seoul case study

Urban Regeneration: A Case of Cheonggyecheon River

Project Location: Seoul, South Korea Timeline: 2002 -2005 (3 years and 6 months) Architects: Mikyoung Kim Design Client: City of Seoul

Seoul , the capital of South Korea, is confronted with many significant issues. The effects of overpopulation and urbanization have resulted in a multitude of challenges, including scarcities in housing, transportation, and parking facilities, as well as the worsening of pollution levels and the unsustainable exploitation of resources. It is always gridlocked. Over a decade, urban and industrial development suffocated the remaining traces of nature in the city’s heart, notably in the congested and flat CBD.

Hoping to spur economic growth by providing new recreation options to residents and solve the city’s chronic runoff problems, The Seoul Metropolitan Government decided to do something bold. An initiative to transform the urban environment of the massive arterial highway by removing it and replacing it with a long, meandering park and stormwater mitigation system.

Degradation of the River

The Cheonggyecheon River is situated amid a historically significant neighbourhood. The first deterioration of the site can be traced back to the 15th century when many factors contributed to its decline. These factors include the expansion and depth of the river channel, the building of a stone and wood embankment, the use of the watercourse as a means of waste disposal, and the heightened sedimentation caused by the deforestation of the surrounding regions. Despite undergoing continuous dredging and modifications throughout the twentieth century, the river channel in the 1950s remained mostly a seasonal stream used by individuals for laundry purposes and as a recreational space for children.

As Seoul underwent a gradual transformation from a mostly rural area to a sprawling East Asian city, the Cheonggyecheon, referred to as the “clear valley stream,” deteriorated into a polluted waterway. The primary function of the stream in question was to serve as Seoul’s central sewage and drainage system, primarily designed to mitigate the risk of flooding.

By the year 1970, the area next to the river was characterized by the presence of slums. Additionally, the quality of the water in the river deteriorated with time due to a series of human interventions, including the process of channelization followed by the application of a concrete layer.

With the rapid progression of urbanization and industry, along with the widespread adoption of automobiles, the riverbed transformed, being repurposed into a 6-kilometre roadway. Above this roadway, a 5.8-kilometre elevated highway was constructed, boasting six lanes to accommodate the increasing vehicular traffic. Before the process of restoration began, the daily volume of vehicles that passed through this particular section amounted to almost 168,000. Among them, a significant proportion of 62.5% constituted vehicles engaged in traffic.

The ramifications of the very crowded transportation system along Cheonggye Street have become more severe. The levels of air pollution, namely criterion pollutants, were found to be much higher than the permitted thresholds. Additionally, the pollution caused by nitrogen oxide is above the established environmental air quality guideline for the city of Seoul. In addition, the concentrations of benzene, a volatile organic compound (VOC) known for its carcinogenic properties, were found to be elevated.

According to a health awareness study conducted among those living or employed near Cheonggyecheon, it was observed that the prevalence of respiratory disorders was more than twice as high compared to individuals residing in other geographical regions (SDI, 2003A). In conjunction with atmospheric pollution, the noise pollution observed in this particular region exceeded the prescribed benchmarks for commercial zones, hence posing a significant impediment to the creation of a desirable residential and occupational milieu.

In the year 2000, an engineering study was conducted which revealed the presence of structural deficiencies in the aforementioned roadways, hence highlighting the imperative need for a significant rehabilitation endeavour. The degradation and contamination of the Cheonggyecheon River stream may be attributed to the processes of urbanization, transportation , and industrial activities.

The objectives established for the urban revitalization initiative included the restoration of Cheonggyecheon’s natural ecosystem and the development of a public space that prioritizes human needs and experiences. 

The proposed project included a range of objectives, including the restoration and landscaping of the stream, the establishment of measures to ensure water resource sustainability, the implementation of sewage treatment systems, the management of traffic flow, the construction of bridges across the river, the preservation and restoration of historical assets, and the effective resolution of social problems. 

In addition to the aforementioned, the plan was formulated with the objectives of the restoration of cultural assets, as well as the conservation of all dug heritage pieces throughout the building process. Enhance the overall quality of air, water, and living conditions. The objective was also to establish a connection between the two geographically divided areas due to the river.

In the year 2003, the river underwent a process of re-exposure and was subsequently designated as the central element of a broader initiative aimed at revitalizing the urban environment. The rerouting of traffic, construction of bridges across the river, establishment of public parks and recreational areas, and renovation of nearby places of historical and cultural significance were undertaken. The enhancement of environmental circumstances resulted in the establishment of a focal point that has value in historical context and possesses aesthetic allure.

The waste that was generated as a result of the destruction was subjected to recycling processes and then used again. The process of urban redevelopment included the transformation of the site into a human-centric and ecologically conscious area, with a shoreline and pathways that run alongside the stream. Embankments were constructed to mitigate the most severe floods that the city may experience during the next two centuries. A total of 13.5 meters were designated to accommodate walkways, two-lane unidirectional roadways, and loading/unloading zones situated on both sides of the stream. A whole sum of 22 bridges was constructed over the Cheonggyecheon, including 5 bridges designated for pedestrian use and 17 bridges designed for motor vehicle traffic.

The stream that has been restored can be accessed from a total of 17 different sites. Terraces and lower-level pavements were constructed along both the top and lower segments of the stream, while the middle part was specifically planned to serve as an environmentally sustainable area. The incorporation of river parks and public art in many sites was undertaken to establish a platform for hosting performances and cultural events, while simultaneously augmenting the total capacity for public engagement and pleasure within the newly developed area.

The process of enhancing the aesthetic appeal of historic streets and structures was undertaken, with particular attention given to the restoration of the Gwangtonggyo Bridge. Originally constructed in 1410 to span the Cheonggyecheon Stream, this bridge was meticulously restored to its former condition, incurring a substantial expenditure of more than $5.9 million.

• Amber, P. (2011) ChonGae Canal Restoration Project / mikyoung Kim design, ArchDaily. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/174242/chongae-canal-restoration-project-mikyoung-kim-design .
• Case study: Cheonggyecheon; Seoul, Korea (2017) Global Designing Cities Initiative. Available at: https://globaldesigningcities.org/publication/global-street-design-guide/streets/special-conditions/elevated-structure-removal/case-study-cheonggyecheon-seoul-korea/ .
• Cheonggyecheon (2015) Photography Life. Available at: https://photographylife.com/photo-spots/cheonggyecheon .
• Cheonggyecheon Stream restoration project (2011) Landscapeperformance.org. Available at: https://www.landscapeperformance.org/case-study-briefs/cheonggyecheon-stream-restoration-project .
• McAskie, L. (2021) From emissions to Edens: Our top 5 car-free urban transformations, Citychangers.org – Home Base for Urban Shapers. CityChangers.org. Available at: https://citychangers.org/top-5-car-free-urban-transformations/?cn-reloaded=1 .
• River restoration and conservation (no date) Coolgeography.co.uk. Available at: https://www.coolgeography.co.uk/advanced/River_Restoration_Conservation.php .
• Seoul (no date) Worldbank.org. Available at: https://urban-regeneration.worldbank.org/Seoul .
• South Korea: Restoration of the cheonggyecheon river in downtown Seoul (no date) Ser-rrc.org. Available at: https://www.ser-rrc.org/project/south-korea-restoration-of-the-cheonggyecheon-river-in-downtown-seoul/ .
• studioTECHNE (2018) Field notes: Tom goes to Seoul, studio TECHNE | architects. Available at: https://www.technearchitects.com/blogs/2018/12/12/toms-field-notes-from-seoul (Accessed: August 6, 2023).

A Postgraduate student of Architecture, developing an ability of Design led through Research. A perceptive observer who strives to get inspired and, in doing so, become one. Always intrigued by the harmonious relationships between people and space and the juxtaposition of the tangible and intangible in architecture.

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Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration Project

Landscape performance benefits, environmental.

• Provides flood protection for up to a 200-year flood event and can sustain a flow rate of 118mm/hr.
• Increased overall biodiversity by 639% between the pre-restoration work in 2003 and the end of 2008 with the number of plant species increasing from 62 to 308, fish species from 4 to 25, bird species from 6 to 36, aquatic invertebrate species from 5 to 53, insect species from 15 to 192, mammals from 2 to 4, and amphibians from 4 to 8.
• Reduces the urban heat island effect with temperatures along the stream 3.3° to 5.9°C cooler than on a parallel road 4-7 blocks away. This results from the removal of the paved expressway, the cooling effect of the stream, increased vegetation, reduction in auto trips, and a 2.2-7.8% increase in wind speeds moving through the corridor.
• Reduced small-particle air pollution by 35% from 74 to 48 micrograms per cubic meter. Before the restoration, residents of the area were more than twice as likely to suffer from respiratory disease as those in other parts of the city.
• Contributed to 15.1% increase in bus ridership and 3.3% in subway ridership in Seoul between 2003 and the end of 2008.
• Attracts an average of 64,000 visitors daily. Of those, 1,408 are foreign tourists who contribute up to 2.1 billion won ($1.9 million USD) in visitor spending to the Seoul economy.
• Increased the price of land by 30-50% for properties within 50 meters of the restoration project. This is double the rate of property increases in other areas of Seoul.
• Increased number of businesses by 3.5% in Cheonggyecheon area during 2002-2003, which was double the rate of business growth in downtown Seoul; increased the number of working people in the Cheonggyecheon area by 0.8%, versus a decrease in downtown Seoul of 2.6%.

At a Glance

SeoAhn Total Landscape

Project Type

Park/Open space Stream restoration

Former Land Use

Transportation

Cheonggyecheon Stream Seoul , South Korea Map it

Climate Zone

Humid continental

~100 acres 3.6 miles (5.84 km) long

~$380 million USD - Total project; ~$120 million USD - Landscape portion

Completion Date

The City of Seoul is in the process of an important paradigm shift, changing from an autocentric development-oriented urban landscape to one that values the quality of life of its people and the importance of functioning ecosystems. By demolishing an elevated freeway and uncovering a section of the historic Cheonggyecheon Stream, the Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project created both ecological and recreational opportunities along a 3.6-mile corridor in the center of Seoul. The project has proven catalytic, spurring economic growth and development in an area of Seoul that had languished over the last several decades.

The aging elevated freeway and concrete deck covering the Cheonggyecheon stream posed safety risks and needed to be repaired or removed. The government wanted to improve connectivity between the city’s north and south sides, which the freeway divided. Transportation experts were concerned that removing the elevated highway would increase traffic congestion and chaos in the northern end of the city since it carried 169,000 vehicles per day. The idea of removing the freeway also met initial opposition from many local business owners. The proposed stream restoration also presented challenges. Water is not naturally present in the Cheonggyecheon for most of the year except during the summer rainy season, making it difficult to create a consistent urban amenity.

The Seoul Metropolitan Government chose to dismantle the elevated freeway and concrete deck covering the stream. To improve north-south linkages, 22 bridges – 12 pedestrian bridges and 10 for automobiles and pedestrians – were proposed to connect the two sides of the Cheonggyecheon. To reduce traffic congestion, car use was discouraged in the city center, rapid bus lines were added, and improved loading and unloading systems were implemented. To address business owners’ concerns, the Seoul Metropolitan Government held over 4,200 meetings to build consensus. Economic support was given to businesses and special agreements were made with vendors who had to move due to project construction. To address the variable flow of the Cheonggyecheon, water from the Han River and several subway pump stations is treated and pumped to create a consistent flow with an average depth of 40 centimeters in the Cheonggyecheon.

• The restoration created a 3.6-mile continuous east-west green corridor for pedestrians, bicyclists, and wildlife.
• Connectivity within the greater transportation network was improved by adding 22 bridges (12 pedestrian, 10 for automobiles and pedestrians), connections with 5 nearby subway lines, and 18 bus lines serving the neighborhood.
• The restoration reestablished connections between waterways. The Cheonggyecheon eventually runs into Jungraechon stream, which leads out into the Han River. The wetlands at their meeting point are designated as an ecological conservation area.
• Because water is only naturally present in the Cheonggyecheon during the summer rainy season, 120,000 tons of water from the Han River and several subway pump stations is is pumped and treated to create a consistent flow with an average depth of 40 centimeters in Cheonggyecheon.
• Native willow swamps, shallows and marshes were constructed in 29 different locations along the restoration, creating habitat for fish, amphibians, insects, and birds.
• A fish spawning ground was created where the Cheonggyecheon and Jungnangcheon meet.
• Terraced vertical walls give visitors access as water levels change, create seasonal interest as levels submerge and re-emerge, and provide flood protection for the city.
• Natural stones bridge the two banks, creating walkways for adventurous pedestrians and to helping regulate water speeds and levels and various points along the stream.
• Construction materials were salvaged and re-used from the concrete deck structure and elevated highway demolition. All of the scrap iron and 95% of waste concrete and asphalt was reused.

Had the Cheonggyecheon Expressway remained, it would have required 100 billion won ($90 million USD) and 3 years of repairs to secure the safety of the aging structure. While these costs would be approximately 289 billion won ($260 million USD) less than the cost of the Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration, the restoration has served as a catalyst for an estimated 22 trillion won ($1.98 billion USD) worth of capital investment in Cheonggyecheon-area redevelopment that would not have otherwise been invested.

• Design solutions must consider the needs of all users from the initial planning and design phase. With the Cheonggyecheon restoration, the needs of certain user groups, including those with visual impairments and mobility challenges, were overlooked. After complaints culminated in a protest march, elevators were installed at seven locations, and free wheelchairs were provided for users with mobility problems. Because these design interventions were added later, they were more costly and are not fully integrated accessibility solutions.
• A Seoul Development Institute study included the following suggestions for how the restoration could improve its ecological performance: replace granite with vegetated low-flow revetment to increase habitat area, install spur dyke to deepen water and decrease velocity to improve fish habitat in certain areas, conserve variation in river bottom to support invertebrates, create alternate detour channels for fish to encourage migration, and create vegetated filter strips to reduce contaminants entering the stream from motorway runoff.

Project Team

Client: Seoul Metropolitan Government Main Designers: Cheongsuk Engineering (Section 1) Saman Engineering (Section 2) Dongmyung Engineering (Section 3) Landscape Architect: SeoAhn Total Landscape Main Contractors: Daelim (Section 1) LG Construction (Section 2) Hyundai Construction (Section 3) Independent Check Engineers: Suhyoung Engineering (Section 1) Cheil Engineering (Section 2) Cheongsuk Engineering (Section 3)

Role of the Landscape Architect

After the civil engineers oversaw the first phase of the project, the landscape architects and designers directly oversaw the second and third stages of the construction in an attempt to create a more seamless environment. This is atypical for Korean construction projects, with the landscape architects managing three different landscape design groups, the civil engineering team, the bridge design team, and the lighting design team.

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Stream daylighting can increase watershed-scale nitrogen retention. Nitrate travels on average 18 times farther downstream in buried streams...

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About Streets

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Case Study: Cheonggyecheon; Seoul, Korea

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• Special Conditions
• Elevated Structure Removal

The Seoul Metropolitan Government decided to dismantle the 10-lane roadway and the 4-lane elevated highway that carried over 170,000 vehicles daily along the Cheonggyecheon stream. The transformed street encourages transit use over private car use, and more environmentally sustainable, pedestrian oriented public space. The project contributed to a 15.1% increase in bus ridership and a 3.3% increase in subway ridership between 2003 and 2008. The revitalized street now attracts 64,000 visitors daily.

• Improve air quality, water quality, and quality of life.
• Reconnect the two parts of the city that were previously divided by road infrastructure.

Lessons Learned

Innovative governance and interagency coordination were critical to the process.

Public engagement, with residents, local merchants, and entrepreneurs, was important to streamlining the process.

Reducing travel-lane capacity resulted in a decrease in vehicle traffic.

Involvement

Public Agencies Central Government, Seoul Municipality, Seoul Metropolitan Government, Cultural Heritage Administration

Private Groups and Partnerships Cheonggyecheon Research Group

Citizen Associations and Unions Citizen’s Committee for Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project

Designers and Engineers Seoul Development Institute urban design team, Dongmyung Eng, Daelim E&C

Close to 4,000 meetings were held with residents. A “Wall of Hope” program was developed to encourage involvement and resulted in 20,000 participants.

Key Elements

Removal of elevated highway concrete structure.

Daylighting of a previously covered urban stream.

Creation of an extensive new open space along the daylighted stream.

Creation of pedestrian amenities and recreational spaces (two plazas, eight thematic places).

Construction of 21 new bridges, reconnecting the urban fabric.

Project Timeline

Adapted by Global Street Design Guide published by Island Press.

Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project 1918-2004

• infrastructure
• ecological restoration
• place making

The evolution of the Cheonggyecheon River in just twenty-nine months from an outmoded utilitarian highway into a multipurpose performative infrastructural piece of unprecedented size merits recognition as a seminal project in contemporary urban design. The project is a remarkable achievement that recovers the biological and social ecology of the city, and demonstrates the profound ability of design at the urban scale to provoke positive transformation effectively over large territories. The project signifies a broader sea change in Asian attitudes toward city design, from a quantitative model concerned primarily with growth to a more qualitative program that incorporates quality of life and environmental sustainability into economic development strategies. City design cannot be regarded merely as the product of an inspired designer or a skillful politician; projects at the scale of the Cheonggyecheon intervention often do not have a single designer and, in most cases, require exemplary political support and public negotiation. In the case of the Cheonggyecheon River Restoration Project, the successful completion was made possible by the presence and constant support of Mayor and President Lee Myung-bak, the work of the urban design team at the Seoul Development Institute, the coordination of the Seoul Metropolitan Government, a public participation process, and the contributions of specialists and engineers from various firms. Together these diverse players formed a brilliant and effective team, collaborating to establish formal logics and systems of synergy among disciplines and across specialized sectors. We see here the interdisciplinary role of the urban design project, facilitating critical connections between landscape and economics, engineering and planning, politics and architecture. Cheonggyecheon is an urban intervention with far-reaching significance for the city as a whole, as the project scope is far more extensive than the linear park. Environmentally, the restored waterway and plantings have not only changed the ecology along its banks but have affected the climatic conditions in the city center. Economically, the Cheonggyecheon has stimulated business activity in the surrounding area and, for the first time in Seoul's modern history, effectively linked the north and south of Seoul while reducing traffic pressure on the central business district by increasing the transportation capacity of buses and subways. The project stands as clear evidence that coordinated urban design can catalyze economic development, reinforce connection with the natural environment, and improve the quality of the urban condition for residents and visitors alike. Moreover, the project is paradigmatic of sustainable attitudes toward city design and development, integrating systemic public transportation improvements with meticulous ecological restoration to facilitate novel, authentic, and innovative urban experiences.

Project Leads

• Seoul Metropolitan Government
• Cheonggyecheon Restoration Headquarter

Organizations

• Cheonggyecheon Restoration Citizens Committee
• The Cheonggyecheon Research Group
• National Government
• Construction Agencies
• Construction
• Design Development
• Schematic Design

Land use type

Gross floor area, community infrastructure.

• physical mobility
• public park

Veronica Rudge Green Prize in Urban Design

Best public administration award of venice biennale, sustainable transport award, bibliography.

Creative Seoul: A Lesson for Asian Creative Cities

• First Online: 21 November 2020

Cite this chapter

• Kim-Marie Spence 5  

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Seoul is the urban locus of a remarkable pop cultural phenomenon, the Korean Wave. Seoul’s participation in the global creative city competition results in the paradoxical exclusion of the concerns and participation of its citizens. Korean Wave-centric initiatives are focused at either attracting more tourists and/or providing marketing opportunities for those within the industry. This Seoul case study illustrates a more nuanced analysis of the creative city reality (as a center of international creative business) and governance, one that questions the creative city paradigm as a whole. It advances the discussion of creative cities from ahistorical one that centers the European and American experiences. Seoul therefore questions the paradigm for creative city policymaking in the Non-West.

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President Park Geun-hye was impeached on charges of corruption due to the steering of funds from various business interests by her advisor to her (the advisor’s) foundations.

KCON is a Hallyu/Korean Wave-centric convention that began in 2012 in California. As its website ( http://www.kconusa.com/ ) notes “KCON USA is the original convention dedicated to bring “All Things Hallyu” to the American fan base” and showcases the music, dramas, food, beauty products of Korea. It has since expanded beyond the US to Japan, the UAE (Abu Dhabi), Australia, and Mexico. KCON is spearheaded by CJ E&M but has been consistently supported by the government through KOCCA, KOTRA, Ministry of SMEs & Startups, and CCEI (Center for Creative Economy & Innovation). BTS performed their first show in the USA at KCON in 2014.

Dongdaemun Design Plaza an iconic landmark designed by Zaha Hadid whose construction began in 2009 under Mayor Oh Se-hoon. It is one of the main reasons for Seoul’s design as World Design Capital in 2010.

https://www.atkearney.com/documents/20152/436064/Global+Cities+2010.pdf/1880d48e-4ac2-7b30-b24e-a0ac47382307?t=1500555506672 .

Bae, Eun-song, Meehyang Chang, Eung-Suk Park, and Dae-cheol Kim. 2017. The Effect of Hallyu on Tourism in Korea. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity 3: 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40852-017-0075-y .

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BOP Consulting. 2017. World Cities Culture Finance Report. London: BOP Consulting.

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Spence, KM. (2020). Creative Seoul: A Lesson for Asian Creative Cities. In: Gu, X., Lim, M.K., O’Connor, J. (eds) Re-Imagining Creative Cities in Twenty-First Century Asia. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46291-8_14

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Sustainable Urban Transformation: Three Cases of Urban Public Space Development from Seoul

Public spaces help revitalize a city’s environment, culture, tourism, and economy.

Urban public spaces do not only provide rest areas; they are also integral to a city’s sociocultural fabric and identity. Spaces such as public parks, plazas, and cultural facilities are places where one can share community experiences and memories.

In situations like the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic where gatherings and indoor activities are restricted, public spaces within the community function as welfare infrastructure that citizens can enjoy at a relatively low cost.

This article provides overviews of three public space development projects implemented by the city of Seoul in the Republic of Korea. Sunyudo Park is a former industrial water purification plant, which has since been repurposed into a popular ecological park. Dongdaemun Design Plaza and Park was created by the Seoul Metropolitan Government to regenerate public space in what was once a sewing industrial zone. It is now a landmark and prime tourist attraction that features unique architectural forms and a revitalized surrounding neighborhood with bustling socioeconomic activities that reflect the area’s heritage. Seoullo 7017 is a pedestrian walkway and public space that was repurposed from a former highway overpass that reached the end of its operational cycle.

Dilapidated and neglected urban infrastructures that once were in heavy use over the course of a city’s urbanization and industrialization accelerate the decline of surrounding areas, and often lead to public safety issues.

The city of Seoul, which underwent rapid changes to its urban fabric from the 1960s, is no exception. Large-scale infrastructure (i.e., water and sewage systems, stadiums, and roads), which were constructed to accommodate the city’s growing population and economic development, started to pose serious environmental and socioeconomic problems as they reached the end of their operational lifecycles around the year 2000.

The city government had to come up with strategies to reuse spaces occupied by decommissioned infrastructure to ensure that Seoul continues to develop in a sustainable manner. Unused water purification facilities, old stadiums, and highways that used to be important structures have been rendered obsolete by modern facilities.

Sunyudo is a small island located near the west bank of the Han River. Once a landmark of the Han River’s natural landscape, the island’s natural state became heavily damaged when a significant amount of rocks were taken from its banks to construct paved roads for the city. Following this, the island became the site for a large scale water purification plant built to service the growing urban population in the mid-20 th century.

The Dongdaemun area used to be one of the historic city centers of Hanyang (the old name for Seoul) where one finds traditional buildings and historic fortresses. In 1925, a large-scale sports facility was built in the area. Wholesale and retail stores specializing in sports equipment and clothing sprang up, and together with the burgeoning local sewing factories in the area, became the local economy’s central aspect. But sales dropped and the sewing industry declined as more modern sports facilities were built in other areas of the city. Under the ‘Design Seoul’ strategic vision, the Seoul Metropolitan Government in 2007 began to demolish decaying structures and facilities in the area.

Seoullo7017

The highway overpass to the north of Seoul station, opened in 1970, was a symbol of the Republic of Korea’s rapid economic growth. However, a safety inspection in 2000 revealed that the overpass had scored the lowest safety rank. In addition, the overpass was perceived negatively for deteriorating the urban aesthetics and contributing heavily to environmental pollution. The huge structure cut off several neighborhoods adjacent to each other, hindering neighborhood mobility in its immediate vicinity. The Seoul Metropolitan Government in 2009 decided to completely dismantle and reconstruct the overpass

Sunyudo Park

Over the course of expanding the number of neighborhood parks in the city’s western part, the Seoul Metropolitan Government set framework guidelines for the development of eco-friendly parks that also address environmental and ecological issues. The Sunyudo Park Transformation Design project— launched in 1999 to repurpose the decommissioned water purification plant into a park—was the first to adopt these guidelines. The park’s design embraced the industrial heritage of the old water purification plant by incorporating old rusted pipes, concrete pillars, and carved traces of water on purification tanks into prominent features of the park such as those seen in the garden of green pillars and the aquatic botanical garden. The project was completed in 2002.

Overview of Sunyudo Park. Photo credit: Seoul Metropolitan Government.

Dongdaemun Design Plaza and Park

After the sports facilities were demolished in 2008, the site was transformed into two main parts: Dongdaemun History and Culture Park and Dongdaemun Design Plaza. It transformed the area into a new multiuse space that preserves its unique cultural and historical legacy. The park was designed to incorporate the excavated and restored fortress walls, ruins, and other ancillary historic structures in the area to ensure the city’s legacy would be the park’s prominent feature. The plaza, on the other hand, was intentionally designed as a large modern architectural landmark to create an integrated cultural complex to attract an influx of population into the area.

Instead of its initial plans to dismantle and reconstruct the overpass, the Seoul Metropolitan Government in 2014 decided to repurpose it into a linear public park for the local community. The existing structure was reinforced, and various landscaping works (i.e., planting of diverse flora) were done to complete its transformation into a pedestrian-only area. To facilitate ease of access for pedestrians, elevators and stairs were installed to connect the overpass to nearby subway stations and bus stops, and to tourist information centers and public toilets. In addition, bridges connecting Seoullo7017 and several large privately-owned buildings were built to make it easier to access nearby commercial facilities. The pedestrian overpass is 1,024 meters long with 17 connecting throughways. The new Seoullo7017 was formally opened in 2017.

One of Seoullo7017’s walkways. Photo credit: Seoul Metropolitan Government.

The new public spaces play a vital role in revitalizing the environment, culture, tourism, and local economy.

Sunyudo Park has won local and international awards for its contributions to environmental and ecological restoration and aesthetics, including the Design Award from the International Federation of Landscape Architects. It was also designated as a Seoul Future Heritage and recognized for providing high-quality leisure space while educating the public on the value of ecological preservation.

The Dongdaemun Design Plaza and Park hosts a variety of design and fashion exhibitions and international workshops annually, and contributes heavily to the development of the country’s design and creative industries. Although some perceive that its modern and unique architectural features do not fit well with the local context, it is undeniable that these very features are what attract local and foreign tourists and exhibitions, enabling the Dongdaemun Design Plaza and Park to perform its function as a cultural facility that works to revitalize the local economy.

Seoullo7017 serves as a network to connect residential and commercial areas around the Seoul station. The repurposed overpass has proven to be critical infrastructure for urban regeneration efforts by providing pleasant and safe walking paths for local residents and tourists in the city center, significantly increasing foot traffic to nearby commercial areas, such as the Namdaemun Market.

Public sector leadership and governance system

The Seoul Metropolitan Government’s leadership in project planning and execution was a critical element of the public space development process. Its clear vision to maintain the Sunyudo site’s heritage, and its role in establishing development guidelines and regulatory frameworks ensured that its transformation into a park was carried out with restraint and respect for already existing structures and features.

In the case of the Dongdaemun Design Plaza and Park, the city government formed a dedicated consultative body—composed of local residents, merchants, and stakeholders from the sports and cultural industries affected by the large-scale spatial reorganization—to gather opinions, form consensus, and make decisions on the development.

Seoullo7017’s pedestrian mobility—enhanced by building throughways connected to privately-owned buildings—was achieved through the Seoul Metropolitan Government’s active engagement and negotiations with the private sector. This ultimately resulted in providing a more convenient public space for city residents.

Direct connection between public spaces and local community

The creation of public spaces can only be considered successful if these are actively used by the people. The three cases share the common design element of accessibility for residents and visitors. Easy access to buses, subways, and bicycles, and connecting the local community and surrounding commercial areas help ensure the continued vitality of the space. In the case of Seoullo7017, the surrounding communities are directly connected by pedestrian trails, and facilities were expanded to enable convenient movement from buses or subways to residential areas. On the other hand, the Dongdaemun Design Plaza and Park has become the economic, social, and cultural center of the area, with various programs to support the existing sewing and fashion wholesale/resale businesses in the area.

Shift toward sustainable development

Principles of sustainable growth—reduction of environmental pollution and economic growth that respects the natural, historical, and cultural environments—were the driving values behind the development of public spaces. Rather than the complete dismantling of the relics of the industrialization era, these were reused to create new forms of public space that enable visitors to enjoy the environmentally-friendly spaces of Sunyudo Park and Seoullo7017. In the case of the Dongdaemun Design Plaza and Park, limitations of an area’s physical development made the city rethink its redevelopment initiatives as ways to solve local socioeconomic problems. This change in thinking has proven to benefit the revitalization of dilapidated downtown areas.

Dongdaemun Design Plaza. Dream, Design, Play.

Parks in Seoul. Seonyudo Park: A Water Garden that Embraces the Beauty of the Han River.

Parks in Seoul. Seonyudo Park Map.

Parks in Seoul. Seoullo 7017.

Seonyudo Park.

Seoul Solution. 2014. Dongdaemun Design Plaza.

Ssunha. 2016. Seoul Station 7017 Info Garden Open to the Public. Seoul Solution. 28 June.

Ssunha. 2017. Seoullo 7017 Amenities for Tourists and Citizens. Seoul Solution. 18 May.

Ask the Experts

Dr. Sehyung Won is working as an urban development specialist at the Seoul Urban Solutions Agency of the Seoul Housing & Communities Corporation. He shares Seoul's outstanding urban policies with foreign cities. After graduating from the Architecture Department at Inha University, he studied urban planning and design at Seoul National University Graduate School of Environmental Studies. He lectured on urban planning and design theory at the Korea National University of Transportation.

Dong Hoon Shin specializes in sustainable urban development and the digital transformation of public service delivery. He is actively involved in the design and delivery of technical assistance and advisory for capacity-constrained cities across the globe.

The Seoul Urban Solutions Agency (SUSA) was established by the Seoul Metropolitan Government to share its urban development experiences with other cities seeking to become sustainable and smart urban domains. Through a wide network of partnerships with the public and private sectors within and outside the Republic of Korea, SUSA works to connect and leverage its wide range of knowledge and resources to assist in solving the development challenges of its partner cities. 

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Walkable City Seoul

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City Government, Community / Citizen Group, other

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Whole City/Administrative Region

Ongoing since 2016

Showcasing the positive social, environmental and economic impact of a walkable city.

The Seoul Metropolitan Government (SMG) regards walking as the most equitable means of transportation available to citizens. The Walkable City Seoul project was launched to ensure the city is a place where all citizens can safely enjoy walking in and around urban streets and public spaces regardless of whether motor vehicles are allowed or not.

Seoullo 7017, a tourism network that connects 17 pedestrian roads, is an initiative of the Walkable City Seoul project. This urban regeneration initiative aims to revitalize the local economy by promoting walking tours of the city's historical and cultural heritage sites.

This case study was contributed from the UCLG Learning Team .

For further information about the case study, click here.

Sustainable Development Goals

According to the Walkable and Liveable Communities Institute, walkable cities are defined as: they consider persons, not their automobiles, at the center of the design scale. When we design communities around the human foot, we create places that are socially, environmentally, and economically vibrant.

The concept of a walkable city has been adopted by many cities around the world. In Seoul, citizens, community groups and business have become increasingly aware of the environmental, social, and economic benefits of active mobility and have begun to demand more walkable spaces from the city government.

In 2016 the walkable city became a campaign direction for city development in Seoul.

SMG commenced implementation of the Walkable City Seoul concept in 2017. The walkability campaign included promoting a people-oriented traffic environment to improve the quality of citizens' lives and revitalize the urban environment.

In December 2017, SMG established a comprehensive plan for the balanced development of the east-west area around the Seoul Station, which was cut off by railroads - Seoullo 7017. The urban regeneration project covers a total of 1,955,333 square meters over five areas.

The five implementation strategies as follows:

• Through this project, boost the local economy.
• Aim to be a starting point for transforming Seoul into a pedestrian-friendly city.
• Provide citizens with easy access to historical and cultural heritage sties in the city.
• Encourage citizens to rediscover the merits of the area in which they live.
• City-making with citizens.

SMG improved walking activity by building a pedestrian network connected to Seoullo 7017 - an elevated pedestrian walkway. To encourage the citizens' walking activity to flow into as many areas as possible, SMG fixed connecting pedestrian roads and improved nearby alleys, so citizens experience a safe and pleasant environment.

Increased accessibility to buildings, reinvigorated commercial streets and protocols addressing the safety of citizens have improved the street environment and improved pedestrian safety.

Resident-led urban regeneration such as local festivals and pop-up stores are encouraged and are developed through public recruitment.

The City government has steadily expanded pedestrian-only streets to provide walking hubs for citizens convenience and ensure the community's safety.

To carry out the urban regeneration project near the Seoul Station, SMG organized working groups as follows:

• Seoul Urban Regeneration Center:  is a communication channel that connects resident councils with authorities and experts.
• Field Experts: is an advisory group for the urban regeneration plan and basic directions of higher-level plans, such as major issues and strategic plans for the revitalization project.
• Resident Council: is a council established to gather and reconcile different opinions to facilitate participation and agreement of residents.

The Seoul Community Regeneration Cooperative (Seoul CRC) oversees the operation of anchor facilities for residents. The anchor facilities are designed to play a pivotal role as a cultural hub and are being used as public facilities for citizens holding concerts, special lectures, and launching shows throughout the year.

The Seoul CRC is an organization dedicated to urban regeneration. Around 70% of its members are local people, and 30% are professionals and activists of local civic groups in urban regeneration.

A budget of ₩106.8 billion has been secured for 63 projects: 22 projects for local economic revitalization, 12 for improving pedestrian environment, 15 for history and culture regeneration, 8 for life environment regeneration, and 6 for community regeneration. The total budget comprises national funding (20%), city funding (50%), district funding (8%), and private investment (22%).

After opening in May 2017, Seoullo 7017 had over 10 million visitors within a year. In March 2021 the accumulated number of visitors totalled 31 million. The pedestrian overpass allows citizens to freely move between the west and east sides of the Seoul Station. The increased walking activity and pedestrian traffic is stimulating the local area's economy.

Seoullo 7017 has acted as a catalyst for the City's urban regeneration project around the Seoul Station. The successful renovation plan included the repair of eight locations that were 4.2 km long combined and the construction of a plaza where citizens can access the Namdaemun Market.

In November 2019, eight anchor facilities opened to help revitalize the local economy and communities. The income generated from the facilities will help lay the foundation for an independent economic model led by the locals.

Cheongpa Hill House, one of the anchor facilities, houses a café that enables citizens to socialise together and offers cooking classes for  citizens. However, it is temporarily closed because of COVID-19.

Pleasant and safe communities are created by improving the pedestrian environment. By prioritizing pedestrians and redesigning spaces around people rather than transport modes will help transform the city. In line with the pedestrian-first approach, SMG has consistently rolled out people-friendly mobility projects, including pedestrian only streets, transit malls, and traffic-calm neighbourhoods that everyone can benefit from and makes the city more liveable.

In 2018, the number of elderly residents comprised over 12% of the city’s population, making the city an ageing society. It is imperative to improve the pedestrian environment, for people with reduced mobility. It is also necessary to formulate proper pedestrian policies to which citizens can adhere too.

Additionally, there are still many things that need to improve, such as narrow alleys, dilapidated buildings, illegal parking, and fire- and crime-prone environment.

Many residents and businesses have participated in this project, however, more active collaboration with citizens is needed, along with increased cooperation with the community organizations already involved.

Many countries, including Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, Sweden, and the United States, reached out to the Seoul Urban Regeneration Center to learn what contribution Seoullo 7017 has brought to the local area and economy; whether more people were walking than before; and how fond residents have grown of their communities through the regeneration project.

Seoullo7017 website - seoullo7017.co.kr/SSF/GLO/ENG/M000.do

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Case Study on the Policy Management in Seoul: Seoul Case Study Program (SCSP) is a part of the effort of Seoul Metropolitan Government (SMG) to foster international cooperation. It was established by signing MOUs with 11 universities in the United States(U.S.) in 2010 and with the University of Sheffield in the United Kingdom(The U.K.) in 2012 for the purpose of promoting Seoul’s successful city policies and establishing a global network to provide young scholars with a body of knowledge regarding policy issues in Seoul. The program is designed as a 7-day study abroad program for the U.S. and U.K. universities to visit Seoul, one of the world’s most dynamic cities.

In partnership with the University of Seoul (UOS), SMG designed and launched the SCSP for graduate students in public administration and urban sciences to experience and understand Korea’s politics, economy and culture during their stay in one of Asia’s largest, most modern and progressive cities. The program provides a window of opportunity for academic cooperation, and exchange of ideas for the management of modern mega cities featuring the following topics: Urban Planning / E-government / Welfare / Housing / Green Policy / Human Resource Management System and etc.

As of June 2023, 945 participants from 14 universities have completed the program and the result has been evidently positive as an increasing number of universities have shown their keen interest in joining the program.

International School of Urban Sciences (ISUS) at UOS serves as a platform for implementing the SCSP. ISUS at UOS is responsible for managing the program and two staffs are dedicated to the management of the program.

Program Objectives

• To support young scholars to gain a better understanding of Seoul’s various policies
• To provide opportunities to gain experience in the urban and traditional culture of Seoul through numerous field trips
• To enable participants to engage in policy debates with Seoul’s public officials who are in charge of the policy implementation
• To assist participants to specialize in the field of comparative public administration
• To establish a network of urban scholars and analysts interested in the City of Seoul
• To share Seoul’s experience with urban management and public administration with the international community

Major Activities

• Participants spend seven days in Seoul and experience 8~10 presentations and 6~8 field visits focused on Seoul’s urban policies and related issues

Learning Outcomes

• Gain a comparative perspective in public administration
• Be able to discuss and critique major issues in public policy and administration
• Understand the idea of administrative reform in the context of the Seoul Metropolitan Government
• Have an enhanced understanding of the traditional as well as modern culture of South Korea
• Appreciate cultural differences and similarities between South Korea and partner countries

Address : 412, Law School Building, University of Seoul, 163 Seoulsiripdae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02504,Republic of Korea

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All Goods Things Must Come to an End

June 7, 2024

Programs for this blog post

Authored by:.

My time here in Seoul has been full of experiences I will never forget. My intercultural competence and tolerance has been challenged and pushed, but through the lessons I learned here I have been able to overcome differences. It is terribly sad to be writing my final blog post, but it just means there is now a new adventure ready to start.

Throughout the entire semester, CIEE has been nothing but a positive. I want to express my gratitude and genuine like towards the program and staff. I believe that CIEE is the best study abroad program to choose for anyone coming to Seoul. From the beginning there was always a feeling of comfort and support, even before getting to Seoul. When I have spoken to students in other programs outside of CIEE, there is always uncertainness and not knowing who to reach out to in case of emergency or for general questions. However, the CIEE team spends time making meaningful relationships with their students reassuring that they will be able to help with anything. With an online orientation before arrival and three day in person orientation, CIEE makes sure their students are prepared for surviving in their new environment. 

Along with this, CIEE offered many activities and opportunities for students to participate in cultural activities and excursions. These almost always being free. My favorite activity CIEE offered was the ceramics trip to Mungyeongsaejae. This trip allowed students to see the beautiful countryside and meet one of Koreas national treasure and create a piece of pottery with him. Afterwards we were taken to a delicious restaurant and walked around a nearby palace. It was an all day experience where we learned about Korean culture and its history. On this trip two of CIEE's staff joined and interacted with the students, making sure everyone had someone to talk to and having fun. This is just one instance of the CIEE staff members going above and beyond by creating a safe and comfortable space for their students. 

I also enrolled in the CIEE course, Intercultural Communication and Leadership. Throughout this course I learned valuable skills for dealing with a new culture and how to react to it. It was very helpful with my ability to adjust to the culture in Seoul and deal with feeling different. The class was always one where we engaged in conversation and expressed our difficulties with being in a new culture. Thanks to this class we all were able to approach our differences better. 

CIEE is definitely one of the reasons I was able to have such a memorable and amazing experience here in South Korea. My friends and I met through CIEE and some of our best memories are at CIEE events. We all love the staff and are so thankful for their hard work. I could not have had a better experience. I want anyone who is uncertain about studying abroad through CIEE, don't be, you will have the best time, trust me. 

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• Published: 04 June 2024

Psychiatric adverse events following COVID-19 vaccination: a population-based cohort study in Seoul, South Korea

• Hong Jin Kim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8162-9585 1 ,
• Min-Ho Kim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4909-2308 2 ,
• Myeong Geun Choi 3 &
• Eun Mi Chun   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9616-2722 3  

Molecular Psychiatry ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Bipolar disorder
• Schizophrenia

Evidence has suggested an increased risk of psychiatric manifestations following viral infections including coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). However, psychiatric adverse events (AEs) after COVID-19 vaccination, which were documented in case reports and case series, remain unclear. This study is aimed to investigate the psychiatric AEs after COVID-19 vaccination from a large population-based cohort in Seoul, South Korea. We recruited 50% of the Seoul-resident population randomly selected from the Korean National Health Insurance Service (KNHIS) claims database on 1, January, 2021. The included participants ( n  = 2,027,353) from the Korean National Health Insurance Service claims database were divided into two groups according to COVID-19 vaccination. The cumulative incidences per 10,000 of psychiatric AEs were assessed on one week, two weeks, one month, and three months after COVID-19 vaccination. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% Confidence interval (CIs) of psychiatric AEs were measured for the vaccinated population. The cumulative incidence of depression, anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, sleep disorders, and sexual disorders at three months following COVID-19 vaccination were higher in the vaccination group than no vaccination group. However, schizophrenia and bipolar disorders showed lower cumulative incidence in the vaccination group than in the non-vaccinated group. Depression (HR [95% CI] = 1.683 [1.520–1.863]), anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders (HR [95% CI] = 1.439 [1.322–1.568]), and sleep disorders (HR [95% CI] = 1.934 [1.738–2.152]) showed increased risks after COVID-19 vaccination, whereas the risks of schizophrenia (HR [95% CI] = 0.231 [0.164–0.326]) and bipolar disorder (HR [95% CI] = 0.672 [0.470–0.962]). COVID-19 vaccination increased the risks of depression, anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, and sleep disorders while reducing the risk of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Therefore, special cautions are necessary for administering additional COVID-19 vaccinations to populations vulnerable to psychiatric AEs.

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Introduction.

In the unprecedented era of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), the global outbreak of COVID-19 has had an unpredictable and heterogeneous impact on the healthcare system worldwide [ 1 , 2 ]. Especially in mental illness, COVID-19 showed an increased risk of mental health problems together with lockdown, social distancing, and uncertain causes [ 3 , 4 ]. There have been growing concerns that the COVID-19 pandemic has increasingly had a detrimental effect on long-term mental health at an early stage in the development of vaccines [ 5 , 6 ].

The rapid development of COVID-19 vaccines, ranging from mRNA-based vaccines (BNT162b2, mRNA-1273) to viral vector vaccines (cDNA-based vaccines; AZD1222, JNJ-78436735), has contributed to overcoming the COVID-19 pandemic in the view of severity and mortality [ 1 , 7 ]. However, it has also given rise to new issues such as post-COVID-19 sequelae and vaccine-related adverse events (AEs) [ 2 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. With their issues, mental health is still an unsolved concern in the post-COVID-19 era [ 4 , 6 ]. Many studies have focused on the correlation between mental health and COVID-19 breakthrough [ 11 ]. However, mental illness as a result of the COVID-19 vaccine itself, specifically post-vaccination psychiatric AEs was not well-studied, with scant evidence in the literature, which was documented primarily in the form of case reports and case series [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].

In this study, we investigated the psychiatric AEs including schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, sleep disorders, and sexual disorders after COVID-19 vaccination from a population-based cohort using the Korean National Health Insurance Service (KNHIS) claims database in Seoul, South Korea.

Materials and methods

The concept and protocol of this study were approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of our institute, which waived the requirement for informed consent because data analyses were performed retrospectively using anonymized data derived from the South Korean NHIS database.

Data source

We used the KNHIS claims database to recruit a randomly selected 50% of the population residing in Seoul on 1 January 2021 with their diagnostic records up to 31 December 2021. The process of selecting a random 50% of the population in Seoul was carried out by the KNHIS system. After authorization by KNHIS, the data collection was performed in November 2022. The psychiatric AEs included schizophrenia, mood disorders (depression, and bipolar disorder), anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders (anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, reacting to severe stress, and adjustment disorders, conversion disorders, somatoform disorders, and other neurotic disorders), sleep disorders, eating disorders, and sexual disorders using the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) Tenth Revision codes after the index date. This population-based cohort study was also conducted by the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines [ 16 ].

Study population

A total of 4,348,412 individuals living in Seoul, South Korea, constituting 50% of the population, were included and investigated as of January 1, 2021. Individuals under 20 years (n = 144,525) were excluded, leaving 4,203,887 individuals for analysis. We initially divided into two groups based on COVID-19 vaccination and defined as vaccinated group as individuals who received two doses of the COVID-19 vaccine. For the 3,839,014 vaccinated population, we excluded 1,684,625 individuals who did not receive a second dose by 1, October 2021. For 364,873 unvaccinated population, we excluded 13,890 individuals who died on 1, October 2021. The diagnostic records for the year preceding the index date were traced to investigate the causal relationship between vaccine administration and AEs. The occurrence of the target psychiatric disorders was defined as receiving a primary diagnosis of the disease from the day following the index date. Individuals who had received a primary or secondary diagnosis of any target disease for a year prior to index date were excluded from the study. We finally included the participants defined by two groups in this study: the vaccinated group (n = 1,718,999) and the non-vaccinated group (n = 308,354) (Fig.  1 ).

Flowchart of this study.

Outcome measurements

The primary outcome measure was the cumulative incidence of psychiatric AEs per 10,000 population at one week, two weeks, one month, and three months between two groups. The secondary outcome measures were risks of psychiatric target AEs for COVID-19 vaccination using the odd ratios (ORs) and hazard ratios (HRs). Furthermore, subgroup analyses were also conducted based on gender, age, the number of COVID-19 vaccine doses, the vaccine type (mRNA vaccine, cDNA vaccine, and heterologous vaccination), health insurance level, presence of diabetes mellitus (DM), hypertension (HTN), hyperlipidemia, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Age, gender, insurance level, Charlson’s comorbidity index (CCI), presence of DM, HTN, hyperlipidemia, and COPD, and prior COVID-19 infection history were extracted using their ICD-19 codes, which were suggested by Sundararajan et al. [ 17 ]. The presence of comorbid diseases (i.e., DM, HTN, hyperlipidemia, and COPD), categories of CCI, and the prior COVID-19 infection history were determined based on receiving a primary or secondary diagnosis at least twice within one year before the index date. The National Health Insurance (NHI) premium was used as a proxy for income, as it is proportional to monthly income, encompassing both earnings and capital gains. The income quantiles of the enrolled participants were subdivided into three groups (low-, middle- and high-income groups in medical aid enrollees and the 0–33, 34–66, and 67–100 centiles of NHI enrollees). Detailed information for ICD-10 codes used for analysis is presented in Supplementary Table  1 .

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using the SAS Enterprise Guide (version 8.3., SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA). A normal distribution was confirmed with the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Baseline patient characteristics and comorbidities were reported as means ± standard deviation for continuous variables and ratio for categorical variables. Student’s t test was performed for continuous variables and the chi-square test for categorical variables. The cumulative incidence was calculated per 10,000 populations. To identify the association between COVID-19 vaccination and psychiatric AEs, a multiple logistic regression model was used for ORs, corresponding to 95% CIs. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to estimate the HRs and 95% CIs. Two-sided p values of 0.05 or less were considered to indicate statistical significance.

The participants’ characteristics

In total, 2,027,353 subjects were included in this study. Among them, 308,354 (15.21%) had not received the COVID-19 vaccine (i.e., non-vaccinated subjects, no vaccination group in this study), whereas 1,718,999 (84.79%) were vaccinated against COVID-19 (i.e., vaccinated subjects, the vaccinated group in this study). The baseline characteristics of the vaccinated and non-vaccinated groups are presented in Table  1 .

The cumulative incidences per 10,000 of psychiatric AEs following the COVID-19 vaccination

The cumulative incidence of the psychiatric AEs at three months was 0.51 (95% CI, 0.40–0.62) vs 1.98 (95% CI, 1.48–2.47) for schizophrenia, 18.30 (95% CI, 17.66-18.93) vs 14.24 (95% CI, 12.91–15.57) for depression, 0.79 (95% CI, 0.66–0.92) vs 1.39 (95% CI, 0.98–1.81) for bipolar disorder, 28.41 (95% CI, 27.62–29.21) vs 20.27 (95% CI, 18.68–21.86) for anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, 0.30 (95% CI, 0.22–0.38) vs 0.32 (95% CI, 0.12–0.53) for eating disorder, 28.85 (95% CI, 28.05–29.96) vs 12.19 (95% CI, 10.96–13.43) for sleep disorders, 0.27 (95% CI, 0.19–0.34) vs 0.03 (95% CI, 0.00–0.10) for sexual disorders between the vaccinated group and non-vaccinated group. Therefore, the cumulative incidences of schizophrenia ( p  < 0.001) and bipolar disorder ( p  = 0.002) were significantly lower in the vaccinated group than in the non-vaccinated group. Meanwhile, depression ( p  < 0.001), anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders ( p  < 0.001), sleep disorders ( p  < 0.001), and sexual disorders ( p  = 0.007) showed significantly higher cumulative incidence in the vaccinated group than in the non-vaccinated group. There was no statistical difference in the cumulative incidence of eating disorders at three months between the two groups ( p  = 0.724). Detailed information of cumulative incidence was presented in Table  2 .

The cumulative incidences per 10,000 of psychiatric AEs according to vaccine types

Our data was also stratified by vaccine type including vaccination using mRNA-based vaccine only (only mRNA vaccine), vaccination using cDNA-based vaccine only (only cDNA vaccine), and heterologous vaccination, which were compared by non-vaccinated group. For decreased incidences of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder following COVID-19 vaccination, schizophrenia showed the lowest cumulative incidence at three months in the case of heterologous vaccination (0.42; 95% CI, 0.05–0.79) compared to other vaccine types with statistical significances ( p  < 0.001). The lowest cumulative incidence of bipolar disorder at three months was observed in the case of vaccination using only cDNA vaccine (0.39; 95% CI, 0.23-0.55) with a statistical difference ( p  < 0.001). For increased incidences of depression, anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, sleep disorders, and sexual disorders following COVID-19 vaccination, the highest cumulative incidence of depression at three months was significantly observed in heterologous vaccination (23.31; 95% CI, 20.56–26.05) compared to other vaccine types ( p  < 0.001). However, the cumulative incidence of depression at three months was lower in the case of vaccination using only cDNA vaccine (12.26; 95% CI, 11.37–13.15) than in the non-vaccinated group (14.24; 95% CI, 12.91–15.57) with statistical differences ( p  = 0.014). The incidence of anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders was significantly observed to be highest in the case of heterologous vaccination (31.75; 95% CI, 28.55–34.95), followed by only mRNA vaccination (29.13; 95% CI, 28.08–30.18) and only cDNA vaccination (26.53; 95% CI, 25.22–27.83) ( p  < 0.001). The incidence of sleep disorders at three months was significantly observed to be high level in both cases of only cDNA vaccination (34.78; 95% CI, 33.28–36.28), and heterologous vaccination (32.09; 95% CI, 28.87–35.31), followed by only mRNA vaccination (24.98; 95% CI, 24.00–25.96) ( p  < 0.001). The cumulative incidences of sexual disorders showed no statistical differences up to one month ( p  > 0.05). At three months, the sexual disorder showed differences in cumulative incidence according to vaccine types ( p  = 0.04). There was no statistical difference in the cumulative incidence of eating disorders at three months ( p  = 0.785) according to vaccine types. The cumulative incidences of psychiatric AEs according to vaccine type are presented in Fig.  2 and Supplementary Table  2 .

a Schizophrenia. b Depression. c Bipolar disorder. d Anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders. e Sleep disorder. f Sexual disorders.

The risks of psychiatric AEs following the COVID-19 vaccination

In the Cox proportional hazard model in this study, the HR for COVID-19 vaccination was 0.231 (95% CI, 0.164–0.326) for schizophrenia, 1.683 (95% CI, 1.520–1.863) for depression, 0.672 (95% CI, 0.470–0.962) for bipolar disorder, 1.439 (95% CI, 1.322–1.568) for anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, 0.796 (95% CI, 0.395–1.604) for eating disorders, 1.934 (95% CI, 1.738–2.152) for sleep disorders, and 6.556 (95% CI, 0.890–48.296) for sexual disorders. Therefore, COVID-19 vaccination significantly decreased the risks of occurrence for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, while significantly increasing the risks for depression, anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, and sleep disorders. There was no effect of COVID-19 vaccination on the occurrence of eating disorders and sexual disorders (Fig.  3a ).

a The risks of psychiatric adverse events (AEs) according to COVID-19 vaccination. b The risks of psychiatric adverse events according to the COVID-19 vaccine types.

In the multivariate logistic model in this study, the ORs of target psychiatric AEs, except for bipolar disorder at one week, two weeks, and one month showed statistical significance, indicating similar patterns for HRs in the Cox proportional hazard model. For bipolar disorder, the OR showed 1.166 (95% CI, 0.240–5.670; p  = 0.849) at one week, 0.946 (95% CI, 0.304–2.949; p  = 0.924) at two weeks, 0.982 (95% CI, 0.463–2.079; p  = 0.962) at one month, and 0.674 (95% CI, 0.471–0.964; p  = 0.031). The detailed information for ORs of target psychiatric AEs was described in Supplementary Table  3 .

The risks of psychiatric AEs according to the COVID-19 vaccine type

We further assessed the risks of target psychiatric AEs according to the COVID-19 vaccine. For schizophrenia and bipolar disorder which were observed to have lower occurrences following COVID-19 vaccination, the HRs of schizophrenia were 0.239 (95% CI, 0.163–0.352) in only mRNA vaccination, 0.218 (95% CI, 0.138–0.343) in only cDNA vaccination, and 0.227 (95% CI, 0.091–0.566) in heterologous vaccination with statistical significances. On the other hand, the HR of bipolar disorder was statistically significant only in the case of only cDNA vaccination (0.339; 95% CI, 0.196–0.587). For depression, anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, and sleep disorders which were observed to have higher occurrences following COVID-19 vaccination, the HRs of depression (1.777; 95% CI, 1.527–2.067), anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders (1.521; 95% CI, 1.338–1.729), and sleep disorders (2.080; 95% CI, 1.855–2.332) showed the highest levels in the case of heterologous vaccination with statistical significances, respectively. There were no statistical differences in risks of eating disorders and sexual disorders according to vaccine types (Fig.  3b ).

The ORs of target psychiatric AEs, except for bipolar disorder at one week, two weeks, and one month also showed statistical significance, indicating similar patterns for HRs in the Cox proportional hazard model. For bipolar disorder, the OR for only cDNA vaccination showed 1.581 (95% CI, 0.172–14.496; p  = 0.685) at one week, 0.459 (95% CI, 0.073–2.893; p  = 0.407) at two weeks, 0.191 (95% CI, 0.039–0.939; p  = 0.042) at one month, and 0.340 (95% CI, 0.197–0.589; p  < 0.001). The detailed information for ORs of target psychiatric AEs according to vaccine types was described in Supplementary Table  3 .

Subgroup analysis for psychiatric AEs based on gender, age, insurance level, and CCI

As age increases, the risks of schizophrenia (HR, 1.027; 95% CI, 1.016–1.039) and sleep disorders (HR, 1.014; 95% CI, 1.012–1.016) significantly increase and the risks of depression (HR, 0.969; 95% CI, 0.966–0.971), bipolar disorder (HR, 0.982; 95% CI, 0.971–0.993), anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, somatoform disorders (HR, 0.988; 95% CI, 0.986–0.990) significantly decrease. Considering the HR values, age does not seem to largely affect the risk of psychiatric AEs. For the insurance level, the HR of schizophrenia at the high insurance level was 0.593 ( p  = 0.007) with statistical differences compared to the low insurance level. The HRs of depression at the high insurance level and middle insurance level were respectively 0.904 ( p  = 0.014) and 0.824 ( p  < 0.001) with statistical differences. There were no statistical differences in other psychiatric disorders for the insurance levels. For CCI, a higher score of CCI more than 2 significantly increased the risks of depression (HR, 1.393; 95% CI, 1.217–1.596), anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, somatoform disorders (HR, 1.440; 95% CI, 1.306–1.587), and sleep disorders (HR, 1.315; 95% CI, 1.198–1.444) than zero score of CCI. Based on these results, women are mostly susceptible to psychiatric AEs (except for sexual disorders) compared to men. Detailed information for Cox proportional hazard model for psychiatric AEs was presented in Supplementary Table  4 .

The post-sequelae of COVID-19 and vaccine-related AEs have globally been concerns for mental illness, ranging from mild signs of mental symptoms to psychiatric disorders [ 18 ]. During the prolonged COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an emerging trend in complications of COVID-19 infection and vaccination, intensifying the psychosocial burdens [ 5 , 18 , 19 ]. Despite the considerable clinical benefits of the COVID-19 vaccination, it paradoxically made managing psychiatric disorders more challenging due to the contradictory outcomes associated with COVID-19 vaccination [ 11 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Here, we conducted a population-based retrospective cohort study for psychiatric AEs after COVID-19 vaccination in Seoul, South Korea. From our cohort between 1,718,999 vaccinated subjects and 308,354 non-vaccinated subjects, we found that the vaccinated subjects showed a significantly higher incidence of depression, anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, sleep disorders, and sexual disorders and a significantly lower incidence of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder than the non-vaccinated subjects. Furthermore, COVID-19 vaccination increased risks of depression, anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders and sleep disorders but reduced risks of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Some evidence between COVID-19 and mental illness has gradually grown since the most common symptoms of the long-COVID-19 pandemic were depression/anxiety, psychotic disorder, and cognitive impairment (called brain fog) experienced by 22% of patients within 6 months after COVID-19 infections [ 4 , 14 ]. However, there have been contradictory reports between mental illness and COVID-19 vaccinations. Chaudhuri et al. reported that vaccination significantly alleviated psychological distress measured by the General Health Questionnaire in the UK Household Longitudinal cohort study [ 18 ]. Meanwhile, Balasubramanian et al. reviewed the reports of psychiatric AEs to COVID-19 vaccines, which illustrated 14 cases of psychiatric reactions including psychosis, depression, and anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders [ 15 ]. To our knowledge, there are scarce studies on the association between vaccines and psychiatric AEs. Therefore, our population-based cohort study provides robust evidence for the psychiatric AEs after COVID-19 vaccinations. Furthermore, our study provided risks of psychiatric AEs according to vaccine type, revealing that the psychiatric disorders (depression, anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, and sleep disorders) with increased risks due to COVID-19 vaccination showed the highest risk in the case of heterogeneous vaccination. Meanwhile, occurrences of schizophrenia consistently decreased risks according to vaccine type but bipolar disorder showed significantly decreased risks from only cDNA vaccination.

Two representative mood disorders, depression, and bipolar disorders, showed contrasting trends for COVID-19 vaccination. The serotonin theory is that depression is caused by an alternation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, particularly serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) [ 22 , 23 , 24 ]. Along with this theory, the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor is currently the main drug to treat depression [ 22 ]. Serotonin, known as a neurotransmitter, is important to immune systems as the regulator of immune responses and inflammatory processes by central and peripheral mechanisms [ 22 , 24 ]. For reports of COVID-19 vaccines, the association between adrenal crisis and COVID-19 vaccination has been suggested with the possible risk of heterologous vaccination [ 25 , 26 ] Therefore, COVID-19 may alternate the HPA axis, which can potentially increase the risk of depression from our study. In our study, HR for bipolar disorder was found to be 0.672 (95% CI, 0.470–0.962) in association with COVID-19 vaccination. However, this result was primarily caused by only cDNA vaccination with a notable lower HR of 0.339 (95% CI, 0.196–0.587). Interestingly, other types of COVID-19 vaccinations did not demonstrate a significant impact on the occurrences of bipolar disorder. These distinctive findings suggested that the differential effects along with vaccine types may be underestimated in mental illness, particularly bipolar disorder [ 12 , 27 ].

The immune response mediated by COVID-19 vaccination manifests in a variety of ways across different sites in our body [ 28 ]. Trougakos et al. described that the AEs following COVID-19 vaccination may related to the proinflammatory action of the lipid nanoparticles or the delivered mRNA and proinflammatory effects of the produced antigens-spike protein and/or its peptides fragments [ 29 ]. The COVID-19 vaccination activated proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α mediated by CD4 + T cells [ 28 ]. Many immune-related factors have been suggested for the expression of psychosis [ 13 ]. The hyperinflammatory status can increase dopamine with N-inhibition of methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), which leads to psychosis [ 30 ]. Furthermore, an autoimmune response caused by the spike protein and encoded viral protein in the vaccine can be a potential factor in the manifestation of schizophrenia [ 31 , 32 ]. Of many vaccination methods, Lee et al. described that the heterologous vaccination enhanced B cells and CD4 + T cell responses [ 33 ]. Proinflammatory effects can be exacerbated by preexisting inflammatory conditions after administration of mRNA lipid nanoparticles [ 29 ]. This heightened immune response may influence the occurrence of schizophrenia, as presented in our study. However, the profound pathophysiological mechanisms should be performed in future translational research [ 27 ].

Anxiety and stress-related disorders are the main concerns for COVID-19 infection and vaccination, which were widely studied from fear to vaccine hesitancy [ 34 ]. Conversion disorders, characterized by paralysis, sensory disturbances, and seizures are associated with alternation of brain function networks [ 35 ]. Our study showed increased risks of anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, and sleep disorders, which were heightened by heterologous vaccination. Most patients who were infected with COVID-19 experienced chronic fatigue with mild cognitive impairment (i.e., brain fog) [ 21 , 35 , 36 ]. Abel et al. described that COVID-19 infection increased the risks of fatigue and sleep disorders from the UK primary care data [ 21 ]. The mechanism is thought to be caused by a decrease in cerebral blood flow, and it is similar to neuropsychiatric disorders affected by inflammatory processes and immune responses [ 37 ]. Since COVID-19 vaccination is also associated with immune responses, both clinicians and vaccinated subjects should be cautious of these manifestations, especially anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, and sleep disorders that can also be affected by COVID-19 vaccination in our study. Therefore, the COVID-19 vaccination increases the manifestation of neurosis-related disorders but decreases that of psychosis-related disorders.

With the increasing evidence of extrapulmonary manifestations including neurological and psychiatric symptoms, COVID-19 infection as well as vaccination may affect the central and peripheral nervous system with profound cellular and molecular mechanisms [ 6 , 38 , 39 ]. The spike protein, especially brain-infiltrating SARS-CoV-2 spike protein has been suggested as an important target for the development of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Several mechanisms involved in spike protein have been proposed at the mice level such as TLR2-mediated depression, TLR4-mediated cognitive dysfunction, and anxiety mediated by non-cell autonomous hippocampal neuronal cell deaths by inducing IL-1β from glial cells [ 40 ]. Importantly, a recent study suggested that mRNA vaccines have slippery sequences inducing +1 ribosomal frameshifting products after vaccinations as a consequence of N 1 -methylpseudouridine-induced ribosome stalling [ 41 ]. Although the pathogenesis remains unclear, our study suggests that neuroinflammation caused by spike proteins may contribute to occurrences of some psychiatric AEs such as depression and anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders. Therefore, future translational research may provide the pathophysiological differences between psychosis and neurosis from the COVID-19 vaccination.

To supplement our hypothesis regarding the mechanism of action after COVID-19 vaccination, we tried further study using the gene sets enrichment analysis (Supplementary Table  5 ). We found that schizophrenia-related genes share the enrichment pathway for bile acid metabolism. Bile acids prevent the binding of spike protein with angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2) and modulate the expression of ACE2, suggesting the protective role [ 42 ]. Our study also showed that COVID-19 vaccination reduced risks of schizophrenia. For depression, as an increased risk after COVID-19 vaccination, the results were shown for the deep interaction of spike protein-related factors such as NLRP3 inflammasome [ 40 ]. This supports that the presence of the spike protein plays a crucial role in the manifestation of diseases after COVID-19 vaccination. Regarding the neurosis, the Rap1 signaling was observed as an enrichment pathway in the genes of neuroticisms. It regulates MAPK pathways that are important for SARS-CoV-2 virus replication [ 43 , 44 ]. However, these findings will have to be validated by future experimental studies.

This study has several limitations. First, we collected the claims data based on ICD-19 codes, which led to potential errors regarding mismatching or misclassification could have occurred. Second, previous studies have suggested the impact of poverty rates on mental disorders but there are differences in the baseline characteristics between the two groups in this study [ 45 , 46 ]. Although propensity score matching could be a statistical option to overcome this limitation, the real-world data is scarce on the psychiatric AEs following the COVID-19 vaccination so future studies through the process of propensity score matching should be addressed for COVID-19 vaccine-related psychiatric AEs. Meanwhile, both schizophrenia and bipolar disorders often manifest at a young age (under 20 years old) [ 47 ]. However, our study protocol didn’t include the adolescent population group because our study protocol has been approved by our IRB to analyze adults more than 20 years old. Furthermore, the COVID-19 vaccination for adolescents in South Korea has been authorized since October 2021, which made it impossible to collect COVID-19 vaccine-related AEs of the population under 20 years old in our study protocol. Thus, future studies for adolescents considering the manifestation of psychiatric disorders will be needed on COVID-19 vaccine-related AEs. Third, we measured psychiatric AEs up to three months following COVID-19 vaccination. This study did not contain the long-term follow-up COVID-19 vaccine-associated AEs. Last, despite being a population-based study targeting the population in Seoul, South Korea, it cannot be generalized to the entire population, globally since psychiatric disorders could be related to ethnic and genetic backgrounds. Therefore, a global-scale real-world study for adverse events of COVID-19 vaccination will be important in the future.

In conclusion, this population-based cohort study revealed that COVID-19 vaccination differentially affects occurrences of psychiatric disorders. It increased the risks of depression, anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, and somatoform disorders, and sleep disorders while reducing the incidence and risk of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Our findings suggested that the relationship between COVID-19 vaccination and mental illness may be underestimated along with the complexity of its impact on mental health. Thus, close observation and special caution are necessary for administering additional COVID-19 vaccinations to populations vulnerable to psychiatric AEs.

Data availability

The datasets analyzed during the current study are available through an application to the National Health Insurance Service, South Korea. This protects the confidentiality of the data and ensures that Information Governance is robust.

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EMC conceptualized the study. HJK, M-HK, and EMC designed the study. HJK, M-HK, and EMC analyzed and interpreted the data. M-HK acquired the data. HJK and EMC drafted the manuscript. HJK, M-HK, MGC, and EMC critically reviewed the work. MGC verified the data in the study. All authors had full access to all the data and had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication.

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The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board of our institute (IRB No.: EUMC 2022-07-003), which waived the requirement for informed consent because data analyses were performed retrospectively using anonymized data derived from the South Korean NHIS database.

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Kim, H.J., Kim, MH., Choi, M.G. et al. Psychiatric adverse events following COVID-19 vaccination: a population-based cohort study in Seoul, South Korea. Mol Psychiatry (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-024-02627-0

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Journal of Korean Medical Science , 03 Jun 2024 , 39(21): e172 https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2024.39.e172   PMID: 38832477 

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