example of research title about maritime

Taking full cognisance of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, IMO’s Strategic Directions and WMU’s strategic plan, a number of research themes have been identified as areas within which the University will seek to achieve and maintain excellence. The Research Priority Areas (RPA) and their key topics for research are described below.

Environmental Impact of Maritime Activities

• Effects of maritime activities on the natural environment
• Ways (at policy and operational levels) of limiting and avoiding negative effects of maritime activities
• The development and implementation of international instruments for the protection of the marine environment
• Development of new and sustainable practices for the maritime industry

This RPA is linked to one of the most important challenges to humankind in the 21st century - the precarious state of the environment in respect of life due to human activities. The need to ensure that all human activities, not least those in the maritime sector, are undertaken with full cognisance of their effects on the natural environment and with the most sustainable practices, is paramount. The RPA will seek to explore the effects of maritime activities on the natural environment, ways (at policy and operational levels) of limiting and ideally avoiding such effects, and the development of new and sustainable practices for the maritime industry.

Maritime Safety

• Law, policy and governance influencing maritime safety
• Accident aetiology and safety modelling
• Technological trends - contributory and disruptive influences on the maritime industry and vice versa
• Simulation for ship safety

The maritime transportation system focuses on five subsystems:

• the transport means (vessels);
• routes/ways/paths;
• operators/crew;
• management of the above 3 (including Vessel Traffic Systems etc.) and
• legal and administrative oversight.

Each of these contributes to the safety, security and efficiency of maritime traffic flow and to the protection of the marine environment. The current development of the system is characterized by rapid technological development and the implementation of new solutions and innovative operational services which go far beyond the objectives of the e-Navigation concept and, on the one hand allows for enhanced monitoring - even remote controlling of no-crew ships, and on the other hand brings to the fore the urgent need for the development of adequate and appropriate regulatory and ethical frameworks. This all occurs in a context where both the traditional maritime transport system and its rapidly-evolving technological version are inherently high-risk. A primary focus of this RPA is the investigation of advanced and complex concepts and models of safety and their influence on operations at sea and ashore. Furthermore, and taking note of the use of simulation to conduct trials of new operational standards and new equipment, and to train seafarers, the RPA will focus on the developing subject areas of digitalization, artificial intelligence and machine learning in a simulation context. It will examine trends and explore how safety can be improved, addressing maritime safety and security at the levels of policy, legislation, social dynamics (human factors/ergonomics), accident aetiology and how simulators can be used to further improve the safety paradigm of ship operations and the training of seafarers. The research area also covers the increasing disruption by technology of traditional approaches to maritime operations and the consequences of this on operational safety, human factors and labour supply.

Maritime Energy Management

• Maritime energy policy and governance
• Economics and social dimensions of energy management
• Energy management over the life-cycle of ships and in maritime onshore facilities (ports, shipyards)
• Renewable energy including ocean energy applicable to the maritime industry
• Marine technology and innovation related to energy
• The circular economy from a waste reduction and renewable energy perspective

The issues raised in respect of energy management with a view to reducing pollution and generating energy in a sustainable manner requires significant research in understanding current problems, generating innovative approaches to policy making for energy management, the design and operation of vessels with particular reference to the use of renewable sources of energy and to provide valuable insights into how the maritime industry can contribute substantially, and in an accelerated manner, to achieving a low carbon and energy efficient global future. This RPA seeks to advance the knowledge in the Maritime Energy Management field by conducting world-class fundamental and applied research in the thematic areas of energy efficiency, regulatory frameworks, renewable energy, social factors related to energy, the economics of energy and energy-related technology/innovation. The thematic areas will be addressed using a ship life-cycle perspective (design, production, operation and recycling) and in consideration of the impacts of shipping on oceans, through ports and to shipyards.

Maritime Social and Labour Governance

• Maritime human resource development through education and training
• Organizational behaviour for optimizing well-being and overall performance
• Technology - its place in education and training and its impacts on the human element
• Seafarers and other maritime professionals’ rights and welfare
• Gender, diversity, and culture in the maritime industry
• Supply and demand of maritime labour
• Migration laws and maritime professionals

The human element is at the core of this research area that seeks to better understand organizational behaviour and promote decent working and living conditions in the maritime industries. Given that corporations play an essential role in maritime social governance, research on organizational behaviour focuses on corporation decision-making processes by examining dynamics of corporate interaction, in particular in global networks and supply-chains, and with humans. The research excellence area also seeks to interrogate issues related to individuals and organizations and their development through education, training and organizational learning. It aims to create a better understanding of the interactions between humans and organizations in order to optimize well-being and overall performance and in particular the role of education (as mediated by such factors as the social norms and the evolution of technology) in this regard. The application of behavioural sciences to maritime industries seeks to shed light on the hidden power and educational structures behind corporations with a view to providing tools for achieving a fair maritime social governance paradigm and sustainable economic growth. Such development goals cannot be fully achieved without strengthening the labour and social rights of seafarers and other maritime professionals. The Maritime Labour Convention, 2006, represents a huge step forward in the right direction. Nevertheless, the implementation and application of this international legal framework pose significant challenges and raise empirical and analytical questions across the globe. They do not only concern seafarers, but also other workers, in particular as technological advances and new business models expand the economic uses of the seas, and with them the concept of “the maritime professional”. The research approach to such pressing issues is intended to be socio-legal, dealing with issues of diversity in the labour force, in particular gender issues, corporate governance and labour matters, standard implementation and compliance, public and private enforcement of maritime labour law, and policy development.

Maritime and Marine Technology and Innovation

• Technological development including digitalization, artificial intelligence, autonomous shipping, big data and its manifestation and effects in the maritime industry e.g. in autonomous vessels, in sustainable energy generation, in education and training etc.
• Trend analyses of technology and its impact on the maritime industry and society
• Predictive modelling of technological developments and their impacts e.g. on labour supply and demand
• Security infrastructure for technological systems - currently focused on cyber-security
• Fundamental philosophies relating to the sociological phenomena that drive a “technological society”

This Research Priority Area interrogates developments of technology in ship operations (including the evolution of automation and digitalization), education and training (including e-learning), ship safety, information and communication for ship business (e-documentation) and its effect on the social, legislative and administrative dimensions of shipping. The cross-cutting nature of technology and innovation establishes an almost universal link between this RPA and all the other RPAs.

Maritime Economics and Business

• Global economic and business environments for shipping and ports
• Shipping market mechanism
• Financial maritime risk management strategies
• Optimal maritime investment strategies
• Efficient and effective port operations and management
• Shipping and ports as global logistics and supply chain components
• Optimal ship routing and freight pricing with real-time AIS data
• The circular economy from a business perspective

The Research Priority Area of maritime economics, business and management, seeks to identify and address knowledge gaps relating to the optimization of shipping, ports and their sustainable management from economic and logistics/supply chain perspectives.

Maritime Law, Policy and Governance

• Promote the understanding and efficient implementation of maritime legal instruments and attendant administrative mechanisms and related policies
• Design, formulation, implementation and evaluation of law and policy at international, regional, and national levels
• Administrative framework for fulfilling national obligations under international treaties
• Maritime and port security as well as unlawful acts at sea including terrorism, piracy, illegal migration at sea, cyber-security breaches, and illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing
• Implementation mechanisms e.g. under the legal enforcement regimes prescribed by the IMO, ILO and other UN bodies
• Unlawful acts in the form of corruption, i.e. facilitation payment, bribery and the promotion of anti-corruption awareness in the industry, together with the industry, NGOs and other UN bodies
• Application of international law and policy to non-conventional vessels including domestic ferries and fishing vessels
• The circular economy from a policy and legal perspective

Legislative and administrative frameworks govern the actions and obligations of individuals, organizations, and States. These come not only in the form of limits, restrictions, and standards that enhance safety, security, and environmental protection; these also include promotions and incentives that further the viability of the maritime industry, stimulate the national economy, and ensure the attainment of the UNSDGs. These requirements, standards, and incentives inform policy and are in turn, informed by policy. This RPA focuses on interrogating the maritime legislative and administrative requirements and the policies that are associated with them at the international, regional and national levels. Of particular interest is the inquiry into processes related to the design, formulation, and evaluation of law and policy. This includes examining performance monitoring systems using such tools as benchmarking and auditing. Also of particular importance is the research into implementation mechanisms, e.g., under the legal enforcement regimes prescribed by the IMO, ILO and other UN bodies.

Strategic maritime management as a new emerging field in maritime studies

Maritime Business Review

ISSN : 2397-3757

Article publication date: 11 October 2018

Issue publication date: 31 October 2018

This study aims to promote strategic maritime management as a new emerging discipline to foster research in strategic maritime issues.

Design/methodology/approach

An existing academic discipline maturity model is adapted by including four phases of dynamic evolutionary paths to evaluate the phase of maturity of a research discipline. The model is validated by means of two matured disciplines: strategic management and maritime economics.

It is found that the current research of strategic maritime management is at a phase of emergence of discipline and ready to move to the maturity phase. It is also found that the evolution of the path of strategic maritime management resembles the early evolution path of strategic management but lags 30 years behind. Future research directions of strategic maritime management can be referred to the research streams in the maturity phase of strategic management.

Research limitations/implications

The adapted academic discipline maturity model brings in the longitudinal and dynamic perspectives of the evolution of an academic discipline, which helps maritime strategists identify gaps and opportunities and evaluate the appropriateness of applying a strategic management paradigm to a specific research topic.

Originality/value

The adapted academic discipline maturity model brings in the longitudinal and dynamic perspective of the evolution of an academic discipline, which helps maritime strategists define the gaps and opportunities in strategic maritime management research.

• Dynamic capability
• Discipline maturity
• Internal governance structure
• Maritime business strategy
• Networked maritime stakeholder
• Paradigm evolution

Wang, P. and Mileski, J. (2018), "Strategic maritime management as a new emerging field in maritime studies", Maritime Business Review , Vol. 3 No. 3, pp. 290-313. https://doi.org/10.1108/MABR-06-2018-0019

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2018, Pacific Star Group Education Foundation.

1. Introduction

Most research studies in maritime administration have historically been rooted in economics ( Hayuth, 1981 ; Wang, 1998 ; Notteboom and Rodrigue, 2005 ; Woo et al. , 2011 ). One primary research theme for maritime scholars is to adopt the language and logic of economics to investigate economic impacts of the maritime industry ( Woo et al. , 2011 ). There are abundant publications in leading maritime journals that explored how a country’s or region’s maritime infrastructure, including shipping lines, seaports, foreland and hinterland, affects the country or region economic growth or employment ( Benito et al. , 2003 ; Langen, 2002 ; Pallis et al. , 2010 ).

The past two decades have witnessed a significant revolution in the maritime industry, research and writing. The maritime logistics industry has evolved from its traditional role of facilitating loading and discharging operations to the new role of coordinator, facilitator and integrator in port clusters and global (physical goods) supply chains ( Estache and Trujillo, 2009 ; Verhoeven, 2010 ; Parola et al. , 2015 ; Notteboom et al. , 2017 ). Facing fierce competition and low-profit margins, maritime logistics firms are prompted to adopt complex corporate or business strategies aiming at improving profitability and survivability ( Midoro et al. , 2005 ; Lorange, 2009 ; Parola et al. , 2015 ; Yuen et al. , 2016 ). In the meanwhile, maritime scholars have started to “borrow” or “reformulate” tools or theories from management disciplines ( Woo et al. , 2011 ; Panayides and Song, 2013 ). By following the unique set of research objectives, theoretical paradigms and theories and frameworks from each management discipline, maritime scholars attempt to understand the impacts of the intrinsic maritime transport market structure on managerial behaviors ( Woo et al. , 2011 ; Cariou et al. , 2015 ).

Among the management disciplines that have been followed by maritime scholars, two management disciplines stand out. One is business logistics and supply chain management ( Panayides, 2006 ; Panayides and Song, 2013 ; Lam and Bai, 2016 ). Panayides and Song (2013) proposed maritime logistics as an emerging discipline, following the definitions of logistics and supply chain management offered by the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP) and Liles et al. ’s (1995) criterion to define a matured academic discipline[ 1 ]. In their view, the emergence of maritime logistics discipline is due to the internal and external environmental changes. Panayides and Song (2013) subtly defined maritime logistics as a discipline that:

[…] would encompass the management of the physical maritime transport flows, the management of information flows, as well as the management of the interfaces between the various actors in the maritime supply chain from manufacturers to the end consumer,[…], (and) should aim at improving performance,[…], improving quality[…], improving the spectrum of operations and processes and enhancing environmental performance, growth and corporate responsibility. (p. 296)

Another one is strategic management ( Hawkins, 1997 ; Cariou et al. , 2015 ; van der Lugt et al. , 2013 , 2017 ; Hollen et al. , 2013 ; Notteboom et al. , 2017 ; Satta and Persico, 2015 ; Pallis and Parola, 2018 ). For instance, Parola et al. (2015) investigated the impact of corporate strategies on the profitability of maritime firms by applying a generic theoretical framework of “strategy performance” in the context of maritime logistics firms. Satta and Persico (2015) and Pallis and Parola (2018) , through the theoretical lens of international business (IB) and strategic management, explored the market entry strategies for international (container) terminal operators and private cruise terminal operators, respectively. van der Lugt et al. (2014) and Notteboom et al. (2017) investigated the co-evolution strategies and port choices within a maritime network or strategic alliance. Lu (2007) , Progoulaki and Theotokas (2010) , Davarzani et al. (2016) and Yuen et al. (2018) applied the resource-based view (RBV) theory from strategic management to investigate a variety of resource and capability issues in the context of the maritime logistics industry.

The school of maritime scholars favorable to strategic management has produced prolific research findings. Yet, it is still unclear whether the research stream on strategic issues in the maritime logistics industry is ready to be called as an academic discipline or simply an application of existing strategic management theories and constructs in maritime. This study was set out to clarify this concern. We agree with the statement made by Cariou et al. (2015) that:

[…] the uniqueness of this (maritime) industry provides a fruitful empirical groundwork that invites scholars to more advanced research objective. Future outcomes should reach beyond the boundaries of maritime and port research and contribute to fundamental research and theory building in broader academic disciplines such as management and strategy. (p. 2-3)

We extend this line of the statement by proposing strategic maritime management – the field of research on the management of strategic issues in maritime – as an emerging academic discipline.

A community of scholars represents an academic discipline that shares a common identity and language ( Kuhn, 1962 ) and is strongly influenced by the community members’ specialties and norms ( Shapin, 1995 ). Our primary premise is that research in strategic maritime management shares the consensus of strategic management in general but is contingent on the context of the maritime industry. Referring to the definition of the field of strategic management by Nag et al. (2007 , p. 944), we define strategic maritime management as:

The field of strategic maritime management deals with the major intended and emergent initiatives taken by general managers on behalf of both owners and stakeholders, involving utilization of resources, to enhance the performance of maritime organizations in the global maritime environment.

How to determine the research stream of strategic maritime management as an emerging academic discipline?

Where does the discipline of strategic maritime management come from and where will it go?

One approach to determine the maturity of a research stream is to use a static set of evaluation criteria, as what has been done in Panayides and Song (2013) . However, this static approach cannot capture the dynamic longitudinal information concerning where the research comes from and where it will go. We thus take a different approach and develop an academic discipline maturity model (ADMM) that incorporates both the static and dynamic stances.

The dynamic stance of ADMM can be traced to Kuhn’s (1962) seminal book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions , one of the 100 most influential books published after the Second World War selected by TLS ( The Times Literary Supplement ). The philosophy of Kuhn’s paradigm revolution has been well applied in evaluating the levels of maturity of management disciplines emerged after the 1970s, such as the management information system (MIS) ( Culnan, 1986 ), strategic management ( Teece et al. , 1997 ; Nag et al. , 2007 ), logistics ( Stentoft Arlbjørn and Halldorsson, 2002 ) and service marketing ( Anderson, 1983 ; Lovelock and Gummesson, 2004 ). We adapt the static set of criteria from Barney’s comments on the maturity of the strategic management discipline ( Barney, 2002 ), which includes the research objective, unit of analysis, (prescriptive) theoretical paradigm and (predictive) theoretical frameworks. Barney’s four criteria are more “quantifiable” than the criteria developed by Liles et al. (1995) and the “active research agenda” criterion used by Panayides and Song (2013) . We use the four criteria to describe the four phases of the evolution path to be discussed below.

We validate the maturity model with the evolution paths of both strategic management ( Barney, 2002 ; Teece et al. , 1997 ; Teece, 2007 ) and maritime economics ( Heaver , 1995, 2006 ; Woo et al. , 2011 ). A phase-by-phase comparison justifies the model’s validity. We apply this model to verify if each phase of strategic maritime management satisfies the model requirement and if its path shares the commonalities that both strategic management and maritime economics mutually have. Path-pattern comparison helps us gain a deeper understanding of where the strategic maritime management comes from and where it will go. We find that the strategic maritime management satisfies the criteria to be a mature discipline, and its evolution path matches with the paths that both strategic management and maritime economics had experienced.

The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we discuss the development of the maturity model for academic discipline. Then, we validate this model with our review of the evolution paths of strategic management and maritime economics in Section 3. We use this model as the organizing theme to review the literature of research in maritime strategic management in Section 4. Finally, we discuss the results of the comparison between strategic maritime management and the two matured disciplines in Section 5 and make suggestions for future research directions in Section 6.

2. Method: the maturity model approach

This study is basically a qualitative evaluation research ( Patton, 1990 ) in which the development, validation and application of an evaluation scheme are the critical steps. The maturity model approach is deemed appropriate to analyze the current stage of the research in strategic management issues in the context of maritime. A maturity model is a conceptual multistage model that describes typical path-patterns in the development of capabilities in a specific social–economic context ( Benbasat et al. , 1980 ; de Bruin and Rosemann, 2005 ). It usually depicts a sequence of stages that together form an anticipated, desired or logical path from an initial to a target maturity state, either for individual entities or regarding a complete set of institutional capabilities ( Poeppelbuss et al. , 2011 ). Scholars have applied the maturity model approach to many academic areas or disciplines such as Total Quality Management (TQM), project management, MIS (MIS), business process management (BPM) and knowledge management. In each discipline, scholars evaluate either a specific management framework or the entire knowledge advancement with a customized maturity model. In this section, we will briefly review the literature, discussing the stage of maturity concerning the accumulated knowledge base for a particular discipline.

2.1 Perspectives on academic maturity

There are two perspectives on determining whether an active research area is mature enough to be an academic discipline: the static view and the dynamic view. The static view examines the characteristics of the “snapshot” of a research area status quo , while the dynamic perspective takes the longitudinal view by looking at the historical evolvement of a research area. Liles et al. ’s (1995) approach represents the static perspective. When they argued Enterprise Engineering as an academic discipline, they referred to six characteristics including the “focus of study “worldview,” “reference disciplines,” “principles and practices,” “active research agenda” and “education and professionalism” (for a detailed discussion, see Liles et al. , 1995 , p. 5). Panayides and Song (2013) chose one criterion, an active research agenda , to define the maturity level of maritime logistics as an (emerging) academic discipline. They operationalized the criterion of active research agenda with three indicators: the research topic stands the test of time, the research topic is complex and substantial enough to be subdivided into different research directions and multiple fundamental questions/approaches are raised and formulated to guide research in the area (p. 303). Barney (2002) used the “focus of study” to describe the maturity of the discipline of strategic management. He operationalized the criterion of focus of study with four indicators: objectives, unit of analysis, theoretical paradigm and representative theoretical framework. Each of the four criteria will be discussed thoroughly in the next section. Barney’s perspective of defining the emergent of strategic management reflects the school of arguments that an emerging academic discipline is a self-sustained research paradigm ( Furrer et al. , 2008 ). Such a paradigm is ready to shift from descriptive research to prescriptive research ( Doz and Prahalad, 1991 ).

The dynamic view identifies critical phases that the research area has historically experienced. In the domain of management, many studies with the longitudinal perspective reveal four distinct phases that a research area has to go through and becomes an emerging and then a mature academic discipline. The four phases are the early creative thoughts , convergence of objectives , descriptive and prescriptive . In the “early creative thoughts” phase, research topics are scattered around with little consensus about research objectives. The “convergence of objectives” phase characterizes a period in which the diversified objectives of many studies start to converge to a single one. In the “descriptive” phase, researchers either empirically describe management practices or conceptually develop management frameworks from the lens of an established discipline (e.g. early management and social research use economics as the theoretical lens). This stage signals the emergent of an academic discipline. The “prescriptive” phase represents the period that many researchers start to utilize multidisciplinary angles to generalize findings that come to develop a research paradigm with a commonly accepted theoretical framework. This phase marks the maturity of an academic discipline. We will discuss these four phases with examples in the following literature review section.

The static criteria can be viewed as the “gatekeepers” between phases. These criteria represent the accumulated outcomes (or knowledge) along the evolution of a research stream. Liles et al. ’s (1995) six characteristics of an emerging discipline are the outcomes of the historical evolvement of a research area (enterprise engineering). Panayides and Song’s (2013) criterion, “stands for a long time”, emphasizes the historical advances of an emerging research discipline. Barney’s (2002) four criteria on the emergent and maturity of strategic management operationalize the indicators for stages. These criteria provide a set of measurable indicators to evaluate the status of a research area. The dynamic perspective helps make an analogy between matured disciplines and an emerging one. By comparing the theoretical advances across evolutionary phases of a matured discipline, researchers can make predictions of the future for the emerging discipline. Also, the operationalized indicators of the criteria to define an emerging discipline help researchers to concentrate their efforts on the key areas to evaluate. To take advantages from both perspectives, we develop an organizing scheme of literature to discuss the emergent of strategic maritime management as an academic discipline.

2.2 Academic discipline maturity model

Based on the previous discussion, we proposed an academic discipline maturity model (ADMM) from the dynamic perspective. The model is composed of two dimensions. One dimension uses Barney’s four criteria to define the maturity of an academic discipline in the case of strategic management and another dimension depicts the four phases of the dynamic evolvement of the academic discipline, as shown in Figure 1 . The non-dotted cells define the scope of our selected literature. The dotted cells, on the other hand, represent literature that falls outside the scope of this study.

Specifically, we searched literature in two steps. First, we searched the literature on strategic management and maritime economics from leading academic journals in each field and extended to all journals where such papers were published ( Woo et al. , 2011 ). The leading journals for strategic management include the Strategic Management Journal , Academy of Management Journal , Academy of Management Review and Administrative Science Quarterly ( Nag et al. , 2007 ), and that for maritime economics are Maritime Policy and Management and Maritime Economics and Logistics ( Woo et al. , 2011 ). We used keywords such as “maritime”, “economics”, “strategy”, “policy”, “management”, “administration”, “history”, “longitudinal”, “evolution”, “competitiveness” and “productivity.” The keywords “seaport”, “shipping”, “hinterland and “water transport” were later used to substitute the keyword “maritime” to find more papers on the subjects of interest. We also searched the internet and digital databases such as Google Scholar, Business Source Premier and ABI/Inform Complete (Business) with these keywords being contained in titles or abstracts.

Second, we differentiated papers on strategic maritime management from maritime economics based on five research contents identified by Nag et al. (2007) [ 2 ] in their survey of the consensual definition of the field of strategic management. The five content areas that are implicitly agreed upon by many strategic management scholars include “strategic initiatives”, “top management”, “resources and capabilities”, “performance and competitiveness” and “firm and organization” ( Nag et al. , 2007 , pp. 942-943). These five research contents reflect the fundamental differences between strategic management and economics ( Nag et al. , 2007 ). Readers who are interested in the arguments about the differences between strategic management and economics are referred to Barney (1990 , 2002 ), Rumelt et al. (1991) and Nag et al. (2007) .

Because there is no academic journal dedicated to strategic maritime management, we looked at both maritime and logistics/transportation journals (e.g. International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications , Transportation Research: Parts A-E ). We also traced the publications of some maritime scholars who are active in the research of strategic issues in maritime (e.g. Mary Brooks, Trevor Heaver, Theo Notteboom, Photis Panayides, Dong-Wook Song, Roy van den Berg, Larrisa van der Lugt, Francesco Parola and Kum Fai Yuen). While our review of the literature is not exhaustive, these sampled publications are representative of the phases in ADMM to be discussed in Sections 3 and 4.

3. Model validation

In this section, we validate the ADMM with strategic management and maritime economics, the two disciplines highly relevant to the strategic maritime management, and propose it to be an emerging discipline. We overviewe the literature along the evolution paths of both disciplines and positioned relevant seminal work in each phase in the ADMM.

3.1 Evolution of strategic management

The discipline of strategic management has evolved through all four phases. Phase 1 is represented by papers published during the Second World War and 1950s. During this period, many scholars brought up their creative thoughts regarding how to develop and implement policies to cope with business challenges faced by managers at that time. Scholars and managers used the term policy , but later replaced it with the term strategy . In this phase, scholars developed concepts of strategy ( von Neumann and Morgenstern, 1947 ; Drucker, 1954 ), but their strategic objectives varied regarding the need for the abilities to anticipate change, to take advantage of new opportunities and to take timely actions to avoid threats to firms ( Bracker, 1980 ). The differences among their objectives reflect their different needs for the breadth of strategy, the component of the strategy and the process of strategy formation. The unit of analysis used during Phase 1 spans from industry to individual. Most studies were narrative and descriptive based on the observations of individual industries or firms. There was no effort to explain management endeavors from any theoretical lens.

Phase 2 happened in the 1960s, as exemplified by the following three works: Strategy and Structure ( Chandler, 1962 ), Corporate Strategy ( Ansoff, 1965 ) and Business Policy: Text and Cases ( Learned et al. , 1965 , the textbook of Harvard Business School). The latter was rewritten in another book, The Concept of Corporate Strategy (Andrews 1971, c.f. Bracker, 1980 ). Diversified objectives that emerged in Phase 1 converged into specific objectives such as: how a company handles a management problem and what the best practice is to handle a problem in the industry. Scholars developed a research stream on strategic choice, meaning that management deterministically picked up a strategy that they thought it would be the best. The unit of analysis is either corporate or industry. Findings mainly come from in-depth case studies of single firms or industries, and the results of these studies are hardly generalizable ( Hoskisson et al. , 1999 ). By the end of Phase 2, researchers started to shift from a deterministic one-best-way approach to a contingent perspective where organizations need to adapt to their external environments, as discussed below for Phase 3.

Phase 3 represents the period in the 1970s, in which the majority of studies emphasized the issues of generalizability of case study-based theories with common or similar objectives. One of the research objectives – the relationship between the external environment and the industry where a firm should operate – stood out as the primary research objective for most scholars in the area of strategic management ( Barney and Hansen, 1994 ). Two different research streams based on very different ontological and epistemological perspectives emerged and developed during this phase. One stream pursued a “process” approach, which consisted essentially of descriptive studies on how strategies were formed and implemented. This research stream resembled a theoretical paradigm of behavioral theory and contributed to more realistic conceptions of the strategy-formation and or strategy-implementation process by observations of actual organizational decision-making and action-taking ( Quinn, 1980 ; Mintzberg and Waters, 1985 ). At the same time, another stream pursued a “strategy-performance” approach. Strategic scholars later acknowledged this approach as the (industry) structure–conduct–performance (S-C-P) theoretical paradigm that had been dominant in the literature of industrial organization (IO) economics ( Porter, 1980 ; Barney, 2002 ). The objectives of this stream extended to incorporate the stakeholders’ perspective, in addition to the equity-holders’ perspective dominant in previous phases. There were some other creative thoughts developed in Phase 3, but they did not evolve as independent research streams. For instance, the contingency theory ( Hofer, 1975 ) had gained significant development during this period, but it did not grow into a prolific research stream ( Van de Ven et al. , 2013 ).

Phase 4 represents studies conducted in the 1980s. In this phase, strategy research developed into two different directions. One direction kept the focus on industry (i.e. industry structure) as a unit of analysis, represented by Porter”s (1980) book Competitive Strategy . The primary objective of this research direction is to determine how a firm can position itself in the industry to gain competitive advantages ( Barney, 2002 ). The primary theoretical paradigm that supports this stream of research is still IO economics. This research stream later became the “competitive-advantage” theoretical paradigm. The other direction used firm as the unit of analysis, and drawn theoretical paradigm(s) from economics or organizational theory, or both ( Barney, 1991 ). This stream later evolved to the “resource based view (RBV)” theoretical paradigm. The main objective of this stream of research is to determine how a firm can develop and deploy resources to gain competitiveness. Three sub-streams with the RBV perspective were emerged later, each emphasizing one of the three different aspects of a firm, namely internal structure, resources and capabilities.

3.2 Evolution of maritime economics

In this section, we follow the discussion by Heaver (2006) , “the evolution of the study of shipping and ports reflects the history of the maritime industry (p. 11).” We will limit our literature review on the international shipping and seaport industries.

Phase 1 represents maritime studies published between the 1950s and 1960s, which is a gestation period of maritime economics ( Metaxas, 1983 ). After the Second World War, three publications laid down the foundation on maritime studies, including Shipping Economics (Svendson 1950s, cited from Heaver, 2006 ); Essays on Maritime Economics (Gross, 1968, c.f. Metaxas, 1983 ); and Supply and Demand of Water Transport (Thorburn, 1960, c.f. Metaxas, 1983 ). In these two decades, research objectives and topics were dispersed, covering issues such as economics, politics, sociology, management, strategy and operations ( Metaxas, 1983 ). Research methods also varied. Some studies applied tools of economic analysis to the maritime sector ( Robbins, 1975 ), while others tried to optimally allocate scarce resources within the maritime sector and between the maritime sector and other sectors (e.g. total cost minimization, Thorburn, 1960).

Regarding to the unit of analysis, most studies used the ocean shipping industry (Svendsen 1950s), whereas a few studies used the relationship between shipping and seaports (Thorburn, 1960). Meanwhile, Svendsen’s objective was the relationships between various inputs/outputs for shipping and the throughput for ports. On the contrary, Thorburn’s objective was the relationship between the supply and demand for water transport by viewing ocean shipping and ports as an integral (maritime) industry. While these publications chose different research methodologies and took different objectives, their theoretical paradigm was economics, specifically transportation economics ( Metaxas, 1983 ). Thorburn’s argument on the relationship between cost (i.e. port investment) and benefit (e.g. to better serve the shipping industry) was later acknowledged as the first theoretical framework of maritime studies ( Goss, 1967 ). The cost–benefit argument led to research objectives on strategic issues such as whether to invest, how to invest, when to invest and where to invest ( Goss, 1967 ).

Phase 2 represents the studies published in the 1970s. Influenced by the container revolution in the 1960s, many studies in the 1970s focused on cargo containerization and shipping, and the impacts on ports (re)construction for new container ships (Authur D. Little Ltd., 1970; Heaver, 2006 ). The unit of analysis remained at the industry level but at the level of sub-sectors (bulk shipping, container shipping, general cargo port, and specialized port, etc.) There were three sub-streams with different research objectives. One sub-stream focused on the relationship between the external environment and maritime structure, bringing more perspectives from IO economics ( Goss, 2002 ). Scholars in this stream had the objectives of choosing a strategy to gain the best cost–benefit tradeoff ( Metaxas, 1983 ). The second sub-stream continued to focus on the relationship between the costs of shipping and their impacts on port investment. The primary research objectives were the choice of ship (i.e. between bulk and containerized), the likely evolution of ship itineraries (i.e. the change of ship routing due to containerization) and aspects of container terminal operations (i.e. the changes on the port layout, equipment to be used and interfaces with carriers) ( Gilman et al. , 1977 ). The third sub-stream focused on the effect of geographical locations of ports on the global logistics service network ( Bird, 1971 ). The objective of this school of research was to understand how changes in both shipping and freight handling in shipping and seaport would change the competitive dynamics of trade volume within the network of hinterlands and ports ( Bird, 1971 ). The theoretical paradigm was transportation economics.

Phase 3 is the 1980s and 1990s, representing the emergence of the discipline of maritime economics. In this phase, researchers started to apply a variety of theories derived from transportation economics or IO economics to explain specific management phenomenon in the maritime sector. The primary objectives further converged to the policy and management for port and international shipping ( Heaver, 1995 ). They focused on defining what maritime economics (e.g. the arbitrary nature of port economics) is and how to develop it (e.g. the important role of institutions and individuals in the development of port economics). In this phase, the unit of analysis and research objectives was affected by the research methodologies (descriptive vs prescriptive) and the dynamics of the external environment (e.g. the maritime market worldwide) and internal environment (e.g. the reforms of organizational structures of shipping and ports). Later on, researchers’ objectives were shifted to develop “new, relevant, and correct hypotheses concerning the exogenous and endogenous factors which regulate the functioning of the main maritime markets and the world shipping industry.” ( Metaxas, 1983 , p. 147) More studies tended to use an individual maritime organization or a specific relationship as the unit of analysis and both descriptive and prescriptive research methodologies were used in this phase. For instance, Jansson and Shneerson (1982) described the functions of seaport as the results of evolutions of a variety of port activities, and prescriptively applied production theory on port services and queuing theory on the cost of congestion.

In Phase 4 (during the 2000s and 2010s), research on maritime economics became mature. Its maturity is characterized by both the concentrations of research on a few unique sets of objectives and the research efforts in developing context-dependent theories that are originated to maritime (e.g. how PAs’ multiple faces affect their roles of management). Both industry leaders and scholars realized that they need to develop new skills and knowledge with multidisciplinary perspectives to deeply appreciate societal needs, understand the true base of company productivity and collaborate across profit and non-profit boundaries ( van der Lugt et al. , 2013 ). In this phase, the unit of analysis used in most of the maritime studies has completely shifted to the level of individual organization or individual interface. Research objectives were concentrated more on efficiency and competitiveness, which are mostly influenced by the angles of theoretical paradigms that researchers take. More maritime research adopted a multidisciplinary research approach since 2000 ( Woo et al. , 2011 ).

Literature shows multidisciplinary impacts on maritime studies ( Midoro et al. , 2005 ; Martin and Thomas, 2001 ; Panayides, 2006 ) because maritime scholars have referred to concepts and theoretical constructs from matured management areas such as strategic management, organization studies and logistics and supply chain management ( Panayides and Song, 2013 ). Also, researchers who follow a specific discipline channel their studies to a direction different from researchers following other disciplines. For instance, port reforms make maritime organizations more “business-like.” Consequently, maritime scholars reexamined the “governance-performance” relationship from the perspective of strategic management ( Brooks and Pallis, 2008 ), reevaluated the networked organizational structure in line with organizational studies ( Rodrigue and Notteboom, 2009 ) and redefined the logistical relationship roles of the port from the lens of logistics and supply chain management ( Song and Panayides, 2008 ). While these researchers’ research objectives were all motivated by the same environmental change and their units of analysis were all focused on individual organizations or processes, they are different from each other in terms of the underlying theoretical paradigms and proposed theoretical frameworks.

As maritime economics gets mature, three research areas are emerging as discernible research streams, including maritime logistics (as proposed by Panayides and Song, 2013 ), strategic maritime management (as proposed by this study) and operations management in the maritime industry (a potential future research topic). The first research stream of maritime logistics has evolved faster than the other two streams, partially due to the nature of the maritime (transportation) industry. The maritime industry offers a rich research environment in which many strategic logistics issues can be better explored through the lens of strategic logistics management, a matured academic discipline. The second research stream represents studies in the recognition and exploration of the strategic issues in maritime studies ( Woo et al. , 2011 ; van der Lugt et al. , 2013 , 2017 ). Many issues are relevant to management, such as business models (e-market), strategic positioning, competitive advantages, co-opetition strategies, agility (flexibility), leanness, service quality and social responsibility ( Woo et al. , 2011 ). The third research stream consists of the studies of strategic or tactical issues of operations management in maritime. In general, operations management concerns “decisions and plans involving the developing, positioning and aligning managerial policies and needed resources so that they are consistent with the overall business strategy” ( Boyer et al. , 2005 ), and tactical planning or operational control ( Anthony, 1965 ). Some maritime studies have their primary objectives falling within the scope of operations management we just mentioned. As the maritime studies in operations management are beyond our research scope, we leave the review and discussion of the research on maritime operations management to others.

In summary, our proposed ADMM is valid regarding its content, criterion and construct validities. The way we classify an evolution path into four evolution stages present four mutually exclusive stages. The criteria used to determine the level of maturity represent different aspects of a research stream. While both the evolvement phase dimension (a construct of the ADMM) and the maturity criteria dimension are arguably correlated, the combination of both provides a vivid picture of the origin of a research stream, the path it evolves and the future it will go.

4. Evaluating the maturity of strategic maritime management with ADMM

Phase 1. Phase 1 of maritime strategic management represents publications of the management of strategic issues in the maritime industry in the 1980s. In 1982, the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) was renamed as the International Maritime Organization (IMO). This event was the result of the changes in the maritime environment, such as international maritime traffic, load lines and the carriage of dangerous and shifting maritime attention from governmental collaboration to IB. The post-war growth of international trade had made it clear that the port industry had become the bottleneck of international trade and the ship/port interface posted a significant challenge for the entire maritime industry.

Maritime scholars’ response to the market dynamics was to study how to balance the demand with supply in the maritime industry. They chose policy and strategy as their key research objectives. Most studies used industry as the unit of analysis. For instance, some researchers applied IO economics theories such as the productivity function to analyze the structure of the port ( Kim and Sachish, 1986 ). Kim and Sachish’s objectives were to understand the impact of an individual port’s pricing on both the port-choice decision by a shipping line and the investment decision by the port authority, a research topic raised by Bennathan and Walters (1979) . The majority of maritime research studies in this stream chose the unit of analysis at the industrial level. Although in this period the strategic management discipline had evolved into Phase 3 as an emerging discipline, maritime scholars did not choose their research objectives as competitiveness (the research objectives of strategic management in Phases 3 and 4). As noted by Goss (1979) , in the late 1970s, most principle seaports worldwide were government entities. Therefore, maritime scholars preferred to analyze most strategic and administrative issues at the macro level, through the lens of shipping or port economics. A variety of creative thoughts were delivered in this phase, such as the port structure ( Goss, 1979 ), separation of ownership and executive team ( Suykens, 1985 ) and efficiency and productivity ( Kim and Sachish, 1986 ). However, in line with the shipping literature on strategy, Harvey (1987 , c.f. Hawkins, 1997 ) found only two papers citing shipping strategies and practices. Moreover, we found only one paper that emphasized the use of firm as the unit of analysis in exploring key strategic issues in strategic planning and the planning process (Frankel 1989).

Phase 2 . Publications of strategic research on maritime issues in the 1990s can better represent Phase 2 of strategic maritime management. Globalization triggered unprecedented capacity expansions by major shipping lines, resulting in a trend of mergers and acquisitions and fierce price competition on the shipping market ( Brooks and Ritchie, 2006 ). Port reforms had changed the way port authorities used to run their port business ( Goss, 1990 ; Baird, 1995 ). Topics related to competitive advantages had converged as the key research objectives in this strategic research stream ( Haezendonck et al. , 2000 ; Panayides and Gray, 1999 ). Such convergence can be explained as the impact of the matured strategic management on maritime scholars’ thinking (Sletmo and Holste 1993; Fleming and Baird, 1999 ).

In this phase, description is the primary research methodology. For instance, Goss (1990) described five frontiers of completion in the port industry worldwide and proposed a typology consisting of four maritime strategies. He suggested port authorities should make the “right choice” of strategy in response to industrial competitiveness. Brooks et al. applied descriptive research methodology to analyze the associations between (maritime) environment and (maritime) strategy and the association between strategy and performance ( Brooks, 1998 ; Brooks and Button, 1996 ). Other maritime strategists descriptively explored the process of how strategy is formed and executed in the maritime setting ( Coeck et al. , 1997 ). The common usage of descriptive research methodologies marked those studies as the representatives of Phase 2. The unit of analysis started to shift from the industry level to a mix of industry and organization.

It is worth mentioning that Jeffery Edward Hawkins (1997) is one of the first maritime scholars who systematically reviewed the field of strategic management and its applications in the different industries. In his dissertation, A Strategic Choice Model for Asia-Pacific Shipping , he mentioned that while there were calls for more strategic research into ports and shipping ( Holste, 1993 ), the writing on maritime strategy research had been “fragmented and dispersed, with no coherent base, which severely limits widespread use (of the approach of strategic management ( Hawkins, 1997 , p. 63).” Based on his holistic review of the two prevailing theoretical paradigms in strategy management in that time – content and process[ 3 ] – Hawkins recommended three directions for future research in maritime strategy research: the content of strategy, the link between content and process and a more eclectic, interdisciplinary approach for theory building and research (p. 88).

Phase 3. Phase 3 of strategic maritime management started in the 2000s. In this phase, the critical research objectives in this stream of research remained to be competitiveness, but most maritime scholars chose a strategic theoretical paradigm to buttress their arguments. Two theoretical paradigms emerged as the primary theoretical lens that most maritime strategists used, the S-C-P paradigm and the RBV paradigm. Each strategic theoretical paradigm leads to an independent research stream. The S-C-P stream viewed the maritime (sub) industry as the unit of analysis and emphasized external impacts and resources. This stream followed Goss’s (1990) reasoning on competition and introduced new frontiers of competition to maritime administration, such as the competition between shipping lines and stevedoring companies ( Midoro et al. , 2005 ), competitions between port authorities and terminal operators ( Song, 2003 ) and competition between shipping lines and ports ( Heaver et al. , 2000 ).

The RBV stream of strategic maritime management, on the contrary, used an individual firm or organization as the unit of analysis, and it focused more on the perspective of internal structure or resources , which followed the “strategy-structure-performance” theoretical paradigm ( Brooks and Pallis, 2008 ; Jenssen, 2003 ; Lu, 2007 ; Yang et al. , 2009a ). In this phase, maritime scholars identified and acknowledged new sources of competence in maritime along key managerial functions ( Lu, 2007 ) or organizational processes. For instance, human resource management has been recognized as a key capability for the maritime industry for success and to survive ( Lu, 2007 ; Theotokas and Progoulaki, 2007 ). Innovation and knowledge management are the critical organizational routines, treated as internal resources, to develop competitive capabilities ( Yang et al. , 2009b ).

Most studies in both research streams still descriptively explained the strategic maritime management phenomenon, but some scholars started to develop predictive theories in the context of the maritime setting. For instance, Jenssen (2003) and Jenssen and Rand⊘y (2006) tested the generic theory on the link between innovation and firm performance in the context of Norway shipping industry. They found that the core capabilities are human skill, networking and strategic assets. Human skill and networking can be viewed as a maritime organization’s internal and external capabilities, respectively. They concluded that both internal and external capabilities must be played together with strategic assets to create “a competitive profile” and an innovation-friendly culture and structure seem to be a necessity to “develop and maintain distinctive capabilities and strategic assets (p. 101)”.

Phase 4. Phase 4 represents the status of strategic maritime management in the 2010s. The research objectives remain to be competitiveness but shift to individual competitive priorities. The governance (i.e. internal structure) theoretical paradigm continues to be used as a theoretical paradigm, but some studies choose the “resource and capabilities” theoretical paradigm to develop new theories and frameworks ( Brooks and Pallis, 2012 ; Song and Parola, 2015 ). On the one hand, new theoretical constructs are introduced to classical theoretical frameworks to verify or prescribe managerial behaviors in the maritime context. For instance, Yang (2012) proposed the moderating effect of the innovation capability on the link between logistics capability and firm performance for ocean freight forwarders.

On the other hand, existing constructs are modified with the inclusion of maritime-specific contents. Axarloglou et al. (2013) , for instance, added the time dimension to the construct of flexibility and explored the interplay between time-varying flexibility and resource allocation. Mason and Nair (2013) extended the generic flexibility construct by developing a typology specific to a carrier’s internal supply-side flexibility, including speed flexibility, capacity flexibility, communication flexibility and ownership flexibility. Other competitive dimensions such as safety, reliability and security ( Yang et al. , 2013 ; Talley, 2013 ), as well as corporate social responsibility, sustainability and resilience ( Yuen et al. , 2017 ; Justice et al. , 2016 ), are evolving rapidly in Phase 4 as new research streams of maritime management capabilities.

As the outcomes of maritime strategists’ scientific endeavours, a few context-specific theoretical frameworks emerge, including maritime cluster evolution theory ( Zhang and Lam, 2013 ), hub-spike (hinterland) institutional network theory ( van den Berg and De Langen, 2011 ; Lam, 2016 ), conflict theory in seaports ( Parola and Maugeri, 2013 ) and networked stakeholder theory ( Notteboom et al. , 2015 ). These new theoretical propositions are developed surrounding the intrinsic maritime market structure which is unique to the maritime context. We argue that the (mid-range) theories have the potentials to continue to evolve as the general theories to contribute to the stream of internal organizational relationship (IOR) in the field of strategic management.

It is worth noting that two emerging areas might become future research streams. One is the process-oriented strategic maritime management research ( Robinson, 2015 ; Borch and Batalden, 2015 ). A typical business process has three elements – input, process and output. The process-oriented research helps remedy the impact of complexity on a maritime service environment. For instance, Dinwoodie et al. (2012) recognized strategic, tactical and operational processes in their study of the sustainable development of maritime operations in ports. Notteboom et al. (2017) extended the “port of choice” research stream from the process perspective by exploring how changes of organizational routines (i.e. alliance formation and vertical integration) will affect the port of choice in intercontinental shipping networks.

Another area is the interface between maritime corporate (business) strategy and operations (functional) strategy ( Schwarze and Voß, 2015 ; Wang et al. , 2017 ; Ng et al. , 2018 ). There has been a growing interest in theorizing the interface between corporate strategies and operations strategies in the 2000s and 2010s ( Song and Parola, 2015 ). Coopetition, a new competition frontier in the port and shipping industries, represents well the simultaneous pursuit of competition at the strategic level and collaborate at the operational level ( Song et al. , 2015 ). The intertwined corporate and operations strategies provide new challenges and opportunities to researchers and practitioners to redesign their organizational and operations processes to align with corporate strategies ( Dinwoodie et al. , 2012 ; Wang et al. , 2017 ). Research on developing innovation and knowledge management capabilities across maritime supply chains also represents the scientific endeavor in understanding the interface between organizational routines (e.g. the strategy formation and implementation) and operations processes (e.g. the execution of operations strategy).

In summary, by the evaluation results, we conclude that strategic maritime management has evolved as an academic discipline. Literature reveals that extant research in strategic maritime management meets the criteria to be an emerging academic discipline. Maritime strategists root their research to the strategic theoretical paradigms and develop new theories and frameworks contingent on the maritime context, making strategic maritime management to be more mature.

5. Findings and discussions

Figure 2 summarizes the evolution paths for the three academic disciplines, strategic management, maritime economics and maritime strategic management. Each phase is denoted as an “S” curve, simply to reflect an accumulated learning experience of a given academic community in a phase. The S-curve is derived on the basis of the arguments on scientific revolution ( Kuhn, 1962 ) and can be viewed as the product of the number of “primary” or “hot” research topics and the number of publications per topic in a given time. The low end of an S-curve indicates a small number of emerging hot issues with fewer publications on each issue. The middle section of an S-curve indicates that a few research topics become the main research streams and the number of publications per each stream becomes proliferated (in a given time unit). The high end of an S-curve means that researchers’ interest in a research stream is diminishing so that the productivity on the research stream is slowing down. The interaction between two adjacent curves indicates that the discipline is transitioning from a lower phase to a higher one. Phase 4 of strategic maritime management is depicted as a dotted curve, indicating that this discipline is still evolving at this stage.

There are three commonalities among their evolutionary paths. First, the (internal or external) environment dynamics drive a discipline to update phases. New business realities always challenge scholars to look at new ways to explain and predict management behaviors. Second, all three disciplines start to change their dominant theoretical paradigms during Phase 3. Literature indicates that the new paradigm adapted during Phase 3 is more effective to nurture new research directions. These new directions have high potentials to become new outstanding research streams. Third, it takes about 20 years or so for a research topic to become an outstanding research stream or a prominent theoretical paradigm. For instance, it takes about 20 years for the topic of competition to be the competitive advantage theory ( Porter, 1980 ), resource to be the resource-based theory ( Barney, 1991 ), capability to be the dynamic capability theory ( Teece et al. , 1997 ), cost-benefit (Thorburn 1960) to be the (maritime) productivity theory (Jansson and Shneerson 1987), regional port network ( Van Klink, 1998 ) to be the maritime cluster evolution theory ( Zhang and Lam, 2013 ) and multiple stakeholders in ports to be the networked stakeholder theory ( Notteboom et al. , 2015 ). Such a long cycle reflects the notion that an active research agenda stands for time.

From Figure 2 we have three interesting observations. First, strategic maritime management resembles the evolution path of strategic management in both shape and slope but lags 30 years behind. Maritime scholars’ research methodologies mirror the paradigm shift in strategic management. For instance, Brooks et al. ’s early studies on port governance structure took the IO paradigm, but in their later publications, they switched to the internal structure paradigm (a branch of RBV). The paradigm switch indicates that the latest knowledge advancement in strategic management has a positive influence on maritime strategists.

Second, the first three phases of strategic maritime management show hyper-similarities with that of strategic management. In other words, strategic management has predominantly influenced the trajectory of the evolvement of strategic maritime management. Phase 4 of strategic maritime management shows the tendency of adopting prominent theoretical paradigms or adapting the theoretical frameworks from strategic management. It is expected to see more prescriptive theoretical research to be done in Phase 4. However, we are also expecting the adaptation rate to slow down, similar to the stagnated evolvement rate of maritime economics in its fourth stage.

Third, most of the high-impact publications in strategic maritime management are conducted and led by a limited number of seasoned maritime strategists. The small body of maritime strategists may hinder the adoption speed of the latest theoretical advances carried out by strategic scholars and restrict the potentials of generating new prescriptive management theories to the maritime research community and the entire strategic management community. It is the time for maritime scholars to consider how to develop the strategic maritime research community. High educational institutions should take the lead to develop doctoral programs with the concentration on strategic maritime management. A new generation of maritime strategists is crucial to the future of strategic maritime management.

There are two potential areas for future research. One is to continue the internal ( governance ) structure research stream with more emphasis on the network perspective. A few theoretical frameworks have been developed to prescribe the governance structure at different levels of maritime networks and their relationships with external stakeholders ( Mclaughlin and Fearon, 2013 ). The network of maritime stakeholder is multi-tiered. It spans from a territorial seaport (e.g. the Port of Houston) and a regional cluster to an extended network consisting of both a focal seaport and its hinterland network (e.g. the Port of Rotterdam). The network can also be a group of extended hub-hinterland networks that run by the same port operator (e.g. DP World) and shipping line (e.g. Maersk). The tiered network structure in maritime is unique, offering abundant opportunities for maritime strategists to conduct theoretical research.

Another future research direction is how to develop strategic capabilities for (networked) maritime organizations to support long-term competitiveness ( Yang, 2010 ; Yuen et al. , 2016 ). A few maritime scholars have made remarkable efforts to investigate a variety of strategic capabilities. These strategic capabilities include innovation ( Jenssen, 2003 ; Yang et al. , 2009a , 2009b ; Yang, 2012 ), flexibilities ( Mason and Nair, 2013 ; Mileski and Honeycutt, 2013 ), process management ( Borch and Batalden, 2015 ), quality ( Thai, 2008 ; Yuen and Thai, 2015 ; Pantouvakis and Psomas, 2016 ), knowledge management ( Lee and Song, 2010 ; Lambrou, 2016 ) and integration ( Panayides and Song, 2009 ; Lam and Zhang, 2014 ). These studies highlight the potentials that the capability research stream can have to advance strategic maritime studies. It is undoubtedly that the long-term strategic competitiveness and sustainability of a maritime ecosystem depends on how well it develops and deploys its resources and how fast and appropriate it can respond to the market dynamics with insurmountable strategic capabilities.

6. Conclusion

In this study, we propose that the research stream in strategic maritime management has matured to be an emerging academic discipline. The maritime industry has become more “business-like”, and the industry is expecting maritime-specific strategic theories and frameworks. However, our academic community is not ready to provide a reality-based yet theoretically robust curriculum to meet the industry’s demand. This study aims to make the first effort to promote strategic maritime management as an emerging discipline to foster research in strategic maritime issues.

To evaluate the level of maturity of the research in strategic maritime issues, we developed an academic discipline maturity model. This model encompasses two dimensions. One is a set of maturity criteria, and the other consists of four evolution phases. Both dimensions are theoretically grounded in the literature. The four distinct phases describe the evolution path that an academic discipline will experience to become mature: creative thoughts, convergence of thoughts, emergence of discipline and maturity of discipline. The set of maturity criteria includes the (scope of) research objectives, unit of analysis, theoretical paradigms and theoretical frameworks. We first validated the model with the evolution paths of strategic management and maritime economics. Then we applied the model to evaluate the maturity level of the research in strategic maritime issues. Literature shows that strategic maritime management is qualified to be an emerging discipline, and it is still evolving in its maturity phase.

Research in strategic maritime management reflects how maritime scholars respond to the external forces of globalization and technological advancements, and internal changes of port reforms and shipping line mergers and acquisitions. We found that strategic maritime management resembles the evolution path of strategic management very well, yet with a lag of 30 years. Concerning the evolutionary trajectory of strategic maritime management, we propose two future research opportunities. Both follow the RBV theoretical paradigm, with is one following its internal structure stream and the other one following the stream of strategic capabilities . Some pioneering works have illustrated the prosperity of adapting the RBV theoretical paradigm in the maritime industry. For instance, with the recognition and justification of key resources and capabilities in the shipping ( Lu, 2007 ) and port industries ( Notteboom and Winkelmans, 2001 ), researchers can either continue to introduce new dimensions to existing theoretical constructs in strategic capabilities or develop new context-specific or generalizable constructs and theoretical frameworks.

We contribute to the maritime research community in four ways. First, this paper presents an approach to evaluate the levels of maturity of other research streams in the field of maritime studies, such as the research rooted in management science/operations management, MISs and marketing. We outline how dominant theoretical paradigms in strategic management affect the evolvement of strategic management and how the outstanding research streams and theoretical frameworks emerge. The roadmap of strategy management we outlined in the paper provides a guideline for maritime strategists to choose their research methodologies.

Second, the academic discipline maturity model we developed provides a systematic and structured approach to guide literature review and facilitate analysis. It can be applied to evaluate not only an entire academic discipline but also a research stream that has been evolving for years (say, about 20 years). It can also be used to determine if a strategic theoretical paradigm (say, competitive advantage paradigm and agency theory ) is appropriate to a specific strategic maritime research project. A maritime scholar can check if the unit of analysis she uses complies with the unit of analysis required by the theoretical paradigm.

Third, this study reveals that two RBV-based research areas, internal structure and strategic capability, in the context of maritime industry, have higher potentials to spin out as independent research streams. Moreover, it is promising to see that the research on maritime networking takes the RBV perspective to investigate how a maritime cluster or network utilizes resources within a maritime network and develop strategic capabilities to compete with other maritime networks. This potential area of study may refer to the latest theories and concepts from the research stream of inter-organizational relationship in strategic management or organizational studies.

Last, but not least, we recognized two potential research streams in the field of strategic maritime management – process-oriented management and the interface between maritime (business) strategy and maritime operations management. The interface between maritime strategy and operations represents the new frontier of completion because the industry structure and primary markets for demand and supply are not differentiable in many aspects. The maritime industry is dominated by a limited number of players in each sub-industry such as shipping, port operators and technology and equipment suppliers. Critical competitive advantages may only come from the effective perspective: how a maritime organization or network can run their business at low operating cost and high service quality. Process-oriented research, in general, has been viewed as an emerging management paradigm, in contrast to the function-oriented management paradigm (as in the disciplines offered by business schools). As maritime is basically characterized as a service-process-oriented industry, we recommend developing new doctoral programs in maritime business administration to explore new research contents, constructs, theories and paradigms.

Academic discipline maturity model

Three evolution paths

According to Liles et al. (1995 ), the existence of an active research agenda is revealed if there exist three main characteristics: it stands the test of time; it is complex and substantial enough to be subdivided into different research directions; and multiple fundamental questions/approaches are raised and formulated to guide research in the area.

Nag et al. (2007) identified six content areas. The sixth content area is the context of external environment, which is the maritime industry in our study.

Since the mid-1990s, the debate between the two strategy management research paradigms have given the way to the debate between the IO economics and RBV.

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Corresponding author

About the authors.

Ping Wang is an Assistant Professor of Maritime Operations and Logistics Management at Texas A&M University at Galveston. Dr Wang received PhD in Business Administration from The Ohio State University, an ME from MIT and an ME from Chinese Academy of Science. Dr Wang developed a five-course package for Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Certification in Maritime. Dr Wang’s research interests focus on the interface between strategic maritime management and operations management, Lean culture development and Lean transformation in maritime, the impacts of high uncertainty and anomalies of business process on strategic and operational performances and the development of dynamic capabilities in logistics and supply chain management. His current research focuses on the dynamic production scheduling and dynamic vehicle routing problems in process industries and logistics service environments.

Joan Mileski is a Professor in Maritime Administration and of Marine Science and the Head of the Maritime Administration Department at Texas A&M University at Galveston (TAMUG). She holds a PhD in International Management Studies from the University of Texas at Dallas, an MS in Taxation from Pace University and BBA in Accounting from the University of Notre Dame. She has been a Certified Public Accountant for 34 years. Dr Mileski has been awarded several grants including from the USA and Texas Department of Transportation, has teaching and international research awards, and publishes in leading maritime journals such as Marine Policy and Maritime Policy and Management. She is a Fulbright Research Scholar alumni and a past President of the Women in the Academy of International Business.

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Home > DISSERTATIONS > ALL_DISSERTATIONS

World Maritime University Dissertations

Browse dissertations by specialization, theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

The Practice of Small Island Developing States on the Consent Regime for Marine Scientific Research: Developing and Reframing the Law of the Sea in Changing Circumstances , Luciana Fernandes Coelho. ( Ph.D (Maritime Affairs), Brazil. )

Gender inequality in the practice of international marine science: case study on the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea , Ellen Johannesen. ( Ph.D (Maritime Affairs),

Assessing the burden of an excessive SMS size on the effective implementation of the ISM Code , Li An Xian. ( Maritime Safety & Environment Management, China. )

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Law and policy in combatting piracy by maritime enforcement agencies: a Nigerian perspective , Sadiq Abubakar. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Nigeria. )

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Maritime governance : contextual factors affecting implementation of IMO instruments , Deniece Aiken. ( Ph.D (Maritime Affairs), Jamaica. )

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Combating illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing in Ecuador:: the maritime authority approach for the exercise of coastal state rights , Daniela Andrade Tamayo. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Ecuador. )

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Onshore power for the docked container vessels in Apapa Port through blended finance , Oladayo Matthew Atilola. ( Maritime Energy Management, Nigeria. )

Potential roles of vessel traffic services (VTS) in maritime decarbonization , Suleiman Mustapha Bunza. ( Maritime Energy Management, Nigeria. )

Study on the construction of public information platform for international multimodal transport: a case study of Shanghai , Yijie Chen. ( International Transportation & Logistics,

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Harmonization of Sierra Leone’s oil pollution prevention legal framework with MARPOL 73/78 annex I regulations , Regina Chokolay Conteh-khali. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Sierra Leone. )

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Measure to harmonize and improve port state control procedures worldwide , Jing He. ( Maritime Safety & Environment Management,

Tanker vetting process: from charterer perspective , Xuesong Hu. ( Maritime Safety & Environment Management,

Green shipping corridors: a comprehensive framework for overcoming port challenge , Ahmed Mohamed Ismail Mohamed Ismail. ( Maritime Energy Management, Egypt. )

Leveraging bargaining power in the international crude oil market: an analytical exploration of China's trade dynamics with leading oil-exporting nations , Adama Jatta and Farouq Umar Sani. ( Shipping Management & Logistics, Gambia,Nigeria. )

Safe manning of ships in the era of new and emerging technologies , Amna Javed. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Pakistan. )

A Comprenhensive analysis: confronting challenges and developing solitions for maritime education and training in the era of maritime automous surface ships , Lei Jin. ( Maritime Safety & Environment Management,

Stakeholder perception of financial incentive in truck appointment systems at Chittagong Port , Suraya Yeasmin Jui. ( Port Management, Bangladesh. )

The Black Sea Grain Initiative : analysing the emerging, implementation and challenges , Mariami Kakabadze. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Georgia. )

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Transport carbon emission reduction in a seaport: dry port system , Jianshi Kang. ( International Transportation & Logistics,

Study on Quality Evaluation and Training Approach of Chinese Seafarers Based on Safety at Sea , Xiaogang Kang. ( Maritime Safety & Environment Management,

Just transition career planning for seafarers: challenges and opportunities for sustainable shipping , Sergii Kazantsev. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Ukraine. )

Exploratory study on human factors affecting safety in the shipyard of Pakistan , Bisma Khan. ( Maritime Safety & Environmental Administration, Pakistan. )

A study on measures to reduce greenhouse gases and air pollutants in domestic fishing vessels , Jihong Kim. ( Maritime Energy Management, Republic of Korea. )

Estimating the extent of illegal fishing in the exclusive economic zone of Sierra Leone , Isha Jebbeh Kpaka. ( Oceans Sustainability, Governance & Management, Sierra Leone. )

Pricing ocean freight services: a bargaining perspective , Pankaj Kumar and Juan Manuel Cerpa. ( Shipping Management & Logistics, India,USA. )

Impact of portable piloting units on the situation awareness of maritime pilots perspectives of Danish and West African pilots , Bernard Kuwornu. ( Maritime Safety & Environmental Administration, Ghana. )

COVID-19’s impact on dry bulk shipping market: time series analysis method , Qin Liang. ( International Transportation & Logistics,

Quantifying the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on container shipping market: a study on the China-Europe route , Mengran Lin. ( International Transportation & Logistics,

Study on the improvement of production efficiency of major container terminals in China , Sheng Lin. ( International Transportation & Logistics,

A study of cruise ship safety management system in China , Fei Liu. ( Maritime Safety & Environment Management,

Research on service quality improvement of SF Express , Jiyu Liu. ( International Transportation & Logistics,

A stduy of approaches to mitigate seafarer fatigue based on workload self-assessment by ship's crew , Jun Liu. ( Maritime Safety & Environment Management,

Study on container linerroute optimization of Southeast Asia route of M Shipping Company , Lefan Liu. ( International Transportation & Logistics,

Analysis of policy formulation at IMO via participation of member states: a case study of green house gas emission measures , Rahul Lodhi. ( Maritime Law & Policy, India. )

The problem of abandoned, lost, and otherwise discarded fishing gear in Eastern Caribbean small-scale fisheries : understanding the challenges, defining solutions , Tricia Lovell. ( Ph.D (Maritime Affairs), Antigua & Barbuda/Trinidad and Tobago. )

Ship registry and flag state obligations for the plurinational state of Bolivia: a case study for a landlocked state , Marco Antonio Lucano Uzquiano. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Bolivia. )

The research on weather routing market and e-Navigation service in China , Ziwen Luo. ( Maritime Safety & Environment Management,

Support a safety learning culture in port state control regime , Peng Lyu. ( Maritime Safety & Environmental Administration, China. )

Elusive catch: domestic challenges encountered by the Philippines in Ratifying the Cape Town Agreement of 2012 , Gerico John Vincent Magbojos. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Philippines. )

Impact of emerging technologies on maritime education and training: a phenomenological study , Beauty Ebiere Maghoromi. ( Maritime Education & Training, Nigeria. )

Evaluating the efficacy of shipping pools : an empirical analysis of tanker and dry bulk segments , Ashraf Mahmud. ( Shipping Management & Logistics,

Policy and regulatory framework to enhance Thailand’s casualty investigation , Shinabhat Maneerin. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Thailand. )

Concept of e-certification: interrogating its global application to seafarers , Margie M. Mataac. ( Maritime Education & Training, Philippines. )

Stakeholders’ perception on the benefits of mangrove restoration in Liberia , Mark Mikely. ( Oceans Sustainability, Governance & Management, Liberia. )

A study on the business and regulatory framework of freight forwarders in the Republic of Maldives , - Minna Rasheed. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Maldives. )

Dissecting the relentless maritime security situation in Nigerian waters : an investigation , Lamir Ado Mohammed. ( Maritime Safety & Environmental Administration, Nigeria. )

Assessment of the impact of governmental & non-governmental programmes in Kenya through donor funding to control plastic sandals from uplands and coastal communities on marine ecosystem pollution: a case study of Mombasa County , Grace Mumo Muli. ( Oceans Sustainability, Governance & Management, Kenya. )

Assessing Namibian dry ports: a stakeholders-centric evaluation in comparison to contemporary global standards , Phillemon Gabriel Shaningwa Mupupa. ( Port Management, Namibia. )

Stakeholders’ perspective on the degradation of seagrass and the significance of its restoration to carbon sequestration : a case study of Zanzibar, Tanzania , Salahudeen Abdallah Mustapha. ( Oceans Sustainability, Governance & Management, Ghana. )

Abuja MOU as a facilitator for the implementation of IMO instruments in the West and Central African region , Paul Chika Ochulor. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Nigeria. )

Implementation of maritime single window: selected case studies , Cecil Dumebi Chimaobim Ogunlesi. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Nigeria. )

Gender equality in ocean science for sustainable development : analysis of ocean science institutions in Kenya , Renis Auma Ojwala. ( Ph.D (Maritime Affairs), Kenya. )

Assessing the drivers of plastic pollution on the Lagos coastline: strategies for effective policy implementation and mitigation , Clement Oshiobugie Orbih. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Nigeria. )

Investigating the outcomes-based education (OBE): a case study using the Philippine maritime education and training (MET) system , Emma Lyn P. Pabutawan. ( Maritime Education & Training, Philippines. )

Implementation of policies in addressing illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing in the Philippines: a reappraisal of established mechanisms , Jethro R. Padama. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Philippines. )

Advancing the blue economy through sustainable mariculture: the prospect of pearl oyster and sponge farm cultivation in St. Vincent and the Grenadines , Kevin Antonio Providence. ( Oceans Sustainability, Governance & Management, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. )

Study on overcapacity of liner shipping: on the transpacific routes , Yuxin Pu. ( International Transportation & Logistics,

Enhancing South Africa’s ship registry: a comparative analysis of competitiveness effectiveness and legal frameworks with a special focus on the Singapore registry model , Tebogo Alfred Moloko Ramatjie. ( Maritime Law & Policy, South Africa. )

An interrogation of the role of NGOs in improving the maritime education and training (MET) system in Kenya , Kulthum Hussein Salim. ( Maritime Education & Training, Kenya. )

Implications of marine heatwaves for the blue economy in Ghana , Louisa Pokua Sarkodie. ( Oceans Sustainability, Governance & Management, Ghana. )

Port state control: banning: an analysis of banned ships from Paris MOU and its effect on other MOUs , Donghyeog Seo. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Republic of Korea. )

Harmonisation in the rules governing the recognition of foreign judicial ship sales , Yingfeng Shao. ( Ph.D (Maritime Affairs), China. )

Analysis on the fluctuations in port demand caused by the change in international trade of the countries along the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road: take the Asean countries for example , Ziyi Shu. ( International Transportation & Logistics,

Improving pilot boarding arrangements to prevent transfer accidents , Wenduan Song. ( Maritime Safety & Environment Management,

Application of wind propulsion in the existing fleet of the Caspian Sea using real wind data , Mahmud Suleymanli. ( Maritime Energy Management, Azerbaijan. )

Examining stakeholder perceptions towards seagrass as blue carbon : an analysis of challenges & solutions to seagrass restoration in Wasini and Vanga, Kenya , Aziza Mohammed Swazuri. ( Oceans Sustainability, Governance & Management, Kenya. )

Exploring the role of education in addressing the skills gap for seafarers in Bangladesh's maritime industry , Fatema Tuz Tahera. ( Maritime Education & Training, Bangladesh. )

Life cycle assessment and life cycle cost assessment of offshore wind-based hydrogen production: in the case of Saldanha Bay (South Africa) , Thandeka Nonceba Tembe. ( Maritime Energy Management, South Africa. )

Risk governance framework for recreational vessels' safety in Mozambique and South Africa , Yara Hortense Alberto Tembe. ( Maritime Safety & Environmental Administration, Mozambique. )

An evaluation of the alignment of Liberian fisheries laws with relevant international legal instruments to combat IUU fishing in the exclusive economic zone and territorial sea , Kla-Edward, II Toomey. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Liberia. )

Establishment of an exclusive and effective maritime tribunal in Bangladesh under the “Territorial Waters And Maritime Zones (Amendment) Act, 2021 (Act No. XXIX Of 2021)”: what is the necessity? , Mohammad Rayhan Uddin. ( Maritime Law & Policy, Bangladesh. )

Assessing the state of implementing the International Maritime Organization (IMO) strategy for addressing marine plastic pollution in Nigeria , Lucia Urinrin Ushie. ( Oceans Sustainability, Governance & Management, Nigeria. )

Exploring underwater noise issues: a study of decentralized approach , Takanori Uzumaki. ( Oceans Sustainability, Governance & Management, Japan. )

The use of extended reality in maritime education and training: a case study of India , Tirth Sanjeev Vakil. ( Maritime Education & Training, India. )

Marine plastic pollution: a review of the scientific evidence, current policies, and potential solutions , Hai Vuong. ( Maritime Safety & Environmental Administration, Vietnam. )

Page 1 of 27

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Digital Commons @ USF > College of Marine Science > Theses and Dissertations

Marine Science Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Iron Isotope Transformations in Saanich Inlet , Claire Onak

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Environmental chemical analysis method optimization and application to northwest Cuban marine sediment , Thea R. Bartlett

Time series analysis of Pseudo-nitzschia species composition, domoic acid, and environmental conditions in the Gulf of Maine from 2013-2020 , Christina Chadwick

Exploring the Impact of Eddies on Southern Ocean Biogeochemical Structure using BGC-Argo Float Observations , Nicola J. Guisewhite

Meta-Analysis of United States Seabird Populations Based on Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS) Records (1965–2018) , Savannah Hartman

Stable Isotopic Investigation of the Hydrological Cycle of West-Central Florida , Toedsit Netratanawong

Examining paleoshorelines in the eastern Gulf of Mexico: Insights on sea level history and potential areas of interest for habitat management , Catalina Rubiano

Stable Isotope Analysis on Yellowfin and Blackfin Tuna Eye Lenses Reveals Life History Patterns in the Gulf of Mexico , Kylee M. Rullo

Stable Isotope Analysis of Doryteuthis (Amerigo) pealeii Eye Lenses to Determine Migratory Patterns in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico Using Statoliths for Age Determination , Hannah M. Schwaiger

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

The effects of temperature and oxygen availability on aerobic performance in three coastal shark species; Squalus acanthias, Carcharhinus limbatus, and Carcharhinus leucas , Alyssa M. Andres

Continuous Effort Required to Maintain Populations of Outplanted Acropora cervicornis in the Florida Reef Tract, USA , Tiffany S. Boisvert

Elucidating the Sources Supplying Aerosol Iron, Zinc, and Cadmium to the Surface of the North Pacific Ocean with Stable Isotopes , Zach B. Bunnell

Quantifying Environmental Sensitivity of Marine Resources to Oil Well Blowouts in the Gulf of Mexico , Emily Chancellor

Zooplankton Biodiversity in the Northeast Gulf of Mexico and on the West Florida Shelf from 2005 - 2014 , Megan Ferguson

Coupling 210 Pb and 14 C to constrain carbon burial efficiency of blue carbon ecosystems , Tynisha R. Martin

Empirical and Modeled δ13C and δ15N Isoscapes in the Gulf of Mexico and their Application to Fish Eye Lens Migration Studies , Brianna Michaud

Chronological Accumulation of Microplastics in the Gulf of Mexico and Their Acute Effects on Coral Bleaching , Martina M. Plafcan

Determinations of Chemical Equilibria in Natural Waters Using Spectrophotometric Techniques , Katelyn M. Schockman

Interactions between juvenile estuary-dependent fishes and microalgal dynamics , Ian C. Williams

Ocean Eddies and Frontal Zones in the Gulf of Mexico and Straits of Florida , Yingjun Zhang

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Metabolic Rate, Critical Oxygen Partial Pressure, and Oxygen Supply Capacity of Farfantepenaeus duorarum at their Lower Thermal Limit , Alexandra L. Burns

From River to Sea: Improving Carbon System Measurement Methods for use in Rivers, Estuaries, and Oceans , Ellie Hudson-Heck

Riverine and Estuarine CO2-System Studies on the West Coast of Florida , Christopher S. Moore

Past Ice-Ocean Interactions on the Sabrina Coast shelf, East Antarctica: Deglacial to Recent Paleoenvironmental Insights from Marine Sediments , Kara J. Vadman

Investigating the Recent History of a Changing Planet with Innovative Isotopic Techniques and New Geologic Archives , Ryan A. Venturelli

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Testing the Efficacy of Recompression Tools to Reduce the Discard Mortality of Reef Fishes in the Gulf of Mexico , Oscar E. Ayala

Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Organochlorine Pesticides, and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Snapper (Family Lutjanidae) from Cuba and the Wider Gulf of Mexico , Brigid E. Carr

A Health Evaluation of Gulf of Mexico Golden Tilefish (Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps) and Red Snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) Following the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill , Kristina Leigh Deak

A Process-based Approach to Evaluating the Role of Organic Ligands in Trace Metal Cycling in the Marine Environment , Travis Mellett

Investigation of Retention Versus Export of Planktonic Fish Eggs in the Northeastern Gulf of Mexico , Bich Vi Viviane Nguyen

Development of a Benthic Foraminifera Based Marine Biotic Index (Foram-AMBI) for the Gulf of Mexico: a Decision Support Tool , Bryan O'Malley

Plio-Pleistocene Antarctic Ice-Ocean Interactions in the Ross Sea , Catherine Prunella

Mechanisms of Carbon Movement and Stabilization in Mangrove Wetlands , Carey Schafer

Hepatobiliary Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Pelagic Fishes of the Gulf of Mexico , Madison R. Schwaab

Analytical Methods and Critical Analyses Supporting Thermodynamically Consistent Characterizations of the Marine CO 2 System , Jonathan D. Sharp

Large Thecosome Pteropods of the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Species Abundance, Spatial and Vertical Distribution With a Temporal Comparison of Shell Thickness , Sarah M. Shedler

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposure, Hepatic Accumulation, and Associated Health Impacts in Gulf of Mexico Tilefish (Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps) , Susan M. Snyder

Investigating the Isotope Signatures of Dissolved Iron in the Southern Atlantic Ocean , Brent A. Summers

Modeling Early Life: Ontogenetic Growth and Behavior Affect Population Connectivity in Gulf of Mexico Marine Fish , Kelly Vasbinder

Isotope-Based Methods for Evaluating Fish Trophic Geographies , Julie L. Vecchio

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Use of Spectrofluorometry to Detect Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Marine Environment , Mary Iris Abercrombie

Can Florida's Springs Coast provide a Potential Refuge for Calcifying Organisms? Evidence from Benthic Foraminifera , Kyle E. Amergian

Iron-Virus Interactions: Development and Testing of the Ferrojan Horse Hypothesis , Chelsea Bonnain

DNA Barcoding of Fish Eggs in the Gulf of Mexico , Makenzie Burrows

Ecological Responses of Seascape Heterogeneity , Dinorah H. Chacin

Species Abundance, Spatial and Vertical Distributionsof Large Heteropods (Pterotracheidae and Carinariidae)in the Northern Gulf of Mexico , Kristine A. Clark

Zooplankton Community Structure in the NE Gulf of Mexico: Impacts of Environmental Variability and the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill , Kate M. Dubickas

Life History Through the Eyes of a Hogfish: Evidence of Trophic Growth and Differential Juvenile Habitat Use , Meaghan E. Faletti

Population Demographics of Golden Tilefish Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps in the Gulf of Mexico , Greta J. Helmueller

Regeneration of Trace Metals During Phytoplankton Decay: An Experimental Study , Adrienne P. Hollister

Estimating Coastal Water Turbidity Using VIIRS Nighttime Measurement , Chih-Wei Huang

Untapped Potential of Gorgonian Octocorals for Detecting Environmental Change in Biscayne National Park, Florida, USA , Selena A. Kupfner Johnson

High-Resolution Investigation of Event Driven Sedimentation: Response and Evolution of the Deepwater Horizon Blowout in the Sedimentary System , Rebekka A. Larson

Variations of Sedimentary Biogenic silica in the Gulf of Mexico during the Deepwater Horizon and IXTOC-I Oil Spill. , Jong Jin Lee

Variations of Global Ocean Salinity from Multiple Gridded Argo Products , Chao Liu

Fish Communities on Natural and Artificial Reefs in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico , Elizabeth C. Viau

Reconstructing Geographic and Trophic Histories of Fish Using Bulk and Compound-Specific Stable Isotopes from Eye Lenses , Amy A. Wallace

Studies of the Long-term Change of Global Mean and Regional Sea Surface Height , Yingli Zhu

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Ecophysiology of Oxygen Supply in Cephalopods , Matthew A. Birk

Remote Estimation of Surface Water p CO 2 in the Gulf of Mexico , Shuangling Chen

Spatial Dynamics and Productivity of a Gulf of Mexico Commercial Reef Fish Fishery Following Large Scale Disturbance and Management Change , Marcy Lynn Cockrell

Quantifying the Probability of Lethal Injury to Florida Manatees Given Characteristics of Collision Events. , B. Lynn Combs

Diversity of ssDNA Phages Related to the Family Microviridae within the Ciona robusta Gut , Alexandria Creasy

Use of a Towed Camera System along the west Florida shelf: A Case Study of the Florida Middle Grounds Benthic Marine Communities , Katie S. Davis

Using Ecosystem-Based Modeling to Describe an Oil Spill and Assess the Long-Term Effects , Lindsey N. Dornberger

Extending Spectrophotometric pHT Measurements in Coastal and Estuarine Environments , Nora Katherine Douglas

Evaluating the use of larval connectivity information in fisheries models and management in the Gulf of Mexico , Michael Drexler

An Interdisciplinary Approach to Understanding Predator-Prey Relationships in a Changing Ocean: From System Design to Education , Ileana M. Freytes-Ortiz

Application of Image Recognition Technology to Foraminiferal Assemblage Analyses , Christian Helmut Gfatter

Evaluation of trace-metal and isotopic records as techniques for tracking lifetime movement patterns in fishes , Jennifer E. Granneman

The Stability of Sand Waves in a Tidally-Influenced Shipping Channel, Tampa Bay, Florida , John Willis Gray

Application of Modern Foraminiferal Assemblages to Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction: Case Studies from Coastal and Shelf Environments , Christian Haller

Integrating Towed Underwater Video with Multibeam Acoustics for Mapping Benthic Habitat and Assessing Reef Fish Communities on the West Florida Shelf , Alexander Ross Ilich

Evaluating Beach Water Quality and Dengue Fever Risk Factors by Satellite Remote Sensing and Artificial Neural Networks , Abdiel Elias Laureano-Rosario

Microbial Associations of Four Species of Algal Symbiont-Bearing Foraminifera from the Florida Reef Tract, USA , Makenna May Martin

Environmental controls on the geochemistry of Globorotalia truncatulinoides in the Gulf of Mexico: Implications for paleoceanographic reconstructions , Caitlin Elizabeth Reynolds

Dormancy in the Amphistegina gibbosa Holobiont: Ecological and Evolutionary Implications for the Foraminifera , Benjamin J. Ross

Optical Remote Sensing of Oil Spills in the Gulf of Mexico , Shaojie Sun

Spatial and Temporal Distributions of Pelagic Sargassum in the Intra-Americas Sea and Atlantic Ocean , Mengqiu Wang

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Packaging of Genetic Material by Gene Transfer Agents (GTAs) Produced by Marine Roseobacter Species and Their Effect on Stimulating Bacterial Growth , Shahd Bader Aljandal

Spatio-temporal Dynamics of Soil Composition and Accumulation Rates in Mangrove Wetlands , Joshua L. Breithaupt

Characterizing Benthic Habitats Using Multibeam Sonar and Towed Underwater Video in Two Marine Protected Areas on the West Florida Shelf, USA , Jennifer L. Brizzolara

Latitudinal Position and Trends of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and its Relationship with Upwelling in the Southern Caribbean Sea and Global Climate Indices , Kaitlyn E. Colna

Calibration-free Spectrophotometric Measurements of Carbonate Saturation States in Seawater , Erin E. Cuyler

Viruses in marine animals: Discovery, detection, and characterizarion , Elizabeth Fahsbender

Quantity Trumps Quality: Bayesian Statistical Accumulation Modeling Guides Radiocarbon Measurements to Construct a Chronology in Real-time , Devon Robert Firesinger

Characterizing Gross Lesions in Corals on Fringing Reefs of Taiwan and Hainan Island, China , Adrienne George

Reef Fish Biodiversity in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary , Megan E. Hepner

Investigating Marine Resources in the Gulf of Mexico at Multiple Spatial and Temporal Scales of Inquiry , Joshua Paul Kilborn

Southern Ocean Transport by Combining Satellite Altimetry and Temperature/Salinity Profile Data , Michael Kosempa

Role of viruses within metaorganisms: Ciona intestinalis as a model system , Brittany A. Leigh

Evaluating satellite and supercomputing technologies for improved coastal ecosystem assessments , Matthew James Mccarthy

Stable Isotopes in the Eye Lenses of Doryteuthis plei: Exploring Natal Origins and Migratory Patterns in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico , Brenna A. Meath

Genetic Identification and Population Characteristics of Deep-Sea Cephalopod Species in the Gulf of Mexico and Northwestern Atlantic Ocean , Amanda Sosnowski

Investigation of Sediment Ridges Using Bathymetry and Backscatter near Clearwater, Florida , Lewis Stewart

Resolving chronological and temperature constraints on Antarctic deglacial evolution through improved dating methodology , Cristina Subt

Subtropical benthos vary with reef type, depth, and grazing intensity , Kara R. Wall

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Diversity and Distribution of Diatom Endosymbionts in Amphistegina spp. (Foraminifera) Based on Molecular and Morphological Techniques , Kwasi H. Barnes

Abundance of Archaias angulatus on the West Florida Coast Indicates the Influence of Carbonate Alkalinity over Salinity , Sean Thomas Beckwith

Resource Use Overlap in a Native Grouper and Invasive Lionfish , Joseph Schmidt Curtis

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Ocean Policy Research Institute (Division of Ocean Vision and Action)  >  About OPRI  >  Maritime Technology Research

Maritime Technology Research

Research for Reduction of Greenhouse Gases from the International Maritime Sector, Establishing a Future Framework for Minimizing Risks from Bio-fouling, Long-term Vision for Maritime Industries, Research on Exhaust Gas from Ships, Innovations in Production Systems -- "Shipbuilding CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing)" and "ZoHaku Web", Development of a Super-conducting Propulsion Ship

Research on the Environmental Effects of Particulate Matter from Ship Emissions

In our research on the environmental effects of particulate matter from ship emissions at OPRI, we have garnered useful and valuable data by conducting scientific surveys and making analyses using both on-site observational data and quantitative simulations. At the same time, we have carried on information exchanges with scientists abroad in order to better understand regional differences. Through these activities regarding particulate matter from ship emissions, we learned of the extremely large effects of secondary particles created by the particulation of nitrogen oxide matter (NOx), sulfur oxide matter (SOx),etc., emitted as gases into the atmosphere and undergoing photochemical reactions; we subsequently gained international recognition and understanding for our observation that reducing the sulfur content in fuel has an indirect effect on reducing the impact on the environment.

In future, we have hopes that as the establishment of regulated ocean areas proceeds, it will contribute to great improvement in the heretofore unregulated area of PM from ships.

Research for Reduction of Greenhouse Gases from the International Maritime Sector

Regarding greenhouse gases (GHG) from the international maritime transport sector, while discussion at IMO is currently being taken on individual ships' management, we believe that much larger scaled efforts will be needed to make a significant reduction. These measures should include the continuous monitoring and reporting of total GHG emissions through IMO to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as well as the monitoring of individual and averaged efficiency improvements.

To achieve this, OPRF is proposing to international society a program that would include a framework for the accurate and reliable reporting of the total GHG emissions by the international maritime sector. We are also studying ways to promote market based instruments for GHG reduction, especially to establish a new framework to create emission credit from international ship operations.

We are taking every opportunity to explain these proposals to experts from the IMO, EU, OECD and other interested organizations, in the hopes of contributing to the most appropriate promotion of measures for the reduction of GHG emissions from the international maritime sector.

Establishing a Future Framework for Minimizing Risks from Bio-fouling

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has recognized the importance of controlling the invasion of aquatic organisms to other ocean areas due to ship activities and has started to establish a new international framework to reduce bio-invasion risks through hull-fouling organisms. This framework will have a significant influence not only on anti-fouling paint technology but also on other ship operations, such as the dry docking cycle and in-water cleaning.

This project aims to establish a future framework for minimizing total risks from bio-fouling and to make proposals to the international community. The framework is not simply a combination of traditional technology, but a comprehensive package of anti-fouling systems and cleaning systems, including debris recovery and total risk assessment.

OPRF has already taken actions to promote the framework, having made presentations and proposals to relevant international meetings and conferences, including discussions at the IMO and the International Paint and Printing Ink Council (IPPIC).

Long-term Vision for Maritime Industries

Since the beginning of the 21st century, the world has faced the challenges of globalization, an increasingly multi-polar world economy, diversifying values, and serious problems with the global environment. To address these major challenges, the maritime societies of Japan and the world must give serious thought to what actions should be taken toward the middle of the 21st century.

Beginning with awareness of these problems, we have conducted studies from a long-term perspective, with our sights set on the year 2050. These have culminated in two proposals for the world and five proposals for Japan. Our proposals for the world call for safety and environmental countermeasures (including global warming measures) and can be found in our publication " Maritime Society in the Era of Global Warming - A Message from the Year 2050. " The five proposals for Japan, including global warming countermeasures and greater international competitiveness on the Asian stage, are published as "Maritime Industries Alive in Asia - A Message from Japan in the Year 2050."

Proposals to the World Maritime Industry (Oct. 2009)

• Proposal1 　Development and promotion of the use of ultra-low-emission vessels and zero-emission vessels
• Proposal2 　Establishment of an international research institute to support the evolution of maritime society

Proposals to the Japanese Maritime Industry (Aug. 2009)

• Proposal1 　Should enter maritime transportation market in Asia
• Proposal2 　Should develop and promote the use of ultra-low-emission vessels and zeroemission vessels
• Proposal3 　Should create a new ship building industry that is attractive to the young generation
• Proposal4 　Should address the use of ocean resources and ocean space from a new viewpoint
• Proposal5 　Should become the integrated maritime center of Asia

Research on Exhaust Gas from Ships

In the early 1990's, the environmental impacts of exhaust gas from ships (e.g., acid rain) began to draw attention. At OPRF, we estimated emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx) from ships and also researched measures to reduce them. Moreover, we have surveyed and analyzed the environmental impacts of VOC (volatile organic compounds) and PM (particulate matter) emitted from ships, in terms of both field measurements and numerical simulations, thereby making significant contributions in the establishment of international regulations for these air pollutants. Also, since the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1997, there has been discussion in the International Maritime Organization (IMO) on regulating emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) from the international operation of ships. At OPRF, while continuing independent activities (such as our pioneering announcement of estimations for GHG emissions from ocean-going vessels in 2000), we have also participated in joint research with overseas research institutions and are playing a leading role at the international level.

Innovations in Production Systems -- "Shipbuilding CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing)" and "ZoHaku Web"

In order for Japan's shipbuilding industry to reinforce its international competitiveness, OPRF, along with leading companies, began development of CIM for the shipbuilding industry. This system can express on the computer the full range of ship-building information, from design of ships to their construction, enabling information sharing and thus dramatically enhancing production efficiency.

We carried out the research and development over a ten-year period from 1989 and successfully constructed a product model. The fruits of this innovation are now used in the automatization of shipyards and in the systematization of production sites.

Subsequently, OPRF began to develop a tool which supports information exchange over the internet between shipyards and marine equipment suppliers. The outcome of this R&D was the establishment of the ZoHaku Web company in 2001, with the participation of 20 shipbuilding companies and about 70 ship machinery companies.

Development of a Super-conducting Propulsion Ship

Amidst the long-protracted recession in the maritime shipping sector, Japan was able to maintain a nearly 50% share of the world's shipbuilding volume in the 1980s. However, Japan trailed behind overseas rivals in engine development. In response, OPRF had the vision of inspiring young engineers in the recession-bound shipbuilding sector to new hopes and dreams with the development of a screw propeller-less ship of the future, aided by leading-edge superconductivity technology. The project that arose from this was the Yamato-1, a ship using super-conducting magnets to generate propulsion. The greatest challenge in the ship's development was to make a propulsion system incorporating super-conducting magnets of sufficient size and yet light in weight. The efforts of researchers and scientists in their pursuit of high performance super-conducting magnets came to fruition when the Yamato-1 was launched for her first test voyage in 1992. This world-first development of a super-conducting propulsion ship opened up new avenues for the application of super-conducting magnet technology and yielded a rich harvest of technical results.

Published Report

• YAMATO-1 World's First Superconducting Magnetohydrodynamic Propulsion Ship (March, 1997)(13.2MB)

Research and Study on the Matters Relative to Measures against Marine Oil Spills

In the aftermath of worldwide marine pollutions caused by maritime accidents involving tankers, OPRF has actively played a great role to prevent pollution through experimentation at OPRF's Tsukuba Institute by installing a test water tank uniquely capable of using oil. In the 1980s many models of new oil fence and oil recovery equipment were tested and developed. Moreover, OPRF went far in experimentation concerning the preventive structures against tankers' oil spill like the double hull and mid deck. Besides these contributions, valuable data related to dispersion, drift and weathering of spilled oil in the wind and waves and in the current were highly evaluated not only at home but also internationally. Those data are utilized for actual oil spill response.

Research into Marine Pollution Prevention to Address Oil Spills at Sea (1994-1999)

The fuel oil spill accident of 1997 caused by the Russian tanker Nakhodka in the Sea of Japan resulted in a major marine pollution disaster. OPRF had long expected that such accidents might happen and began to implement, in 1991, a research project on the "Development of Technology and Materials for the Early Prevention of Large-scale Marine Oil Spillage Accidents." It developed methods for predicting the spread, drift and weathering of oil spills as well as techniques for controlling, collecting and recovering the oil spilt at sea. OPRF built a special "Circulating Water Tank" at its Tsukuba Institute for experimental studies on the weathering behavior of crude oils (evaporation, emulsification and changes in properties), in view of the critical importance of making some findings for the initial measures to combat oil spills. The results of these studies were analyzed and made public in a paper titled "Weathering of Crude Oil Spilled on Water." After this, the Petroleum Association of Japan carried out similar weathering experiments on a total of 27 types of crude and fuel oils. The results were made available on CD-ROM. OPRF analyzed the results in the same manner as before to enhance their usefulness. The findings have been published under the title of "Analysis of Weathering Test Results of Crude Oils Using a Two-Component Model." Furthermore, OPRF also held an international symposium titled the "Marine Oil Spill Response," bringing together both domestic and international technical experts who were involved in the large-scale oil spills of ships such as the Nakhodka and the Exxon Valdez.

• 1. WEATHERING OF CRUDE OIL SPILLED ON WATER (Evaporation emulsification and oil properties) - Theoretical analysis of weathering test results of crude oil and its application - (August, 1995)
• 2. Proceedings of International Symposium on Marine Oil Spill Response (December, 1997)

Research into the Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ocean-going Vessels (2000-2001)

At the "Third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (COP3) held in Kyoto in December of 1997, while a general agreement was reached between countries on target reductions of CO2 emissions, the investigation of the special conditions involved in the reduction of CO2 incidence from ocean-going vessels (the difficulty of regulating vessels at sea, specific vessel operation systems such as flag of convenience etc.) were requested of the International Maritime Organization (IMO). For this reason, this research project is designed to comprehensively investigate the emission volume of greenhouse gases such as CO2, methane (CH4) and nitrogen monoxide (NO) from ocean-going ships and the options available for the reduction of such emissions from a technical, socio-economical and policy forming viewpoint. The results of this research are being gathered as fundamental data to be utilized in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions such as CO2 on a global scale. They are used in the formation of policy proposals presented to IMO and are dispersed amongst the related organizations and individuals worldwide.

• 1. Proposal to the 47th Session of the Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC 47) titled "Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships: Study on Estimation and Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ocean-Going Vessels"
• 2. Proposal to the 46th Session of the Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC 46) titled "Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships: A Preliminary Study on Estimation of GHG Emissions other than CO2 from Ocean-Going Vessels" (April, 2001)
• 3. Proposal to the 6th Session of the Sub-Committee on Bulk Liquids and Gases (BLG 6) titled "Evaluation Of The IMO Greenhouse Gas Emission Study - Comments on the Report on the Outcome of the IMO Study on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships -" (February, 2001)
• 4. Proposal to the 45th Session of the Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC 45) titled "Prevention Of Air Pollution From Ships - A Point of View Toward GHG Emission Reduction: Preliminary Study on Estimation and Future Trends of GHG Emissions from All Marine Vessels" (October, 2000) (38KB)
• 5. Prediction of CO2 Emissions from Ships (2000) (28KB)
• 6. A Report on Research Concerning the Reduction of CO2 Emission from Vessels (August, 2000) (593KB)

Development of a Ceramic Marine Engine Using Reformed Natural Gas (1998-2001)

Carbon dioxide is the most prominent greenhouse gas responsible for global warming, and nitrogen and sulfur oxides (NOx and SOx) are known to cause acid rain and photochemical smog. To reduce these combustion-related pollutants and suspended particulate matter, work is in progress to develop a ceramic engine system using natural gas (NG). This research project is unique in the world and promises clean combustion at high efficiency. Using a catalytic NG reforming unit and a CO2 separator, this revolutionary engine system boasts a thermal efficiency better than 70% and a dramatic emission reduction, with CO2 emissions reduced to less than a third of their present level, and NOx and SOx cut to almost zero.

• Development of the Ceramic Adiabatic Engine Having 68% Thermal Efficiency pdf (1.1MB)

Research on an Exhaust Gas Cleaning System for Use in Coastal Vessels (1997-2001)

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has adopted a resolution to reduce the pollution-causing NOx emissions from ships to less than 70% of their present level. The impact of exhaust gases is particularly serious in coastal areas, where they are responsible for direct environmental pollution. Confronting this issue, research is underway to develop a new high-performance denitrification catalyst for cleaning exhaust gases from diesel engines in small-sized coastal vessels, while the development of a new catalytic nitrogen removing system that will operate efficiently at low gas temperatures when leaving ports is also being implemented.

Modernization of Coastal Ships

Moving toward the achievement of a modern coastal ship where work on board the ship is dramatically reduced and ideal working conditions can be realized, OPRF made a life-size model of a coastal ship with a one-man-operated wheelhouse and crew space and put it on display to the interest of all from around Japan concerned in maritime activities. In addition, a coastal steel products carrier with a gross tonnage of 497 tons fitted with revolutionary equipment such as a one-man-operated integrated ship-operation system, comfortable housing accommodations, a modular engine room, auxiliary propulsion functions such as a bow thruster (a propulsion device built into the ship's bow) was set sail. This led to the assessment of the benefits of the modernization of coastal ships.

Development of Revolutionary and Highly Efficient Natural Gas Engine System

As a solution to global warming and also a measure to reduce harmful exhaust gases, fuel conversion to natural gas from petroleum is expected. Since fiscal year 1998, OPRF has been engaged in the research and development of a highly efficient and totally new natural gas engine system, as a counter measure to exhaust emission. In this development, which is a world first, the engine uses reformed gas and hydrogen and carbon monoxide generated by reforming raw natural gas through high temperature exhaust gas and a catalyst. Edging closer to practical use, OPRF hopes this epoch-making engine system will be one way of solving global environmental problems.

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RESEARCH PRODUCTION

1. Continuing Professional Education of the Maritime Instructors  by Dr. Imelda An

• Conflict Resolution Approaches among Maritime Practitioners while on Board the ship: Basis for a conflict management program for seafarers by Arnulfo Orence and Dr. Reynalda Garcia Show Abstract Abstract – The study anchored on the assessment of the most commonly encountered sources of conflict on board the ship and the conflict management styles among Filipino seafarers. Researchers conducted a survey among Filipino seafarers of different groups – the top management, operations officers and the rank and file by the use of descriptive method of research utilizing the triangulation approach. Researchers used the standardized and widely used Thomas Kilmann conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) to determine and understand the conflict management approaches of maritime professionals while at work on board the ship,. This focuses on the five conflict management styles namely Collaborating, Competing, Compromising, Accommodating, and Avoiding. Results revealed that the most dominant among the conflict management styles of the groups of respondents is collaborating and the least practiced is the compromising. However, the most effective management style depends on the conflict situation. When the conflict is properly managed, conflict maybe a source of novel, creative and innovative ideas which can be potential to promote positive change. Results form basis of the improvement of the Conflict Management Program for Seafarers. Keywords – conflict management styles, Collaborating, Competing, Compromising, Accommodating, Avoiding, conflict management program
• STATUS OF LPU-B IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STANDARD REQUIRMENS IN MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS by Dr. Piolo Garcia and Dr. Reynalda Garcia Show Abstract
• Correlation of the Third Year Level Assessment Result & Performance in Marine Transportation Professional subjects by Dr. Beverly Caiga & 2M Edwin Agena Show Abstract Abstract – This research aimed to determine the relationship between year level assessment result and performance of marine engineering students in their major subjects. Specifically, it sought to present the year level assessment results of marine engineering students in the year 2015 – 2016. It also seeks to determine their performances in Basic Electricity, Engineering Materials, and Hand and Measuring tools, to test the significant relationship between year level assessment results and grades in their major subjects, and propose plan of actions base on the results of the study. This utilized a descriptive research method with the records of 66 marine engineering students. The results of the assessment showed that the marine engineering students scored the highest in Machine Shop 1 and scored the least in Engineering Materials. The Marine Engineering students got the highest grade in Basic Electricity and the least grade in Engineering Materials. The assessment on the course Machine Shop 1 was found correlated to the students’ grades on Engineering Materials and Machine Shop 1. This indicates that there is a significant relationship between year level assessment results and grades. It is recommended that the maritime faculty members may develop plans to help students have better understanding of each and every lesson of a particular course especially the professional ones. Keywords – Assessment results, grades, major courses
• Tracer Study of the Maritime Graduates of LPU-Batangas from 2012-2017 by Capt. Alexander Gonzales Show Abstract
• Basic Training Provides by LMTC: Basis for Program Improvement by: Beverly Caiga, Ferdinand C. Alcantara, and Leoncio B. Mandigma Show Abstract

2016 – 2017

• Proposed Laboratory Manual in Physics for Maritime Students by Maria Victoria M. Gonzales, Victorano P. Aranas, and Marlon M. Cometa Show Abstract

(2015-2016)

• The Effect of Class Suspension Alternatives as Disciplinary Action for Minor Student Offenses in LPU-Batangas: “Basis for Policy Enhancement” by: Reynold S. Beredo, Meldrick Arjay A. Magsino and Edwin Agena Show Abstract This study was conducted in order to determine the effect of class suspension alternatives as disciplinary action for minor student offenses in LPU- Batangas. Specifically, this study compared the percentages of minor student offenses from year 2011 to 2014 per college with records of improvement and assessed the perception of former student violators and university personnel about the effects of class suspension alternatives on behavior and academics. It tested the difference on the perceived effects of class suspension alternatives between student violators and university personnel, as well as the differences of students’ perceived effects of class suspension alternatives when they are grouped according to level of discouragement to commit more serious offenses. The researchers utilized the descriptive method of research. The data-gathering instruments used were evaluated student violation records from 2011 to 2014 and a prepared questionnaire. There were a total of 880 respondents, composed of 860 former student violators and 20 university personnel. Results of the study revealed that the existing alternatives to class suspension served as effective deterrents of student misbehavior. The findings also showed that university personnel and former students violators. In addition, there is a significant difference between the perception of university personnel and former student violators on the capacity of class suspension alternatives in encouraging students to observe proper decorum and behavior. Moreover, student violators who are not discouraged to commit more serious offenses are less perceptive to the effects of class suspension alternatives compared to those who are discouraged to commit graver violations. An action plan was proposed to further improve the disciplinary practices used in LPU- Batangas. Keywords: class suspension alternatives, disciplinary action, student offenses
• Awareness on Services Rendered by the Office of Student Affairs to the Students of LIMA Campus: Inputs for Service by: Ritchie P. Dalangin & Billy Vergel Catibog (2015) Show Abstract
• Modified Basic Safety Training with Typhoon Awareness for Both Captains and Owners in Batangas Province; Response on Disaster Preparedness  by: Annalie Pateña (2015) Show Abstract Given the unremitting increases of natural disasters, potential terrorism risks, global climate change and the intrinsic-dangerous geographical location of the Philippines, it is imperative that governments, academic institutions and large public entities be prepared for disasters. The study aimed to assess the basic safety training of LIMA for boat owners and the boat captains in selected municipalities in Batangas Province. A quantitative- qualitative mode of data collection with document analysis of the written document was utilized. Results revealed that majority of the respondents were satisfied with the training and considered it very beneficial to their work and business. The results also revealed that training was very important to support the reconstruction stage as well as to raise awareness about the needs to better prepare for future natural disasters like typhoon. In addition, the level of capabilities and vulnerability of certain place and people towards typhoon was determined. Natural disasters cannot be prevented, but measures can be taken to eliminate or reduce the possibility of trouble. The researchers recommend to strengthen the connection of the school to the community and to continuously provide training on basic safety. In addition, continuous training may be done for reinforcement to have sustainable training skills and be prepared to different disasters. Keywords: Typhoon Awareness, Natural Disaster, Disaster Preparedness
• Factors Affecting the Choice of School and Degree Program among Freshman Maritime Students by: Carlos L. Aguado, Jake M. Laguador, Joseph Cezar L. Deligero (2015) Show Abstract Several factors may be considered in selecting school and degree program like quality education, the people from the environment, personal choice; and accessibility of the school from students’ residences. This study utilized a descriptive type of research method with Maritime students as respondents. Findings revealed that it is the personal choice of the Maritime Students to enrol in maritime program in LPU- Batangas with the support primarily from their parents wherein quality education through being known as home of board topnotchers and its standards are considered big factor for their decision. They also believed that finishing maritime education would bring them in employment abroad which is basically the nature of duties and responsibilities of seafarers. High interest towards the degree program is also manifested among the maritime students. Maritime students graduated from public schools have significantly higher chance of being influenced by people in choosing the school and degree program and they also have significantly higher degree of interest towards the maritime program compared to those graduated from private schools. Keywords: Qualilty Education, Interest, Maritime Education, LPU, Filipino
• Attitude of Marine Engineering Students on Some School-Related Factors and their Academic Performance in Electro Technology 1 and 2  by: Engr. Teresa E. Bacay and Dr. Conrado I. Dotong (2015) Show Abstract The major purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between the academic performance of Marine Engineering students in Electro Technology course and their attitudes towards the course itself, the instructor’s methods of teaching and the learning environment. Descriptive-correlation method of research was utilized in the study. Results showed that more than one-third of the population of the Third year marine Engineering students has average rating performance in Electro Technology 1 while good performance in Electro Technology 2. Students have high positive attitude towards the course more than the instructor’s method of teaching and the learning environment. Positive correlation has been also concluded between the final grades in Electro Technology and the attitude towards the course and the teachers’ method of teaching. Enhancement of students’ interest towards the course is suggested to get better appreciation of the profession. Instructors may relate the topics to real life situation in the work environment especially the maintenance, operation and installation of different machineries and systems in the vessels, as well as the development and construction of marine vessels. Keywords: Electro Technology, Marine Engineering, academic Performance

(2010-2014)

• Stakeholder’s Feedback on the Newly Developed PEO and SO of BSMT & BSMARE in LIMA by: Dr. Bella Luz M. Dinglasan & Engr. Ronnie Masangcay (2014) Show Abstract The study aimed to determine the stakeholders’ feedback on the newly-developed program educational objectives and student outcomes for BSMT and BSMARE in LIMA. The researchers used a descriptive method of research. The data were gathered through survey questionnaire. The results revealed that the stakeholders assessed the PEO of BSMT and BSMARE and the SO of BSMT as very important, however the student outcomes of BSMARE were assessed as important and there are differences on the assessment of the stakeholders of BSMT on PEO. The researchers also proposed plan of action to enhance the newly developed PEO and SO of BSMT and BSMARE. The researchers recommend to set up a departmental OBE web site to provide resources and information relevant to the implementation of OBE in the department, conduct Seminars regarding the importance of OBE to Maritime education, give a brief discussion on what is OBE during the LIMA orientation to inform the parents about the new methods of teaching. Keywords: Outcomes-Based Education, Stakeholders, Program Educational Objectives and Student Outcomes
• Predictors of Performance in MSAP Examination: Basis for an Intervention Program by: Dr. Bella Luz Dinglasan and C/M Arnulfo Orence (2014) Show Abstract
• Impact of Community Cleaning and Coastal Clean-Up of LIMA: Basis for Enhancement by: Mrs. Vivian Perez (2013) Show Abstract
• Level of Awareness of LIMA Faculty to the OBE Approach by: Capt. Geronimo Dolor & Dr. Teresita Guico(2013) Show Abstract a
• Survey on LIMA Faculty and Maritime Students Research Capability by: C/M Ruben Formeloza & Ms. Annalie Pateña (2013) Show Abstract
• Needs Satisfaction of Maritime Students of LIMA: Basis for an Enhanced Guidance Program by: 2/M Luisito Salazar & Dr. Jake Laguador (2011) Show Abstract
• An Assessment of Problems and Needs of LIMA Faculty Members Regarding Student Discipline by: 2/M Ferdinand Alcantara & Dr. Jake Laguador (2011) Show Abstract
• Factors Affecting Turnover among the Maritime Faculty by: Mrs. Vivian Perez (2010) Show Abstract
• Tracer Study of BS Marine Transportation Graduates of Lyceum of the Philippines University from 2007-2011 By: Dr. Jake M. Laguador and C/M Arnulfo Orence (2013) Show Abstract This study primarily determined the factors associated with the job placement of the graduates of Marine Transportation and Marine Engineering of Lyceum of the Philippines University in Batangas from 2007 – 2011. This tracer study used descriptive research design. The study utilized 1,012 or 80.96 percent of BS Marine Transportation graduates and 178 or 100 percent of BSMarE graduates as respondents. Survey questionnaire was used as the main instrument of this study.There were 817 BSMT graduates or 80.73 out of 1,012 and 146 BSMarE graduates or 81.11 percent out of 180 surveyed respondents are presently gainfully employed; acquired their first jobafetr 1 to 6 months of job search and found their relevance of skills acquired from this university to their present work. Self – motivation to pursue their career in maritime is the foremost reason of the majority of the unemployed surveyed graduates. Majority of the respondents were employed in international shipping industries and cruise line and tourism vessels with considerable salaries. The respondents found their first jobs through shipboard training and by the assistance of school’s job placement officer through MOU and MOA as ordinary seaman with P101,000 – 200,000 monthly earning of the majority. Marine Transportation and Marine Engineering graduates found communication skills as one of the competencies very useful in their first job. General education subjects such as Maritime English and Literature subjects as well as the major subject basic safety are considered relevant to the respondents’ present job. BSMT graduates have significantly higher salary than BSMarE graduates and the perception on the relevance of professional subjects to their present employment also differ significantly in favour of BSMT.A proposed action plan to improve the employment rate of BSMT and BSMarE Graduates of LPU maybe considered in the departmental planning to enhance the relevance of the curricula of the BSMT and BSMarE programs and other related student services that contributed to the job placement of the graduates. Thus, the action plan be implemented and evaluated to determine other significant factors that influence the success of the employability of the graduates through undertaking a follow – up research.Keywords: Maritime Education, Tracer Study, Employability, Curriculum
• Tracer Study of BS Marine Transportation and BS Marine Engineering Graduates of LPU from 1997-2007 By: Engr. Jake Laguador & Mr. Olympio Garcia (2010) Show Abstract This tracer study intends to determine the employment status of BS Marine Transportation and BS Marine Engineering Graduates of LPU from 1997-2007. It also intends to assess the relevance of the BSMT and BSMarE curricula, knowledge and skills acquired by the graduates to their employment; identify the personal and professional characteristics and job placement of Maritime Graduates and the school-related factors associated with their employment. The findings of the study will serve as the bases for the researchers to improve, update or enhance the curricula of BSMT and BSMarE programs and services to make these more responsive to the needs of shipping industries.There were 41 or 82 percent of the surveyed respondents were satisfactorily and gainfully employed; majority have rank and file position, landed on their first job related to their course completed; obtained their first jobs more than 1 year; stayed in their first job more than one year and End Contract is the number one reason why did they left their first job and no previous experience on the position applied for is the number 1 problem they encountered when looking for a job.All professional subjects of Marine graduates were considered very relevant to their present work while some school related factor like library, OSA, College Dean Office were also considered relevant to their job placement.The Communications and Management skills developed by LPU were considered very much useful to the present work of the respondents. The proposed program of the study focused on academic development, employment opportunity and enhancing leadership capability of Marine students and faculty members.It is strongly recommended that the graduating students before graduation must be given ample time to practice answering pre-employment examinations and interviews. Technical trainings must be given to the instructors handling major professional subjects. English and Math subjects must also be strengthened. University personnel must be conscious about their reactions to the situation while they are interacting with the students. All Offices and Departments must pursue and continue to improve their services towards the attainment of maximum customer satisfaction.Keywords: Maritime Students, Curriculum, STCW, Graduates, Employability, Employment
• Lyceum International Maritime Academy: Responding to the Needs of the Maritime Industry: A Qualitative Research By: Dr. Leo R. Ramos Jr. & Dr. Norma L. Meñez (2010) Show Abstract Today, as deployment of Filipino seafarers continues to conquer the globe, the quest for quality maritime program has become a challenge to pursue. Philippine maritime schools through the Commission on Higher Education are expected to address and strengthen its maritime training following international standards as ISO, IMO, UNCTAD, ICS, MOL, DWT, for the competitiveness of the increasing international migrations of the Filipino seafarers. This research determined the responsiveness of Lyceum International Maritime Academy (LIMA) to the needs of Maritime Industry and looked into the problems encountered by the maritime industry in the deployment of graduates of maritime course in order to present measures that will enhance the capabilities of LIMA to respond to the deployment needs of the maritime industry.The researchers used research triangulation whereby data were gathered through an open-ended question, documentary analysis, round table discussions, and tripartite meeting with the administrators of the different Maritime schools in the Philippines and Maritime industry.Significant results revealed that the LPU Maritime School complied with the CHED- STCW ’95 requirements and responds to the identified needs of the maritime industry through the establishment of the Lyceum Training Center built according to world class facilities furnished with modern equipment to become the leading provider of maritime professionals in the Asia Pacific Region. Moreover, the programs are strictly monitored to comply with accreditation standards set by Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities Commission on Accreditation under the umbrella of the Federation of Accrediting Agencies of the Philippines.The curriculum on Professional subjects for BSMT and BSMare are very relevant to their future employment. The greatest problem encountered by the manning industry in deploying maritime graduates involves applicants who have not taken or failed the board examination. They are also concerned with encouraging those with career at sea to be equipped with the best education and training through regular upgrading and re tooling. It was also noted that maritime universities should provide networking and facilitate sharing and learning to produce more competitive maritime graduates based on benchmarked best practices.It was recommended that benchmarking of best maritime practices on instruction and possible sharing of faculty resources among training industries and universities be sustained. Aside from tracing of under board alumni of BSMT and BSMare for possible tie up with manning industry for training purposes, Memorandum of Agreement with other Maritime Training Centers should be established so that the LIMA Training Center will be recognized for its state of the art facilities and functional equipment. Along the same note, a Maritime Nursing course maybe offered as well as foreign language subject aside from the Maritime English already being offered.Keywords: Maritime Education, Maritime Industry, Lyceum International Maritime Academy
• The Status of Implementation of the Vessel Traffic Management System at the Batangas Baseport towards Enhancing the Vessel Traffic Services at the Batangas Bay By: Dr. Flora V. Javier & Capt. Carlos Aguado (2010) Show Abstract Everyone engaged in the maritime industry puts premium on maritime safety. This is a prioritized concern specifically of port management which has been mandated to develop efficient maritime transport and navigational system and ensure the safety of all humans and the environment. This is the same mandate that guides the Batangas Base Port which together with the other private ports located along the Batangas Bay shore provides services to domestic and foreign vessels and cargo ships that call at the Batangas BasePort. How effectively and efficiently the Batangas Base Port is able to ensure the safety of vessels calling at the port through its vessel traffic services, specifically thru the Vessel Traffic Management System, is the main concern of this paper. This study aims to assess the status of implementation of the Vessel Traffic Management System at the Batangas BasePort. It seeks to determine the previous and current state of marine traffic in Batangas Bay, identify the marine hazards that have become evident at the Batangas Bay Area and determine the vessels’ compliance with the rules or provisions of the VTMS and the subsequent imposition of penalty fees for non-compliance. The study utilized the descriptive method where gathered data were analyzed using frequency, rank, sum, mean, percentage and ratio.The analysis of the data on ship calls, cargoes and passengers show that there was heavy marine traffic during the period under study. Most marine accidents involve collisions and grounding while spill incidents were mainly oil or oil products of small manufacturing companies, cargo ships or tankers which were relatively small in quantity compared to world record of oil spills. The study also showed that there is an effective implementation of the Vessel Traffic Management System at the Batangas BasePort evidenced by the vessels’ compliance with the provisions of the VTMS that has resulted to avoidance of accidents due to the prompt and accurate tracking and compliance of vessels with the installed traffic separation scheme. The reasons of non-compliance are generally minor in nature which require minimal penalty fees.To enhance the Vessel Traffic Management System at the Batangas Bay it is recommended that the PPA-PMO personnel undergo continuous training and development to ensure that the VTMS Center is equipped with adequately skilled manpower who can operate the equipment with the highest efficiency. It is also recommended that the present physical facilities and equipment of the Center be regularly upgraded with regular preventive maintenance be observed to ensure accuracy in monitoring and tracking of vessels. Similar investigation that employs other variables maybe conducted to examine the training needs of the VTMS personnel and propose a training program to address identified needs.Keywords: Vessel Traffic Management, Batangas Baseport, Batangas Bay
• The Profile Aspirations, Value Orientation and Problems of Marine Students at LIMA: Bases for Enhancement of LIMA Student Service Program By: Engr. Jake Laguador and 2/M Ferdinand Alcantara (2009) Show Abstract In attaining the goals and aspirations towards success, problems might occur in a situation which is already beyond the students’ control and looking for the right answer or responding to it is the only way to move on. Good health is considered as one of the most valuable assets that anybody could have to fulfill his/her dreams. The study attempts to investigate the aspirations, value orientation and problems of marine students enrolled in LIMA S.Y. 2008-2009.The descriptive type of method was used in the study with questionnaire as the main instrument to gather data from 215 maritime students currently enrolled during 2nd semester of S.Y. 2008-2009 at Lyceum of the Philippines University, Cuta Campus, Batangas City.The respondents of the study are mostly senior maritime students, who belong to family with 3 – 4 children, eldest, graduated from public high schools, full time students, majority their parents earn less than P 10,000 a month, mostly their fathers have reached both high school and college levels while the mothers’ educational attainment belong to college. Maritime students belong to determination category. They have high level of terminal, instrumental, moral and social values. The most identified problems by the maritime students are: not enough outdoor activities and exercise, parents of the respondents are expecting too much from them, feel shy in talking to people, afraid of making mistakes and teacher explains/discusses sometimes not clear.The profile aspiration of students in terms of Hibernation is affected by the type of school they graduated and parents’ educational attainment while perspiration is affected by year level, type of school and educational attainment of mother. Determination, Terminal and instrumental values are affected by year level. Problem in terms of health and problems as they relate to others are being affected by type of high school graduated and estimated family income; problem with family is affected by their year level and type of school; problems on self-concerns was affected by their type of high school graduated and status of students while problems on studies depends on the type of their high school graduated.The action plan was based from the four identified aspirations and value orientation categories and five identified problems cited in the study.Keywords: Profile Aspiration, Value Orientation, Maritime Students
• Time Management and Teaching Performance among Marine and Engineering Faculty Members in LIMA: basis for an Intervention Plan By: Engr. Jake Laguador and 2/M Edwin Agena (2009) Show Abstract This study aimed to determine the personal profile of the faculty members of Maritime and Engineering faculty members in terms of age, gender, civil status, mode of residence, place of residence, average teaching load in a year, number of teaching load preparation, length of teaching experience; and educational attainment. The variables used were the teaching performance of the faculty-respondents; time management practices of the faculty members in terms of their work time inside the classroom and campus; outside work time periods in terms of their personal schedule related and not related to work. An intervention plan served as the output of the study.The respondents of this study were all Maritime and Engineering faculty members, their respective department heads and selected students. The descriptive type of research was utilized in the study and survey questionnaire was used as the data gathering instrument.Majority of respondents were 31-35 years old and above 40 years old, male, married, using public utility vehicles, full time faculty members, with bachelor’s degree and with units earned in Masteral, have an average teaching load of below 24 hours/week in a year, have 4 – 6 subjects average number of teaching preparation in a year, with 5 years and below teaching experience.In the over-all performance, LIMA Faculty Members obtained a rating of 92.38 percent while Engineering Faculty members obtained a rating of 90.69 percent. Maritime and Engineering faculty members have high level of time management practices inside and outside the classroom. Engineering and Maritime faculty members have high level of time management practices inside the classroom; during vacant periods and in terms of Personal Schedule Related to Work. Maritime faculty members have very high level in time management not related to work while Engineering faculty members have moderate level in personal schedule not related to work. Students’ evaluation, department heads evaluation and observation, self evaluation as well as the over-all performance of the faculties were affected by age, gender, civil status, employment status, and teaching load.The students’ evaluation, Dean’s Evaluation and Observation, Self-evaluation, attendance and overall performance have nothing to do with the level of time management practices of Engineering and Maritime Faculty Members.The intervention plan is designed to help the Engineering and Maritime Faculty members to enhance the level of their time management practices, inside and outside the classroom situations, during their vacant periods to become more productive and their personal work time period which can either be related or not related to work.Keywords: Time Management, Teaching Performance, Maritime, Engineering
• Utilization of Participatory Approaches Among the  Maritime Students of LPU: Extent of its Effects on the Teaching-Learning Process By: Dr. Leo Ramos Jr. and Dr. Agnes Ilagan (2009) Show Abstract The study was conducted to determine the faculty utilization of participatory approaches and extent of its effects to both Maritime and Non-Maritime students of LPU.This study is a descriptive survey since it was conducted in a systematic examination of the condition, situation and values in order to collect data from the analysis of some aspect, area or group.The main perception of the faculty members of LPU with regards to the utilization of participatory teaching approach requires creativity on the part of the teachers, as well as the students’ cooperation. Moreover, they do not seem to agree with the idea that this approach is only meant for mentally-advanced students.Both Marine and Non-Marine students find the faculty members of LPU with genuine interests and favorable attitudes toward the utilization of participatory teaching approaches. Being given the chances to engage in different active learning activities enabled them to acquire knowledge and skills, and at the same time, develop worthwhile values and attitudes.The effects of participatory teaching approaches to the faculty members of the ten colleges of LPU vary significantly from each college due to their different teaching styles of doing more effective teachings. The teachers’ competence in terms of knowledge and skills possessed, significantly contribute to the accepted standards and ideals of the teaching profession. With the findings, it is believed that every teacher has his peculiar methods, values and techniques. He is working out consciously for a style that is suited for his personality and purposes, rather than, imitate the styles of others.The common reason for the wide use of the approach could be attributed to the availability of teachers with expertise on related matters, including the state-of-the-art facilities as well as the seminars and trainings that are being offered by the administrative officials and personnel.Presumably, the problems encountered by the faculty members served as the factors that hindered them from performing the different participatory approaches in teaching. Thus, some teachers earned low means in the different areas of concern during the teachers’ evaluation period, while others earned higher.The proposed program could enhance the utilization of participatory teaching approach in the ten colleges of LPU. Keywords: Participatory Approach, Maritime Students, Teaching-Learning Process
• An Assessment of English Proficiency Level of Maritime Students and Instructional Materials: Basis for Enhancement  By: Mrs. Jomari Navarro and Mrs. Zenaida Garbin (2008) Show Abstract This study sought to determine the English proficiency of Maritime students and to assess the English instructional materials of LIMA as basis for enhancement. Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions: 1). What is the profile of the respondents in terms of the following factors: English Orientation Index, teacher related factors and teachers’ teaching experience and educational attainment; and school related factors; adequacy of English instructional materials and facilities, and presence of school’s English program like English and Speech Clubs? 2). What is the English proficiency level of maritime students based on the   English Proficiency Test administered? 3). Is there a significant relationship between the English orientation index and the level of English proficiency of maritime students? 4).What is the assessment of the language teachers and maritime students on the existing text manual being used according to the following criteria: Relevance of content, Structure and organization, and Strategies and presentation? 5). Based on the data gathered, what revisions can be applied to improve students’ proficiency level in the following area: vocabulary / lexicon, grammar, and reading comprehension? 6). Is there a significant difference between the assessment of language teachers and maritime students on the existing text manual being used? 7). Based from the findings of the study, what enhancement in the English maritime text manual maybe proposed?The descriptive study was participated in by 586 respondents, 222 first year maritime students, 189 second year maritime students, 168 third year maritime and 7 English teachers assigned in LIMA. The questionnaire was the main instrument used in gathering the data which is based on the objective of the syllabi prepared by instructors intended for marine students. It also included questions for respondents’ profile such as students which focused on the English Orientation Index, teachers and school related factors. Based on the findings, the maritime students agreed that English is required in their chosen course and is useful in securing a job especially in metro manila area and abroad. On the other hand, Maritime students are incompetent in vocabulary and reading comprehension and   fairly incompetent in grammar. Both respondents   disagree that the examples for each topic presented on the text manual are realistic, that the contents are clearly organized into units or chapters and that there is available graphics and pictures for each major topic that will let the students clearly visualized the topics. Finally, there is a proposed enhancement in the English maritime text manual and program for marine students’ English proficiency.However, the English proficiency level of maritime students should be improved particularly along vocabulary, grammar and reading comprehension. In this aspect, the institution should give way to the reproduction and utilization of the text manual upon the approval of the text book committee. The General Education Department may implement the proposed enhancement for the English Maritime Text Manual. Specifically, teachers will play an important role in the utilization of the proposed program for the enhancement of the text manual and development of marine English proficiency. It is finally recommended that further research of similar nature be undertaken in order to have more conclusive findings on students’ English proficiency. Keywords: Maritime Education, English Proficiency, Instructional Materials
• The Academic Performance of Marine Transportation and Marine Engineering Students at Lyceum of Batangas SY 2006-2007: Basis for an Enhanced Faculty Development Program By: C/M Hermogenes Aguba & Engr. Jake Laguador (2007) Show Abstract The main objective of this study is to establish an enhanced faculty development program based from the results of relationship of students’ average ratings along with the entrance examination score, interest towards the course and methods of teaching used. The objective of the enhanced faculty development is to improve the competency, efficiency and effectiveness of faculty members; the teaching methods used by the Instructors may influence the results of the academic performance of the second and third year BS Marine Transportation and BS Marine Engineering students, that’s why, it is one of the factors being considered in this study.This is a correlational study which probed the significant relationship of school-related variables and final grades of the second year and third year marine transportation and marine engineering both regular and irregular students obtained from the S. Y. 2005-2006. Weighted means were computed for drawing the students’ profiles in stanine, interest towards Maritime Course, perceptions regarding the instructional methods used by their instructors. As for testing the hypothesis the chi square test was used.The researchers concluded that the greater percentage of the respondents belongs to 2-3 stanine bracket, respondents have no regret in taking the maritime course, belong to an average bracket of 2.31 – 2.80. Expository method ranked number 1 among the listed methods of instruction being utilized by maritime instructors. Only the College Entrance Examination Score has a significant relationship to the Students’ average rating in First Semester and Second Semester. While Interest towards the course and methods of teaching used has no significant relationship to the Students’ Average Rating.From the existing Five-year faculty development plan 2004-2009 of the Lyceum International Maritime Academy, the following enhancements were added and proposed to improve the program: encourage faculty members to take Professional Education subjects, teachers should undergo training on how to use LCD projector or computer-based teaching, encourage more teachers from general education department to work with LIMA instructors to produce more research outputs, provide a full support for the committee on curriculum to attend a seminar workshop on curriculum development in accordance to the needs of the regional and national goals, strictly conduct faculty observation and post-conference appropriately; conduct regular monthly meetings in order to inform the faculty members concerning the welfare of the students and to identify common problems in the college; encourage faculty members to join in community works of the institution and attend seminar on developing innovative laboratory and applied projects. Keywords: Academic Performance, Marine Transportation, Marine Engineering, Faculty Development
• Study Habits and Academic Performance in English Plus of Freshmen Maritime Students of LB By: Dr. Precy Guerra (2007) Show Abstract The study works on the hypothesis that study habits relate to performance in English Plus of freshman maritime students of Lyceum International Maritime Academy of the Lyceum of Batangas. A correlation analysis, study habit as the independent variables has six dimensions such as (1) concentration and interest, (2) memorizing and reviewing, (3) reading, (4) note taking, (5) listening and (6) other study habits. Academic performance is the dependent variable of the study. Two null hypotheses were posited and tested, thus: (1) there was no significant relationship between study habits and academic performance, and (2) none of the dimensions of study habits tends to influence students’ academic performance in English Plus. The study used the descriptive method of research.Findings of the study showed that the subject maritime students did not manifest good study habits in terms of concentration and interest, memorizing and reviewing, reading, note taking, listening and other study habits. The frequency counts for each dimension were lower than fifty percent. This only means that the subject students have yet to adapt good study habits. The same may be said of the academic performance in English Plus. More than 50 percent of them did not obtain satisfactory ratings in the subject.The test of hypothesis proved that there was no significant difference between study habits and academic performance in English Plus. Of the six study habit dimensions, only listening proved to influence students’ performance in English Plus. The study recommended that topic, study habit, be made an important agenda in the general orientation assembly for entering freshman students of the Lyceum, and reinforce it in students’ subjects especially in English. Likewise, the study recommended intensive use of drills and exercises in English teaching to enhance students’ language competence in listening, reading, speaking, and writing. Keywords: Academic Performance, Maritime Students, English, Study Habits
• Status and Prospect for the Sustainable Development of the Maritime Education Program of LB By: Dr. Rolando Lontoc Sr. (2007) Show Abstract With the rapid changes occurring in the outside environment, the academe is being pressed with the challenge of supplying the requirements of businesses and industries with well-skilled and globally competitive workforce. This occurrence is especially true in the maritime industry. To guarantee the efficiency and safety of marine transport, maritime organizations such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and other international and local organizations continually raise up the ante’ for maritime industry players and consequently, the academe.A prime mover in the maritime education and training in the Southern Tagalog region, the Lyceum International Maritime Academy (LIMA) remain steadfast in its commitment to meet these standards that are being imposed by regulatory bodies, both local and international. More than that, the Academy religiously conducts quality assurance audits and other similar measures to make sure that the academy provides adequate, relevant and quality education to its students.This research is an embodiment of the Academy’s desire to check and maintain its high standards. With the primary aim of evaluating the current performance of the maritime education programs namely, BS Marine Engineering and BS Marine Transportation, this research anticipates that prospects for the sustainable development of the academy can be realized.Through the use of a survey research design, the researcher was able to determine in which areas the academy performs well and was able to deduce which among the five areas of concern i.e. program administration, curriculum and instruction, instructional facilities, faculty teaching performance, and co-curricular activities do the LIMA administration need to focus to make sure that the maritime programs are right on track. The resulting information was a product of the separate responses obtained from the faculty/administrator group and the student group of respondents.The results of the study lead to the imperativeness of the LIMA to hone the latest technology and systems that are being used by the maritime and seafaring industry. Secondly, the study also reveals that LIMA needs to integrate with the rest of the industry, including but not limited to manning agencies, shipping business and the like so that the LIMA will be able to acquire the recent developments and updates in this pervasive industry. Equally important with the first two recommendations, is the need for the LIMA to adopt more flexible curricula methodologies such as the experience based and competency based curricula, since there are studies that prove the appropriateness of these kinds of curricula to maritime education programs. Keywords: Maritime Education, Mission, Vision, Sustainable Development, Lyceum International Maritime Academy
• Communication Competence of Maritime Students of Lyceum of Batangas: Basis for a Proposed Development Framework   By: Dr. Amador Lualhati & C/M Hermogenes Aguba (2006) Show Abstract The study aimed to assess the communication competence in English of maritime students of Lyceum of Batangas as basis for a proposed curriculum development framework of language teaching. The study used the descriptive method of research with a researcher­ developed language competency test and a researcher-made questionnaire as the main data-gathering tools.Results showed that in general, maritime students do not fare well in the five areas of communication competence. The two groups of college teachers of LIMA rated the students as low in all areas of language skills. The two groups of college faculty of LIMA have similar appraisal of the language skills of maritime students. The level of communication competence in sentence structure and written expression, correct word usage, vocabulary, analogy, and usage imply some serious implications to students’ language skills in listening, reading, speaking, writing, and thinking. Listening is the foundation of skills in the four other areas of language skills. Intensified drills and exercises are needed to help the students develop the habit of communicating in English. Keywords: Maritime Education, Mission, Vision, Sustainable Development, Lyceum International Maritime Academy
• A Proposed Five-Year Development Framework for LB- International Maritime Academy (2007 – 2012) By: Engr. Jake Laguador & 3/M Leoncio Mandigma (2006) Show Abstract The study attempts to evaluate the status of Lyceum International Maritime Academy (LIMA) in terms of the schools weaknesses and strengths and to determine how the nine institutional areas can be improved in order to deliver the desired quality of education in the Southern Tagalog Region.This study used descriptive research design. It involves the collection of data in the attempt to test the hypothesis and so with the different questions posited as regards to the status of the subject under study.The respondents perceived that the purpose and objectives of the Maritime Education are clearly defined and understood and adapted to the clientele which the Maritime Institution intends to serve. Faculty member conducts himself in a dignified and professional manner and has awareness of institutional values. The respondents perceived that the faculty members, in general, need an enhancement in expressing themselves fluently and spontaneously. The teacher has mastery of the subject matter and inspires students to be self-reliant and disciplined had received excellent remarks as perceived by the respondent in terms of Instruction. The respondents believed that the objective achieved of the Instructor to develop values and good principles in life among students and to relate subjects to other fields and other life situations is of high quality. The objective achieved of providing adequate lab equipment and facilities from Marine Laboratory is of very high quality as perceived by the respondents. It is interesting to note that Lyceum International Maritime Academy is providing adequate tools and improving the facilities of the institution to achieve excellent quality of education.The objective achieved on the application of technology (OPAC), internet facilities, CD ROM collections on the library needs improvement. The respondents perceived that there is involvement of the administration, faculty and students on community service and the College is aware of the environment it serves. The respondents believed that the Faculty Members are supported and funded by Lyceum of Batangas in undertaking research studies and the results of such studies are encouraged to be published in maritime professional journals and / or presented in research colloquia. The respondents assumed that the department heads are effective in guiding training and developing students to improve their performance and the channels thru which students can course their requests or receive instructions are clear.           LIMA has linkages with shipping companies which assist cadet – trainees to undergo the apprenticeship training and employment opportunities. The school can adequately provide better assistance to the students if it has well-organized and efficiently administered office of the apprenticeship and employment assistance in order to carry out its objectives and the respondents believed that the school orientation program in linkage with shipping industry is very well-evaluated, the school provides a continuous faculty development and on-the-job training with government maritime agencies” and the school has a tie-up with shipping companies for actual on-board instruction of students.LIMA has obtained a rating of “Very Good” in nine institutional areas of evaluation. It implies that the college has achieved its objective with high quality. With very minimal rating of “good” in some items of Physical Plant Facilities and Laboratories, Student Services – Libraries , Accounting/Cashier’s Office, OSA, and Linkages.The school development focuses in Instruction, Research and Community Extension with some detailed activities included in Five – Year Development Program of Lyceum International Maritime Academy for S.Y. 2007-2008 to S.Y. 2011 -2012 to support these three functions of Higher Education Institution. Keywords: Maritime Education, Mission, Vision, Objectives, Linkages, Lyceum International Maritime Academy
• The Responsiveness of the Lyceum of Batangas to the Demands of the STCW’ 95: An Assessment By: Mrs. Jomarie Navarro & C/M Hermogenes Aguba (2005) Show Abstract This study assessed the responsiveness of Lyceum of Batangas to the provisions of the STCW-95.The result of this study will also be important to the school administrators and curriculum planners of Lyceum of Batangas as this will give input data on how to respond to the provisions of international agency needed to strengthen and improve the plans and programs in order to be the role model of other maritime schools.This study on the assessed responsiveness of Lyceum International Maritime Academy on the provisions of STCW-95 used the descriptive research design.Results showed that Respondents viewed that there is a need for educational technological advancement in all maritime schools like LIMA to respond on the provision of STCW’95 like upgrading the library materials and holdings (slides, films and other projection aids) and availability of reading equipment for micro-films and micro-print materials.There is a need to strengthen the different support services like counseling, community projects for local maritime practitioners, health and spiritual services.There is a strong need for financial assistance program and scholarship grants for deserving students for recognition and incentive purposes. Keywords: Maritime Education, STCW ’95, Lyceum International Maritime Academy
• An Analysis of the Performance of the Port of Batangas Under Phase 1 of the Port Development Project By: Capt Carlos Aguado & Miss Ma. Jocelyn Jaucian (2004) Show Abstract This study aimed to provide a clear picture of the transformation of the Batangas Port under the Phase 1 operations. It also attempted to compare the operations in terms of selected indicators before and after the implementation of Phase 1. The study followed the descriptive research design.Results showed that Phase 1 of the Port Development Project was mainly concerned with improving and expanding Batangas Port facilities, which were very cramped and dilapidated. Thus, construction of a passenger terminal and specialized berths for Ro-Ro and fast craft vessels was given priority over the building of other needed facilities such as berths for foreign vessels. Basic services needed by Port users namely, ships and their passengers and cargoes, are available under Phase 1 of the Port Development Project. Most maintenance activities needed for efficient and smooth port operations are frequently practiced at the Port of Batangas. However, the availability of emergency response personnel and equipment, conduct of fire drills and other emergency response drills, as well as sanitation inspection and monitoring in Port restaurants, canteens, etc. are only sometimes followed. The operations of the Port of Batangas improved under Phase 1 of the Port Development Project.The improvement seems to be greatest in the area of wider space for parking vehicles and efficiency and orderliness in the movement of ships, cargoes and passengers. Operational problems seldom occur at the Port of Batangas. But foremost among the problems that occur in the Port is the stranding of passengers inside the Port and non-accommodation of outgoing passengers inside the passenger waiting lounge during peak holiday seasons.The solutions applied to problems occurring at the Port of Batangas under Phase 1 operations are generally effective.During the period 1990 to 2002, the Port of Batangas had its peak performance in terms of number of shipcalls, passengers and cargoes in the year 1995, the year when major construction activities for Phase 1 of the Port Development Project began.The Batangas Port Development Project seems to have served as a magnet for investment in Region IV. Its construction in 1995 led to regional economic growth and development and heightened trading activities, as manifested in increased shipping, cargo and passenger traffic in the Port of Batangas during the same year, as well as the highest rate of gross regional domestic product (GRDP) registered for the Southern Tagalog Region during the period covered by the study. Keywords: Batangas Port, Port Development Project
• Status, Compliance and Adherence to Quality Standards Among Maritime Institutions in the Philippines By: Dr. Flora V. Javier, Dr. Melchor Magramo (2004)  Show Abstract This survey research aimed to determine the status of and compliance to and adherence to the quality standards system by the maritime schools in the Philippines. Frequency, mean and standard deviations were the descriptive statistics used and t-test, analysis of variance, stepwise multiple regression analysis and Pearson’s r were the inferential statistics used. The participants’ perceived the status of the quality standards system among maritime schools as ‘strong’. The participants’ perceived the compliance with and adherence to the quality standards system among the maritime schools as “very high”. Location of school, enrolment size, faculty size, size of support staff, accreditation, position in school, work experience and educational preparation are significant predictors of the status, compliance with and adherence to the quality standards system in maritime schools. No significant relationships existed between the participants’ perception of the compliance and adherence to quality standards system among maritime schools and personal-related factors.
• Existing Practices in the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Selected Industries along Batangas Bay as Perceived by their Employees By: Ms. Debbie Lualhati (1999)
• Waste Identification and Characterization of the Coastal Barangays of Batangas City By: Engr. Ronnie Masangcay (1999)

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The motivations and expectations of students pursuing maritime education

• IAMU Section Article
• Open access
• Published: 27 January 2015
• Volume 14 , pages 313–331, ( 2015 )

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• Yui-yip Lau 1 &
• Adolf K.Y. Ng 2 , 3  

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The ever-changing global environment has increased emphasis on the research and creation of knowledge dedicated to professional practice. The maritime industry serves as the illustrative example, of which it has transformed from a traditionally largely unskilled, labor-intensive industry to a capital-intensive, sophisticated one. This has transformed the nature of maritime education from a highly practical, hands-on approach to tertiary education emphasizing on business and analytical skills, as characterized by the increasing number of tertiary institutions offering under- and postgraduate maritime programs. However, the motivations and expectations of students pursuing such programs have remained under-researched. In this study, we have conducted a questionnaire survey towards under- and postgraduate students who pursue maritime programs. The aim is to understand their profiles, motivations, and expectations of respective programs that these students have enrolled in. Constructive recommendations and strategies are provided to contribute to an effective planning and management of program articulation.

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1 Introduction

The maritime industry is one of the four economic pillars of Hong Kong. According to a summary statistics on the Hong Kong shipping industry (Transport and Housing Bureau 2012 ), Hong Kong is currently among the world’s top 10 fleet owning countries/territories. There are a total of 72,524,000 tonnages for all registered vessels in Hong Kong, while the number of vessels is 2035 and the number of authorized ship insurers in Hong Kong has reached 90. The maritime industry has made significant economic contributions to the city. For instance, ship agents and managers and local representative offices of overseas shipping companies have generated a profit of HKD 5,975 million, while the profit made by ship owners or operators of sea-going vessels was HKD 93,727 million. The Hong Kong maritime industry has created a wide range of industry groups and job opportunities: 7,653 persons engaged in ship agents and managers and local representative offices of overseas shipping companies business; 4,461 persons joined the workforce in ship owners or operators of sea-going vessels; 2,024 persons were involved in ship owners and operators of Hong Kong–Pearl River Delta Vessels; and 285 persons were employed as shipbrokers.

To maintain the competitiveness of Hong Kong’s maritime industry in the world, it would be essential to maintain a comprehensive maritime education. However, there has been increasing concerns that maritime studies may gradually “fade out” under an integration of courses covering broader themes to be redundant. Footnote 1 As the changing global environment has created an emphasis on dedicated knowledge, professional, and research (Moreby 2004 ), employees of the highest caliber should respond effectively to ongoing changes and professional education could be an effective and direct way to improve productivity (Becker 1993 ). In recent years, there has been a substantial growth in “professional” and “practice-based” programs based has taken place among academic institutions (Bourner et al. 2001 ), which emphasize apprentice-style, non-academic learning approaches.

The maritime industry serves as an illustrative example, especially after its transformation from a largely unskilled labour- to a capital-intensive industry, and contributed to the presence of tertiary education in maritime studies (Grammenos 2002 ; Heaver 2002 ; Levinson 2006 ; Stopford 2009 ). Many governments formulate policies to train up officers on sea-going vessels and shipping firms ashore through maritime education. Mitropoulos, the secretary-general of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) believed that an extensive international education and training would be essential to continually upgrade knowledge and skills throughout one’s working life Footnote 2 . In the early years, maritime education mainly focused on vocational training of deck and electronic officers on board sea-going vessels as their knowledge, skills and willingness could contribute to the reliability and efficiency of shipping operations (Gardner et al. 2007 ; Harlaftis and Theotokas 2004 ; Theotokas 2007 ). However, factors such as economic growth, the rise in multimodal supply chains, technological revolution and sophisticated maritime business models have called for the need to redesign the curriculum of maritime education with an objective to appeal to the younger generation. There is also a need for maritime programs to adopt a wider strategic view, as opposed to a narrow, operational view (Mangan et al. 2001 ).

In this paper, we understand maritime education as an interdisciplinary academic field that embraces ship management, humankind’s critical monolithic skills, and knowledge for being management trainees in companies and deck cadets on board. To meet the ever-rising national and international standards within the maritime industry, such as Port State Control (PSC) and the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code, maritime education should enhance, and explain, integration between human activities and the condition of the maritime environments (Fu et al. 2010 ; Lewarn 2002 ; Zhu 2006 ). To align maritime programs with the needs of maritime stakeholders, their curriculums should inscribe business and management skills, e.g., language, decision making, leadership, organizational knowledge, interpersonal, etc., into consideration. Indeed, they should equip students with the desired skills and proper knowledge and professional attitudes for the maritime industry. Although the demands for both under- and postgraduate maritime studies programs keep on growing rapidly, the reasons for such demand remain rather unclear. To fill in this gap, we review the development of maritime education and examine the value of under- and postgraduate maritime programs from the student’s perspective, with a special focus on Hong Kong. It aims to explore whether exiting maritime education is an effective way for occupational groups to achieving their professional status and in what ways education supports a substantial growth of maritime industry and generates increasing productivity and equips industrial practitioners with desired skills.

The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section  2 presents the situation of maritime education in Hong Kong, followed by an explanation of the methodology in Section  3 . Section  4 discusses the empirical results. Before the concluding remarks in Section  6 , Section  5 examines the structures and characteristics of the demands for under- and postgraduate maritime programs in Hong Kong.

2 Maritime education in Hong Kong

The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) Government strongly supports the education and trainings of programs in the maritime industry (The 2013 Policy Address 2013; Hong Kong Maritime Department 2013 ). A number of local academic institutions offer programs related to maritime studies at both post- and undergraduate levels. Table  1 illustrates some major maritime programs offered by Hong Kong’s tertiary and professional institutions.

2.1 Scope of area

The majority of training courses and educational programs associated with maritime studies focus on transportation, logistics operations and supply chain development. Hong Kong is among the world’s top 10 fleet owning countries/territories, and a port of Hong Kong is one of top 5 ports in the world, handling 23 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs) (UNCTAD 2012 ). These evidences suggest that it would be necessary for Hong Kong to develop maritime education programs that focus on sea freight management and operations.

2.2 Course design

Considerable current maritime programs emphasize on shipping operations, dangerous goods handling, import/export trading practices, port and terminal operations, intermodal transport operations, and chartering practice. When designing new programs, it is important to balance theoretical and practical knowledge.

Over the years, considerable research works have contributed to the literature regarding maritime education and training, the skills required for maritime employees, and the structure of maritime courses (e.g., Barnett et al. 2006 ; Carp 2004 ; Cooper et al. 2003 ; Emad and Roth 2008 ; Evangelista and Morvillo 1998 ; Gardner et al. 2007 ; Hara 2000 ; Ircha 2006 ; Lewarn 2002 ; Ng et al. 2011 ; Paine-Clemes 2006 ; Pettit et al. 2005 ; Ruan 2002 ; Sampson 2004 ; Shah et al. 2007 ). Taussik ( 1998 ) highlights interdisciplinary training and education in maritime industry as being critical for the maritime stakeholders. Barnett et al. ( 2006 ) identify seafarer requirements at sea and shore-based maritime sectors have contributed to these initiatives through mapping the multiple career opportunities and maritime education that exist for seafarers. Finally, Shah et al. ( 2007 ) outlines a specific template for postgraduate level courses requiring a fine balance between academic and vocational relevance in maritime education.

Nevertheless, research examining the significance of different incentives in decisions to embark on maritime education has remained rather scarce. The extents by which actual features of such programs correspond to the aspirations of the enrolled under- and postgraduate students have not been empirically studied. Many previous studies also seem to share some methodological shortcomings. First, many do not have applied research methodologies, e.g., statistical, experimental, etc., and conclusions are often based on theoretical discussions. Many are merely extensive analyses about regulations in the maritime industry and the changing needs of contemporary business environment. Inadequate attention has been paid to students, the direct users of educational services. Also, although there are some studies which attempt to address this deficiency (e.g., Ng et al., 2009 ; 2011 ), comprehensive studies comparing under- and postgraduate students have been found wanting. Understanding such, in this study, we conduct a questionnaire survey with students enrolling in under- or a postgraduate maritime programs. Specifically, we focus on the following issues:

Students’ profiles

Their considerations, motivations, and channels of information before choosing to study on maritime programs

Their expectations, particularly in academic knowledge, career, and personal development

Their selection of career paths after graduation

Their evaluations of the features of maritime programs.

We compare the survey findings between under- and postgraduate students through a comprehensive database developed to a survey within a same maritime education institution. The study explores the process of professionalization within a shipping world and offer useful insights and advice to improve existing under- and postgraduate maritime programs so as to sustain the development of such programs in the long run.

3 Methodology

A questionnaire based on the Likert-style score scale (1 = strongly agree; 2 = agree; 3 = fairly agree; 4 = fairly disagree; 5 = disagree; and 6 = strongly disagree) was designed, and distributed to students who have enrolled in under- and postgraduate programs in maritime studies. During the fall of 2011, 250 questionnaires were distributed to 180 undergraduates and 70 postgraduates studying maritime programs at the Department of Logistics and Maritime Studies (LMS) at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HKPU), pursuing the Bachelor of Business Administration in International Shipping and Transport Logistics and the Master of Science in International Shipping and Transport Logistics, respectively. We have decided to focus on HKPU because it has been offering education for vocational training of deck officers and electronic officers on board sea-going vessels for potential managers to ship management for decades, and is considered to be a very significant player in Hong Kong’s maritime education. Since the 2000s, LMS (Department of Logistics, or LGT, before 2008) has re-designed the curricula of all maritime programs by incorporating subjects related to management and general business issues within a maritime industry rather than highly specialized or technical subjects, e.g., marine engineering, maritime law, maritime technology, etc. To ensure that the respondents could provide relevant answers based on real learning experience, all of them have completed at least one year of studies in their respective programs. Footnote 3

The response rate was encouraging—76.4 % with 191 completed questionnaires (with valid responses). The questionnaire was divided into two sections: In Section A, participants were asked to provide background information related to their work experiences and studies, for instance, their highest academic qualification, years of working experience within a maritime industry, nationality, age, family background, etc. In Section B, participants provided detailed information about their studies including higher education enrolment, employment, and scholarships during their studies as well as their plans and preferred work after graduation. The questionnaire also asked respondents on the following topics: (1) issues considered when deciding to pursue their maritime programs, (2) information channels for their current maritime programs, and (3) a description of their maritime programs. The questions were asked in the form of statements and participants responded by choosing the extent to which they agree with a particular statement or not (i.e., eight to nine statements per theme).

To comply with confidentiality, data analysis was undertaken collectively without reference to any particular survey participants or institutions. Additionally, the survey questions and certain information in Section  5 were based on some semi-formal discussions with a number of relevant parties or materials pertaining to scholars, industrial practitioners, and maritime journalists. All aspects of the attributes could be validated in the questionnaire and addressed the study objectives (Malhorta and Grover 1998 ).

To ensure statistical sensibility of the collected data, we have conducted a series of t tests to evaluate their reliability and addressed potential non-response bias on the results (Armstrong and Overton 1977 ). The non-response bias was measured by dividing the 191 survey respondents into two groups (Table  2 ), and we used this as the database for further analysis. The results revealed that the collected data was statistically significant at the 5 % significance level.

4 Empirical results

4.1 background information.

Most undergraduate students enrolled in undergraduate maritime programs have completed secondary education for at least two years, or have obtained higher diploma or associate degree, and have articulated to programs that they are currently pursuing through the Non-Joint University Programs Admissions System (Non-JUPAS) Footnote 4 . Simultaneously, over 90 % of the postgraduate students consist of degree holders in business, management, and/or marine engineering. Their degrees are awarded by universities worldwide, including the University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong), the Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong), the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Hong Kong), City University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong), Shanghai Maritime University (China), Shanghai International Studies University (China), Dalian Maritime University (China), Southwest Jiaotong University (China), University of Applied Sciences (Germany), University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain), Rouen Business School (France), Huddersfield University (UK), and Curtin University of Technology (Australia). The rest of the respondents have obtained other professional qualifications with solid work experience in the shipping, transport, or logistics sectors before proceeding to their postgraduate maritime programs. In Hong Kong, there is less restriction in language, since in most cases English is used as the main medium of instruction. Additionally, there are non-Chinese students enrolled in such programs every year as exchange students to take part in maritime programs.

Broadly speaking, only 7.4 and 9.3 % of the under- and postgraduate students, respectively, have family members who have worked in the shipping industry, or in any maritime-related employment before (Table  3 ). Among them, two have a (former) marine engineer within the families—a senior safety officer and a captain. Although the results suggest that few under- and postgraduate students enrolled in maritime programs had family members working in a maritime industry, 75.6 and 65.1 % of under- and postgraduate students, respectively, found that a role of maritime tradition was significant to their decision to enroll in maritime programs. Not surprisingly, 83.8 and 70 % of under- and postgraduate students, respectively, reported that an economy of their hometowns are currently associated with jobs related to a maritime industry.

The results indicated that 27 % of the undergraduate students held at least one university degree or possessed postgraduate qualifications, while 16.3 % of their mothers were also university degree holders. For postgraduate students, 27.9 % of their fathers and 14 % of their mothers were degree holders (Table  4 ). Nevertheless, none of the parents of the under- or postgraduate students have attended any marine academies.

The results indicate that the annual family income of our respondents stands at a lower and of the scale (Table  5 ). Over 60 % of undergraduate students reported that their families earned less than HKD 203,410 (equivalent to about USD 26,245 in August 2014) per year, and only about 20 % and 10 % of these families can be categorized as middle- and upper-income class, respectively. Therefore, it is not surprising to find that 44.6 % of the undergraduate students have part-time works so as to relieve some financial difficulties. Similarly, 58.1 % of the postgraduate students reported that their respective family income was at lower income levels and that 30.2 % of them have a full time job (Table  6 ).

4.2 Professional experiences before and during enrolment

Interestingly, no postgraduate students in our survey had any professional sea-going experience, although 13 possessed some onshore experiences, such as sales and marketing, accounting, law, documentation, customer services, procurement, to name but a few. As expected, most undergraduate students did not have any professional maritime experiences when they enrolled in their maritime programs (Table  7 ), although some of them had some professional experiences: 56.5 and 83.3 % had worked in non-maritime-related part- and full-time jobs, respectively. In addition, over 70 % of the undergraduate students planned to work part time during their studies. This was not only due to financial incentives but also a desire to gain some professional experiences before graduation. Meanwhile, professional experiences and financial incentives were the main factors that prompted postgraduate students to pursue their current studies (Table  8 ).

4.3 Plans after graduation

Over half of the undergraduate students who completed the survey planned to continue their postgraduate education in maritime studies after graduation, and this could foster themselves to obtain higher educational qualifications in a maritime field (Table  9 ). Except for coast guards and the shipbuilding industry, the responses for all other sectors were similar and showed positive feedbacks. Indeed, the undergraduate students often planned to seek professional life from other industries.

In terms of plans after graduation, the responses from postgraduate students are significantly different from their undergraduate counterparts. Few of them consider pursuing further studies, neither in logistics and maritime theme (9.3 %) nor in another discipline (4.7 %). Half of them indicate that they prefer finding a job in the maritime (and, in some cases, logistics) industries. There was also a tendency to seek professional life from other industries among these postgraduate students, especially in the banking and financial sectors. Slightly over half of them wanted to work in a shipbuilding industry (56 %), closely followed by the (general) transport industry (53 %). Port and coast guards are jointly ranked as the third most preferred option (49 %). Finally, tourism is ranked as the fifth most preferred option (40 %). Based on the collected data, postgraduate students least prefer to work in public administration (21 %) (Table  10 ).

Table  11 presents the results of postgraduate students’ responses to the question “if maritime industries are an ideal work to be associated with, then which sub-sector?” The results show that about 45 % of them showed an interest in containers, 14 % in dry bulk, and 11.6 % in tankers. Only few would like to work for cruise or coastal shipping.

4.4 Motivation to enroll in maritime programs

Nearly 40 % of the family members of the students being surveyed expressed a positive view towards maritime studies, and this suggests that their family members are likely to support them to pursue such programs and develop a career path in the maritime industry. With the support from their family members, 30 % of the undergraduate students reported state that the maritime programs that they are pursuing were their first choice during their university admission application. In contrast with undergraduate students, four out of five postgraduate students decided to pursue maritime programs. Practical and occupational-orientated nature seems to be the most crucial factor for pursuing maritime programs at postgraduate level (Table  12 ).

Forty-three postgraduate students have answered the question about scholarships in pursuing maritime program. Thirteen and four postgraduate students have received scholarships from tertiary institutions and external parties, respectively. In our data analysis, this is a crucial point of postgraduate students pursuing in such program.

4.5 Issues considered in enrolling a maritime program

To explore the key issues considered by under- and postgraduates when enrolling in a maritime program, the questions asked and a description of the summarized mean scores are presented in Tables  13 and 14 , respectively. The results indicate that the top 3 issues considered by undergraduate students when pursuing a maritime program are (1) to enhance knowledge about a logistics industry, (2) to enhance knowledge about maritime industry, and (3) program’s accreditation by professional units with the last item scoring the best mean score. The findings also show that undergraduate students pay less attention to (1) higher chance of getting a job, (2) great interests in the courses, (3) to be associated with their respective countries’ maritime tradition, and (4) no other alternatives. On the contrary, postgraduate students emphasize the following factors: (1) a reputation of the programs/departments, (2) university/faculty/departments have good networks within the industry, and (3) the easiness to obtain good grades in courses, followed by (4) courses are practice-oriented, which is in line with a crucial feature of the maritime programs (as mentioned earlier). Interestingly, when considering whether to enroll in a particular maritime program or not, postgraduate students are generally not affected by family members, friends, or colleagues whose have already pursued such programs.

4.6 Information channels for the maritime programs

In this section, we address the ways on how respondents found out about the program they enrolled in (Table  15 ). In this regard, it is surprising to see that, while social network (notably family members, friends, teachers, or knowing a third person) is not an effective channel for undergraduate students to gather information about maritime programs, it is very important for postgraduate students. In fact, a large number of enrolments (especially postgraduate students) were not a direct result of any aggressive marketing campaigns. The advancement of information technology has also helped students to seek relevant course information without time and place restrictions, and because of this, both under- and postgraduate students mostly agree that information technology is an important channel to obtain necessary information regarding the programs.

4.7 Description of the maritime programs

During the survey, we have invited survey respondents to describe their enrolled maritime programs. The received answers are summarized in Table  16 . Most under- and postgraduate students agreed that the maritime program outcomes meet their initial expectations. The workload is appropriate, and the teaching staff has adopted various teaching methods to allow students to learn effectively. In general, all responses to the specific questions fell within a range of strongly agree (1) to rather agree (3). None of the 191 survey respondents has expressed any disagreement towards any of the statements in this section. However, despite the well-qualified teaching staff, many feel that the courses are too academic or theoretical and that the courses could, and should, cover more practical aspects of the maritime industry. Unlike their postgraduate counterparts, undergraduate students appreciate the fact that they can enhance their professional competence and skills and transfer job-related skills from the maritime programs. However, 54 % of them reported that they had limited or no knowledge about the Chinese maritime industry (Table  17 ). Given the closer ties between Hong Kong and other parts of China, this suggested a major shortfall of the maritime programs being studied.

5 Discussions

We have closely examined the profiles, motivation, and expectations of under- and postgraduate students pursuing maritime related programs. In addition, we have analyzed the structures and characteristics of the demands for such programs.

Our study discusses the presence of a triple maritime dimension: Students select to pursue an undergraduate maritime degree, and that they may consider studying for a maritime postgraduate program, and finally their ambition is to work in the maritime sector. In general, the motivation of both under- and postgraduate students in pursuing their respective maritime programs is strategically driven by practical considerations. The results support the notion that their maritime programs generally meet the initial expectations of both under- and postgraduate students.

Regarding the degree choice considerations, according to our findings, a good program should possess the following competencies: (1) increases students’ professional competence and skills, (2) provides updated information on the industry, and (3) courses to be delivered by well-qualified teachers. Additionally, well-qualified teaching staff should provide a wide variety of innovative teaching methods so as to transfer relevant professional and practical skills to students and enhance their knowledge about the maritime industry.

Both under- and postgraduate students perceive the maritime programs they pursue as being too theoretical. To address this problem, we strongly believe that tertiary institutions should put more efforts in strengthening their networks with a local maritime industry. In return, the latter should offer more training opportunities, mentorship, and internship placements, so as to allow students to establish or expand their industrial networks more effectively. For example, HKPU has often invited scholars from foreign universities to conduct reviews and help in redesigning maritime programs. Other parties from the maritime industry, including industrial associations, potential and current employers, and alumni were also invited to offer advices to the programs, and to better equip students when they entered the job market. Furthermore, our findings illustrate that a large number of students pursue maritime programs because of an appropriate study workload, and that in some cases students perceive that they could obtain good results rather easily. The long-term impacts of such trend against the quality of the maritime industry professionals are subject to further research.

Unsurprisingly, most students expect to work in the maritime industry after graduation. For postgraduate students, a container sector is their ideal work under the maritime industry. This should not be deemed surprising, given that most of the world’s traded cargoes are carried by container shipping both in terms of value and tonnages (Ng and Liu 2014 ), and thus, it often receives the most attention, in both media and the maritime programs themselves. This suggests that maritime programs should perhaps pay more attention to the non-container aspects. Furthermore, with closer economic ties between Hong Kong and other parts of China in recent years, the maritime and logistics development of both regions are likely to affect each other significantly. However, our findings suggest that not many undergraduate students have even fundamental knowledge about the Chinese maritime industry. Thus, in the future, universities and tertiary institutions in Hong Kong should consider incorporating subjects with more “Greater Chinese elements” into both under- and postgraduate curricula of maritime education in future and invite more reputable guest speakers to deliver seminars or presentations about the Chinese maritime industry.

Regarding survey respondents’ family background, few family members of the surveyed under- and postgraduates have worked in the shipping industry or in maritime-related activities. This suggests that an influence from family members probably does not play a vital role in providing first hand or updated relevant maritime programs information in Hong Kong. Compared with undergraduate students, most postgraduate students are already working in the maritime industry and their key contact parties (notably, colleagues, supervisors, former teachers, and associations) can provide them with useful information regarding the maritime programs, and share past experience with them in pursuing such programs. Support from these parties often creates peer-group influences that motivate these students to pursue the maritime programs. Finally, our findings suggest that information technology has become a necessity for students to access maritime program information in real time.

Regarding the annual family income of the respondents, most under- and postgraduate students come from or are living at low-income levels, and they take up employment during their studies because of financial necessities. Only 39.5 % of the postgraduate students have been awarded scholarships from tertiary institutions/universities and/or external parties. Based on these findings, the HKSAR Government and industrial associations should take more initiatives in offering scholarships to motivate qualified students to enroll in maritime programs.

6 Conclusions

Quality education is fundamental for the long-term well-being of the maritime industry. As a global maritime logistics hub, maritime education has been growing in Hong Kong in the past decade as reflected by an increasing number of enrolments in maritime programs and the number of programs offered to under- and postgraduates by local tertiary institutions.

In this study, we collected data from 191 students (148 undergraduates and 43 postgraduates) through a questionnaire survey. By doing so, we can understand more about the students’ profiles, their sources of information, motivation, and expectations of the associated programs that they have enrolled in. In addition, we explored the different perceptions and evaluations of undergraduates and of their enrolled programs. This study has examined a professionalization process of the maritime industry and provides invaluable insight to researchers, maritime industries, associations, perspective students, and current ones. By studying the characteristics and structures of the demands for maritime programs, strategies and recommendations are made to contribute to an effective planning and management of maritime program articulation, and to help Hong Kong to develop into a world-class maritime educational hub in Asia-Pacific and the world. Useful strategic advice for developing a global maritime logistics hub is also given for others’ reference. In the past, Hong Kong’s maritime education focused on seafarer vocational training and covering narrow and highly technical aspects in shipping. Nowadays, they do not only cover shipping-dedicated subjects (e.g., navigation and communication systems, shipping logistics, ship-broking, chartering practice, marine navigation and meteorology, port planning and management, etc.) but also core (e.g., business finance, introduction to business law, global economic environment, operations management, etc.) and non-core business subjects (e.g., business English, transferrable skills, etc.). In many cases, the restructured maritime programs have incorporated a wide range of theoretical and commercial knowledge and skills, so as to equip graduates with both specialized knowledge in shipping and logistics as well as strong management competency, such as leadership, teamwork, communication, and problem-solving skills.

A well-structured and comprehensive maritime program offers both width and depth (from certificate and doctorate level) to train up students in business knowledge and analytical skills. A number of local [e.g., Hong Kong Council for Accreditation of Academic and Vocational Qualifications (HKCAAVQ)] Footnote 5 and overseas [e.g., National/Scottish Vocational Qualification (N/SVQ) Footnote 6 , Association of MBAs (AMBA) Footnote 7 , the Association for the Advancement of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) Footnote 8 , and the European Foundation for Management Development-European Quality Improvement System (EFMD-EQUIS)] Footnote 9 professional institutions have accredited Hong Kong’s maritime programs, such as those offered by LMS, in achieving certain quality standards. These institutions offer constructive advice on how to articulate degree programs with a postgraduate study level in both local and overseas institutions.

Maritime education has flourished in Hong Kong in the past decade as evidenced by the increasing number of under- and postgraduate maritime programs offered by local tertiary institutions. However, the structures and characteristics of the demands for such programs remain under-researched. Through this study, a generalized trend regarding the profiles, motivation, and expectations of respective programs of students from maritime programs can be drawn and the similarities and differences in terms of professional experience, culture, gender, and competency among these students can be identified. Furthermore, we have offered ways to adopt effective planning and management of maritime program articulation and to sustain the development of Hong Kong as a world-class educational hub for maritime studies.

This paper is based on a single case study, i.e., Hong Kong, and is an initial attempt to apply a concept of professionalism in maritime education through an exploratory study. It should provide useful insight to professional bodies on how to improve the quality of these under- and postgraduate programs in the future. To increase the generalizability of our findings, we plan to conduct large-scale longitudinal studies on maritime education in other countries, for instance, a comparison of maritime programs offered in Hong Kong and those in other countries (e.g., Canada, Singapore, Vietnam, China, Thailand, Korea, etc.). A comparative study between Hong Kong and other Asian countries should be of great significance, as the findings will help to plot the general development of under- and postgraduate studies in maritime education. By doing so, we can create a strong platform in conducting further research on this important topic.

Here, it is interesting to recall a plenary session held during the Annual Conference of the International Association of Maritime Economists (IAME) 2000 (Naples, Italy), discussing this issue in light of the restructuring of Cardiff University, UK, and the integration of the then Department of Maritime Studies and International Transport to the University’s Business School. During the conference, some scholars expressed the view that the end of maritime studies higher education degrees was probable.

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Acknowledgments

The study was partly supported by the CPCE Research Funds (project account code: 4.8L.xx.EZ65). We thank the editor and anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and advice. The usual disclaimers apply.

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Lau, Yy., Ng, A.K. The motivations and expectations of students pursuing maritime education. WMU J Marit Affairs 14 , 313–331 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-015-0075-3

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Received : 24 June 2014

Accepted : 09 January 2015

Published : 27 January 2015

Issue Date : October 2015

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-015-0075-3

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