant positive influence on students’ critical thinking skills. The η 2 value is 0.405, which reflects a moderate effect size.

RQ2:How Does the Use of AR Learning Systems in Flipped Learning Mode Impact the Student’s Knowledge?

Before applying the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test, the students’ prior knowledge of the subject was assessed using the pre-test scores of the two groups. Table 6 shows a p -value larger than 0.05, indicating no significant difference in students’ knowledge prior to the learning activity. So, the ANCOVA test could be used to examine the post-test scores of the knowledge test. In ANCOVA analysis of post-test scores of knowledge gain, the pre-test scores of students’ knowledge are considered as a control variable.

Table 7 presents the ANCOVA analysis of post-test scores of knowledge gain. The mean value of the post-test score of the experimental group was 25.06 with an S.D. of 2.87, and the mean value of the control group was 19.56 with an S.D. of 3.04. F  = 53.74 and a p -value less than 0.001 indicated a significant difference in the knowledge gain of the two groups. The ANCOVA analysis suggests that the students of the experimental group performed better in the post-test compared to the students of the control group. So, the AR intervention has a significant positive impact on the knowledge gain of students. The η 2 value was 0.468, which showed a moderate effect size.

RQ3: How Does the Use of the AR Learning System in Flipped Learning Mode Influence the Learning Motivation of Students?

An independent sample t -test was conducted to determine the difference in the learning motivation of the two groups. Table 8 presents the t -test statistics for the four factors of the ARCS model: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. The overall mean value of ARCS for the experimental group was 4.66 and for the control group was 4.25, with a p -value < 0.01 which indicates that there is a significant difference in the learning motivation of the two groups. The experimental outcomes indicate that the students who learned with AR application were highly motivated compared to the control group students.

In terms of sub-scales of ARCS model, the mean score of attention of the experimental group was 4.70, and that for the control group was 4.18 with a p -value < 0.01. This suggests that AR intervention had a significant positive impact on student’s attention during learning. This could be because AR provided 3D representations of virtual objects, which raised students’ attention while learning. In terms of relevance, there was no significant difference between the two groups. Relevance refers to the alignment of instructional content towards the learning objectives. During the learning process, the instructional content of both teaching methodologies was aligned with the learning objectives. For confidence, the mean scores of the experimental and control groups were 4.75 and 4.10, with a p -value < 0.01 indicating that students of the experimental group were confident as compared to the control group students. The possible reason could be learning through interactive media, which stimulates curiosity in the students. It also simplifies the complex logic for a better understanding of the subject. For satisfaction, the mean scores for the experimental and control groups were 4.57 and 4.07, with a p -value < 0.01 indicating that students of the experimental group were delighted as compared to the control group students.

RQ4: What Is the Correlation Between the Critical Thinking Skills, Learning Motivation, and Knowledge Gain of Students Who Learned Using an AR Learning System?

To evaluate the correlation between critical thinking skills, learning motivation (ARCS), and knowledge gain of students in the experimental group, the Pearson correlation was used. Table 9 presents the Pearson correlation statistics. With r  = 0.667 and p  < 0.01, it indicates that the student’s critical thinking skills have a strong positive correlation with the knowledge gain of the students who learned with the AR application. Also, a moderate positive correlation was noticed between the learning motivation and knowledge gain of the students ( r  = 0.458, p  < 0.01). It can be concluded that the use of AR technology in flipped learning mode enhances the student’s learning experience, learning motivation, and critical thinking skills. Critical thinking skills and learning motivation have a significant positive correlation with the knowledge gain of students in the experimental group as given in Fig.  14 .

Correlation between critical thinking, motivation, and students’ knowledge

Table 10 compares how different fields are using augmented reality technology in terms of attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

Discussion and Conclusion

In this study, a hybrid learning framework was proposed to integrate the flipped learning approach with AR technological design to provide unique and compelling learning experiences to engineering students. The AR-based flipped learning approach allowed utilizing the classroom time better by providing interactive and immersive learning to the students, which actively involved the learners in the learning process. An AR learning system was developed so that actual learning took place at an individual level and thus transformed the learning into activity-based and problem-solving learning. The AR learning system was designed using the Unity3D game engine and Vuforia SDK. An experimental study was conducted with engineering students to determine the effectiveness of the proposed system on students’ knowledge, critical thinking skills, and learning motivation in digital electronics course. The experimental outcomes indicated that the AR in flipped learning mode significantly improved the students’ knowledge, critical thinking skills, and learning motivation compared to the conventional teaching methods. The experimental results substantiated several previous studies that exhibited the impact of AR intervention on student learning and critical thinking skills.

The study presented the use of AR technology in flipped learning mode. It indicated improved students’ critical thinking skills through enhanced engagement and better visualization of discrete concepts of digital electronics. The mean value of the post-test score of critical thinking for the experimental group was 4.13 compared to 3.31 for the control group, which implied a significant improvement in the critical thinking skills of the experimental group. The study’s findings support the findings of Chang and Hwang ( 2018 ), who proved that AR technology with a flipped guiding approach helps to improve critical thinking, self-efficacy, and motivation of the learners (Chang & Hwang Oct., 2018 ). It also supports the findings of Sailer and Sailer ( 2021 ) and Gomez et al. ( 2020 ) who proved that incorporating gamification in flipped classroom setting enhances the competency skills among the students and make them better problem solvers (Gómez-Carrasco et al., 2020 ; Sailer & Sailer, 2021 ).

The outcome of the present research work also supports the result of Algayres (Algayres & Triantafyllou, 2019 ), which states that combining game-based learning with the flipped classroom methodology can improve student motivation, learning outcomes, and engagement. In other words, if the classroom environment is more stimulating, students are more likely to participate in in-class activities and think critically about the assigned problem statement (Algayres & Triantafyllou, 2019 ). These reviews correspond to the present study’s findings, which suggest that effectively blending AR technology with flipped learning can enhance students’ critical thinking abilities, especially during in-class activities wherein students are more challenged with more probing questions. The possible reason for the positive effect of AR with flipped learning on critical thinking is its learner-centered approach. In learner-centered approach, learners think critically, interpret, analyze, and solve design-based problems by interacting with peers during class activities. Another reason could be the MAR application’s immersive and engaging environment, which provides better visualization of digital electronics concepts. The MAR application also acts as a self-evaluating tool that allows the students to check their solutions for the design problems. In addition, discussion in the classroom and solving design problems may have assisted students. It allowed them to understand the design problems and think from different perspectives. Flipped learning also allows the students to present their knowledge in front of the class, and peers will enable them to receive feedback. Walker also proves that instructions that emphasize student discussions could help improve critical thinking (Walker, 2012 ).

To evaluate students’ learning motivation during the experimental study, the adapted ARCS model consisted of four elements: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. The overall mean score was 4.51 of the experimental group and 4.10 of the control group proving a significant difference in the learning motivation of the two students. The experimental outcomes showed that the experimental group students were highly motivated compared to the control group students. During the learning process, teachers observed that students of the AR in flipped learning group were excited and curious to use the AR application. The experimental results showed that attention, confidence, and satisfaction were the relevant elements that enhanced the student learning motivations. The following could be the possible reasons for the enhanced learning motivation of students. First, the proposed AR system allowed the students to interact with and manipulate the 3D virtual content that enhanced their attention and interest during the learning process. Second, the AR in flipped learning provided instant feedback on their logic designs which helped them learn independently and establish independent learning abilities. Third, the students had access to the AR application anywhere and anytime, giving them the flexibility to learn and stimulating active learning.

In terms of knowledge gain, the mean score of the post-test for the experimental group was 22.88. The control group was 19.19 with a p -value < 0.01 that showed a significant positive impact of AR intervention on students’ knowledge gain. The use of the proposed AR application provided feedback to the students at every step about their logic that allowed them to practice more independently and significantly enhanced their skills in designing digital circuits. Compared to the conventional flipped learning approach, the AR in flipped learning approach also provided an effective self-learning model to the students and encouraged them to learn actively through their individualistic observation. The one limitation of the proposed system is that it requires a good-resolution camera. Sometimes, there is a problem in detecting markers when using a low-resolution camera. In this study, we have used android smartphones with HD resolution.

To summarize, this research involved the creation of an AR-based learning system using Unity 3D and Vuforia SDK, which aimed to teach undergraduate engineering students about the step-by-step operation of the K-map technique. The effectiveness of this system on the students’ critical thinking skills, learning motivation, and knowledge gain was tested through an experimental study with 128 participants. The students were divided into two groups: an experimental group ( N  = 64) and a control group ( N  = 64). The AR learning system was implemented in flipped learning mode and used for in-class activities in the experimental group, while the control group used the traditional approach. The results showed that the use of AR technology had a significant positive impact on the critical thinking skills, learning motivation, and knowledge gain of students in the experimental group. Additionally, the study found a significant positive correlation between critical thinking skills, learning motivation, and knowledge gain in the experimental group. During the COVID-19 pandemic, conventional teaching methods considerably failed to provide an interactive learning experience to students due to a lack of active engagement. The utilization of disruptive technologies like AR and VR can provide unique learning experiences to the students. Immersion is an essential feature of AR and VR technology that can impart better visualization and critical thinking skills.

The present study has a some limitation in terms of self-rating scales of critical thinking and learning motivation. Using the self-rating scales may cause self-bias by the respondant and may lack of accuracy (Dang et al., 2020 ). Overall, self-rating should not be the only way to evaluate learning, even though it can be a helpful tool for getting students to think critically about their education and take ownership of their development. To provide a more thorough view of student learning and performance, teachers should also use additional forms of assessment, such as peer evaluations, teacher feedback, and standardized tests in the future research work.

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Under the supervision of Dr. Archana Mantri and Dr. Gurjinder Singh, the experimental study was conducted and implemented by Dr. Rubina Dutta. Mr. Narinder Pal Singh provides thhe technical support to develop mobile application.

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Dutta, R., Mantri, A., Singh, G. et al. Measuring the Impact of Augmented Reality in Flipped Learning Mode on Critical Thinking, Learning Motivation, and Knowledge of Engineering Students. J Sci Educ Technol 32 , 912–930 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-023-10051-2

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Flipped classroom in history learning to improve students' critical thinking

2022, International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE)

The flipped classroom is very helpful for students to understand learning material, but it is still very minimally used, especially in history learning. This study analyzed the effect of the flipped classroom model in history learning to improve students' critical thinking. This study employed a quasiexperimental non-equivalent control group design, by dividing into two class groups, namely experimental and control. The sample was 121 students who were selected through cluster random sampling technique. The data collection was through observation, interviews, and instruments in the form of critical thinking tests. Data analysis used an independent sample t-test and N-gain score test to analyze the effect of a flipped classroom in history learning to improve critical thinking. The results showed that the flipped classroom in history learning had a significant effect on improving students' critical thinking skills as evidenced by the independent sample t-test test with a significance value of 0.000<0.05, and the N-gain score test which was included in the moderate criteria. So, the flipped classroom model in history learning is very suitable to be used and implemented. Hence, learning objectives are achieved so that history learning can run well and optimally.

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The present study investigated the effect of flipped classroom on learners&#39; critical thinking skills of inference and explanation — the flipped classroom used lecturing video as homework and group discussion as classroom activities. The participants were 60 participants aged 19-20 years old. Using quasi-experimental research, this study measured the effect size with the dependent analysis of variance (ANOVA) from the pretest-posttest score on critical thinking skills. Through 10-week intensive meetings, the two groups were identified as intact and control groups and asked to do the procedure starting from the pretest to posttest. The study was able to confirm the effect of the flipped classroom for sharpening students&#39; critical thinking. The intervention for the EFCG was effective to help them to explore their thoughts and develop their critical thinking.

KnE Social Sciences

Erwin wuwur

The role of education is very important in improving human resources. The purpose of education is to prepare students to be able to develop and apply knowledge. This study analyzes students’ critical thinking skills using the flipped classroom model. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative method. Data were collected through class observations and interviews. The results of the study show that the use of the flipped classroom model can help shorten learning time in class, that learning is not boring, the students’ analytical ability increases, as well as their ability to work together and communicate. Keywords: flipped classroom, critical thinking skills

Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA

Critical thinking skills are competencies that are expected to be possessed by every student in 21st century learning. One of the efforts that can be made to improve students&#39; critical thinking skills is to apply the flipped classroom learning model. This study aims to determine the effect of students&#39; critical thinking skills through the application of the blended learning model of the flipped classroom. The research approach used is quantitative with a quasi-experimental type of research, the research design used is pretest-posttest non-equivalent control group design. Sampling used a total sampling technique from the entire population of 102 students of class XI IPA at SMAN 1 Peulimbang. The instrument used to measure critical thinking skills is in the form of essay questions accompanied by an assessment rubric. Data on critical thinking skills were analyzed by parametric statistics using the independent sample t test. The results showed that the value of &lt; 0.05, then ...

Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Community Development (ICCD 2019)

Sampoerna University

Mr Syaifurohman

Alberth Alberth

The advancement of digital technology has evoked a new teaching paradigm and the incorporation of such technology into models of teaching has been highly appreciated in order to achieve certain learning goals such as students’ critical thinking. This study investigates and examines the difference in critical thinking skills of students taught through the flipped classroom, pure online and direct instruction models. The method of the study is quasi-experiment implemented to students of English majors of Halu Oleo University. A total of 96 students participated as samples sitting in three different classes. Each class was attended by an equal number of 32 samples. Data were collected by giving samples a critical thinking skills test after the model implementation. The data were analyzed by means of two-way analysis of variance. Results of the study show that there is a significant difference of students’ critical thinking skills after the implementation of the three models of teac...

Ayşegül Nihan Erol Şahin

The flipped classroom model is an educational model in which students study at their homes and reinforce their knowledge in the classroom with exercises and activities. This model is currently being used by many Turkish schools, especially the ones that give information technologies education. In this study, it is aimed to understand the learning experience by using this model in history lessons in higher education. For research purposes, 5 weeks long program was modified according to the Flipped Classroom (FC) model. This program was implemented and the views and opinions of the participants were collected with a semi-structured questionnaire. The study group is comprised of students that took Ataturk's Principles and the History of the Turkish Revolution (APHTR) Course during the 2016-2017 fall period at Gazi University in Turkey. Phenomenological analysis was used for data analysis. The results show that the most of the participants see many opportunities in this model. These include the permanent learning, entertaining lessons, interaction, functionality, and high motivation. But the model also poses challenges. Those challenges are problems regarding the long educational videos, wrong content, technical problems, and activities. The participants recommended videos to include more animation and to be shorter, and activities to be improved.

Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn)

waznah latif

This study investigated the effectiveness in implementing the Flipped Classroom model in teaching History and to identify the students’ perceptions using this approach towards their learning. The chosen History topic was on ‘James Brooke’s activities in Sarawak in the 1840s’. The sample consisted of twelve students from two Year 9 classes in one of the secondary schools in Brunei Darussalam. In adopting the Flipped Classroom approach, the students were required to watch a video lesson outside the classroom setting. To measure its effectiveness, a test instrument was used, and five students were interviewed. The findings revealed that the utilisation of this instructional method was effective in teaching History, as there were improvements in the students’ test results. The analyses of the students’ perceptions using this approach revealed that while some students believed that it helped them improve in their communication and writing skills, others did not perceive it effective for ...

This study was to investigate the effectiveness of Flipped Classroom in teaching History for year 9 students as well as to identify the students’ perceptions on this approach towards their learning. The chosen topic for this research was on James Brooke’s activities in Sarawak in 1840s. In this approach, students watched the video lesson outside the classroom. Then in class, group discussion and presentation were conducted based on the video content that they had watched. Pre – test and post – test were instruments used to measure its effectiveness and five students were interviewed to identify their perceptions on Flipped Classroom. This research found that this instructional method was effective in teaching History as there were improvements in students’ post – test marks. They had passed the post - test unlike in the pre – test where only two students managed to score more than 50%. This study also revealed that Flipped Classroom was beneficial for students as it helped them improve their communication and writing skills. However, some students did not find it effective for their learning as some students did not have any facilities such as computer and smart phones to watch the video at home. This affected their performance during the class activities.

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This article outlines the author’s experience with achieving flipped learning in Beginning German college courses. Flipped learning occurs when the quality of students’ interactions with course content scales the top of Bloom’s taxonomy, breaking away from mere memorization and application to the more demanding steps of analysis, evaluation, and creation, the cornerstones of higher thought. The article introduces the term “flipped classroom;” describes the pitfalls encountered during the early stages of flipping; and enumerates the benefits accrued by employing this instructional strategy. It highlights the potential for increased transformative interculturation as the most rewarding feature of flipped L2 learning. Moving routine grammar explanations and introductory intercultural readings out of the classroom frees up valuable time, for instance to explore Germany’s political landscape, concepts of social justice, effects of multiculturalism, and environmental commitment. Such deeper inquiries promote the development of critical thinking, a skill that in turn enhances the quality and learners’ enjoyment of foreign-language learning. To small or endangered German programs, this can mean the return to institutional relevance due to increased student interest and thus rising enrollments.

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• How to apply critical thinking in learning

Sometimes your university classes might feel like a maze of information. Consider critical thinking skills like a map that can lead the way.

Why do we need critical thinking?  

Critical thinking is a type of thinking that requires continuous questioning, exploring answers, and making judgments. Critical thinking can help you: 

• analyze information to comprehend more thoroughly
• approach problems systematically, identify root causes, and explore potential solutions 
• make informed decisions by weighing various perspectives 
• promote intellectual curiosity and self-reflection, leading to continuous learning, innovation, and personal development 

What is the process of critical thinking? 

1. understand  .

Critical thinking starts with understanding the content that you are learning.

This step involves clarifying the logic and interrelations of the content by actively engaging with the materials (e.g., text, articles, and research papers). You can take notes, highlight key points, and make connections with prior knowledge to help you engage.

Ask yourself these questions to help you build your understanding:  

• What is the structure?
• What is the main idea of the content?  
• What is the evidence that supports any arguments?
• What is the conclusion?

2. Analyze  

You need to assess the credibility, validity, and relevance of the information presented in the content. Consider the authors’ biases and potential limitations in the evidence. 

Ask yourself questions in terms of why and how:

• What is the supporting evidence?  
• Why do they use it as evidence?   
• How does the data present support the conclusions?  
• What method was used? Was it appropriate?  

 3.  Evaluate   

After analyzing the data and evidence you collected, make your evaluation of the evidence, results, and conclusions made in the content.

Consider the weaknesses and strengths of the ideas presented in the content to make informed decisions or suggest alternative solutions:

• What is the gap between the evidence and the conclusion?  
• What is my position on the subject?  
• What other approaches can I use?  

When do you apply critical thinking and how can you improve these skills?   

1. reading academic texts, articles, and research papers.

• analyze arguments
• assess the credibility and validity of evidence
• consider potential biases presented
• question the assumptions, methodologies, and the way they generate conclusions

2. Writing essays and theses

• demonstrate your understanding of the information, logic of evidence, and position on the topic
• include evidence or examples to support your ideas
• make your standing points clear by presenting information and providing reasons to support your arguments
• address potential counterarguments or opposing viewpoints
• explain why your perspective is more compelling than the opposing viewpoints

3. Attending lectures

• understand the content by previewing, active listening , and taking notes
• analyze your lecturer’s viewpoints by seeking whether sufficient data and resources are provided
• think about whether the ideas presented by the lecturer align with your values and beliefs
• talk about other perspectives with peers in discussions

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Flipped Classrooms in Medical Education: Improving Learning Outcomes and Engaging Students in Critical Thinking Skills

Adwait nichat.

1 Medical Education, Datta Meghe Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to be University), Nagpur, IND

Ujwal Gajbe

2 Anatomy, Datta Meghe Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to be University), Nagpur, IND

Nandkishor J Bankar

3 Microbiology, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to be University), Wardha, IND

Brij Raj Singh

Ankit k badge.

4 Microbiology, Datta Meghe Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to be University), Nagpur, IND

The flipped classroom (FC) model involves students independently acquiring knowledge before in-person class sessions, during which they engage in active discussions and problem-solving. Various methods to implement FC are quizzes, e-content, case-based learning, problem-based learning, and reading assignments. The advantages of the FC approach included improved student preparation, active participation, and the promotion of critical thinking skills. Some disadvantages identified are technical problems like internet connection, improper planning and preparation, which increases teacher workload, and lack of self-motivation. This review underscores the potential of the FC approach to improve medical education by promoting independent learning, active participation, and deeper understanding. Consideration of factors such as curriculum design, faculty development, technological infrastructure, and student readiness is vital for successfully implementing the FC model. Balancing self-directed study with meaningful face-to-face interactions remains crucial to harnessing the full benefits of this innovative approach. By leveraging technology and student-centered methods, medical educators can create an enriched learning experience that positively influences future healthcare professionals.

Introduction and background

Medical education refers to teaching programs designed to serve the community in the near future. Good role models and learning environments which are examples of professional and organizational behaviors to be adopted, learning through practice, simulation programs, and educational tools such as electronic learning (e-learning) systems, good assessment and feedback systems, and portfolios that demonstrate and discuss professional progress are key elements of medical education programs [ 1 ]. Several advantages of traditional teaching involve face-to-face interactions between students and teachers. Face-to-face interactions provide a supportive learning environment with a positive psychological impact and motivate even less motivated students to participate [ 2 ]. Competency-based medical education (CBME) is a standardized framework for measuring student performance, focusing on the key learning components of good clinical practice. It also measures learning outcomes in training programs based on self-assessment, objective assessment, and multi-source assessment. It can be used for training in all medical fields [ 3 , 4 ]. One of the goals of CBME is self-directed learning, and flipped classroom (FC) is based on this concept, making FC an integral part of the CBME curriculum [ 5 , 6 ]. The main objective of CBME is to create competent Indian medical graduates (IMG) using a skill-based approach while also providing them with metacognition skills [ 3 , 7 ]. The objective of this review is to explore the effectiveness of FC in medical education.

Methods 

To conduct a comprehensive literature search, we used the PubMed and Google Scholar search. We searched for articles published between 2018 and 2023 using the following search terms: (Flipped classroom) OR (flipped classroom) AND (problem-based learning) AND (case-based learning) OR (virtual classroom) AND (traditional teaching). We applied the following inclusion criteria for the final review: (1) English language, (2) relevant to FC in medical education, (3) full text available, and (4) published in specified time frame.

Articles Screened

After conducting the initial search, we identified a total of (n=726) articles across the searched databases. We conducted an initial screening of titles and abstracts, which excluded (n=267) articles. After full-text screening of a total of (n=403) articles, we excluded (n=234) articles for not being retrieved. After screening (n=169) articles for eligibility, we excluded (n=150) articles that were not related to the topic and not in the English language leaving a total of (n=19) articles.

Duration and Number of Articles Included in the Final Review

The literature search was conducted in August 2023. The final review included a total of 19 articles from 2018 to 2023 (Figure ​ (Figure1 1 ).

n: number of studies; PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis

The articles included in the review were each FC based on micro-video courses, self-learning-based online videos, texts, and traditional methods (Table ​ (Table1 1 ).

OSCE: objective structured clinical examination; FC: flipped classroom; NPE: near-peer education; NBME: National Board of Medical Examiners; ACLS: advanced cardiopulmonary life support

Nine studies [ 9 , 10 , 14 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 20 , 22 , 23 ] conducted pre tests and post tests. In each study [ 9 , 10 , 14 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 20 , 22 , 23 ], students were divided into two groups: one group was subjected to traditional teaching, while the other group was subjected to various methods to implement FC which were reading resources and video lectures [ 9 , 16 , 18 , 20 , 22 , 23 ], presentation [ 10 ], web-based learning [ 14 ], and e-content [ 17 ]. All studies [ 9 , 10 , 14 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 20 , 22 , 23 ] observed that FC is an effective tool. One study [ 25 ] divided students into two groups: one group was given micro-video lectures before class, while the other group was directly given theory lectures. Teacher-student interaction and questionnaires were used to assess the students, and it found that the FC model improved student performance. Six studies [ 7 , 8 , 13 , 15 , 19 , 21 ] assessed students based on final exam scores. In each study, students were divided into two groups: one group was subjected to traditional teaching, while for the other group, various methods were used including videos and resource materials [ 7 , 8 , 19 , 21 ], self-study [ 13 ], and PowerPoint [ 15 ]. Five studies [ 7 , 8 , 13 , 19 , 21 ] observed that FC is an effective tool for improving students' performance, while one study [ 15 ] did not observe any change in the students' performance. One study [ 11 ] conducted multilevel regression and observed that FC is an effective tool. In this study, the students were divided into two groups: one group was given videos and other resources via e-learning system, while lecture session was given to the other group. One study [ 12 ] observed the results based on OSCE (objective structured clinical examination) and NBME (National Board of Medical Examiners) scores and did not observe any change in students' performance. In this study, students were divided into two groups: one group was given only online instructions, while the other group was given both online and in-person instructions. One study [ 24 ] observed the result based on the composite learning score and found no significant difference. In this study, students were divided into two groups: one group was provided with theory notes beforehand, while the other group was directly subjected to training session.

Medical education

The systematic process of preparing interested and qualified people to become doctors is known as medical education. The Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) degree is considered capable of handling the responsibilities of a physician of first contact like patient care, medical practice, administrative duties, and ethical and legal duties [ 26 ]. The main objective of the National Medical Commission (NMC) project is to ensure that IMG are capable of serving as primary care physicians in their communities. The NMC project aims to improve the quality of medical education in India and enhance the practical skills of IMG. The NMC has taken an important initiative to introduce CBME to the undergraduate medical curriculum in India. The NMC clearly defined the competencies that an undergraduate medical student must have to become a globally competent IMG. The regulatory body has made significant efforts to design programs with the expert team and has also planned "training of trainers" from faculty at medical colleges throughout India, through the Curriculum Implementation Support Program (CISP) I and II, an implementation support program for schools across India [ 27 ]. Additionally, the project also seeks to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and hands-on experience, allowing IMG to confidently handle diverse medical cases and contribute to the overall development of the healthcare system [ 26 , 28 ]. The learning results and the competency of medical graduates are substantially impacted by the attitudes of both teachers and students. Medical educators' professionalism, management, and leadership abilities may be enhanced by well-crafted faculty development programs, which will help students become competent doctors [ 26 , 29 ]. Faculty members are primarily responsible for carrying out this significant duty. They are the most valuable resources and the foundation of any higher education institution. The role of the facilitator is to pay appropriate attention to the fields of competence, management, and leadership and to make accurate and comprehensive planning for students to become qualified future doctors in the role of therapists, managers, teachers, supporters, and researchers [ 30 ].

FC is a technique where knowledge is acquired independently by a student prior to a classroom encounter. This knowledge is then applied during in-person interactions taken by a teacher, often in the form of case-based discussions, helping to achieve higher-level problem-solving. FC is an effective way to promote active learning and critical thinking skills among students. Having students acquire knowledge independently before class makes them better prepared to engage in meaningful discussions and analyze real-life scenarios. This approach enhances problem-solving abilities and encourages independent learning and self-motivation. FC provides a valuable framework for bridging the gap between theory and practice in classrooms [ 31 - 33 ]. In a traditional face-to-face learning environment, fundamental concepts can be supplemented with online or asynchronous activities [ 31 , 34 ]. By using various forms of technology to share lecture materials outside of the classroom and with greater student-teacher interactions inside the classroom, FC focuses on student-centered learning rather than teacher-centered learning [ 9 , 35 ]. It is an inverted method of instruction that disseminates lecture materials outside of the classroom using videos, podcasts, or slides [ 36 , 37 ]. It can improve student learning efficiency and deepen student understanding, but teachers may lose the constraints on students [ 36 , 38 ]. In the field of medical education, FC serves as an excellent resource and is suitable for students so that they can participate more actively and focus on class interaction while using the pre-class time to acquire a lot of knowledge in their leisure time. The FC model allows students to watch pre-recorded lectures or read assigned materials before class. This way, students can grasp the foundational concepts at their own pace and have more time for critical thinking and problem-solving during in-person sessions. Additionally, FC promotes self-directed learning and encourages students to take ownership of their education, resulting in a deeper understanding and retention of the material [ 9 , 39 , 40 ]. Figure ​ Figure2 2 shows the concept of FC.

PPT: PowerPoint presentation

References: [ 9 , 31 - 40 ]

Various methods used for implementing FC

Video is the most common type of e-content which can be viewed anytime and at a desired pace [ 41 ]. Video-based learning provides an avenue to tackle a lot of educational issues. As most of the people have mobile phones and access to the internet, video lectures can help deliver lectures more easily [ 42 ]. Virtual reality helps in improving students' understanding of the topic [ 43 ] and is emerging as a new technique for presenting simulation [ 44 ].

Medical quizzes often follow one of the two formats: case-based or image-based. This method aids in bridging the knowledge gap between standard classroom instruction and clinical application. The quiz is a simple tool that enhances didactic lectures by helping students learn and understand more. Being an interactive tool centered on students, it promotes regular feedback mechanisms and encourages active student participation. Web-based quiz games can also be used to summarize the key content [ 45 ].

Team-Based Learning (TBL) and Case-Based Learning (CBL)

The pedagogies of CBL and TBL share characteristics such as the use of a real clinical case, active small group learning, activation of prior knowledge, and application of newly learned knowledge. In CBL, teachers guide students as they apply new knowledge to these real-world clinical issues and engage in peer learning. Unlike problem-based learning (PBL), which is intended to allow teachers to criticize and guide students, CBL promotes an organized and critical approach to clinical problem-solving. CBL also encourages students to work collaboratively, fostering teamwork and communication skills essential in the medical field. The emphasis on real-world cases in CBL helps students develop a deeper understanding of how theoretical concepts apply to practical situations [ 46 , 47 ]. TBL provides active and structured small group learning methods and can be applied to large-scale classes. Students' responsibility is achieved through specific TBL steps, including preparatory preparation, preparation assurance tests, problem-solving activities, and immediate feedback [ 48 ].

Reading Assignments

Students should be provided with pre-class reading materials such as handouts or worksheets, instructor-developed texts, or other reading materials. They can also be assigned to read specific chapters or sections from textbooks or articles related to the topic. Research papers and scholarly articles help in promoting critical thinking among students. This approach allows students to engage with the material before coming to class, promoting a deeper understanding of the content. It also encourages independent research and analysis, as students must locate and read additional sources beyond the assigned readings. By incorporating research papers and scholarly articles, students are exposed to expert perspectives and encouraged to evaluate the information presented critically. This enhances their critical thinking skills and fosters a deeper appreciation for the subject matter [ 49 - 51 ].

Advantages and disadvantages of FC

FC helps to improve student engagement and encourages students in developing a deeper understanding of the topic. It helps in learning through projects, activities, and discussion which not only increases peer-peer interaction but also helps students to think out of the box. Knowing that each student has a different pace to acquire knowledge, FC helps students to learn at their own pace and do multiple revisions of the topic. As videos and class notes are provided beforehand to students, in-class time can be utilized for teacher-student interaction and to address students' doubts. FC gives flexibility to students by allowing them to learn anytime and anywhere and also helps to teach students time management and self-discipline [ 52 - 54 ].

Some students may not complete the pre-class assignments, and use of e-content which is not validated, internet issues, and the requirement of special software may cause problems. For the proper implementation of FC, thorough planning and preparation of both teachers and students is required which also increases the workload of teachers. Students may lack the motivation to self-study a topic beforehand or may not understand the topic on their own. Not all topics may be suitable to be taught using FC. Studying alone at home may lead to students feeling isolated or disconnected with the teacher [ 52 - 54 ]. The advantages and disadvantages of FC are listed below (Table ​ (Table2 2 ).

References: [ 52 - 54 ]

Conclusions

The emergence of the FC as a cutting-edge educational strategy holds promise for improving medical students' learning outcomes and experiences. The FC paradigm can benefit medical students' learning outcomes, learner engagement, and critical thinking skills. Careful consideration of variables such as curriculum design, technological infrastructure, faculty development, and student preparation is necessary for its successful adoption. The success of the FC approach depends on striking a balance between independent study and significant face-to-face contact, maximizing the advantages of both elements. Medical educators can continue to create a revolutionary educational experience that benefits both students and the future of healthcare by using technology, active learning, and student-centered techniques.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Author Contributions

Concept and design:   Adwait Nichat, Ankit K. Badge

Drafting of the manuscript:   Adwait Nichat, Ujwal Gajbe, Ankit K. Badge

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data:   Nandkishor J. Bankar, Brij Raj Singh, Ujwal Gajbe, Ankit K. Badge

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content:   Nandkishor J. Bankar, Brij Raj Singh

Supervision:   Nandkishor J. Bankar, Brij Raj Singh