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Model komunikasi pemasaran kopi tuku sebagai resilensi covid-19: sebuah analisis isi

Due to recent technological advances, marketing strategies have shifted from conventional to online. Traditional businesses use this digital marketing strategy because it is considered no more effective than other forms of marketing, such as using brochures and catalogs. Kopi Tuku as a business that mushroomed first during the Covid-19 pandemic, used digital marketing strategies to introduce digital products, one of which was social media. This is because social media is a platform that allows people to communicate information in the form of text, photos, videos, and audio with each other and with businesses, or vice versa. This study aims to find out how Kopi Tuku's digital marketing strategy during the Covid-19 pandemic uses content analysis. The method used is Krippendorff's content analysis via Instagram @tokokopituku for the period January 1, 2021 to September 30, 2021. The conclusion of this study is that Kopi Tuku's marketing strategy is more of an advertising strategy that highlights related information about Kopi Tuku.

ADVERTISING STRATEGY ACCORDING TO THE CONCEPT OF THE FCB MODEL IN THE CONDITIONS OF THE VARIOUS GENERATIONS

The aims of the paper are: 1) to verify the validity of the traditional theoretical definition of the Foote, Cone & Belding (FCB) model based on the use of representative products concerning the age (generation) and gender of the selected target group in the conditions of the Czech Republic, and 2) to verify the validity of defined advertising strategies in the traditional theoretical conception of the Foote, Cone & Belding (FCB) model with the current level of acceptance and perception of advertising within the defined selected target group according to age (generation) and gender in the conditions of the Czech Republic. To meet both aims, both secondary and primary marketing research was implemented. The theoretical background of the paper is based on knowledge of marketing communication principles in general with emphasis on advertising theories. The greatest attention is focused on the traditional version of the FCB model which is based on a matrix of consumer thinking–feeling and high–low involvement behaviours and proposes four advertising strategies. Primary research data were obtained using a questionnaire, on the online panel of research agency Ipsos, on 1,100 Czech respondents. The methods used are positional maps for the FCB grid and chi-squared with a suitable post-hoc test. The outputs reveal the differences of the theoretical FCB model in comparison with its practical implementation. It is necessary to adapt (extend) the model according to specific conditions and identification features of different Czech generations and genders, then adjust recommendations for advertising strategies. In Czech conditions, the sextant grind should be used. There is a prevalence of representative product placement in quadrants 1 and 3, i.e., rational appeals even for products where this is not expected. The outcomes can be used for the choice of correct advertising strategy, advertising media, and types.

An analysis of the situation on the hotel market in the conditions of epidemiological restrictions: Evidence from Penza

Subject. This article discusses the issues related to the development of the hotel market in Penza. Objectives. The article aims to determine the level of development of the tourism industry and hotel market of Penza. Methods. For the study, we used the methods of criterion and comparative analyses, and generalization. Results. The article draws attention to a significant decrease in the profitability of the hotel business associated with the epidemiological situation. Conclusions. To develop the hotel market of Penza and the Penza Oblast, it is necessary to elaborate investment programmes aimed at creating a modern tourist infrastructure, marketing strategies for finding the target audience and forming hotel products, as well as an advertising strategy.

Mathematical model of referral marketing strategy

Abstract A marketing strategy is an attempt to campaign for a product so that information about the product becomes viral. Advertising strategy began to be combined by involving customers to campaign for the company’s products. This marketing strategy is known as the referral marketing strategy. Viral information in a community can be analogous to the pandemic condition of a disease. This study aims to examine the relationship between the epidemiological model and the marketing model with a referral strategy. This research is a literature study with the results of a marketing model design with a referral strategy. Based on the research, there are 4 groups in marketing modeling with a referral strategy, namely Unaware, Potential Broadcaster, Broadcaster, and Inert. The epidemiological model that is suitable for this condition is the SEIR model. Adjustments to the SEIR Model need to be made because the dynamics of the Unaware can go directly to the Inert because of the trust factor in marketing information. The simulation results show that the parameters that have an important role in making information viral are the customer network and the incubation time of the information becoming viral.

Advertising strategy and contract coordination for a supply chain system: immediate and delayed effects

PurposeAfter receiving advertising messages, most consumers rarely purchase the advertised products at once, which results in a delay between advertising exposure and its effect. This paper is devoted to exploring the advertising decision and coordination issues for a supply chain system subject to advertising immediate and delayed effects.Design/methodology/approachBy applying the game theory, the differential game models with delay are constructed for the supply chain to examine the equilibrium advertising efforts, brand goodwill and the optimal profits under the different cooperation situations. A class of transfer payment contracts is designed to achieve the best outcome of the supply chain. Illustrative examples are given to demonstrate the effectiveness of addressed results and provide some managerial perspectives.FindingsIt can be found that the complete cooperation situation can stimulate the advertising investment, drive the product demand and improve the economic profit. Also, a class of transfer payment contracts is designed in this paper, such that the supply chain can perfectly realize the profit maximization, and each member can achieve the Pareto improvement.Research limitations/implicationsThis work does not address the random market environment, which can be filled in the future. Furthermore, this paper has been done in a single supply chain structure. It is an interesting future line of research when taking competitive behavior (e.g. competition among manufacturers, retailers or supply chains) into account.Practical implicationsThis study will help managers make advertising strategies, advise an optimal cooperation way and design the coordination contracts to ensure the economic development of the supply chain. These obtained conclusions may provide a valuable decision-support for marketing management.Originality/valueFor a supply chain, the most previous literature about dynamic advertising models focused on a single advertising effect-immediate effect. This work explores advertising strategy with double advertising effects and investigates the coordinating power of new transfer payment contracts.

The use of literary images and motifs in digital-communication advertising strategy.

A study on advertising strategy based on the impact of a business reputation on the market, the use of advertising and social media in today's teenage lifestyle.

Success in an advertisement or social media is very dependent on an attractive visual appearance and what you want to convey. Social media is a means for consumers to share text, image, audio, and video information with each other and with companies, and vice versa. Social media allows marketers to establish a public voice and online presence. They can effectively strengthen other communication activities. Due to their day-to-day immediacy, they can also encourage companies to stay innovative and relevant. This study used the descriptive qualitative method. Data were collected using the method of observation, literature study, and documentation. The analytical method used is Design Review with stages: Descriptive, Formal Analysis, Interpretation, and Evaluation. The results of this study can be used in advertising appropriately by considering the target audience and product characteristics so that it is useful for students and practitioners to increase knowledge about advertising and social media, know the process of reviewing advertisements, and become a reference in designing communicative, aesthetic, and interesting   Keywords: Advertising, Social Media, Social Media Advertising Strategy

A Theoretical Analysis of the Pricing and Advertising Strategies with Lévy-Walking Consumers

The pervasive adoption of mobile devices and proximity technologies enables firms to trace consumers’ trajectories and locations. This connects firms’ marketing and operations strategies more tightly with consumer mobility. In this paper, we propose a novel analytical model to examine the economic effects of consumer mobility on pricing and advertising strategies by incorporating consumers’ Lévy-walking behavior into advertising economics models. We ascertain the convergent effect of consumer mobility, i.e., consumers’ convergence to a firm leads to higher product price and advertising level. Meanwhile, it improves social welfare by increasing firm profit and consumer surplus. More interestingly, we find that consumers’ average movement distance (AMD) has opposing influences in pricing and advertising strategies. Specifically, longer AMD strengthens the convergent effect on advertising strategy but weakens that on pricing strategy. Finally, we also conduct a numerical analysis to uncover the impacts of the presence of proximity technologies on advertising outcomes. The results of this paper provide advisable guidance to firms on how to craft and adjust pricing and advertising strategies in accordance to consumer mobility. Moreover, the results present insights on welfare implications of informative advertising from the perspective of consumer mobility.

We Know What You Want: An Advertising Strategy Recommender System for Online Advertising

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Advertising appeals effectiveness: a systematic literature review

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Murooj Yousef, Sharyn Rundle-Thiele, Timo Dietrich, Advertising appeals effectiveness: a systematic literature review, Health Promotion International , Volume 38, Issue 4, August 2023, daab204, https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daab204

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Positive, negative and coactive appeals are used in advertising. The evidence base indicates mixed results making practitioner guidance on optimal advertising appeals difficult. This study aims to identify the most effective advertising appeals and it seeks to synthesize relevant literature up to August 2019. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses framework a total of 31 studies were identified and analyzed. Emotional appeals, theory utilization, materials, results and quality were examined. Across multiple contexts, results from this review found that positive appeals were more often effective than coactive and negative appeals. Most studies examined fear and humour appeals, reflecting a literature skew towards the two emotional appeals. The Effective Public Health Practice Project framework was applied to assess the quality of the studies and identified that there remains opportunity for improvement in research design of advertising studies. Only one-third of studies utilized theory, signalling the need for more theory testing and application in future research. Scholars should look at increasing methodological strength by drawing more representative samples, establishing strong study designs and valid data collection methods. In the meantime, advertisers are encouraged to employ and test more positive and coactive advertising appeals.

Advertising appeals have witnessed an increase in research interest and scholarly attention in recent years. Studies investigate appeal effectiveness [e.g. ( Jordan et al. , 2015 ; Lee, 2018 )] and to a lesser extent systematic and meta-analytic studies attempting to synthesize results are evident ( O’Keefe and Jensen, 2009 ; Jenkin et al. , 2014 ; Hornik et al. , 2016 ). These studies however are limited in their focus [e.g. fear appeals ( Tannenbaum et al. , 2015 ; Esrick et al. , 2019 )], context [e.g. disease detection behaviours ( O’Keefe and Jensen, 2009 )], media type, [e.g. mass media ( Elder et al. , 2004 )] and comparison of general advertising appeal types [e.g. rational vs. emotional (fear and humour) vs. metaphor appeals ( Hornik et al. , 2017 )]. Taken together, a review of the literature indicates clear gaps requiring an evidence review focussed on synthesizing studies seeking to examine positive versus negatively framed advertising appeal effectiveness that are context free, not media specific, includes rational as well as emotional studies of different emotional valances (positive, negative and coactive), and extends the range of emotions examined beyond fear and humour which is heavily investigated in the literature. Given that negatively framed appeals dominate behaviour change and prevention studies, a systematic literature review that explores the effectiveness of different advertising approaches is important, timely and called for [e.g. ( Williams et al. , 2004 ; Armstrong, 2010 ; Hornik et al. , 2016 )].

Hornik et al. (Hornik et al. , 2016 ) based their meta-analytic review on rational, emotional (i.e. fear, humour and sex) and metaphor advertising appeals, limiting their results to specific appeal types. The current study seeks to build on their study, extending investigation to other appeals (e.g. coactive) to ascertain the extent these have been used effectively to deliver behaviour change. Following Hornik et al. (Hornik et al. , 2016 ), we argue that positive emotional advertising appeals are more effective in changing behaviour than negative and rational advertising appeals. However, in contrast to their study, we do not follow their general classification of appeals (i.e. rational, emotional and metaphor), but rather we include a wider set of studies that look at rational, emotional, positive, negative and coactive advertising appeals in different campaign contexts (e.g. social and commercial).

Advertising appeals

An advertising appeal refers to the use of persuasion strategies to attract attention, create relevance and memorability, raise awareness and induce action ( Armstrong, 2010 ). An advertising message can appeal to one’s cognition (i.e. rational appeals), emotions (i.e. emotional appeals) or both. Rational appeals rely on arguments, reason and facts to create persuasion ( Dahlen et al. , 2010 ). In contrast, emotional appeals seek to induce certain emotions in the audience to make the message memorable and more persuasive to take action ( Dahlen et al. , 2010 ). The emotional versus rational debate has been widely discussed with scholars exploring effectiveness in different advertising aims, contexts, business types and target audiences [see, e.g. ( Mattila, 1999 ; Matthes and Wonneberger, 2014 ; Akpinar and Berger, 2017 ; Moran and Bagchi, 2019 )]. Two recent meta-analytic studies identified that consumers respond more favourably to emotional appeals than they do to rational appeals ( Hornik et al. , 2016 , 2017 ).

Effectiveness of different emotional appeals utilized in advertising messages has also received attention. Emotional appeals can be classified as positive, negative or coactive based on the valance of emotion employed. Each emotional valence exerts different effects on judgement and therefore affects perceptions and behaviours differently ( Lerner and Keltner, 2000 ). The literature reports mixed results for advertising effectiveness when it comes to positive versus negative emotional appeals. For example, while fear appeals were found to generate defensive reactions ( Witte and Allen, 2000 ) and result in a boomerang effect for young adults ( Lennon et al. , 2010 ), other studies found negative appeals to be effective in creating behaviour change when compared to positive and neutral appeals ( Struckman‐Johnson et al. , 1994 ; Small and Verrochi, 2009 ; Tay, 2011 ; Sun, 2015 ). Neutral appeals are discussed mainly in charity advertising [see, e.g. ( Small and Verrochi, 2009 )], where positive and negative appeals are compared to neutral (no emotion) ads.

Positive emotional appeals are explored in the literature to a lesser extent reflecting their limited use in advertising campaigns focussed on health prevention and related contexts ( Tay, 2005 ; Dunstone et al. , 2017 ). Inducing positive emotions through advertising messages was found to yield more positive attitudes to the advertisement ( Lau-Gesk and Meyers-Levy, 2009 ), higher liking of the message ( Hornik et al. , 2017 ) and a stronger impact on behaviour than negative emotional appeals in multiple contexts such as safe driving ( Plant et al. , 2017 ), reducing binge drinking among college students ( Lee, 2018 ), encouraging environmental friendly behaviour ( Wang et al. , 2017 ; Skurka et al. , 2018 ), health behaviour ( Jordan et al. , 2015 ; Vaala et al. , 2016 ) and anti-cyber bullying ( Alhabash et al. , 2013 ). However, positive emotional appeals were found to be less effective for highly involved consumers ( Yoon and Tinkham, 2013 ) and for female audiences ( Noble et al. , 2014 ) when compared to low involved and male audiences respectively.

Recently there has been an interest in the literature in the use of coactive emotional appeals that seek to induce both positive and negative emotions simultaneously ( Nabi, 2015 ; Yoon, 2018 ). It is hypothesized that the use of a threat-relief emotional message by combining emotions like fear and humour will result in a stronger persuasion outcome ( Nabi, 2015 ). Positive emotions have the ability to reduce the defensive reactions that negative appeals generate, making them more effective in changing behaviour ( Mukherjee and Dubé, 2012 ; Bennett, 2015 ). Eckler and Bolls and Alhabash et al. found coactive appeals ( Eckler and Bolls, 2011 ; Alhabash et al. , 2013 ) to have a stronger impact than negative appeals but their work also indicated that coactive appeals are weaker than positive appeals. No known systematic or meta-analytic review has synthesized the effectiveness of coactive advertising appeals, signalling the need for a review study.

Emotion can be defined as the psychological reaction to an event, a memory and specific types of media ( Allen et al. , 2005 ). Emotions are usually provoked by an internal stimulus that generates a strong short-term reaction influencing one’s attitudes towards something ( Scherer, 2005 ). Wu et al. report that being exposed to an advertisement ( Wu et al. , 2018 ), even a very short exposure, will induce both strong and weak emotions. The type of emotions used in an advertisement will have different results for the audience. Using neural signal tools like heartrate monitors, Kaye et al. (Kaye et al. , 2016 ) found that negative advertisements stimulate respondents while positive advertisements result in a more relaxed feeling.

RQ1. Which emotional advertising appeal is more effective in creating behaviour change across different contexts?

There is no recent systematic review that looks beyond the context of advertising (e.g. health) and valance of emotions (e.g. fear appeals) to understand the effectiveness of positive versus negative and coactive advertising appeals. The aims of this systematic review study are two-fold. First, to highlight the most effective advertising appeal based on empirical research findings utilizing behavioural (e.g. driving speed) or behavioural proxy (e.g. intentions) measures up to August 2019. Second, this review analyses the quality of published studies in the field based on the Effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP) protocol to guide future research.

emotional appeals or emotion* based advertis* AND appeal* AND advertis* or public service announcement or psa or message or communication or strategy or promot* or campaign or experiment

In total, 2384 records were initially identified (see Figure 1 for a flowchart of the search process adopted). Due to the magnitude and focus of each database and its alignment with the search terms, there was variance in the number of records produced from each database. The downloaded records were collated using Endnote. First, all duplicate records were removed leaving a total of 1507 unique records. Second, unqualified records including conference and government reports, unidentifiable full text, as well as records not in English were removed. Finally, titles and abstracts of remaining records were assessed and classified into the exclusion criteria categories: studies using non advertising materials (e.g. news articles), non-emotional based advertising, non-experimental studies (e.g. content analysis and literature reviews), studies exploring only one type of appeal (i.e. negative, positive, mixed or rational), rational versus emotional appeal studies, message framing studies (e.g. gain vs. loss frame), studies lacking behaviour or intention measures of effectiveness.

Systematic search diagram using PRISMA process.

After application of the exclusion criteria, a total of 25 articles undertaking a direct comparative evaluation of the effectiveness of positive and negative appeals were identified. Next, backward and forward searching using authors’ names, Google Scholar and reference lists were completed. A further six articles were identified. In total, 31 articles were analysed. The full list of papers can be found in Supplementary Appendix A .

Data extraction and analysis

The included studies were analysed in terms of (i) the employed materials, (ii) study characteristics and results and, (iii) study quality.

Employed materials and media

Each study’s stimulus was screened to determine the type of media (e.g. video, print, audio), the type of emotion (e.g. fear, guilt, happiness), the target issue (e.g. health behaviour, safe driving, environmental behaviour) and the type of appeals tested (e.g. positive, negative, coactive, rational appeals). This categorized studies based on the type of stimulus used to identify patterns and examine appeal effectiveness.

Study characteristics and results

The 31 identified studies were analysed based on their sample size, sample characteristics (e.g. age and gender), data collection methods (e.g. self-report or objective measures), data collection time points (e.g. post exposure only, pre and post exposure or after a delayed period of time), the employed theory (if any) and mediators and moderator measures of effectiveness. Study outcome measures that were set to warrant inclusion in the review were restricted to behaviour or behavioural intention measures. Studies were excluded if an outcome evaluation was not undertaken to examine advertising effectiveness. For included studies, results were categorized based on the most effective appeal, namely (i) positive, (ii) negative, (iii) no difference/inconclusive or (iv) mixed if positive and negative appeals were found to be effective for different cohorts.

Quality assessment

The quality of the included studies was assessed using the EPHPP quality assessment tool for quantitative studies ( Effective Public Health Practice Project, 2019 ). The EPHPP tool is suitable for evaluating multiple study designs ( Deeks et al. , 2003 ) and has been used to assess the quality of advertising studies in previous reviews ( Becker and Midoun, 2016 ). The assessment tool is valid ( Thomas et al. , 2004 ; Jackson and Waters, 2005 ) and suitable for use in systematic reviews examining effectiveness ( Deeks et al. , 2003 ). Each study was rated using six EPHPP criteria: (i) selection bias—how representative the sample is of the target population; (ii) study design—the likelihood of bias due to the allocation process in the study; (iii) confounders—the extent to which groups were balanced at baseline with respect to confounding variables; (iv) blinding—whether participants were aware of the study objectives and researchers participating in the study were aware of each group participation status; (v) data collection—whether study measures were valid and reliable and (vi) withdrawals and drop outs—the percentage of participants remaining in the study at the final data collection period in all groups ( Thomas et al. , 2004 ). Each individual aspect is rated as weak, moderate or strong and an overall rating is applied to each study ( Thomas et al. , 2004 ). All studies assessed through the EHPHH tool were rated by two researchers and inter-reliability scores exceeded the 80% threshold. Discrepancies were discussed and resolved with all three authors.

Description of included studies

In total, 31 studies qualified for inclusion. More than half of studies were from the United States [ n = 18; e.g. ( Alhabash et al. , 2013 ; Bleakley et al. , 2015 )], followed by Australia [ n = 5; e.g. ( Noble et al. , 2014 ; Kaye et al. , 2016 )], the rest ( n = 8) were from Canada ( Tay, 2011 ), United Kingdom ( Eckler and Bolls, 2011 ), Germany ( Jäger and Eisend, 2013 ), Belgium ( Faseur and Geuens, 2010 ), Netherlands ( Hendriks et al. , 2014 ), China ( Wang et al. , 2017 ), Taiwan ( Wu et al. , 2018 ) and South Korea ( Sun, 2015 ) (see Figure 2 for study locations). Most studies addressed social issues ( n = 28) such as safe driving ( Lewis et al. , 2008 ; Taute et al. , 2011 ; Tay, 2011 ; Jäger and Eisend, 2013 ; Previte et al. , 2015 ; Kaye et al. , 2016 ; Plant et al. , 2017 ), charity donations ( Small and Verrochi, 2009 ; Faseur and Geuens, 2010 ; Kemp et al. , 2013 ; Cao and Jia, 2017 ; Zemack-Rugar and Klucarova-Travani, 2018 ), health ( Struckman‐Johnson et al. , 1994 ; Lee and Ferguson, 2002 ; Passyn and Sujan, 2006 ; Hendriks et al. , 2014 ; Bleakley et al. , 2015 ; Jordan et al. , 2015 ; Vaala et al. , 2016 ; Thainiyom and Elder, 2017 ; Lee, 2018 ), the environment ( Yoon and Tinkham, 2013 ; Noble et al. , 2014 ; Wang et al. , 2017 ; Skurka et al. , 2018 ), organ donation ( Rodrigue et al. , 2014 ; Sun, 2015 ) and cyberbullying ( Alhabash et al. , 2013 ). Three studies were undertaken in commercial settings with authors examining toothbrush, influenza vaccine, alcohol, cars and insurance advertisements ( Brooker, 1981 ; Eckler and Bolls, 2011 ; Wu et al. , 2018 ) (see Figure 3 ).

Location of included studies.

Studies by targeted issue.

Most studies looked at positive versus negative advertising appeals [ n = 19; e.g. ( Kemp et al. , 2013 ; Kaye et al. , 2016 )], only two studies included positive, negative and coactive appeals ( Eckler and Bolls, 2011 ; Alhabash et al. , 2013 ), while the rest incorporated a rational [ n = 8; e.g. ( Sun, 2015 ; Skurka et al. , 2018 )] or neutral appeal [ n = 2 ( Small and Verrochi, 2009 ; Zemack-Rugar and Klucarova-Travani, 2018 ); see Figure 4 ] in their tests. In terms of emotions, fear versus humour was most frequently examined with 12 (38%) studies comparing the two emotions [e.g. ( Tay, 2011 ; Vaala et al. , 2016 )]. Of all tested emotional appeals, fear was the most studied appeal (48%) followed by humour (45%). Positive emotions such as pride ( Kemp et al., 2013 ; Noble et al. , 2014 ; Wang et al. , 2017 ), hope ( Rodrigue et al. , 2014 ; Thainiyom and Elder, 2017 ), love ( Previte et al. , 2015 ) and a range of negative emotions such as disgust ( Hendriks et al. , 2014 ), anger ( Rodrigue et al. , 2014 ), shame ( Previte et al. , 2015 ), regret ( Taute et al. , 2011 ) and guilt ( Noble et al. , 2014 ) were also considered. Seven studies did not specify which positive and negative emotions were tested ( Faseur and Geuens, 2010 ; Eckler and Bolls, 2011 ; Alhabash et al. , 2013 ; Sun, 2015 ; Kaye et al. , 2016 ; Plant et al. , 2017 ; Wu et al. , 2018 ).

Studies by the tested appeals.

Only three studies utilized objective data collection tools. Objective outcome data included GPS speed trackers ( Kaye et al. , 2016 ), driving stimulators ( Plant et al. , 2017 ) and donation amounts ( Small and Verrochi, 2009 ). The rest of the studies relied on self-reported measures [ n = 28; e.g. ( Jäger and Eisend, 2013 ; Skurka et al. , 2018 ; Wu et al. , 2018 )]. The majority of studies ( n = 24) collected data post exposure only [e.g. ( Taute et al. , 2011 ; Sun, 2015 )]. Four studies included a post exposure and a follow-up data collection time point after a delayed period of time ( Passyn and Sujan, 2006 ; Lewis et al. , 2008 ; Hendriks et al. , 2014 ; Plant et al. , 2017 ). Two studies collected data pre and post exposure ( Rodrigue et al. , 2014 ; Previte et al. , 2015 ) and only one study collected data at pre, post and follow-up time points ( Kaye et al. , 2016 ).

Only 35% of studies were guided by theories. Theories that were reported included the Elaboration Likelihood Model ( Lewis et al. , 2008 ), Extended Parallel Process Model ( Tay, 2011 ), Theory of Planned Behaviour ( Hendriks et al. , 2014 ), Affect as Information Theory ( Taute et al. , 2011 ) and other theories (see Supplementary Appendix A ).

Study outcomes

The aim of this systematic review was to highlight effective advertising appeals. This is based on the ability of the appeal to influence behaviour or behavioural intentions significantly ( P < 0.05) in the desired direction (e.g. reduce drink driving). The results of the 31 included studies indicate that positive advertising appeals are slightly more effective than negative and coactive advertising appeals. It is important to note there is evidence of effectiveness for all appeal types and each context and target audience differ in appeal effectiveness requiring pre-testing and examination prior appeal consideration. Thirty-five per cent ( n = 11) of studies reported positive appeals to be more effective ( Brooker, 1981 ; Eckler and Bolls, 2011 ; Alhabash et al. , 2013 ; Rodrigue et al. , 2014 ; Previte et al. , 2015 ; Sun, 2015 ; Plant et al. , 2017 ; Wang et al. , 2017 ; Lee, 2018 ; Wu et al. , 2018 ; Zemack-Rugar and Klucarova-Travani, 2018 ), while 26% ( n = 8) reported negative appeals to have a stronger persuasion effect than positive appeals ( Struckman‐Johnson et al. , 1994 ; Small and Verrochi, 2009 ; Tay, 2011 ; Hendriks et al. , 2014 ; Noble et al. , 2014 ; Bleakley et al. , 2015 ; Kaye et al. , 2016 ). Nineteen per cent of studies ( n = 6) showed mixed results. Where mixed results were reported the mixed outcomes occurred as a result of range of factors including gender ( Kemp et al. , 2013 ; Thainiyom and Elder, 2017 ), connection to others ( Faseur and Geuens, 2010 ), prior attitudes ( Jäger and Eisend, 2013 ), time of assessment after exposure ( Lewis et al. , 2008 ), issue involvement ( Yoon and Tinkham, 2013 ) and psychological involvement ( Cao and Jia, 2017 ). Five studies (16%) did not find any significant differences in effectiveness between positive and negative appeals ( Passyn and Sujan, 2006 ; Thainiyom and Elder, 2017 ; Skurka et al. , 2018 ). Finally, only one study reported inconclusive results due to unrepresentative sample ( Lee and Ferguson, 2002 ). Figure 5 showcase results of the included studies.

Results supporting different appeals effectiveness or reporting mixed, indifferent or inconclusive results.

A quality assessment of the identified papers was conducted using the EPHPP tool (see Supplementary Appendix B ). Of the 31 included studies, 26 were assessed as weak in the global rating, five were assessed as moderate and none were assessed as strong. Selection bias was likely in many studies due to the use of student samples or bias to a geographical area. Only one study was somewhat likely to have a representative sample ( Skurka et al. , 2018 ). Five studies included a control group and randomly allocated participants into experimental groups (e.g. positive and negative stimuli) therefore these were assessed as strong in terms of study design ( Struckman‐Johnson et al. , 1994 ; Bleakley et al. , 2015 ; Jordan et al. , 2015 ; Vaala et al., 2016 ; Skurka et al. , 2018 ). Six were assessed as moderate ( Lewis et al. , 2008 ; Hendriks et al. , 2014 ; Previte et al. , 2015 ; Sun, 2015 ; Kaye et al. , 2016 ; Plant et al. , 2017 ), while the rest ( n = 20) were weak due to their cross sectional nature [e.g. ( Alhabash et al. , 2013 ; Jäger and Eisend, 2013 )].

In terms of confounders, about one-third of studies ( n = 10, 32%) reported either no baseline differences between groups or controlled for at least 80% of relevant confounders resulting in a strong rating. The rest of the studies ( n = 21) did not report potential confounders or account for confounds during analysis and were therefore assessed as weak [e.g. ( Alhabash et al. , 2013 ; Bleakley et al. , 2015 ; Lee, 2018 )]. Only two studies (10%) clearly reported that both the assessors and participants were not blinded in the experiment resulting in a weak rating ( Rodrigue et al. , 2014 ; Plant et al. , 2017 ). The rest of the studies ( n = 29, 87%) were rated as moderate as it was not clear if the participants and assessors were blinded or not. In terms of data collection methods, over half of the included studies ( n = 19, 61%) did not provide evidence of the validity of the reported measures and were therefore assessed as weak.

Two studies were assessed as moderate in their data collection method as they reported on validity but not reliability of the measures ( Jordan et al. , 2015 ; Plant et al. , 2017 ), while the rest ( n = 10, 32%) were rated strong for providing evidence of the validity and reliability of the reported outcomes measures [e.g. ( Kemp et al. , 2013 ; Noble et al. , 2014 ; Sun, 2015 ; Kaye et al. , 2016 )]. For the retention rate of participants, only two programs were assessed as strong with more than 80% completing the experiment ( Kaye et al. , 2016 ; Plant et al. , 2017 ). The rest were rated as moderate due to the lack of retention rate reporting [e.g. ( Jäger and Eisend, 2013 )], low completion rate [e.g. ( Rodrigue et al. , 2014 ; Jordan et al. , 2015 )] or due to the post exposure nature of studies where retention rate is not applicable [e.g. ( Faseur and Geuens, 2010 )].

The aims of this study were two-fold. This study aimed to identify which appeal type (positive, negative and/or coactive) was most likely to change social and commercial behaviour and to assess the quality of studies reported in peer review literature. This is the first known systematic review that is not limited to an emotion, appeal type, context or media. Our findings extend understanding in three key ways. First, this article extends understanding of appeal effectiveness with consideration of the effectiveness of coactive appeals. Second, it examines the extent of theory and emotion use in the included studies. Third, it assesses study quality identifying how researchers can enhance the evidence base by improving study quality.

Positive, negative or coactive?

Consistent with the literature ( Jenkin et al. , 2014 ; Hornik et al. , 2016 ) our findings confirm a slight persuasive advantage of positive advertising appeals over negative appeals. Positive appeals are able to increase consumers’ perceived response efficacy more than negative appeals ( Zemack-Rugar and Klucarova-Travani, 2018 ); help consumers realize the rewards of the promoted behaviour [e.g. moderate alcohol consumption ( Previte et al. , 2015 )]; induce positive attitudes—more than negative and coactive appeals—and therefore affect behavioural intentions positively ( Eckler and Bolls, 2011 ; Wang et al. , 2017 ). According to studies synthesized in the present review, positive appeals yield higher acceptance of the advertising message ( Alhabash et al. , 2013 ) by creating a positive climate in which messages may be received ( Brooker, 1981 ), reducing reactance [e.g. skipping, ignoring, backlash or resisting ( Wu et al. , 2018 )] and increasing message liking ( Lee, 2018 ). Further outcomes accruing from positive appeals include illustration of positive benefits of the promoted behaviour by inducing empathy and reducing guilt ( Rodrigue et al. , 2014 ).

Negative appeals dominate social change practice and while evidence for effectiveness exists, there appears to be less support in comparison to positive and coactive appeals based on this study’s findings. Mixed results were also evident in other studies. For example, Kemp et al. argued that positive appeals are ( Kemp et al. , 2013 ) more persuasive with a male audience than a female audience, while Jäger and Eisend found participants with less ( Jäger and Eisend, 2013 ) favourable prior attitudes produce higher change in intentions to drink drive when exposed to positive emotional appeals.

The effectiveness of coactive appeals compared to single appeals was examined by 2 of the 31 included studies. Their findings suggest coactive appeals are less effective than positive appeals and more effective than negative appeals ( Eckler and Bolls, 2011 ; Alhabash et al. , 2013 ). Positive appeals require less cognitive processing, generate a general sense of pleasantness, are more likable and facilitate positive attitudes towards the advertisement making the advertised behaviour more appealing and taking action more tempting. On the contrary, the more negative an ad is, the less likable it is and the less likely viewers are to take action (i.e. share on social media). Therefore, coactive emotional appeals come in the middle, they are more effective than negative appeals but less effective than positive appeals ( Alhabash et al. , 2013 ). Interestingly, the two studies including coactive appeals in their experiments focused on viral sharing behaviour. Taking the target behaviour in consideration, their results can be interpreted more specifically. Previous studies found both emotional valence and arousal to affect content sharing and virality of advertisements ( Berger, 2011 ; Berger and Milkman, 2012 ). More specifically, content that are emotionally arousing (either positive or negative) are more likely to be shared with others than those less arousing. Furthermore, ads that are more positive in nature are more likely to be shared than negative ads ( Berger and Milkman, 2012 ). Moreover, the use of positive emotions along with negative emotions helps reduce the defensive responses of the audience resulting in a higher persuasion effect ( Mukherjee and Dubé, 2012 ). Hence, the studies included in this systematic review found coactive appeals to be more effective than negative appeals. When testing behaviour beyond sharing and virality, Yousef et al (2021) found positive appeals and coactive appeals to have similar effect on behaviour. Target audience plays a role in different appeals effectiveness, including coactive appeals. Studying advertising effect on young adults road safety perceptions and behaviour intentions, Yousef et al (2021) found coactive appeals to be more effective than single emotional appeals. The limited and mixed evidence for coactive appeals effectiveness is mainly due to the limited studies including such appeals in their experiments. More evidence is needed to determine coactive appeals effectiveness in other contexts and behaviours.

Applying theories and moving beyond fear and humour appeals

Over the years, advertising researchers have been under pressure to deliver relevant and practical findings that practitioners can follow and utilize ( Pitt et al. , 2005 ). It is argued that advertising research has formulated theories with ‘a high level of generality’ which makes them difficult to apply in practice ( Cornelissen and Lock, 2002 ). As a corollary, and due to the empirical nature of the included studies, these issues may have led to the limited application of theoretical frameworks. Pitt et al. (Pitt et al. , 2005 ) found only a minority of papers published in an 11-year period made explicit use of theories. Our findings confirm their research with more than half of the included studies lacking a theoretical base. Examples exist indicating how and where theory has been applied by researchers in intervention design, recruitment, implementation and evaluation [see ( Willmott et al. , 2019 )]. For example, Wadsworth and Hallam (Wadsworth and Hallam, 2010 ) applied social cognitive theory to an e-communication intervention identifying which theoretical constructs led to a physical activity increase. Theory did not only inform their study but was tested, refined and built on by the authors. This type of theory application can enhance study outcomes, better inform future research and systematically identify which theories are effective and for which audiences ( Willmott et al. , 2019 ).

Similarly, limited studies explored emotions beyond the heavily investigated emotions of fear and humour. Little is known about how other emotions effectiveness such as anger, disgust, guilt, love, joy and pride appeals deliver (or not) behavioural change. This reinforces past studies which have identified the limited use of emotions in advertising messages ( Tay, 2005 ; Dunstone et al. , 2017 ), not because other emotions are less effective but because there is limited evidence of effectiveness. When studies explore more emotions, new evidence emerges enabling practitioners to innovate and capture the attention of their audience. For example, Previte et al. ( Previte et al. , 2015 ) found a persuasive advantage for love and happiness (two emotions that are rarely examined in the advertising literature) over fear and shame appeals in moderate drinking advertising message, highlighting the potential of other emotions to yield desired results.

Enhancing study rigour to deliver a stronger evidence base for advertising effectiveness

Study quality assessment frameworks provide tools to assess the quality of research. The stronger the study, the more the policy, practitioner and research community can rely on the study findings. This study applied the EPHPP quality assessment tool ( Effective Public Health Practice Project, 2019 ) to assess study quality. Of particular concern is that no one study overall was rated as strong in the current review. In general, the methodological quality of the included studies was low. In the absence of strong evidence any conclusions drawn in the present evidence review and earlier meta-analytic and systematic literature reviews should be interpreted with caution until stronger study designs emerge. Within the present review notable, methodological problems included selection biases, weak study designs and invalid data collection methods.

A common issue with sampling is the use of student samples and samples from a specific region for convenience, resulting in selection bias. While calls for adoption of probability sampling procedures in the academic literature have been made ( Plant et al. , 2011 ; Sarstedt et al. , 2018 ), limited adoption of non-probability sampling is evident. In the absence of replication across samples or regions his reduces the generality of these studies making them bound to their sample and regional characteristics. Furthermore, the use of cross-sectional study designs contributed to the overall weak rating for most studies in this review. Including only a post-test immediately after exposure to the tested advertisements can lead to different result compared to testing over a delayed period of time ( Lewis et al. , 2008 ) making the results incomplete and the findings less comprehensive. Researchers are encouraged to include more than one time point for data collection to measure behaviour change over time. Finally, the validity and reliability of data collection methods used in the included studies are mostly weak. This is a reflection of the limited use of theories, with more studies bringing in their own measures without testing their validity or reliability before conducting their evaluations. Future research should focus on increasing the validity of their studies by utilizing previously validated measures from the literature ( David and Rundle-Thiele, 2018 ). This makes the study easier to replicate and its findings more reliable. Taken together, future research should aim to address these issues and improve the methodological quality of advertising evaluation studies to enhance empirical evidence.

Limitations

This study is restricted by several important limitations, which should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the study is limited by the search parameters utilized and the study quality frameworks applied. For example, the review only includes studies that empirically test advertising appeal effectiveness (positive, negative, coactive), using behavioural measures (e.g. purchase intentions) that have been published in peer-reviewed English literature. Hence studies that rely on other measures (e.g. attitudes) or evaluate other message tactics (e.g. framing) and non-English and non-peer-reviewed studies, were excluded. Grey literature may contribute important information and future studies may benefit from examining these sources. The study focused mainly on emotional appeals, hence rational appeals were not included. Future reviews should compare rational and emotional appeals for more comprehensive findings. Second, due to the heterogeneity in the tested appeals, study populations and reporting of results, a meta-analysis was not possible, and a qualitative description of study outcomes was provided. Few studies included effect sizes and odds ratios, limiting our ability to compare effectiveness for the different advertising appeals. Third, results of the current review are collected from different contexts and behaviours and generalization of findings cannot be extended beyond this review. Moreover, pre-tests should be carried out before adopting any advertising appeal for any specific context, behaviour and target audience. Finally, based on the quality assessment of the included studies there is a clear absence of strong rigour experiments, hence any conclusions drawn in the present review should be interpreted with caution.

Future research

Future research should examine appeals effectiveness by utilising and applying advertising theories, investigating emotions beyond fear and humour in advertising appeals, increase the strength of their studies by following EPHPP guidelines, or other study quality frameworks, to design rigorous experiments and ensure that valid replicable analysis is reported. More effort should be made to draw representative samples, ensuring valid data collection methods and designing strong experiments that test effectiveness pre, post and after a delayed period of time following exposure. Furthermore, more studies should include coactive appeals in their evaluations to confirm their effectiveness compared to single appeal use as only a limited number of studies explored this type of appeal.

Future systematic literature reviews should build on this study by including other advertising tactics such as non-emotional appeals and gain and loss framing which can provide a wider picture of advertising effectiveness. Moving forward, consensus on advertising effectiveness outcome measures should be generated by the advertising research community. By agreeing on standard outcome measures, as occurs in tobacco control research, the research community could then advance understanding further via meta-analyses. Any effort that can reduce data transformation practices will serve to ensure synthesis studies can advance knowledge through delivery of the highest quality research that can inform policy and advertising practices.

This systematic review examined advertising appeals effectiveness based on the literature up to August 2019. Our findings support previous meta-analytic reviews in confirming positive appeals effectiveness over negative appeals. We extend on their findings however by including coactive advertising appeals. Across different contexts and behaviours, this review found positive appeals to be effective more often than negative appeals and coactive appeals. When all three appeals are studied, evidence suggest coactive appeals are more effective than negative appeals and less effective than positive appeals. Specifically, this review highlighted the scarce of theory use in advertising research signalling the need for more attention to embed theory into advertising design and evaluation. Moreover, a major concern raised by this review is the quality of the published papers. A greater focus should be made by authors to utilize valid data collection methods, representative samples and strong study designs. This research has contributed to a better understanding of advertising appeal effectiveness and may be of interest to policy makers, advertising professionals and designers and researchers who are interested in maximizing return on investment.

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Endogeneity and marketing strategy research: an overview

• Review Paper
• Published: 23 February 2019
• Volume 47 , pages 479–498, ( 2019 )

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• Oliver J. Rutz 1 &
• George F. Watson IV 2  

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Endogeneity in empirical marketing research is an increasingly discussed topic in academic research. Mentions of endogeneity and related procedures to correct for it have risen 5x across the field’s top journals in the past 20 years, but represent an overall small portion of extant research. Yet there is often substantial difficulty in reconciling issues of endogeneity with many of the substantive questions of interest to marketing strategy for both theoretical and/or practical reasons. This paper provides an overview of main causes of endogeneity, approaches to addressing it, and guidance to marketing strategy researchers to balance these issues as the field continues to move towards more methodological sophistication, potentially at the expense of managerial tractability.

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Addressing Endogeneity in Marketing Models

Dealing with Endogeneity: A Nontechnical Guide for Marketing Researchers

Our discussion on endogeneity focuses on empirical research with firm data. For researchers interested in endogeneity issues in survey data, Sande and Ghosh ( 2018 ) provide an overview.

A strong caveat is the assumptions needed for a structural model to be identified. Often, these result in models that will not fit a marketing strategy application.

For ease of exposition we do not include any exogenous variables in the model formulations.

The key idea is to leverage variation independent of the variable of concern. For example, online spend (ad costs) for Portland in our case when the focal market is Seattle.

For 2 Stage Least Squares (SLS) please see: https://www.rdocumentation.org/packages/AER/versions/1.2-5/topics/ivreg . For simultaneous estimation please see https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/ivmodel/ or https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/ivpack/ .

The R package for 2SLS estimation called “ivreg” (see Footnote 2) also provides a Hausman test.

The R package “ivreg” provides the Sargan test for 2SLS estimation. For Generalized Methods of Moments (GMM) estimation the R function “sargan” calculated the Hansen-Sargan test, please see: https://www.rdocumentation.org/packages/plm/versions/1.6-5/topics/sargan .

Please note that Kenneth Train as software available on his website, albeit only for the Mixed Logit Model: https://eml.berkeley.edu/~train/software.html .

Please see: https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/REndo/index.html .

Park and Gupta ( 2012 ) give more details how to non-parametrically estimate the density of the marginal distribution of the endogenous variable, p.570–572.

In more detail, \( \tau ={\sigma}_{\varepsilon}\sqrt{1-{\rho}^2}{\varpi}_2 \) where ρ is the correlation coefficient, ϖ 2 ~ N (0, 1) and σ ε is the standard deviation of ε .

The goal of a field experiment is to be able to compare outcomes directly between treated and non-treated groups to determine the effect of the treatment, e.g. a given marketing strategy. In non-experimental data, the researcher cannot distinguish between a treatment and control group as the use of a particular strategy is generally non-random, but rather self-selected by the firm to implement, making the choice to implement a strategy, and thus the “effect” of the strategy, endogenous. To remedy potential self-selection bias in observational data, it may be possible to “match” firms exhibiting a given strategy with firms that do not, but otherwise appear very similar on multiple criteria through propensity score matching. This idea is to determine the probability of treatment assignment, for example, the propensity to start a loyalty program, conditional on observed baseline characteristics, e.g. firm size, customer demographics, and so forth. This allows the researcher to design and analyze an observational study to mimic the characteristics of a randomized controlled trial between the observed treated group and a matched non-treated group (Rosenbaum and Rubin 1983 ). In practice however, this may not always be feasible due to data constraints on which to produce a propensity score for each observation (see Austin 2011 , p.414–415). For further reading on methodology, see Austin ( 2011 ), Heckman ( 1979 ), Rosenbaum and Rubin ( 1983 ), Guo and Fraser ( 2010 ), and the PSMATCH2 STATA module from Leuven and Sianesi ( 2003 ). For recent substantive applications and extensions in marketing research see Kumar et al. ( 2016 ), Ballings et al. ( 2018 ), and de Haan et al. ( 2018 ).

Please see: https://stat.ethz.ch/R-manual/R-devel/library/stats/html/00Index.html .

We thank an anonymous reviewer for raising this point.

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Rutz, O.J., Watson, G.F. Endogeneity and marketing strategy research: an overview. J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci. 47 , 479–498 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-019-00630-4

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Received : 26 March 2018

Accepted : 10 January 2019

Published : 23 February 2019

Issue Date : 15 May 2019

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-019-00630-4

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