methodology teaching plan

Teaching Methods and Strategies: The Complete Guide

You’ve completed your coursework. Student teaching has ended. You’ve donned the cap and gown, crossed the stage, smiled with your diploma and went home to fill out application after application.

Suddenly you are standing in what will be your classroom for the next year and after the excitement of decorating it wears off and you begin lesson planning, you start to notice all of your lessons are executed the same way, just with different material. But that is what you know and what you’ve been taught, so you go with it.

After a while, your students are bored, and so are you. There must be something wrong because this isn’t what you envisioned teaching to be like. There is.

Figuring out the best ways you can deliver information to students can sometimes be even harder than what students go through in discovering how they learn best. The reason is because every single teacher needs a variety of different teaching methods in their theoretical teaching bag to pull from depending on the lesson, the students, and things as seemingly minute as the time the class is and the subject.

Using these different teaching methods, which are rooted in theory of different teaching styles, will not only help teachers reach their full potential, but more importantly engage, motivate and reach the students in their classes, whether in person or online.

Teaching Methods

Teaching methods, or methodology, is a narrower topic because it’s founded in theories and educational psychology. If you have a degree in teaching, you most likely have heard of names like Skinner, Vygotsky , Gardner, Piaget , and Bloom . If their names don’t ring a bell, you should definitely recognize their theories that have become teaching methods. The following are the most common teaching theories.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is the theory that every learner is essentially a “clean slate” to start off and shaped by emotions. People react to stimuli, reactions as well as positive and negative reinforcement, the site states.

Learning Theories names the most popular theorists who ascribed to this theory were Ivan Pavlov, who many people may know with his experiments with dogs. He performed an experiment with dogs that when he rang a bell, the dogs responded to the stimuli; then he applied the idea to humans.

Other popular educational theorists who were part of behaviorism was B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura .

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory is typically spoken about at the early childhood level because it has to do with critical thinking with the biggest concept being the idea of play, according to Edwin Peel writing for Encyclopedia Britannica . Though Bandura and Lev Vygotsky also contributed to cognitive theory, according to Dr. Norman Herr with California State University , the most popular and first theorist of cognitivism is Piaget.

There are four stages to Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development that he created in 1918. Each stage correlates with a child’s development from infancy to their teenage years.

The first stage is called the Sensorimotor Stage which occurs from birth to 18 months. The reason this is considered cognitive development is because the brain is literally growing through exploration, like squeaking horns, discovering themselves in mirrors or spinning things that click on their floor mats or walkers; creating habits like sleeping with a certain blanket; having reflexes like rubbing their eyes when tired or thumb sucking; and beginning to decipher vocal tones.

The second stage, or the Preoperational Stage, occurs from ages 2 to 7 when toddlers begin to understand and correlate symbols around them, ask a lot of questions, and start forming sentences and conversations, but they haven’t developed perspective yet so empathy does not quite exist yet, the website states. This is the stage when children tend to blurt out honest statements, usually embarrassing their parents, because they don’t understand censoring themselves either.

From ages 7 to 11, children are beginning to problem solve, can have conversations about things they are interested in, are more aware of logic and develop empathy during the Concrete Operational Stage.

The final stage, called the Formal Operational Stage, though by definition ends at age 16, can continue beyond. It involves deeper thinking and abstract thoughts as well as questioning not only what things are but why the way they are is popular, the site states. Many times people entering new stages of their lives like high school, college, or even marriage go through elements of Piaget’s theory, which is why the strategies that come from this method are applicable across all levels of education.

The Multiple Intelligences Theory

The Multiple Intelligences Theory states that people don’t need to be smart in every single discipline to be considered intelligent on paper tests, but that people excel in various disciplines, making them exceptional.

Created in 1983, the former principal in the Scranton School District in Scranton, PA, created eight different intelligences, though since then two others have been debated of whether to be added but have not yet officially, according to the site.

The original eight are musical, spatial, linguistic, mathematical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic and most people have a predominant intelligence followed by others. For those who are musically-inclined either via instruments, vocals, has perfect pitch, can read sheet music or can easily create music has Musical Intelligence.

Being able to see something and rearrange it or imagine it differently is Spatial Intelligence, while being talented with language, writing or avid readers have Linguistic Intelligence. Kinesthetic Intelligence refers to understanding how the body works either anatomically or athletically and Naturalistic Intelligence is having an understanding of nature and elements of the ecosystem.

The final intelligences have to do with personal interactions. Intrapersonal Intelligence is a matter of knowing oneself, one’s limits, and their inner selves while Interpersonal Intelligence is knowing how to handle a variety of other people without conflict or knowing how to resolve it, the site states. There is still an elementary school in Scranton, PA named after their once-principal.

Constructivism

Constructivism is another theory created by Piaget which is used as a foundation for many other educational theories and strategies because constructivism is focused on how people learn. Piaget states in this theory that people learn from their experiences. They learn best through active learning , connect it to their prior knowledge and then digest this information their own way. This theory has created the ideas of student-centered learning in education versus teacher-centered learning.

Universal Design for Learning

The final method is the Universal Design for Learning which has redefined the educational community since its inception in the mid-1980s by David H. Rose. This theory focuses on how teachers need to design their curriculum for their students. This theory really gained traction in the United States in 2004 when it was presented at an international conference and he explained that this theory is based on neuroscience and how the brain processes information, perform tasks and get excited about education.

The theory, known as UDL, advocates for presenting information in multiple ways to enable a variety of learners to understand the information; presenting multiple assessments for students to show what they have learned; and learn and utilize a student’s own interests to motivate them to learn, the site states. This theory also discussed incorporating technology in the classroom and ways to educate students in the digital age.

Teaching Styles

From each of the educational theories, teachers extract and develop a plethora of different teaching styles, or strategies. Instructors must have a large and varied arsenal of strategies to use weekly and even daily in order to build rapport, keep students engaged and even keep instructors from getting bored with their own material. These can be applicable to all teaching levels, but adaptations must be made based on the student’s age and level of development.

Differentiated instruction is one of the most popular teaching strategies, which means that teachers adjust the curriculum for a lesson, unit or even entire term in a way that engages all learners in various ways, according to Chapter 2 of the book Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory and Practice by Celal Akdeniz . This means changing one’s teaching styles constantly to fit not only the material but more importantly, the students based on their learning styles.

Learning styles are the ways in which students learn best. The most popular types are visual, audio, kinesthetic and read/write , though others include global as another type of learner, according to Akdeniz . For some, they may seem self-explanatory. Visual learners learn best by watching the instruction or a demonstration; audio learners need to hear a lesson; kinesthetic learners learn by doing, or are hands-on learners; read/write learners to best by reading textbooks and writing notes; and global learners need material to be applied to their real lives, according to The Library of Congress .

There are many activities available to instructors that enable their students to find out what kind of learner they are. Typically students have a main style with a close runner-up, which enables them to learn best a certain way but they can also learn material in an additional way.

When an instructor knows their students and what types of learners are in their classroom, instructors are able to then differentiate their instruction and assignments to those learning types, according to Akdeniz and The Library of Congress. Learn more about different learning styles.

When teaching new material to any type of learner, is it important to utilize a strategy called scaffolding . Scaffolding is based on a student’s prior knowledge and building a lesson, unit or course from the most foundational pieces and with each step make the information more complicated, according to an article by Jerry Webster .

To scaffold well, a teacher must take a personal interest in their students to learn not only what their prior knowledge is but their strengths as well. This will enable an instructor to base new information around their strengths and use positive reinforcement when mistakes are made with the new material.

There is an unfortunate concept in teaching called “teach to the middle” where instructors target their lessons to the average ability of the students in their classroom, leaving slower students frustrated and confused, and above average students frustrated and bored. This often results in the lower- and higher-level students scoring poorly and a teacher with no idea why.

The remedy for this is a strategy called blended learning where differentiated instruction is occurring simultaneously in the classroom to target all learners, according to author and educator Juliana Finegan . In order to be successful at blended learning, teachers once again need to know their students, how they learn and their strengths and weaknesses, according to Finegan.

Blended learning can include combining several learning styles into one lesson like lecturing from a PowerPoint – not reading the information on the slides — that includes cartoons and music associations while the students have the print-outs. The lecture can include real-life examples and stories of what the instructor encountered and what the students may encounter. That example incorporates four learning styles and misses kinesthetic, but the activity afterwards can be solely kinesthetic.

A huge component of blended learning is technology. Technology enables students to set their own pace and access the resources they want and need based on their level of understanding, according to The Library of Congress . It can be used three different ways in education which include face-to-face, synchronously or asynchronously . Technology used with the student in the classroom where the teacher can answer questions while being in the student’s physical presence is known as face-to-face.

Synchronous learning is when students are learning information online and have a teacher live with them online at the same time, but through a live chat or video conferencing program, like Skype, or Zoom, according to The Library of Congress.

Finally, asynchronous learning is when students take a course or element of a course online, like a test or assignment, as it fits into their own schedule, but a teacher is not online with them at the time they are completing or submitting the work. Teachers are still accessible through asynchronous learning but typically via email or a scheduled chat meeting, states the Library of Congress.

The final strategy to be discussed actually incorporates a few teaching strategies, so it’s almost like blended teaching. It starts with a concept that has numerous labels such as student-centered learning, learner-centered pedagogy, and teacher-as-tutor but all mean that an instructor revolves lessons around the students and ensures that students take a participatory role in the learning process, known as active learning, according to the Learning Portal .

In this model, a teacher is just a facilitator, meaning that they have created the lesson as well as the structure for learning, but the students themselves become the teachers or create their own knowledge, the Learning Portal says. As this is occurring, the instructor is circulating the room working as a one-on-one resource, tutor or guide, according to author Sara Sanchez Alonso from Yale’s Center for Teaching and Learning. For this to work well and instructors be successful one-on-one and planning these lessons, it’s essential that they have taken the time to know their students’ history and prior knowledge, otherwise it can end up to be an exercise in futility, Alonso said.

Some activities teachers can use are by putting students in groups and assigning each student a role within the group, creating reading buddies or literature circles, making games out of the material with individual white boards, create different stations within the classroom for different skill levels or interest in a lesson or find ways to get students to get up out of their seats and moving, offers Fortheteachers.org .

There are so many different methodologies and strategies that go into becoming an effective instructor. A consistent theme throughout all of these is for a teacher to take the time to know their students because they care, not because they have to. When an instructor knows the stories behind the students, they are able to design lessons that are more fun, more meaningful, and more effective because they were designed with the students’ best interests in mind.

There are plenty of pre-made lessons, activities and tests available online and from textbook publishers that any teacher could use. But you need to decide if you want to be the original teacher who makes a significant impact on your students, or a pre-made teacher a student needs to get through.

Read Also: – Blended Learning Guide – Collaborative Learning Guide – Flipped Classroom Guide – Game Based Learning Guide – Gamification in Education Guide – Holistic Education Guide – Maker Education Guide – Personalized Learning Guide – Place-Based Education Guide – Project-Based Learning Guide – Scaffolding in Education Guide – Social-Emotional Learning Guide

Similar Posts:

• Discover Your Learning Style – Comprehensive Guide on Different Learning Styles
• 35 of the BEST Educational Apps for Teachers (Updated 2024)
• 15 Learning Theories in Education (A Complete Summary)

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[2023] The Ultimate Guide to Teaching Methods and Strategies: Expert Advice for Classroom Success

• June 11, 2023
• Instructional Coaching

As educators and teachers, we understand that finding the right teaching methods and strategies is crucial for classroom success. With so many different options out there, it can be overwhelming to determine which approach is best. That's why our team at Teacher Strategies™ has compiled the ultimate guide to teaching methods and strategies, filled with expert advice and tips to help you find the best approach for your classroom.

Table of Contents

Introduction

The importance of teaching methods, lecture method, discussion method, demonstration method, cooperative learning method, inquiry-based method, project-based learning method, flipped classroom method, personalized education method, the pros and cons of different teaching methods, direct instruction, inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, personalized learning, flipped classroom, interactive, self-discovery, instructional methods in education, quick tips and facts.

The success of any classroom largely depends on the effectiveness of the teaching methods and strategies employed by their teachers. Using outdated or ineffective methods can bore and disengage students, while innovative and engaging approaches can inspire learning and foster student success. The goal of this guide is to help you find the best teaching methods and strategies to suit your unique classroom and teaching style.

The right teaching method can make all the difference in student success. Effective teaching methods ensure that information is being delivered in a way that's engaging and meaningful. Not all students learn the same way, and using a variety of teaching methods can help ensure that every student is able to understand and retain information. Additionally, using innovative teaching methods shows students that you care about their learning and are willing to try new approaches to help them succeed.

Different Types of Teaching Methods and Strategies

Lecturing is a popular method of teaching that involves the teacher providing information to the students through a verbal presentation. This method is best suited for delivering large amounts of information in a relatively short amount of time, and it allows students to take notes and ask questions. However, lectures can be a passive form of learning for students and are not always the most engaging method.

The discussion method involves encouraging student participation through group discussions and debates. This method is excellent for developing critical thinking skills, encouraging student engagement, and promoting collaboration. However, it can be difficult to manage and may not be ideal for every subject.

The demonstration method involves teachers demonstrating how to complete a task or solve a problem. This method can be useful for subjects that require hands-on learning, such as science or art. However, it may not be effective for all students and may require more time for preparation.

Cooperative learning involves students working together in groups to achieve a common goal. This method promotes teamwork and collaboration, and can help to develop communication skills. However, it can be difficult to manage and may not work best with all students.

The inquiry-based method involves students exploring a topic or problem on their own, using critical thinking skills and problem-solving strategies. This method promotes self-directed learning and can be highly engaging for students. However, it requires a high level of preparation and may not be suitable for every subject or classroom.

Project-based learning involves students working on a long-term project to achieve a goal or solve a problem. This method promotes creativity, critical thinking, and teamwork. However, it can be difficult to manage and may require more time for preparation.

The flipped classroom method involves students learning material at home through a pre-recorded lecture, while the in-class time is spent on hands-on group activities and projects. This method allows for more personalized learning and fosters student engagement. However, it requires a high level of preparation and may not work best with all students.

Personalized education involves tailoring the learning experience to the individual student's needs, strengths, and interests. This method can be highly effective for engaging students and encouraging critical thinking. However, it requires a high level of preparation and may not be suitable for every subject or classroom.

No method is perfect, and understanding the pros and cons of each approach is essential. Here are a few pros and cons of each method:

• Pros: Fast delivery of information, cost-effective, and easy to implement.
• Cons: Passive form of learning, not suitable for all subjects, and requires the right environment to be successful.
• Pros: Encourages critical thinking, promotes collaboration, and engaging for students.
• Cons: Difficult to manage, can be hard to keep students focused, and not suitable for all subjects.
• Pros: Useful for hands-on learning, can be visual and engaging.
• Cons: Limited in effectiveness, may be costly, and time-consuming to prepare.
• Pros: Promotes teamwork, communication, and critical thinking skills.
• Cons: Can be difficult to manage, may be uncomfortable for some students, and not suitable for all subjects.
• Pros: Promotes critical thinking and creativity, fosters engagement and self-directed learning.
• Cons: High level of preparation, may not work with all students, and can be difficult to manage.
• Pros: Promotes critical thinking, creativity, and teamwork.
• Cons: Can be challenging to manage, may be time-consuming to prepare, and not suitable for all subjects.
• Pros: Allows for personalized learning, fosters student engagement, and promotes critical thinking and collaboration.
• Cons: Requires a high level of preparation, not suitable for all students, and can be difficult to manage.
• Pros: Tailored to individual needs and interests, fosters student engagement and critical thinking.
• Cons: Requires a high level of preparation, not suitable for all students, and can be challenging to manage.

What are the 5 Teaching Approaches?

There are five main teaching approaches that educators can use in the classroom. Understanding each approach can help you determine which is best for your classroom:

Direct instruction is a teacher-centered approach that involves lecture, demonstrations, and other activities designed to deliver large amounts of information to students quickly. This approach is best suited for subjects that require a lot of factual information and can be less engaging for students.

Inquiry-based learning is a student-centered approach that promotes self-directed learning through questioning and investigation. This method promotes critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity.

Cooperative learning involves students working together in groups to achieve a common goal. This approach promotes teamwork, collaboration, and communication skills.

Personalized learning tailors the learning experience to the individual student's needs, strengths, and interests. This approach can be highly engaging for students and encourages critical thinking and self-directed learning.

The flipped classroom approach involves reversing the traditional classroom model, with students learning material at home through a pre-recorded lecture, while the in-class time is spent on hands-on group activities and projects. This approach allows for more personalized learning, fosters student engagement, and promotes critical thinking and collaboration.

The Four Types of Instructional Methods

Instructional methods are the specific techniques or strategies used to deliver information to students. There are four main types of instructional methods:

Expository instructional methods involve lecturing, reading, or demonstrating to impart information to students. This method is best suited for subjects that require a lot of factual information.

Interactive instructional methods involve activities that require students to be actively engaged in the learning process. This method promotes critical thinking and problem-solving.

Mastery instructional methods involve teaching a skill or concept until the student has mastered it. This approach requires targeted instruction and assessment to ensure that students have a strong foundation before moving on to the next topic.

Self-discovery instructional methods involve encouraging students to explore a topic or problem on their own, using critical thinking skills and problem-solving strategies. This method promotes self-directed learning and can be highly engaging for students.

Instructional methods are essential in education, as they define how information is delivered to students. Different methods work best for different subjects, and some may be more effective than others depending on the teacher, curriculum, and goals of the lesson. As teachers, it's essential to approach instruction with an open mind, experimenting with new methods and techniques as needed.

• Understand your students' learning styles to determine which teaching methods will work best.
• Not all teaching methods work for every student or every subject – experimenting with different approaches can help you discover what works best for your classroom.
• Use a combination of teaching methods to keep students engaged and interested.
• Technology can be an effective tool for engaging students and delivering information in new and innovative ways.

What are the different types of teaching methods?

The different types of teaching methods include: lecture, discussion, demonstration, cooperative learning, inquiry-based learning, project-based learning, flipped classroom, and personalized education.

What are the 5 teaching approaches?

The 5 teaching approaches are: direct instruction, inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, personalized learning, and flipped classroom.

What are the four types of instructional methods?

The four types of instructional methods are expository, interactive, mastery, and self-discovery.

What are some teaching methods and strategies?

Effective teaching methods and strategies include using technology, personalized learning, inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, and project-based learning.

What are instructional methods in education?

Instructional methods in education are the teaching techniques and strategies used to deliver information to students.

By understanding the different teaching methods and strategies available, you can develop a tailored approach that best suits your classroom and students. Experiment with different methods and techniques, and use technology to your advantage. With the right approach, you can inspire learning and foster student success. As a recommendation, we suggest starting with a mix of cooperative learning, project-based learning, and personalized education. Surveyed teachers have claimed these approaches enhance student engagement, collaboration, and critical thinking. Remember to always approach teaching methods with an open mind, and be willing to try new approaches to discover what works best for your students.

[1] https://learn.org/articles/Edutopia_An_Online_Community_for_Teachers_and_Students.html [2] [3] https://www.knewton.com/ [4] https://www.epa.gov/students [5] https://arapahoe.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2020/05/Denver-STEM-resources-for-parents-and-teachers_.pdf [6] https://www.edutopia.org/technology-integration-guide-importance

Marti is a seasoned educator and strategist with a passion for fostering inclusive learning environments and empowering students through tailored educational experiences. With her roots as a university tutor—a position she landed during her undergraduate years—Marti has always been driven by the joy of facilitating others' learning journeys.

Holding a Bachelor's degree in Communication alongside a degree in Social Work, she has mastered the art of empathetic communication, enabling her to connect with students on a profound level. Marti’s unique educational background allows her to incorporate holistic approaches into her teaching, addressing not just the academic, but also the emotional and social needs of her students.

Throughout her career, Marti has developed and implemented innovative teaching strategies that cater to diverse learning styles, believing firmly that education should be accessible and engaging for all. Her work on the Teacher Strategies site encapsulates her extensive experience and dedication to education, offering readers insights into effective teaching methods, classroom management techniques, and strategies for fostering inclusive and supportive learning environments.

As an advocate for lifelong learning, Marti continuously seeks to expand her knowledge and skills, ensuring her teaching methods are both evidence-based and cutting edge. Whether through her blog articles on Teacher Strategies or her direct engagement with students, Marti remains committed to enhancing educational outcomes and inspiring the next generation of learners and educators alike.

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The Complete List of Teaching Methods

Teaching Methods: Not as Simple as ABC

Teaching methods [teacher-centered], teaching methods [student-centered], what about blended learning and udl, teaching methods: a to z, for the love of teaching.

Whether you’re a longtime educator, preparing to start your first teaching job or mapping out your dream of a career in the classroom, the topic of teaching methods is one that means many different things to different people.

Your individual approaches and strategies to imparting knowledge to your students and inspiring them to learn are probably built on your academic education as well as your instincts and intuition.

Whether you come by your preferred teaching methods organically or by actively studying educational theory and pedagogy, it can be helpful to have a comprehensive working knowledge of the various teaching methods at your disposal.

[Download] Get the Complete List of Teaching Methods PDF Now >>

The teacher-centered approach vs. the student-centered approach. High-tech vs. low-tech approaches to learning. Flipped classrooms, differentiated instruction, inquiry-based learning, personalized learning and more.

Not only are there dozens of teaching methods to explore, it is also important to have a sense for how they often overlap or interrelate. One extremely helpful look at this question is offered by the teacher-focused education website Teach.com.

“Teaching theories can be organized into four categories based on two major parameters: a teacher-centered approach versus a student-centered approach, and high-tech material use versus low-tech material use,” according to the informative Teach.com article , which breaks down a variety of influential teaching methods as follows:

Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning Teachers serve as instructor/authority figures who deliver knowledge to their students through lectures and direct instruction, and aim to measure the results through testing and assessment. This method is sometimes referred to as “sage on the stage.”

Student-Centered Approach to Learning Teachers still serve as an authority figure, but may function more as a facilitator or “guide on the side,” as students assume a much more active role in the learning process. In this method, students learn from and are continually assessed on such activities as group projects, student portfolios and class participation.

High-Tech Approach to Learning From devices like laptops and tablets to using the internet to connect students with information and people from around the world, technology plays an ever-greater role in many of today’s classrooms. In the high-tech approach to learning, teachers utilize many different types of technology to aid students in their classroom learning.

Low-Tech Approach to Learning Technology obviously comes with pros and cons, and many teachers believe that a low-tech approach better enables them to tailor the educational experience to different types of learners. Additionally, while computer skills are undeniably necessary today, this must be balanced against potential downsides; for example, some would argue that over-reliance on spell check and autocorrect features can inhibit rather than strengthen student spelling and writing skills.

Diving further into the overlap between different types of teaching methods, here is a closer look at three teacher-centered methods of instruction and five popular student-centered approaches.

Direct Instruction (Low Tech) Under the direct instruction model — sometimes described as the “traditional” approach to teaching — teachers convey knowledge to their students primarily through lectures and scripted lesson plans, without factoring in student preferences or opportunities for hands-on or other types of learning. This method is also customarily low-tech since it relies on texts and workbooks rather than computers or mobile devices.

Flipped Classrooms (High Tech) What if students did the “classroom” portion of their learning at home and their “homework” in the classroom? That’s an oversimplified description of the flipped classroom approach, in which students watch or read their lessons on computers at home and then complete assignments and do problem-solving exercises in class.

Kinesthetic Learning (Low Tech) In the kinesthetic learning model, students perform hands-on physical activities rather than listening to lectures or watching demonstrations. Kinesthetic learning, which values movement and creativity over technological skills, is most commonly used to augment traditional types of instruction — the theory being that requiring students to do, make or create something exercises different learning muscles.

Differentiated Instruction (Low Tech) Inspired by the 1975 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), enacted to ensure equal access to public education for all children, differentiated instruction is the practice of developing an understanding of how each student learns best, and then tailoring instruction to meet students’ individual needs.

In some instances, this means Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for students with special needs, but today teachers use differentiated instruction to connect with all types of learners by offering options on how students access content, the types of activities they do to master a concept, how student learning is assessed and even how the classroom is set up.

Inquiry-Based Learning (High Tech) Rather than function as a sole authority figure, in inquiry-based learning teachers offer support and guidance as students work on projects that depend on them taking on a more active and participatory role in their own learning. Different students might participate in different projects, developing their own questions and then conducting research — often using online resources — and then demonstrate the results of their work through self-made videos, web pages or formal presentations.

Expeditionary Learning (Low Tech) Expeditionary learning is based on the idea that there is considerable educational value in getting students out of the classroom and into the real world. Examples include trips to City Hall or Washington, D.C., to learn about the workings of government, or out into nature to engage in specific study related to the environment. Technology can be used to augment such expeditions, but the primary focus is on getting out into the community for real-world learning experiences.

Personalized Learning (High Tech) In personalized learning, teachers encourage students to follow personalized, self-directed learning plans that are inspired by their specific interests and skills. Since assessment is also tailored to the individual, students can advance at their own pace, moving forward or spending extra time as needed. Teachers offer some traditional instruction as well as online material, while also continually reviewing student progress and meeting with students to make any needed changes to their learning plans.

Game-Based Learning (High Tech) Students love games, and considerable progress has been made in the field of game-based learning, which requires students to be problem solvers as they work on quests to accomplish a specific goal. For students, this approach blends targeted learning objectives with the fun of earning points or badges, much like they would in a video game. For teachers, planning this type of activity requires additional time and effort, so many rely on software like Classcraft or 3DGameLab to help students maximize the educational value they receive from within the gamified learning environment.

Blended Learning Blended learning  is another strategy for teachers looking to introduce flexibility into their classroom. This method relies heavily on technology, with part of the instruction taking place online and part in the classroom via a more traditional approach, often leveraging elements of the flipped classroom approach detailed above. At the heart of blended learning is a philosophy of taking the time to understand each student’s learning style and develop strategies to teach to every learner, by building flexibility and choice into your curriculum.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) UDL incorporates both student-centered learning and the “multiple intelligences theory,” which holds that different learners are wired to learn most effectively in different ways (examples of these “intelligences” include visual-spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, musical, etc.). In practice, this could mean that some students might be working on a writing project while others would be more engaged if they created a play or a movie. UDL emphasizes the idea of teaching to every student, special needs students included, in the general education classroom, creating community and building knowledge through multiple means.

In addition to the many philosophical and pedagogical approaches to teaching, classroom educators today employ diverse and sometimes highly creative methods involving specific strategies, prompts and tools that require little explanation. These include:

• Appointments with students
• Art-based projects
• Audio tutorials
• Author’s chair
• Book reports
• Bulletin boards
• Brainstorming
• Case studies
• Chalkboard instruction
• Class projects
• Classroom discussion
• Classroom video diary
• Collaborative learning spaces
• Creating murals and montages
• Current events quizzes
• Designated quiet space
• Discussion groups
• DIY activities
• Dramatization (plays, skits, etc.)
• Educational games
• Educational podcasts
• Essays (Descriptive)
• Essays (Expository)
• Essays (Narrative)
• Essays (Persuasive)
• Exhibits and displays
• Explore different cultures
• Field trips
• Flash cards
• Flexible seating
• Gamified learning plans
• Genius hour
• Group discussion
• Guest speakers
• Hands-on activities
• Individual projects
• Interviewing
• Laboratory experiments
• Learning contracts
• Learning stations
• Literature circles
• Making posters
• Mock conventions
• Motivational posters
• Music from other countries/cultures
• Oral reports
• Panel discussions
• Peer partner learning
• Photography
• Problem solving activities
• Reading aloud
• Readers’ theater
• Reflective discussion
• Research projects
• Rewards & recognition
• Role playing
• School newspapers
• Science fairs
• Sister city programs
• Spelling bees
• Storytelling
• Student podcasts
• Student portfolios
• Student presentations
• Student-conceived projects
• Supplemental reading assignments
• Team-building exercises
• Term papers
• Textbook assignments
• Think-tac-toe
• Time capsules
• Use of community or local resources
• Video creation
• Video lessons
• Vocabulary lists

So, is the teacher the center of the educational universe or the student? Does strong reliance on the wonders of technology offer a more productive educational experience or is a more traditional, lower-tech approach the best way to help students thrive?

Questions such as these are food for thought for educators everywhere, in part because they inspire ongoing reflection on how to make a meaningful difference in the lives of one’s students.

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In our free guide, you can learn about a variety of teaching methods to adopt in the classroom.

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Teaching Plan Templates: Effective Methods For Teaching

August 25th, 2022

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Amy Stock, MS

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Teaching or lesson plan templates help teachers organize their ideas, assist with time management, and provide an efficient design for organizing content instruction, activities, and assessments.

Here are several examples of teaching plan templates to try:

Class Templates

Elements of an Effective Teaching Plan Template

Teaching plan templates can vary in format and appearance, but will generally contain the same basic elements:

1. Learning Objective

The learning objective details what your students should know or do by the end of the class. This is the most critical part of every lesson and, therefore, of every teaching plan. Establish your curriculum-required learning goals for each lesson and list them at the top of each teaching plan template. The content section will have a place for objectives and might also have a place for a quick-look outline of the lesson.

2. Instruction Time-Planning

Assigning each lesson the number of days to teach it will require a detailed breakdown of everything involved in preparing the content. Include flexible options such as extra activities or shortcuts to maximize instruction time while completing the lesson within the scheduled time frame. An inclusive schedule provides enough information that a substitute or other staff member could follow the directions to deliver the lesson.

3. Subtopics

If the teaching plan covers more extended units, it is essential to establish specific subtopics, each with its own goals, assignments, materials, and assessments. The lessons within the unit should flow smoothly from one topic to the next so that students can successfully understand the material.

4. Assignments and Assessments

Each lesson should include a variety of in-class or at-home work for students to practice or study the material. Periodic assessments evaluate the effectiveness of instruction and student comprehension. Assignments and Assessments are essential to provide additional assistance to students as needed and to modify and adjust for the future based on data collected through assessment.

5. Duration of Lectures

To avoid confusion, teachers should explicitly state the intended duration of direct teaching or lectures on the teaching plan template, especially if class duration varies or when the teaching plan covers an extended period.

6. List of Materials and References

To make it easier to prepare materials, technology, and other resources, list every requirement, material, and all necessary references. This list can also help students ensure they have all the required reading materials or other components for projects and activities.

Three Reasons to Use Teaching Plans

1. Standardizes Lesson Components - Teaching plans can organize thoughts and are helpful when scheduling what to teach each day of the semester. In addition, teaching plans also help substitute teachers fill in and understand the lesson objective to prevent students from missing a day of learning.

2. Saves Work Hours - Depending on the school’s schedule style, teachers may have four to eight classes per semester, and each course requires a teaching plan. Using a teaching plan template streamlines thoughts and saves teachers dozens of work hours so they can spend more time with students or families.

3. Maintains School and State Requirements - Most schools and some states require teachers to keep lesson plans available for administrative or parental oversight. Using a teaching plan template provides the necessary information in an abbreviated format.

Eight Steps to Creating an Effective Teaching Plan

1. Advanced Planning

While a teaching plan template provides a measure of automation to make the lesson plan design process more straightforward, still, it is worthless unless the teacher understands the learning objective and plans for the lesson’s progression, including all activities, assessments, and resources.

2. Time Management Flexibility

When designing a lesson, time management is crucial. Prepare additional activities to ensure students are engaged throughout instruction time, but also have shortcuts in case activities run long. Any class has the potential to run short or long based on many variables, including students who have additional questions, students who are struggling to understand the concepts, or a class that flies through an activity faster than a teacher anticipated.

3. Avoid Repetition and Omission

A well-designed teaching plan aims to ensure that all material is covered effectively without leaving out some part of the lesson or unnecessarily repeating a portion. A teaching template can help keep order out of what could be chaos.

4. Maintain a Results-oriented Approach

A successful lesson plan helps the teacher focus on target learning goals. Working backwards, teachers can develop an assessment to evaluate student knowledge of the learning target and then prepare instruction and activities that provide the students with the tools needed to perform well on that assessment.

Using a teaching plan template that provides sections for each component of the lesson allows teachers to plan the assessment and then work their way up the page to specific activities for maximum effectiveness.

5. Simplify the Content

Like everyone, sometimes teachers miss work. A teaching plan template and user-friendly instructions can be lifesavers for a substitute teacher or anyone who temporarily takes over class instruction.

6. Understand the Content

No matter how great the template or how efficient the lesson plan is, the teacher is still responsible for knowing the material to such an extent that they can field any questions that students may have. Whether on the content itself or to facilitate understanding of a project or activity, take the time to prepare for questions that may arise.

7. Organize Your Resources

Ensure all resources, activities, and other required materials are listed on the teaching plan and are readily available and accessible when needed. A good teaching plan template provides a place to describe lesson requirements, technology, activities, printouts, and assessments.

In Conclusion

Teachers need an effective teaching plan to keep track of every lesson in every unit of each course they teach over a year. Therefore, any opportunity to streamline the process to save time and provide a more efficient end product will improve student education and provide better results.

The teaching plan template is a provably efficient and successful way to organize learning goals and content into manageable chunks while organizing those chunks into a logical order of instruction.

If your school is interested in automating tasks and streamlining processes, Education Advanced offers a suite of tools that may be able to help. For teachers specifically interested in automating their curriculum:

Embarc, our curriculum mapping software , helps teachers quickly analyze whether or not their curriculum is aligned with state and national standards as well as share best practice curriculum plans with other teachers to reduce duplication and with parents to keep everyone up to date.

For schools looking to automate time consuming tasks:

Cardonex, our master schedule software helps schools save time on building master schedules. Many schools used to spend weeks using white boards to organize the right students, teachers, and classrooms into the right order so that students could graduate on time and get their preferred classes. However, can now be used to automate this task and within a couple of days deliver 90% of students first choice classes.

Testhound, our test accommodation software , helps schools coordinating thousands of students across all state and local K-12 school assessments while taking into account dozens of accommodations (reading disabilities, physical disabilities, translations, etc.) for students.

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Lesson Methodologies

Jabberwocky

Methodology is the way(s) in which teachers share information with students. The information itself is known as the content ; how that content is shared in a classroom is dependent on the teaching methods.

The following chart lists a wide variety of lesson methodologies appropriate for the presentation of material, which I will discuss here. Notice how these teaching methods move from Least Impact and Involvement (for students) to Greatest Impact and Involvement.

As you look at the chart, you'll notice that lecture, for example, is a way of providing students with basic knowledge. You'll also note that lecture has the least impact on students as well as the lowest level of student involvement. As you move up the scale (from left to right), you'll note how each successive method increases the level of impact and involvement for students. At the top, reflective inquiry has the highest level of student involvement. It also has the greatest impact of all the methods listed.

Knowledge is the basic information of a subject; the facts and data of a topic. Synthesis is the combination of knowledge elements that form a new whole. Performance refers to the ability to effectively use new information in a productive manner.

Across the bottom of the chart are three categories: knowledge, synthesis, and performance. These refer to the impact of each method in terms of how well students will utilize it. For example, lecture is simply designed to provide students with basic knowledge about a topic. Reflective inquiry, on the other hand, offers opportunities for students to use knowledge in a productive and meaningful way.

Now let's take a look at each of those three major categories and the methodologies that are part of each one.

How do you present basic information to your students? It makes no difference whether you're sharing consonant digraphs with your first-grade students or differential calculus with your twelfth-grade students; you must teach them some basic information. You have several options for sharing that information.

Lecture is an arrangement in which teachers share information directly with students, with roots going back to the ancient Greeks. Lecture is a familiar form of information-sharing, but it is not without its drawbacks. It has been overused and abused, and it is often the method used when teachers don't know or aren't familiar with other avenues of presentation. Also, many lecturers might not have been the best teacher role models in school.

Often, teachers assume that lecturing is nothing more than speaking to a group of students. Wrong! Good lecturing also demonstrates a respect for the learner, a knowledge of the content, and an awareness of the context in which the material is presented.

Good lectures must be built on three basic principles:

Knowing and responding to the background knowledge of the learner is necessary for an effective lecture.

Having a clear understanding of the material is valuable in being able to explain it to others.

The physical design of the room and the placement of students impact the effectiveness of a lecture.

Lecture is often the method of choice when introducing and explaining new concepts. It can also be used to add insight and expand on previously presented material. Teachers recommend that the number of concepts (within a single lesson) be limited to one or two at the elementary level and three to five at the secondary level.

It's important to keep in mind that lecture need not be a long and drawn-out affair. For example, the 10-2 strategy is an easily used, amazingly effective tool for all grade levels. In this strategy, no more than 10 minutes of lecture should occur before students are allowed 2 minutes for processing. This is also supportive of how the brain learns (see Effective Learning and How Students Learn ). When 10-2 is used in both elementary and secondary classrooms, the rate of both comprehension and retention of information increases dramatically.

During the 2-minute break, you can ask students several open-ended questions, such as the following:

“What have you learned so far in this lesson?”

“Why is this information important?”

“How does this information relate to any information we have learned previously?”

“How do you feel about your progress so far?”

“How does this data apply to other situations?”

These questions can be answered individually, in small group discussions, or as part of whole class interactions.

The value of the 10-2 strategy is that it can be used with all types of content. Equally important, it has a positive effect on brain growth.

Lectures are information-sharing tools for any classroom teacher. However, it's critically important that you not use lecture as your one and only tool. You must supplement it with other instructional methods to achieve the highest levels of comprehension and utility for your students.

Reading Information

With this method, you assign material from the textbook for students to read independently. You may also choose to have your students read other supplemental materials in addition to the textbook. These may include, but are not limited to children's or adolescent literature, brochures, flyers, pamphlets, and information read directly from a selected website.

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University News | 3.9.2022

An Expansive Vision for the Future of Teaching and Learning

Post-pandemic, what harvard might try in classrooms, course design, and global education.

A hybrid classroom at Harvard Business School, created to enable in-person and remote instruction during the pandemic. The new task force report assesses innovations like this, and their application to residential, hybrid, and remote teaching and learning in Harvard’s future. Photograph by Hensley Carrasco. Courtesy of Harvard Business School

The Harvard Future of Teaching and Learning Task Force (FTL), organized last year to assess what the University and its faculty members had learned from the pandemic pivot to remote instruction in the spring of 2020 and through the following academic year, released its report today. An ambitious effort, it is meant to spark conversation among professors, deans, and Harvard leaders concerning three overarching subjects, a sort of pedagogical hat trick:

•sustaining and building upon perceived gains in residential, classroom-based teaching and learning;  •accelerating the creation and use of “short-form digital content”—learning units, exercises, and assessments that differ from traditional, semester-long courses, but are useful for both campus-based classes and a broad range of online formats; and •exploring Harvard’s prospects for becoming a global educator, using its faculty expertise, pedagogies, and technology to “engage 5 percent of the global population in the shared pursuit of community and learning”—an “aspirational vision” that goes  way  beyond the 1,650 or so undergraduates enrolled in each new class, or the 22,500 students enrolled in all degree programs of late.

The  task force , chaired by Bharat Anand, the vice provost for advances in learning, defined its work in terms of capturing systematically the effects of the changes in teaching and learning forced by the pandemic, applying those to further enhancements, and determining the implications for Harvard’s mission and future learners more broadly.

In fact, he said in a conversation, faculty members’ online and technologically enabled teaching extended back more than a decade to the  Harvard-MIT edX venture . The first part of the new report distills what was learned from that initial foray into translating full courses for free online distribution; subsequent,  more focused efforts aimed at smaller learner cohorts and different phases of their education ; and extensive, successful online operations at the Extension School.

Together, those efforts familiarized many faculty members with new ways of teaching, even before the pandemic forced all classes off campus. And the more recent experiments brought forth important discoveries about using online tools to engage students, test their command of material frequently, enable them to learn from one another, and form their own learner communities (albeit online): a new form of the collaborative experiences that enrich residential, campus-based learning, for people who do not have the opportunity to access those options.

Finley professor of engineering and applied sciences Michael D. Smith, dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences when edX was launched and now a task force member, said that the pandemic forced  all  faculty members, students, and staff to think creatively and more explicitly about teaching: “We had to!” Even as that experience recedes, he continued, it has sparked continuing conversations among professors across the University, making this “an incredibly generative time for us if we grab this opportunity” to improve the classroom experience and “set up Harvard’s digital footprint.”

The task force divided its work roughly into three parts, including “blended learning” (in classrooms with online elements, and online with in-person elements), led by Harvard Graduate School of Education dean Bridget Terry Long; content, led by Anand; and global reach, led by Smith.

Reimagining the “Classroom”

Anand emphasized that technology’s educational role is as “an enabler. Pedagogy is at the heart of what makes the magic in classrooms.” That said, faculty members suddenly learned a great deal about what actually works when their courses transitioned from the classroom to Zoom.

It had been generally known, from edX and other formats, that a full-length lecture, transmitted and disseminated to a screen (what Anand calls sending the class out like a PDF), results in passive experiences. Most learners haven’t the attention span to stay focused on what is transpiring. As the report puts it, “Long lectures that were familiar in the residential classroom, or to which faculty and students had become accustomed, did not work well online.”

Smith said he and colleagues quickly realized that via Zoom, they had to teach different kinds of content, and less than they would try to convey in a class session. So they broke up their courses into smaller chunks and exercises, and began to use the interactive and communication utilities online to make discussion and problem-solving the focus of class sessions. Overnight, large numbers of faculty members discovered the virtues of  “flipping” their classes  (with lectures taped for student viewing at any time, “asynchronously,” and active-learning-focused classes live, or “synchronous”). From the student perspective, the direct engagement on Zoom forced them really to engage, and in fact, many reported that  the lessened live class content translated, in the flipped, online format, into more demanding courses and more learning .

More broadly, Anand said, “active learning” had become widespread. Professors encouraged students to use the Zoom chat function to pose questions about material as it arose in a lecture or seminar discussion—and teaching assistants or fellow students could pose answers in real time. Technologically-enabled breakout sessions, organized in seconds, can force students to mingle with one another for fresh perspectives, rather than self-selecting the same cohort repeatedly. Students who prefer not to raise their hands, Smith said, were far more likely to engage using these tools. Faculty members and students could collaborate on Google documents or other shared tools, enabling what Anand calls “simultaneous multi-person conversations.”

In some cases, he quickly acknowledged, teachers “don’t need technology” to effect such active engagement—but now they know how to use it when they want to. (Those who do, of course, know that even as they speak, their multitasking students might be conducting a chat. But, on the other hand, students have long emailed and scrolled through websites during in-person classes; the chat exchanges may have the virtue of focusing their split attention on the course material.) 

And the technology does enable classes to import other faculty experts, alumni, or speakers from around the world—all without the bother and expense of a subway ride or an airplane flight. Finally, Anand said, the online experiences for Harvard classes “brought to the forefront for all of us as faculty the lives of our students,” and led to widely popular innovations such as virtual office hours.

The common thread, he said, is “the ability of these technologies to bridge space and time.” And that virtue is now reciprocal. When applied in the context of virtual, non-degree courses, such as those Anand developed for Harvard Business School Online, the same tools—exercises, pop-up assessments, “cold calls,” break-out sessions, built-in tools for peer interaction—bring a new dimension of active learning to what was a much more passive experience a decade ago. The result is the holy grail of online education—what the report calls “engagement at scale”: the promise of teaching vast student cohorts without sacrificing the elements of active, participatory learning.

Those inclusive effects are important and large, and are emphasized throughout the report. Dean Long said separately, “One of the biggest takeaways for HGSE from the past two years was that there’s talent everywhere, and we actually have the tools—and the opportunity—to meet talented learners where they are and engage them in our programs. For instance, when our Ed.M. program had to go online for 2020-2021, in response to the pandemic, we decided to open a new round of admissions to that year’s online program—and we drew learners into our classrooms who might otherwise have never come to Harvard. We increased access for them, and they enriched our classroom conversations with new perspectives and experiences grounded in communities around the world.”

The task force report describes all these efforts as “reimagining the classroom,” incorporating “the best of online into residential settings and bringing a residential component to online programs. Blended experiences can offer new ways of teaching, learning, and meeting students where they are. At their fullest, they represent a fundamental shift in mindset beyond the binary alternatives of entirely in-person or entirely online offerings and learning experiences.” The advantages include livelier, more effective residential classes  and  more effective online ones, with the promise of including learners who cannot afford the time or expense of residential experiences. As Long put it, “We’ve seen that learning does not have to be confined in a traditional residential classroom. We’ve seen the value of community and meaningful connections, and know how powerful it’s been to give students different ways to connect with their instructors and peers and to contribute their ideas. It’s been wonderful to nurture a commitment to meeting students where they are and incorporating technologies that make learning more flexible.” Either way, the result is a focus on learning and education , not on the format of a course, the venue or where it is taught, or the mode of teaching.

Locally, there is something to celebrate here. The report acknowledges forthrightly “the current bifurcations between residential and online courses at Harvard. Consider, for instance, the minimal connections Harvard’s edX courses have with residential learning and campus dynamics.” One aim of edX was to prompt better campus teaching and learning—something the technology and large-format lecture courses proved ill-suited to achieve. But now, a decade on, the gap is closing, in ways faculty members and students both appear to be embracing. (edX courses were also found not to promote engagement among their much larger learner cohorts; the gap between enrollment and completion was vast for most courses.)

Happily, the report concludes, most of these gains can be sustained and more widely adopted through current practices, including informal conversations among teachers, formal gatherings to share pedagogical practices, instructional support, and continuing school and University investments in training, software, and classroom technology. 

Enriching Content and Expanding Community

The report’s second and third pillars represent, respectively, a heavier lift and an overarching aspiration. Anand, who has lots of experience from the Business School’s online program, is a champion of what the task force calls “short-form digital content and learning experiences.” Compared to the traditional “unit of analysis for almost every Harvard residential degree program offering and online certificate offering,” the semester-long course, shorter instructional units present two opportunities., according to the report. Such “modular, impactful online learning experiences” can enrich residential, long-form (semester) classes and “meaningfully expand the impact of Harvard’s teaching beyond our physical campus.” (One beneficiary group might be Harvard alumni, who have demonstrated strong interest in maintaining connected to faculty members and academic offerings. If one imagines linking the task force recommendations with  Business School dean Srikant Datar’s ambition to develop access to HBS courses, libraries, and research  via recommendation tools hosted by Amazon Web Services, one sees the makings of truly lifelong learning in the not-impossibly-distant future.)

What the task force has in mind is strategy for bringing uniformity to the creation and distribution of such chunks of learning, so they can be archived, searched, and plugged into classes or online courses as needed. Such short-form contents might involve multiple media (texts, audio, video), forms (podcasts, for instance), and approaches (asynchronous/synchronous mixed classes, hybrid classes, online classes with occasional residential components), and so on.

To keep from overwhelming busy faculty members, presumably, and to make the material available to interested users, the task force sees the need for “curation, ensuring that content is discoverable, personalizing its use to learners’ needs, and making technology seamless.”

To that end, the task force sees the need for partnerships—including “services such as marketing, distribution, and translation”; incentives for faculty members to participate, especially where outreach “to learners beyond Harvard” is involved; and a new University-wide technological platform for asynchronous learning (development of which is under way).

Being in position to create and deliver such contents matters not only for Harvard’s own educational purposes, but defensively. As the report notes, amidst huge private investments in educational technology and new media, “the demand for short-form content   and learning experiences from Harvard faculty has also exploded. Other educational institutions, third-party online learning platforms, training companies, and other organizations are all expressing interest in short-form content from Harvard faculty including masterclasses, executive programs, and podcasts. Serving learners and our faculty well will require leveraging this inbound interest consistently and strategically. Without a coherent Harvard strategy for enabling such activities, Harvard runs the risk of fragmenting its core teaching and learning mission, accelerating brand incoherence, and creating increased competition for our own internal efforts.”

In a broader perspective, how far might the University go in serving wider learner communities? Smith, recalling his earlier experience with edX, said he was particularly interested in “the evolution from getting our educational materials available to a larger part of the world then, to really  engaging ” with such learners now. Within the task force, he was an evangelist for beginning a Harvard conversation about how the University can perceive itself participating, digitally, in a “world community.”

In that perspective, Anand said, everything Harvard has learned about teaching and education in the digital era applies: courses are not exclusively residential or online, but both; they are not exclusively long-form or short, but both; and they are driven not by course content but by learner engagement and communities. The Business School’s online courses, he said, incorporated student participation and peer engagement—but did not envision what happened next. The students sustained their relationships, online, beyond and after courses ended, assembling their own learning and “alumni” communities on social-media channels. 

The vision for Harvard Global Learning 2.0, as Smith outlined it, is among the longest-range of the report recommendations.

The Challenges Ahead

The report raises, or touches on, matters of University policy and culture that will shape, or even determine, the conversation the task force has now introduced. 

• Non-residential degrees.  Apart from the Extension School,  Harvard requires at least a year in residence for degree programs . Two exceptions have been granted: a hybrid public-health program, approved in 2014-2015; and the Graduate School of Education’s 2020-2021 M.Ed. program (its core degree), when instruction was all online. In both cases, the caliber of applicants, their learning gains, and their subsequent trajectories have proven as satisfactory as those of resident learners. A strategy of promulgating Harvard teaching much more widely will likely involve a reassessment of this policy, if only for a limited number of degrees or degree candidates.

• Outside activities.  As the task force noted, many of the new enterprises and instructional channels focusing on online learning have an interest in accessing Harvard faculty members’ expertise. Whether professors wish to participate directly, or through University partnerships, “Many of these activities are restricted by Harvard’s outside activities policies, which were designed to create guidelines for when faculty can teach outside the University and include restrictions on teaching ‘courses’ outside of Harvard. As the lines between outside activities and residential obligations blur, and as organizations sometimes obfuscate the difference between a series of short-form content and long-form courses, the need for Harvard to judiciously implement existing policies while recognizing and facilitating new possibilities for Harvard’s faculty to innovate in teaching is paramount.” And in fact, among the long-term recommendations is pursuing a “faculty-led review of the University’s outside activities policies to modernize guidance for faculty eager to reach audiences beyond academia and to share their expertise through short-form and other innovative formats.” That review is being sponsored by the provost’s office.

• New conceptions of the economics of learning.  The report notes that with technologically enabled learning, programs can be designed and targeted to different kinds of learners at different price points, presumably by melding personal instruction with the archived short-form course units. This has certain implications that almost anyone would endorse: for example, training an organization’s leaders in a new skill or strategy, and then introducing managers and other workers to the concepts (something that might not be economic with in-person, residential executive-education classes as the sole option.) The reach and impact are accordingly greater, but the differential pricing of these “cascading learning experiences” may feel strange, at least initially. As the report puts it:

Virtual teaching made it possible to reach people who could not physically come to Harvard because of time, policy, or financial constraints. That has significant implications for workforce learning after the pandemic. For example, although senior-most executives continue to attend traditional in-person sessions, our digital platforms now allow for many layers of managers to attend remote synchronous sessions to economize on time and cost, while large numbers of other staff benefit from entirely asynchronous materials. Combining delivery mechanisms in this way promises greater scale in learning, lower costs, and—perhaps most important—greater alignment of learnings across an organization.

Certainly it is an educational virtue that “As ‘future of learning’ strategies are being rethought everywhere, Harvard has enormous potential to address managerial and workforce reskilling needs through its faculty, online library, and state-of-art platforms.” But the University will need to be careful about how it presents the range of offerings, and the prices it charges, as it enters such markets.

• Defining the University.  In the widest perspective, faculty members, as educators, want to teach people. But within the context of a research university, of course, they also want to spend a lot of their time on discovery and creating new knowledge. Increasing demands to teach learners who are not present will not be universally appealing to Harvard faculty members, and opportunities to teach nondegree learners may also be of varying interest. So the market logic of expanding outreach to these new kinds of students—no matter the gains in educating the world, or including more learners—may be at odds with some, or many, faculty members’ professional goals and motivations (and therefore conceptions about what they ought to be paid, or have the opportunity to earn under Harvard auspices).

It will be interesting to see whether the conversation spurred by the task force report proceeds along similar paths within, say, the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, the home to the liberal arts, and the professional schools. Will there be differences among the humanities faculty and those in engineering and applied sciences, whose HarvardX courses, for example, have attracted very different kinds of followings?

There is plenty to discuss. The task force has taken the experience of the pandemic and used it as a fulcrum to prompt a high-profile, and perhaps high-stakes, conversation—if the faculties are willing to engage. As the introduction to the report notes, “Our lessons draw from our residential teaching experiences, accumulated over 375 years, along with the past decade of online learning experiences.” Indeed they do. Let the conversation begin.

Read a  Harvard Gazette  Q&A with Bharat Anand, Bridget Terry Long, and Michael Smith  here. 

Read the task force report  here. 

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Teaching by the Case Method

• Preparing to Teach
• Leading in the Classroom
• Providing Assessment & Feedback
• Sample Class
• Getting Started
• Developing Instructor Style
• Shaping the Learning Environment
• Knowing Your Students
• Planning a Class Session

“Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity.”

Seneca, 1st century AD

The spontaneous and "in-the-moment" dynamics of successful case discussions mask the considerable planning that instructors carry out prior to each class session. Paradoxically, it is the very thoroughness of the preparation of class content and process that enables greater flexibility in the discussion. Preparation should begin with the identification of a small number of core learning objectives for the session, which frame the development of a teaching plan. "Elements of Effective Class Preparation" presents a systematic approach for planning the process side of the class discussion. This includes planning for the structure, sequencing, and timing of discussion segments ("pastures"), as well as the types of questions, organization of boards, transitions, and other discussion leadership elements that help the instructor guide students toward discovery and learning. Planning also entails knowing your audience and anticipating their needs, interests, and ability to contribute. Reviewing student backgrounds in relation to the specific class session is an important, and sometimes overlooked, component of preparation. (See Knowing Your Students .)

In planning for a specific case session, instructors may be able to draw on published teaching notes and on teaching plans previously developed by others or themselves. They may also enjoy the support of teaching groups and individual colleagues. These resources can help instructors identify teaching opportunities, such as points of tension or "fighting issues" that can be leveraged to generate engagement, debate, and deeper learning. They also can highlight teaching challenges, including aspects of the case content, conceptual material, or analytics that students may find particularly complex or confusing.

Experienced instructors take care to ensure that detailed planning does not lead to a class session that becomes bogged down in minutiae at the expense of core learning objectives. During the planning process it is useful for instructors to keep in mind questions such as: Why should students care about this case and this class session? Is this case representative of a more general phenomenon—is it an archetype? What is the underlying "theory of the case"? How does the case relate to other cases in the course module and other real world examples? By answering these questions, the instructor will be better positioned to design and execute a plan that allows the "forest" to emerge from the "trees" of the class discussion.

Planning Skills

Less is more, flow and rigidity, preparing to teach other's cases, teaching plan evolution.

• Elements of Effective Class Preparation

Suggested Reading

Choreographing a case class.

• Professional development
• Knowing the subject
• Teaching Knowledge database D-H

Methodology

Methodology is a system of practices and procedures that a teacher uses to teach.

It will be based on beliefs about the nature of language, and how it is learnt (known as 'Approach').

Example Grammar Translation, the Audiolingual Method and the Direct Method are clear methodologies, with associated practices and procedures, and are each based on different interpretations of the nature of language and language learning.

In the classroom Many teachers base their lessons on a mixture of methods and approaches to meet the different needs of learners and the different aims of lessons or courses. Factors in deciding how to teach include the age and experience of learners, lesson and course objectives, expectations and resources.

Further links:

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/scott-thornbury-british-council-armenia

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/methods-post-method-m%C3%A9todos

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/starter-teachers-a-methodology-course-classroom

Research and insight

Browse fascinating case studies, research papers, publications and books by researchers and ELT experts from around the world.

See our publications, research and insight

ChatGPT for Teachers

Trauma-informed practices in schools, teacher well-being, cultivating diversity, equity, & inclusion, integrating technology in the classroom, social-emotional development, covid-19 resources, invest in resilience: summer toolkit, civics & resilience, all toolkits, degree programs, trauma-informed professional development, teacher licensure & certification, how to become - career information, classroom management, instructional design, lifestyle & self-care, online higher ed teaching, current events, what is your teaching style 5 effective teaching methods for your classroom.

Every teacher has her or his own style of teaching. And as traditional teaching styles evolve with the advent of differentiated instruction, more and more teachers are adjusting their approach depending on their students’ learning needs.

But there are a few fundamental teaching styles most educators tend to use. Which one is yours?

You’ve Got Style

These teaching styles highlight the five main strategies teachers use in the classroom, as well as the benefits and potential pitfalls of each.

The Authority, or lecture style

The authority model is teacher-centered and frequently entails lengthy lecture sessions or one-way presentations. Students are expected to take notes or absorb information.

• Pros : This style is acceptable for certain higher-education disciplines and auditorium settings with large groups of students. The pure lecture style is most suitable for subjects like history, which necessitate memorization of key facts, dates, names, etc.
• Cons : It’s a questionable model for teaching children because there is little or no interaction with the teacher. Plus it can get a little snooze-y. That’s why it’s a better approach for older, more mature students.

The Demonstrator, or coach style

The demonstrator retains the formal authority role by showing students what they need to know. The demonstrator is a lot like the lecturer, but their lessons include multimedia presentations, activities, and demonstrations. (Think: Math. Science. Music.)

• Pros : This style gives teachers opportunities to incorporate a variety of formats including lectures and multimedia presentations.
• Cons : Although it’s well-suited for teaching mathematics, music, physical education, or arts and crafts, it is difficult to accommodate students’ individual needs in larger classrooms.

The Facilitator, or activity style

Facilitators promote self-learning and help students develop critical thinking skills and retain knowledge that leads to self-actualization.

• Pros : This style trains students to ask questions and helps develop skills to find answers and solutions through exploration; it is ideal for teaching science and similar subjects.
• Cons : Challenges teacher to interact with students and prompt them toward discovery rather than lecturing facts and testing knowledge through memorization. So it’s a bit harder to measure success in tangible terms.

The Delegator, or group style

The delegator style is best suited for curricula that require lab activities, such as chemistry and biology, or subjects that warrant peer feedback, like debate and creative writing.

• Pros : Guided discovery and inquiry-based learning place the teacher in an observer role that inspires students by working in tandem toward common goals.
• Cons : Considered a modern style of teaching, it is sometimes criticized as eroding teacher authority. As a delegator, the teacher acts more as a consultant rather than the traditional authority figure.

The Hybrid, or blended style

Hybrid, or blended style, follows an integrated approach to teaching that blends the teacher’s personality and interests with students’ needs and curriculum-appropriate methods.

• Pros : Inclusive! And it enables teachers to tailor their styles to student needs and appropriate subject matter.
• Cons : Hybrid style runs the risk of trying to be too many things to all students, prompting teachers to spread themselves too thin and dilute learning.

Because teachers have styles that reflect their distinct personalities and curriculum—from math and science to English and history—it’s crucial that they remain focused on their teaching objectives and avoid trying to be all things to all students.

What you need to know about your teaching style

Although it is not the teacher’s job to entertain students, it is vital to engage them in the learning process. Selecting a style that addresses the needs of diverse students at different learning levels begins with a personal inventory—a self-evaluation—of the teacher’s strengths and weaknesses. As they develop their teaching styles and integrate them with effective classroom management skills, teachers will learn what works best for their personalities and curriculum.

Our guide encapsulates today’s different teaching styles and helps teachers identify the style that’s right for them and their students. Browse through the article or use these links to jump to your desired destination.

• What is a teaching style inventory, and how have teaching styles evolved?
• What teaching method is best for today’s students?

How does classroom diversity influence teachers?

Emergence of the teaching style inventory.

How have teaching styles evolved? This is a question teachers are asked, and frequently ask themselves, as they embark on their careers, and occasionally pause along the way to reflect on job performance. To understand the differences in teaching styles, it’s helpful to know where the modern concept of classifying teaching methods originated.

The late Anthony F. Grasha, a noted professor of psychology at the University of Cincinnati, is credited with developing the classic five teaching styles. A follower of psychiatrist Carl Jung, Grasha began studying the dynamics of the relationship between teachers and learning in college classrooms. His groundbreaking book, Teaching with Style , was written both as a guide for teachers and as a tool to help colleagues, administrators and students systematically evaluate an instructor’s effectiveness in the classroom.

Grasha understood that schools must use a consistent, formal approach in evaluating a teacher’s classroom performance. He recognized that any system designed to help teachers improve their instructional skills requires a simple classification system. He developed a teaching style inventory that has since been adopted and modified by followers.

• Expert : Similar to a coach, experts share knowledge, demonstrate their expertise, advise students, and provide feedback to improve understanding and promote learning.
• Formal authority : Authoritative teachers incorporate the traditional lecture format and share many of the same characteristics as experts, but with less student interaction.
• Personal model : Incorporates blended teaching styles that match the best techniques with the appropriate learning scenarios and students in an adaptive format.
• Facilitator : Designs participatory learning activities and manages classroom projects while providing information and offering feedback to facilitate critical thinking.
• Delegator : Organizes group learning, observes students, provides consultation, and promotes interaction between groups and among individuals to achieve learning objectives.

Although he developed specific teaching styles, Grasha warned against boxing teachers into a single category. Instead, he advocated that teachers play multiple roles in the classroom. He believed most teachers possess some combination of all or most of the classic teaching styles.

How does differentiated instruction affect teaching styles?

Carol Ann Tomlinson, a professor at the University of Virginia, is an early advocate of differentiated instruction and a pioneer in the development of learning-based teaching styles. If Grasha laid the groundwork for 20th-century teachers to adopt styles tailored to match their personalities and strengths, Tomlinson has advanced this theme into the 21st century by focusing on differentiated instruction.

In the simplest terms, differentiated instruction means keeping all students in mind when developing lesson plans and workbook exercises, lectures, and interactive learning. These student-focused differences necessitate instructional styles that embrace diverse classrooms for students at all learning levels and from various backgrounds without compromising the teacher’s strengths.

What teaching style is best for today’s students?

Whether you’re a first-year teacher eager to put into practice all of the pedagogical techniques you learned in college, or a classroom veteran examining differentiated instruction and new learning methodologies, consider that not all students respond well to one particular style. Although teaching styles have been categorized into five groups, today’s ideal teaching style is not an either/or proposition but more of a hybrid approach that blends the best of everything a teacher has to offer.

The traditional advice that teachers not overreach with a cluster of all-encompassing teaching styles might seem to conflict with today’s emphasis on student-centered classrooms. Theoretically, the more teachers emphasize student-centric learning, the harder it is to develop a well-focused style based on their personal attributes, strengths, and goals.

In short, modern methods of teaching require different types of teachers—from the analyst/organizer to the negotiator/consultant. Here are some other factors to consider as teachers determine the best teaching method for their students.

Empty vessel : Critics of the “sage on the stage” lecture style point to the “empty vessel” theory, which assumes a student’s mind is essentially empty and needs to be filled by the “expert” teacher. Critics of this traditional approach to teaching insist this teaching style is outmoded and needs to be updated for the diverse 21st-century classroom.

Active vs. passive : Proponents of the traditional lecture approach believe that an overemphasis on group-oriented participatory teaching styles, like facilitator and delegator, favor gifted and competitive students over passive children with varied learning abilities, thereby exacerbating the challenges of meeting the needs of all learners.

Knowledge vs. information : Knowledge implies a complete understanding, or full comprehension, of a particular subject. A blend of teaching styles that incorporate facilitator, delegator, demonstrator, and lecturer techniques helps the broadest range of students acquire in-depth knowledge and mastery of a given subject. This stands in contrast to passive learning, which typically entails memorizing facts, or information, with the short-term objective of scoring well on tests.

Interactive classrooms : Laptops and tablets, video conferencing, and podcasts in classrooms play a vital role in today’s teaching styles. With technology in mind, it is imperative that teachers assess their students’ knowledge while they are learning. The alternative is to wait for test results, only to discover knowledge gaps that should have been detected during the active learning phase.

Constructivist teaching methods : Contemporary teaching styles tend to be group-focused and inquiry-driven. Constructivist teaching methods embrace subsets of alternative teaching styles, including modeling, coaching, and test preparation through rubrics scaffolding. All of these are designed to promote student participation and necessitate a hybrid approach to teaching. One criticism of the constructivist approach is that it caters to extroverted, group-oriented students, who tend to dominate and benefit from these teaching methods more than introverts; however, this assumes introverts aren’t learning by observing.

Student-centric learning does not have to come at the expense of an instructor’s preferred teaching method. However, differentiated instruction demands that teachers finesse their style to accommodate the diverse needs of 21st-century classrooms.

The ‘sage on the stage’ meets the ‘tiger mom’

The objective of blending teaching styles to leverage the teacher’s strengths while meeting the demands of diverse students has become increasingly difficult, as parents take a decidedly proactive role in child-learning techniques.

The traditional authoritative/expert, or “sage on the stage” lecture style, has come under attack by some parents—and contemporary educational leaders—who emphasize that a more diverse approach to teaching is necessary to engage students. This is compounded by the rise of “tiger moms,” a term made popular by parents devoted to improving the quality of education with laser-precision focus on A-list schools and a highly competitive job market.

Age of the proactive parent

Regardless of what style a teacher adopts, it’s important for teachers to develop positive attitudes, set goals, and establish high expectations for students.

“Assume students can excel!” education authors Harry and Rosemary Wong declare. As former teachers with a combined 80-plus years of educational experience, the Wongs emphasize in their best-selling book, The First Days of School: How to Be an Effective Teacher and their more recent, The Classroom Management Book that successful teachers share three common characteristics:

• effective classroom management skills
• lesson mastery
• positive expectations

All instructors, when developing their teaching styles, should keep in mind these three goals, as well as the primary objective of education: student learning.

It is abundantly clear that today’s teachers are responsible for students with a diverse range of learning abilities. The 21st-century teacher does not have the luxury of “picking the low-hanging fruit” and then leaving the rest of the tree for experts who specialize in children with behavioral issues or learning disorders.

Today’s teachers must develop instructional styles that work well in diverse classrooms. Effective teaching methods engage gifted students, as well as slow-learning children and those with attention deficit tendencies. This is where differentiated instruction and a balanced mix of teaching styles can help reach all students in a given classroom—not just the few who respond well to one particular style of teaching.

The wonderment of teaching, what author/educator Dr. Harry Wong refers to as “that a-ha moment” when a child “gets it,” is one of the most rewarding and seemingly elusive benefits of becoming a teacher. This transfer of knowledge from expert to student is an art form and a skill. Fortunately, both can be learned and perfected.

Knowing how to engage students begins with selecting the teaching style that’s right for you. And remember, even though you may prefer one teaching style over another, you must find the style that works best for your students! Try different styles to meet different objectives, and always challenge yourself to find ways to reach each student.

You may also like to read

• Effective Teaching Strategies for Adolescent Literacy Teachers
• Effective Teaching Strategies for Special Education
• Activities for Teaching Tolerance in the Classroom
• Interactive Teaching Styles Used in the Classroom

Categorized as: Tips for Teachers and Classroom Resources

Tagged as: Leadership and Administration ,  Mid-Career Teacher ,  New Teacher ,  Professional Development ,  Veteran Teacher

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List of 107 Classroom Teaching Strategies (With Examples)

Use this list of 107 classroom teaching strategies for your lesson plan or teaching portfolio. This can help demonstrate pedagogical knowledge and the ability to apply theory to practice.

Or, try some of these strategies out when you’re low on ideas and looking for a fresh way to teach in the classroom. Note that these are just some examples of teaching strategies – I’m sure there are even more out there!

Tip: Bookmark this page so you can come back to it every time you need some new teaching strategies!

Teaching Strategies Examples (List)

1. flipped instruction.

Description

Flipped classrooms involve asking students to complete the reading, preparation and introductory work at home. Then, during class time, the students do practice questions that they would traditionally do for homework.

• Flipped instruction enables the teacher to offload the direct instruction elements of education like Introductions to homework. This enables teachers to spend more time on student-centered differentiated support .
• Students may not complete their assigned pre-class homework, which will undermine the lesson.

Theoretical Link

Social Constructivism / Socio-Cultural Theory : The teacher can spend more time supporting students in a student-centered environment.

• Assign a video introducing a concept for homework.
• Spend the first 10 minutes of the lesson assessing students’ comprehension of the video
• Jump straight into student-centered practice tasks
• Walk around the class helping students who need additional support for the rest of the lesson

See my full article on Flipped Classrooms Pros and Cons.

Related Article: 25 Teaching Styles Examples

2. Play-based learning

Students learn cognitive, social, and physical skills during play tasks. Tasks can be teacher-led with specific goals (e.g. volume transfer in a sandpit) or unstructured student-led play.

• Engagement: students may be more engaged during active play-based learning compared to teacher-centered instruction.
• Cognition : students get the opportunity to learn through discovery and trial-and-error, helping to build neural pathways
• Social: students play together, developing communication, groupwork, and negotiation skills.
• Physical: play engages fine and gross motor functions , helping to improve physical abilities.
• Many traditionalist, including many parents and potentially your head teacher, may consider play to have no educational or academic benefit.
• Parents may frown upon this method for older students, despite its benefits across age groups.
• Many people consider that the risks of injury during play-based learning are too high.

( Read More: Pros and Cons of Play Based Learning )

Social Constructivism. Students learn through social interaction and building knowledge in their minds through trial and error.

Play is also encouraged in all 5 Contemporary Early Childhood Perspectives (Froebel, Reggio Emilia, Forest Schools , Steiner-Waldorf Schools, and Montessori).

• Use modelled instruction to show students how to play with developmentally appropriate resource-rich toys and puzzles. Consider puzzles that require mathematical skills that link to current curriculum outcomes.
• Provide students with the puzzles and allow free unstructured play time
• Mingle with the students, helping them with prompting and guiding questions
• End the lesson with a whole group discussion of what they learned during the lesson.

See my full article on Play Based Learning Pros and Cons .

3. Project-based learning (PBL)

Project-based learning requires students to spend an extended period of time (e.g. a week or more) on a single project to gain in-depth knowledge about the task. The projects should be personally meaningful and give students freedom to go in-depth on areas of interest.

• Students have the opportunity to become ‘experts’ on topics. By going deep on a topic, students may become very knowledgeable and feel empowered.
• A balance is struck between ensuring students focus on curriculum-linked projects and giving students the freedom to explore the details of a topic that are of personal interest.
• Students tend to have increased freedom using this approach. So, students need to learn self-regulation skills before beginning the task.

Constructivism in the Classroom : Students work independently using their own intellect and resources to learn. By doing personal research, students ‘construct’ knowledge in their minds and apply that knowledge to the project to demonstrate their knowledge.

• Teacher assigns students a research question, such as “What are the key characteristics of mammals?”
• Students work in small groups to come up with an idea for a poster, diagram, or presentation project on the topic.
• Teacher approves or asks for amendments of students’ proposed projects.
• Students are provided a series of lessons over a 2-week period in computer labs and in resource-rich classrooms to complete their project.
• Teacher checks-in intermittently to ensure standards are upheld and to stimulate students to improve upon their projects.
• The project concludes with students presenting their project to their parents.

4. Authentic Learning

Authentic learning involves having students learn about concepts in real-life (or near real-life) environments. Similarly, authentic assessment refers to assessments in real-life (or near real-life) environments

• By learning a task within its context, a student will understand its value for them outside of the classroom.
• Engagement: students may be more engaged in a task if they understand its practical application rather than just its theoretical purpose.
• Cognition and Memory: Students may find it easier to recall information if they can reflect on an instance in which they applied the knowledge to a real-life task.
• Authentic learning tasks are difficult to set-up from within a classroom.
• It is debatable whether so-called ‘authentic’ environments are genuinely authentic. A mock supermarket experience for practicing counting money, for example, lacks the potential for environmental distractions of a real-life situation.
• Some information is by its very nature academic and theoretical rather than practical, and this information is still of value to students.

Constructivism: Authentic learning environments are designed for students to be active learners who ‘construct’ knowledge through personal experience.

• An ESL teacher provides students with a set of conversational tasks to complete during a day’s field trip to the city.
• Students complete the tasks in the ‘real world’ by walking around the city asking for directions, buying lunch, etc.
• Class comes together at the end of the day to discuss and reflect on their experiences of applying their knowledge in the ‘real world’.

5. Discovery Learning

Discovery learning involves allowing students maximum freedom within a resource-rich environment to ‘discover’ answers to challenges. It requires students to build upon prior knowledge and use resources available in the environment to increase their own knowledge.

Discovery learning is often held in contrast to teacher-centered approaches, as students are not ‘told’ information; instead, they must discover knowledge for themselves..

• Students generate knowledge for themselves rather than being told what is right and wrong.
• By discovering truths, students will have a firmer understanding for the reasoning behind why something is true.
• Too much student freedom may distract students from the learning outcomes.
• This can be a time-consuming technique as students discover information at their own pace. It can therefore be difficult to implement in education systems that are packed with curriculum outcomes that must be met.

Construcitivism: Students generate their own knowledge through engagement with their environment rather than having truths ‘told’ to them by an authority figure.

• Teacher places the appropriate resources in the classroom to allow students to discover truths themselves. These resources may include science experiment stations, newspaper articles, etc.
• Teacher transparently presents the lesson objectives to the students, i.e. “What is heavier – sand or water?”
• Students are given minimal guidance, but sent to the learning stations to try to answer the prompt themselves.
• Teacher provides minimal guidance, recognizing that making mistakes and trying the ‘wrong thing’ is also a part of the discovery experience.
• Students get together at the end of the class to discuss what they ‘discovered’.

6. High Expectations

Setting high expectation involves requiring students to put in maximum effort during their lessons. HIgh expectations does not mean expecting all students to meet a certain standard. Rather, it means expecting each student to try to beat their own personal best.

• High expectations are necessary to ensure students continue to strive for improvement. Without high expectations in the classroom, students can become lazy and lose respect for education.
• Teachers need to be aware that sometimes students have ‘off days’ where they cannot succeed at their normal level. This may be due to health, hunger, or environmental factors .
• Teachers need to balance high expectations with compassion for their students. Try not to let burnout occur due to strenuous demands.
• Measure students’ prior knowledge to ascertain their current developmental level.
• Have students aim to achieve at or above their current ability in a given task.
• If students underperform, provide formative feedback and insist they readdress their work to make edits and improvements.
• Allow students to progress to subsequent tasks only when their work has met or exceeded the minimum standard you set for that individual.

See my full article on High Expectations in the Classroom .

7. Parent and Community Engagement

Parent and community engagement involves bringing students together with their community. It can involve bringing parents and community members into the classroom, or bringing students out into the community on field trips.

• By engaging with the community, students come to see themselves as a member of their community.
• It can help students to get to know important members of their community to give them a sense of belonging, and help them see (and, in the future, seek) support networks.
• By bringing role models into the classroom (especially minority and female role models), students can come to see that they could potentially become female firefighters, politicians of color, etc.
• Students can learn from more than just one teacher to get a variety of perspectives.
• Safety concerns often require teachers and community members to fill-in forms and complete background checks before community engagement can occur.
• Finding members of the community willing to work with teachers can be difficult.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory: Students learn within family and community contexts (children’s ‘first teachers’) in order to respect and carry-on culturally engaged learning.

• Teacher does networking to find community members willing to come into the classroom.
• Teacher finds relevant curriculum links that community members can help them teach about.
• Teacher and community members meet to discuss a lesson idea.
• Community members and teachers team-teach in the classroom.
• Students are given the opportunity for one-on-one time with community members.
• Students present the results of their lesson to community members before community members leave.

8. Unconditional Positive Regard

Unconditional positive regard involves teachers consistently and unconditionally viewing students as capable and competent. When students make mistakes, fail, or misbehave, it is the teacher’s role to continue to let students know that they believe in the student and their abilities.

• Empowering: when students are given unconditional positive regard, they know that their teacher believes in their ability to constantly do better.
• Shows Empathy and builds Trust: children come to learn to respect and trust their teacher when they know their teacher is always on ‘their side’.
• Teachers need to ensure that they still let students know that inappropriate behavior or lack of effort is unacceptable. The teacher should follow-up their discipline with comments about positive regard.

Humanist theory of Education : Humanist Carl Rogers invented this approach. He believed unconditional positive regard was necessary for building students’ self-confidence.

• “Even though you did not do well today, I expect that you will come to school doing better tomorrow.”
• “The quality of your work does not match your potential. Let’s talk about some strategies for improvement before you go away and do it again.”

See my full post on the Humanist approach to Education .

9. Modeled Teaching

Modeled teaching is an instructional strategy that involves the teacher ‘showing’ students how to do a task. The teacher shows the task while also breaking it down into small steps. This helps students to see how to complete the task.

• A very effective way to introduce new topics.
• The teacher maintains control when introducing a new idea to ensure students have appropriate understanding and safety knowledge before trying for themselves.
• Shows that learning can occur passively – students can learn simply by watching.
• Not appropriate as a standalone strategy. Students need to eventually try things alone to show competency. Therefore, consider matching modeled teaching up with the I Do, We Do, You Do method

Bandura’s Behaviorism: Bandura blends behaviorism with constructivism by showing that learning can occur through observation only.

See my full post on Behaviorism in Education , which has a segment on Bandura’s modelled instruction approach.

10. I Do We Do You Do Method

The I Do, We Do, You Do method is a scaffolding strategy that provides gradual release of responsibility from the teacher to the student. It involves three steps: (1) I Do: Teacher models the task; (2) We Do: Student and teacher do the task together; (3) You Do: Student attempts to complete the task alone.

• Students are provided an appropriate balance of support and freedom.
• Teacher has ample time to assess students’ abilities to make adjustments to their pedagogy as they move through the 3 steps (particularly in step 2)
• In large groups, students may fall behind at Steps 2 and 3.

Sociocultural Theory: Students learn through social interaction with a more knowledgeable other (see: Lev Vygotsky).

• Teacher asks all students to sit on a mat at the front of the class.
• Teacher models the steps required to complete the day’s task (I Do).
• Teacher re-does the task. This time, instead of telling the students the steps, the teacher asks students to raise their hand and tell the teacher what to do next (We Do)
• Teacher asks students to complete the task in small groups. Teacher walks around providing support (We Do)
• Students complete the lesson by doing the task alone. Teacher only intervenes for the few students who are still struggling (You Do)

See my full guide on implementing the I Do, We Do, You Do method .

11. Guided Practice / Cognitive Apprenticeship

Students follow along with their teacher as an ‘apprentice’. By working side-by-side, they learn the subtle little things (‘ tacit knowledge ’) required to know in order to master a skill.

• Students get very close one-to-one interaction with an expert, helping them learn.
• By learning-by-doing, the student learns not only the theory but also the skills required to complete tasks.
• An approach predominantly used for young children in Indigenous communities, which is not applicable on a wide scale in Western mass education systems.
• Requires one-to-one support, which is not often available.

Socio-Cultural Theory: Rogoff studied Guatemalan Indigenous teaching methods to come up with this approach. It fits under the socio-cultural theory because its emphasis is on social interaction between master and apprentice.

Common in trade schools for students studying to be mechanics, engineers, etc.

See my full guides on the Guided Practice teaching strategy and cognitive fexibility .

12. Scaffolding

Scaffolding involves providing support to students while they cannot complete a task alone. Then, when the student can complete the task alone, the teacher withdraws their support.

• Students feel supported while learning tasks that are just outside of their grasp at the present time.
• A clear way of guiding students towards new skills.
• May require a lot of one-to-one support, which can be difficult to provide in a classroom environment.

Socio-Cultural Theory: Scaffolding was invented by Jerome Bruner ( not Vygotsky).

• The teacher models a task before students try it themselves.
• The teacher provides the student with a visual aid (the scaffold, in this instance) that breaks the task down into small parts.
• After 15 minutes of practice with the visual aid, the aid is withdrawn and the students try the task alone.

13. Direct Instruction (a.k.a Explicit Teaching)

Direct instruction (also known as explicit teaching) is a teacher-centered approach that involves the teacher using simple straightforward language to explain concepts to students.

• Provides clear and direct knowledge to students
• Is sometimes the only way to teach something, particularly when introducing a new idea.
• Students cannot consolidate their knowledge with direct instruction alone. Explicit teaching should be followed-up with other teaching strategies that involve more active learning so students can practice and demonstrate their knowledge.

Behaviorism: Traditionally, direct instruction was embraced by behaviorists who believed in teacher-centered teaching. Today, it is used in most teaching approaches.

14. Repetition (Rote Learning)

Repetition involves giving students time to retry tasks over and over again until it is consolidated in their minds. The information should be safely in a student’s long-term memory before moving on.

• Repetition commits information to memory, and is often one of the only ways to ensure something is truly remembered long-term.
• Repetitive rote learning that lacks contextual background is hard to remember. Sometimes, giving context through doing tasks through real-life scenarios can be better for memory long-term.
• Repetition can disengage students and demotivate them.
• Doesn’t account for social and cognitive aspects of learning.

Behaviorism: Repetition is central to a behaviorist approach. Pavlov, a famous behaviorist found that he could teach his dog through repetitively associating a bell with food. The dog came to learn through repetition that the bell meant ‘food’.

See my full post on Behaviorism in Education.

15. Spaced Repetition

Spaced repetition builds on simple repetition. Spaced repetition involves gradually increasing the space between times you repeat something. Repetition of a task should be very common. Over time, the task should be re-examined less and less often.

The idea behind spaced repetition is that the concept being learned is re-engaged with just before it is forgotten so that it is consistently recalled into memory and gradually sedimented into long-term memory.

• Provides long-term support to ensure students remember information over a sustained period of time.
• Perfect for revision and standardized test preparation.
• Can be disengaging and boring for students who tend to prefer active learning.

Behaviorism: Spaced repetition was invented by behaviorist theorist Ebbinghaus in 1885.

• Provide students with a sprinkle of review tasks as a part of their weekly homework.
• Start lessons (or set aside some time each week) with revision of tasks from months previously to jog students’ memory.

16. Prompting

Prompting involves providing students with nudges, guides and questions that will help them to move closer towards an answer. A prompt is a suggestion to a student that they pay attention to a particular aspect of a task that will help them get closer to the answer.

• Prompts are used regularly by teachers to get beyond blocks in student learning. Without prompts, students may never develop or improve.
• It is hard to know exactly how much prompting to give and at what stage. Students need time to think things through and make mistakes. Too much prompting too soon can prevent students from thinking for themselves.

Social Constructivism: Social constructivists believe teachers have a role in helping students to build knowledge in their minds. Teachers’ interventions can help spur knowledge development.

• A teacher might ask a question to get the student to look at the task from a different perspective.
• A teacher may point at a section of a diagram and ask them about that section.
• A teacher might start a sentence and ask a student to finish it.

17. Differentiation

Differentiation is a teaching strategy that requires teachers to change their teaching styles and educational materials to meet the diverse needs of students within a classroom. It generally involves grouping students into several sub-groups in the classroom based on ability, skillset or learning preferences.

• Enables the teacher to more effectively address the diverse needs of students in a large classroom.
• Ensures learning is more personalized in the hope that no child will be left behind in a lesson.
• Differentiation is often used as an excuse to dumb down a task – differentiated instruction should be paired with high expectations to ensure all students are working to their maximum potential.

Socio-cultural Theory: This approach acknowledges that all students have different social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, each student requires a personalized learning approach. It realizes that one size fits all will not work because all students are different.

• Separate students into three ability groups: Advanced, Middle, and Lower. The advanced students can be provided with project-based learning tasks to complete while the teacher works with the middle and lower groups to provide additional support.
• Provide students with a range of tasks that addresses the same learning outcome. Students can choose between different tasks depending on their learning preferences.

18. Manipulatives

Manipulatives are physical educational toys (or: ‘tools’) which are used to support learning. Providing students with physical manipulatives during learning enables them to visualize their learning in a 3D space.

• Students can learn more actively when they have manipulatives than when learning through teacher-centered direct instruction methods.
• Helps students who need to visualize information to learn.
• Creation of physical models helps students to form mental models (‘ cognitive schemata ’).
• It can be expensive to gather enough materials for all students in a classroom.
• Providing students with toys can distract them from the task. Strong classroom management skills are required.

Constructivism: Constructivists including Freidrich Froebel and Maria Montessori have advocated for the use of educational toys to help students to explore and discover in student-led active learning contexts.

• Base Tens ‘Dienes Cubes’ are cubes that can be bunched into singles, groups of ten, groups of 100, and groups of 1000 to help students visualize the decimal system of counting.
• Colored beads can be used to help students in early childhood learn to recognize patterns.
• Froebel’s Gifts are 9 manipulative toys that students can use to solve developmentally appropriate puzzles.

19. Prior Knowledge Assessment

Prior knowledge assessment entails assessing students’ knowledge at the beginning of a unit of work in order to teach students at an appropriate level. If prior knowledge does not take place, teachers may teach content at a level that is either above or below a class’s optimal learning level.

• Ensures the content being taught is at an appropriate level.
• Respects the fact that students come into the classroom with pre-existing knowledge.
• Identifies misconceptions students may have about a topic.
• Enables teachers to take into account students’ cultural knowledge when preparing a unit of work.
• Ensure you assess prior knowledge well in advance so you can plan lessons based on prior knowledge. I’ve assessed prior knowledge at the start of a class before and realized the lesson I planned was completely useless!

20. Student-Teacher Conference

A student-teacher conference is a one-on-one discussion between a student and a teacher to take stock of a student’s needs. The conference usually involves a discussion of both strengths as well as areas for improvement. The conference should conclude with a list of goals for the teacher and student to mutually strive toward.

• An opportunity for both the teacher and student to express concerns and anxieties
• Helps students to feel ‘seen’, valued and cared for by the teacher
• Hard to achieve in every lesson. Teachers could consider systematically conferring with one or two students per lesson until all students are met with.
• There is a power imbalance in the student-teacher relationship which may prevent students from speaking candidly.

Socio-Cultural Theory: Interactions between teachers and students are important to learning within the socio-cultural approach.

• Print a list of your students with a column for ‘achievements’, ‘goals’ and ‘struggles’. Over the course of a week, meet up with your students and discuss with them what they’ve achieved in the current unit of work, what their goals are, and what the barriers are to achieving those goals.

21. Fill-In the Gaps (Cloze Passages)

A simple teaching strategy that involves asking students to fill-in an incomplete piece of text. This can happen verbally (starting a paragraph and asking students to complete it) and in writing (a traditional cloze passage).

• Helps students to jog their own memories by prompting them slightly.
• Enables teachers to quickly assess students’ knowledge (just-in-time assessment).
• Cannot be a consistently used strategy as students also need to learn through more challenging approaches such as discovery learning and project-based learning.
• Paper cloze passages involving a story in which the key phrases are removed.
• Prompting questions like: “Can you finish this sentence? The first king of England was …”

22. Peer Assisted Learning (PAL)

Has the teacher step aside and allows students to take charge of the learning environment.

• Students can often explain concepts to one another in a clear way because they’re on the same level and closer in their learning journey than the teacher, who probably learned the content years ago!
• Peer assisted learning is not the same as the students doing the teaching. Students should continue to view each others as partners in learning.

Socio-Cultural Theory: students learning through collaborative discussion fits firmly into the sociocultural theory of education .

• Invite students from a grade level above to come into the classroom and act as moderators of discussions on topics of interest.
• Pair stronger students with weaker students. Have the stronger students demonstrate their knowledge by supporting the weaker students. I find this works really well because children can often explain things in a clear language that other children can understand.

23. Poster Presentations

A poster presentation is a great way to demonstrate knowledge at the end of a lesson or unit of work. Provide the students with posters, pens, and printing materials if required.

• A fast, effective way of presenting knowledge to the class.
• Allows students to practice demonstration skills.
• Ends up with a physical product that can be photographed and added to the student’s portfolio to prove that outcomes have been met.
• Can be a lazy way to achieve presentation of knowledge. Ensure the focus remains on the content and not the coloring-in or drawing pretty pictures.
• Not useful for all lessons: when students can create a working model, diagram, etc. this would be preferred.
• Have students work in groups to write up their knowledge in a visually engaging way.
• Then, have each group verbally present their poster to the class.

24. Two-Minute Presentation

Two Minute verbal presentations, like posters, are an effective way of having students demonstrate their knowledge at the end of a lesson or unit of work. Each student gets two minutes to present their knowledge on a topic to the rest of the class.

• An effective, fast way of doing summative assessment.
• It is an inefficient use of other students’ time having them listen to 20 other two-minute presentations when they could be engaging in higher-order learning during that time. Students find it very boring and frustrating to sit through the assessment of other students.
• Use the two-minute presentation method for the final lesson in a series of lessons on one topic.
• Have students read over their notes from previous classes and write a summary of the top 10 points.
• Have students prepare their two-minute presentations by adding the notes to palm cards. With 10 points, students have about 12 second per point!
• Ensure students have time to practice with one another and instruct them on how to take additional notes on their palm cards for points they forgot during practice.
• If each student has a different topic or angle to present engagement may be enhanced during the class presentations.

25. De Bono’s 6 Thinking Hats

De Bono’s 6 thinking hats strategy asks students to look at an issue from multiple perspectives. It can be used for groups or individuals. Depending on the hat a student is provided, they have to think from a different perspective.

The Six Hats

• White hat: Provide the facts.
• Yellow hat: Explore the positives.
• Black hat: Explore the negatives (devil’s advocate).
• Red hat: Express your feelings and intuitions . Include concerns, dislikes and likes.
• Green hat: Be creative. Come up with new ideas and alternatives.
• Blue hat: The manager who ensures all the hats are sticking to their lane.
• Helps students to think outside of their own perspectives.
• Encourages students to attack an issue from many different angles.
• Teachers group work skills if used in a group.
• I often find it’s hard to get groups of 6, so sometimes one student has to use two hats.
• Introduce a contentious topic with a video or reading.
• Distribute hats to the students.
• Have students spend some time brainstorming what they would say on the issue from their perspective. If you have a large class, group all the white hats together, red hats together, etc. to work in groups for this part.
• Then rearrange students into groups where there is one colored hat per group (groups of 6 is ideal, or 5 with one person taking the role of blue hat as well).
• At the end of the class, have a whole group discussion summing up our points and list the details of the topic on the white board. Hopefully students will see that the issue is a very complex one!

26. Pop Quiz

A pop quiz is a short test that takes place with no prior warning. The quiz can be formative or summative. Link the quiz to rewards to keep students motivated to do well and be prepared at any moment.

• Can be motivating for students who enjoy the challenge of competing with themselves or others.
• Keeps students on their toes which encourages ongoing review and homework on the part of the students.
• May worry some students who are unprepared.

27. Democratic Vote

Taking a democratic vote is a progressive education strategy that attempts to empower students in the classroom. Have students vote on what or how they will learn within the classroom. This can be done at a small scale in a lesson plan by asking students to vote on how a lesson will progress, for example.

• Can empower students, giving them a sense of ownership over the classroom.
• Can build trust and rapport between the students and the teacher.
• Helps the teacher take the pulse of the class and understand what they want and need.
• Teachers may lose their power and control over the class if they overuse this approach.
• Just because the majority supports something, it doesn’t mean it’s best. A small group of students may fall behind and have their voices drowned out by the majority.

Progressive Education: Progressive educators such as Alfie Kohn advocate for empowering students through increased democracy in the classroom.

See my full post on Citizenship Education .

28. Non-Verbal Gestures

Using non-verbal gestures are powerful ways to help students learn, as well as to manage the classroom. Educators can explicitly teach signs or use gestures common in society.

• Teachers can give individual students instant feedback that is subtle and does not disrupt the rest of the class.
• Students feel acknowledged when small gestures are used just for them.
• It is a non-intrusive way of prompting students.
• Cultural sensitivity required. Different cultures ascribe different meanings to non-verbal gestures.
• Nods of approval can let a student know you have recognized their good work without disrupting the flow of the lesson.
• Pointing can be used to direct students’ attention toward prompts around the room or on worksheets that may help stimulate thinking.
• Tapping a watch can remind students to pay attention to time limitations of a lesson.

29. Environmental Manipulation

Environments have a strong impact on learning. Temperature, lighting, seating plans , colors and posters on the walls can all affect learning.

• A non-intrusive way of supporting learning.
• Helps students feel more comfortable in the classroom.
• Your classroom has limitations which may prevent the ideal environmental settings.
• Different students may work better in different environments (e.g. heat settings)

Humanism: Teachers pay attention to the conditions required for creating an optimal learning environment.

Classical Conditioning (Behaviorism): Students are ‘conditioned’ by cause-and-effect mechanisms that are subtle and that they aren’t even aware of.

For more, see my full post on behaviorism in education.

• When a class is too loud, try subtly turning off the fan. It’s amazing how often this small environmental manipulation can quiet down a class.
• Ensure the classroom is not too dark. A dark classroom can impede reading, especially for students who do not have perfect eyesight.
• Heat and noise can both prevent learning.
• Calm colors on the walls can help students relax into the learning environment.

30. Associative Learning

Associative learning takes place when several ideas are introduced to a student that are mutually reinforcing. In the classroom, this means presenting students with several stimulus materials that help a student to recall a fact.

• Is very effective during revision for an exam.
• Has questionable long-term benefits as at this stage the concept is not yet solidly consolidated in long-term memory. The recall of information is dependant on other associated information.

Behaviorism (Pavlov’s Dog): Most famously, Pavlov managed to get a dog to associate the ringing of a bell with food. The dog would salivate whenever the bell rang, whether or not there was food around.

Cognitive Constructivism: while associative learning is most commonly associated with Pavlov, constructivists also have an explanation. The more associations someone has with a topic, the more neural pathways are created connecting ideas. This helps improve memory recall.

See Also: Non-Associative Learning

• The teacher presents students with rhyming pairs to help a student associate one word with another. This can be effective in teaching vocabulary.
• When attempting to recall a fact, you can try to reflect on where you were and what else you were talking about when that fact was first introduced to you.

31. Cooperative Learning (Group Work)

Cooperative learning is a teaching strategy that involves having students work together rather than in competition. Usually, this takes place in small groups where the success of the group is dependant on the students working together to achieve a common goal (also known as positive interdependence). See more: Cooperative learning examples .

• Minimizes destructive competitiveness in the classroom which may undermine a collaborative and collegial atmosphere.
• Requires students to talk to one another which can help them learn from each other’s perspectives.
• Students need to be explicitly taught group work skills before participating.
• Some students may become lazy and let others do the work for the whole group.

Sociocultural Theory: Learning is stimulated when students converse with one another. They get to see others’ viewpoints which may help each student build upon or challenge their existing views.

32. Agenda Setting

The teacher presents the students with the agenda at the start of the day. The use of visual aids may be helpful here, allowing students to see a timeline of the day’s events on the board at the front of the classroom.

• Very effective for students with autism who often feel calmed knowing there is some structure to their day.
• Helps relax students into a day or even a lesson by giving them certainty about what’s to come.
• Any benefits that may arise lack scientific backing.
• Download a card set of images that represent different lesson types and activities. Use this card set to lay out a visual timeline for the students every morning.

33. Team Teaching

Instead of one teacher delivering a lesson to a group of students, several teachers get their classes together to teach one lesson to a larger group.

• Teachers can be more flexible. One teacher may take the role of presenter while the other acts as a support with students falling behind.
• Teachers can share the workload, particularly for preparation.
• Large groups may lead to some students falling behind without the teachers realizing.
• There is the potential for more noise distractions and subversive behavior in large groups.
• Teachers need to have the same work ethic for this to be effective.
• Large class sizes required.
• Consider having one teacher take the lead on all mathematics lessons and the other take the lead on all literature lessons. This enables each teacher to become more expert on their topic.

34. Directing Attention

Directing attention involves diverting students away from negative non-learning behaviors and towards positive behaviors by presenting them with engaging learning materials or ideas.

• Prevents negative behaviors without confrontation.
• Focuses on creating engaging lessons.
• Can be done multiple times in one lesson whenever a teacher sees a student is distracted.
• Tends to be more effective with younger children than older children.
• Use visual aids, worksheets and manipulatives to help direct and maintain students’ attention on something physical. With adults, I use flipchart paper (also known as butcher’s paper) as the prop to direct attention.

34. Visual Aids

Visual aids are any objects used in the classroom to attract students’ eyes and therefore immerse them more into a lesson. Visual aids can have both cognitive benefits (see: cognitive tools) and engagement benefits.

• Engagement: students are more likely to pay attention if they have something to look at.
• Cognition: some students may benefit from visualizing a concept to help them order ideas in their minds.
• Visual learning : some learners prefer learning visually than aurally (see: learning styles).
• A visual aid needs an educational purpose. Consider why you are using the visual aid before deciding to use it.
• Graphic Organizers
• Educational toys (see: Manipulatives)

35. Flexible Seating

Allowing students to sit where they choose, rather than having assigned seating, has had a resurgence in popularity in the past decade. A flexible seating classroom often has a range of differently organized workstations, allowing students to select a spot to sit that’s most comfortable for them and which best suits the style of learning that will be occuring in that lesson.

• Can reduce sedentary periods of time by allowing students to move around more during a lesson.
• Enables students to sit at a table that best suits their learning (computer table, group table, individual table, on a bean bag, etc.)
• There is often not enough space at workstations, meaning students end up not actually sitting where they choose.
• Often students like to have a spot they can call their own. It helps give students a sense of place and belonging.
• This approach is very common in the Agile Learning Spaces and Flexible Classrooms movement.

See my full post on the Common Classroom Seating Arrangements .

36. Formative Assessment (a.k.a Assessment for Learning)

Formative assessment involves assessing students’ learning throughout the learning process, not just at the end. Formative assessments can take place at one point in a unit of work or regularly throughout a lesson.

• Allows teachers to adjust their teaching if students are not quite up to where you expected, or if they are exceeding your expectations.
• Students get feedback on their progress before the summative assessment, allowing them to adjust.
• Gives the teacher a better understanding of their students. If a student fails a summative assessment but the teacher knows the student could do the task at the formative stage, more investigation can take place to see why there is a discrepancy.
• Can be time consuming to constantly assess students’ abilities.
• Formative assessments often lack the authority of summative assessment pieces.
• Formative assessments can be simple stops to get feedback and ongoing questioning of students.
• They can also take the form of pop quizzes or student-teacher conferences.

37. Summative Assessment

Summative assessments take place at the end of a unit of work and are often the formal final / overall grading of a student’s knowledge.

• Summative assessments are necessary for providing a final grade for a student and are often required by school boards.
• Summative assessments give students something to strive toward which may keep them motivated and encourage them to study.
• They are seen as too high-stakes and can cause stress for students.
• If a student does poorly, the assessment is right at the end, so the teacher and student often don’t have any more time address the problems and help progress the student’s learning.
• Standardized tests.
• Assessments for student portfolios.
• End-of-year exams.
• Entry exams.

38. Gamification

Gamification involves implementing elements of gameplay in your lessons. This can be as simple as creating a competition out of a mathematics quiz.

Recently, computer software such as excel and programming languages have been used in the classroom as elements of ‘digital’ gamification.

Don’t confuse gamification with game-based learning, which is discussed next.

• Gamification can make boring lessons fun , thereby increasing the engagement and motivation of students.
• Teachers must not lose focus on the learning outcomes that must be met. ‘Fun’ is not the goal, it is the means for achieving the goal, which is always learning .
• Get your students into two groups and have them compete in a trivia contest based on your lesson content.
• Give students table groups and reward tables with points depending oh how well they do.

See my full article on the pros and cons of digital play.

39. Game-Based Learning

Not to be confused with gamification, game-based learning involves the use of actual games (board games, computer games, sports games, etc.) into a lesson.

While gamification involves using elements of gameplay into lessons (points, competitions), game-based learning involves using actual games in a lesson.

• Students often love video games at home, so they get excited that they can play them in school as well.
• Games can also support cognition by prompting students to complete and practice tasks to win games. See also: cognitive tools.
• Parents may feel playing games in the classroom is not acceptable. Make sure parents know your reasoning behind using games.
• Ensure the focus remains on the learning outcomes, not just on ‘having fun’.
• Minecraft is a very popular computer game that is used in classrooms.
• Sim City is a popular game for city design courses.
• Use card games to teach counting. I teach ESL students counting using the game UNO.

See my full article on game-based learning as well as my explanations about how to use minecraft and sandbox games in the classroom .

40. Coaching

A coach does not stand in front of players and simply tell them what the ‘facts’ are. A coach stands behind a player. He watches the player and gives feedback on their performance. His job is to encourage, suggest adjustments and be the support network for the player.

Coaching is one of the great metaphors for teaching . A teacher who uses coaching as a strategy tried to emulate the role of the coach: observing and offering support and suggestions for adjustments.

• Student-centered : the student is the focus and the teacher is the supporter.
• Personalized: each student will get unique feedback based on their performance.
• Sometimes the teacher needs to introduce new ideas, meaning coaching may not be as useful as another approach such as modeling or direct instruction.

Sociocultural Theory: In sociocultural theory, teachers tend to encourage active learning and provide social support.

41. Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning involves the teacher presenting a problem for the students to solve by making their own inquiries. It is similar to discovery learning, but is different in that inquiry based learning generally involves the teacher setting out a puzzling problem to solve at the start of the lesson.

• Students ‘find’ the answers rather than being given them by teachers.
• Answers emerge out of exploration, problem solving and discovery, meaning students learn why something is true, not simply what is true.
• Significant support is required to help guide students through their inquiry. Students need to be taught how to inquire and given the right inquiry tools (such as books, appropriate websites, etc.)

Constructivism: Students learn through constructing ideas in their heads rather than being told the facts.

42. Reciprocal Teaching

Reciprocal teaching involves having students facilitate their own small group lessons. It is usually used in reading lessons.

The teacher first models how to guide group discussions before sending students off to facilitate their own lesson. In groups of four, students usually take the roles of: questioner, clarifier, summarizer and predictor. Students read stimulus materials then self-facilitate a group discussion about the text.

• Students learn self-regulation learning skills which are essential for later in their lives.
• When students are trained up, the classes work very effectively and the teacher can fade into the background.
• Students learn group work, communication and negotiation skills. They also learn how to speak up in a group.
• Students learn to be mature even when the teacher isn’t looking. By taking on responsibility as ‘teachers’, students should rise to the challenge.
• Requires a lot of pre-teaching so students have the required skills for these sorts of lessons to work.

Sociocultural theory: working in groups, communicating and sharing ideas help stimulate thinking and encourages students to challenge their own ideas in order to improve them.

Example (Modelled off the I Do, We Do, You Do approach)

• The teacher should model the four roles required in front of the whole class, with several volunteers to act as the demonstration group.
• The teacher assigns groups and the four group roles: questioner, clarifier, summarizer and predictor.
• When students do the activity in small groups for the first time, explicitly walk the students through the steps. Use a bell or similar audible cue to cycle students through the group work steps.
• Allow the students to work in independent groups – walk around and help groups who are struggling.

43. Blended Learning

Blended learning involves a mix of online instruction and face-to-face learning. This strategy can be employed by giving students part of their instruction as homework online and part of it in class. It differs from flipped learning because a flipped classroom involves at-home instruction and in-class practice. Blended learning can have both practice and instruction occuring at home and/or in class

• Gives the teacher flexibility to teach partially during homework time and partially in class.
• Students need access to technology at home unless the at-home parts are only reading and printouts.
• Usually only suitable for university students who are short on time. Blended learning allows them to do some of the learning in their own time.
• Used regularly for distance learning students and rural and remote students.
• Used regularly at university level.
• If using this method, I recommend taking a look at the flipped learning model for some ideas of how to split your distance and in-class segments efficiently.

See my List of 10 Pros and Cons of teaching Online .

44. Growth Mindsets

A growth mindset focuses on teaching students that they have the power to improve and succeed if they put their effort into it. The opposite would be students refusing to try because they don’t think they have the power in their own hands to succeed.

Teaching growth mindsets is all about modelling positive behaviors. Include growth mindset in your lesson plans by finding points in the lesson to discuss specific strategies to move toward success, strategies for studying, and positive thinking.

• Focuses on helping students see that they have ‘ agency ’ (in other words, they are capable of improving their lives)
• Motivates students to improve their own lives
• Many students have many barriers to success. If you ignore those barriers and simply say ‘you can work harder’, this will make students feel disempowered. Teachers need to show students the pathways to success.
• Ensure the content is actually achievable for your students.
• Break down tasks into manageable chunks so that students know the steps toward success. Then, use encouragement to motivate students to put in their effort.
• Celebrate success to show students that they are competent and capable.

45. Culturally Responsive Teaching

Culturally responsive teaching is an instructional strategy that involves ensuring students’ cultures are integrated into lessons. This includes celebrating students’ cultural backgrounds when relevant and using learning styles that are dominant within your students’ cultures.

• Includes children from cultures that have been traditionally marginalized within the classroom.
• Minimizes the impact of Westernization of education.
• May make new students from cultures that are different to the majority in the class to feel a sense of inclusion and belonging in the classroom.
• Helps all students see the world from a variety of perspectives and learn to respect pluralism.
• Teachers need to be sensitive to cultures different to their own.
• Teachers should consult parents and community members about best strategies for the cultural needs of the students in the class.

Sociocultural theory: sociocultural theory believes

• Have role models from minority backgrounds come into the classroom to share their backgrounds.
• Consult with parents about ideal teaching methods within their culture.
• Avoid nonverbal gestures that have different meanings in different cultures.
• Another example: eye contact is considered respectful in Western cultures but acts of defiance in Indigenous Austealian culture.

46. Teaching to Mastery

Mastery learning and teaching is a strategy for ensuring all students meet a certain standard of understanding or ability before moving on.

Teachers set a benchmark of knowledge 9r ability for students to meet. Then, all assessment in this method is formative, where students are given feedback and as much time as possible to improve before progressing.

• Students are not left behind and gaps in their knowledge are not overlooked.
• Students may feel less stressed or rushed with this approach.
• There is no talk of inability or failure in this method as teachers and students keep working away at the task until success is achieved.
• There is not enough time in traditional school systems for this approach.
• The difference in abilities between students means some students will get a long way ahead while others remain a long way behind.

Humanism: there are elements of unconditional positive regard in this approach (see Carl Rogers).

• An example.may be that all students must get 80% on a test to progress to the next unit of work.
• This approach is common for getting a “handwriting license” in primary / elementary school.

47. Stimulus Materials and Props

Stimulus materials are tools that a teacher provides during lessons to spur students into engaging with the lesson or thinking more deeply about the content provided. They include videos, educational toys (manipulatives), worksheets, visual prompts, objects from outside the classroom, and so on.

Without stimulus materials, the classroom feels empty and detached from real life. Bring stimulus materials into the classroom to help students make stronger connections to things going on outside.

• Provides something for students to focus on which can focus students’ minds.
• Helps students to learn actively if they have the opportunity to touch and manipulate the props.
• Can inspire and draw-in students at the start of the lesson.
• Stimulus materials can be very expensive.
• Students can get distracted playing with the materials rather than listening to their peers or the teacher.
• Students need to learn to share materials.

Constructivism: constructivists encourage the use of props so that students can ‘learn by doing’ and be ‘hands on’ in their learning.

• Place several props into a bag. Have the students put their hands in the bag and see whether they can guess what the props are.
• Place an unusual prop related to your lesson in the middle of the classroom. Get the students to guess what it is before beginning the lesson.

48. Service Learning

Service learning involves having students meet learning outcomes while contributing to and ‘giving back to’ their community. This often involves volunteer work, internships and placements within the community where assistance is needed.

• Students can increase their sense of belonging within the community.
• Connections between learning and life are made explicit in this sort of learning.
• Learning moves from the theoretical to the practical.
• Students can come to see how they are connected to a wider ecosystem, and that they have an important part to play in serving that ecosystem for the good of all.
• It can be hard to place all your students in a service learning placement if there are many students to allocate.
• It may be impractical given safety and security requirements.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory: EST highlights that people are situated within community from whom they get their values and beliefs. By being more connected to the community, students learn who they are and how they’re connected to a society and culture that surrounds them.

• Prepare your students in the classroom. Consider having organizers or community members come into the classroom to tell the students what to expect.
• Have students write preparatory notes about what the intend to learn, who they intend to speak to, and what their day-by-day goals will be whilst doing the service learning.
• Have students complete their service learning / voluntary work in groups or individually.
• Meet with the students intermittently during the service learning and have student-teacher conferences on how it is progressing. Intervene where needed.
• Have students come together at the end of the project to reflect on what was learnt and how their understanding of their place in the community has evolved. Discuss possible future involvement and engagement in the community to emphasize that community involvement is an ongoing project.

49. Situated Learning

Invented by Lave and Wegner, situated learning involves learning by being embedded within a professional environment and slowly picking up the ways of doing and speaking within that context.

It has similarities to other instructional strategies outlined in this article such as service learning and cognitive apprenticeships. However, its defining feature is the slow absorption of knowledge through prolonged exposure to an authentic professional setting.

• Students learn the most important practical information required for a job.
• Students learn the ways of speaking and behaving that are required within a professional situation.
• Not practical as a teaching strategy in classrooms. It works best as an apprenticeship model for new graduates from university.

Sociocultural theory: the situated learning approach emphasizes the importance of learning from ‘more knowledgeable others’.

50. Sixty-Second Strategy

The sixty second strategy involves having students review one another’s work in three steps which take 60 seconds each. The steps are: respond, reflect and review. This usually takes place after a student presentation where the students give a cumulative 3 minutes of feedback and reflection on the presentation.

The goal is not just to give feedback to the presenter, but for the listeners to also think about how they would have done the presentation and what their own thoughts on the topic are.

• Students learn how to give feedback to others in positive and constructive ways.
• It is a great way for students to actively engage with other students’ presentations.
• Students need to know how to be positive in feedback and not be hurtful.
• Have the student who is presenting their work give their presentation.
• The students who watched the presentation have 60 seconds to write their thoughts on the topic that was presented.
• Next, the students have 60 seconds to write down feedback on the presenter’s work.
• Then the students have 60 seconds to provide positive affirmation and praise.
• At the end, have the students share their feedback with the presenter in small groups so that the environment is not so intimidating for the presenter.

51. Thumbs Down, Thumbs Up

Thumbs down, thumbs up is a simple strategy for getting immediate feedback from students. During a lesson, pause after each step to get instant thumbs down, thumbs up feedback on whether students understand the previous step.

If there are thumbs down, the teacher should ask those students if they have direct questions or whether they might want that section to be covered again in different language or more slowly.

• Enables the teacher to gauge students’ reactions in real time.
• Gives the students an opportunity to give the teacher feedback immediately so that they don’t fall behind or become frustrated.
• If the majority of students give thumbs up but only one or two give thumbs down, this is not endorsement to move on. Rather, the teacher should make sure no students fall behind.

52. Summarizing and Paraphrasing

For this teaching strategy, either the teacher or student summarizes something someone previously said in their own words in order to ensure they understanding each other without any misconceptions.

• In having a student repeat the teacher’s statement in their own words, the teacher can see whether students actually understand something.
• In repeating a student’s statement in different language, the teacher can see whether they truly understand what the student means.
• The biggest risk here is in the teacher ‘putting words in the student’s mouth’. This may give the student a free pass.
• The teacher explains a concept, then asks the student to repeat it without using the same words. A pause of a few minutes between the teacher’s explanation and the student’s response can be helpful in preventing the student from directly copying the teacher’s language. As time passes, the meaning should stay but the exact words should be forgotten.
• Alternatively, the student makes a statement, and the teacher translates it in their own words and finishes with “Is that what you meant?”

53. Demonstration

Demonstration involves showing the students a practical example of something that is being learned in class.

The difference between demonstration and modeling is that a demonstration usually:

• does not involve explicit explanation of all the steps, and
• is usually not followed by students having a go themselves.

Demonstration (rather than modelling) may be necessary when the concept being demonstrated is dangerous or requires expertise.

• Having something complex or theoretical demonstrated can be exciting to link theory to practice.
• Demonstrations may require expensive field trips or inviting experts and expert equipment into the classroom.
• A demonstration could be as complex as going to watch a space rocket launch or as simple as a ranger demonstrating how to use bear spray.

54. Role Modelling

Role modelling involves demonstrating the requisite behaviors or ideal way of acting within a learning environment. Role modelling has the intention of positively influencing students into copying the teacher’s positive learning behaviors.

• Students are socialized into behaving and learning in socially appropriate ways.
• A teacher who sets personal high expectations for their own learning will have those high expectations flow on toward the students.
• A teacher needs to be aware that all of their behaviors rub off on students. This means they need to ‘put on their happy face’ despite what’s going on in their private lives.

Bandura (Social learning theory): Albert Bandura believed that observation was important in influencing how people will behave and learn. See his famous Bobo doll experiment where children were more aggressive toward a doll when they observed an adult being aggressive toward it.

• Male teachers may role model positive masculinity, such as politeness and respect to all people regardless of gender.
• A teacher can be a role model my demonstrating engagement and volunteering within the community, insisting on respectfully welcoming guests when they enter the classroom, or having high regard and respect for reading, learning, and apologizing.

55. Predicting

Predicting involves asking students to make predictions or ‘guestimates’ before a study is undertaken. The teacher may make a prediction for the students to respond to, or ask students to make predictions themselves.

• It stimulates students to think about the logical flow-on effects of the things they are learning about (such as in science: gravity, momentum, etc.)
• Students are asked to think forward rather than simply react in the learning environment.
• At the start of a lesson (before introducing too much information), ask students what they think will happen during the lesson.
• Show the students a diagram or comic strip demonstrating sequence of events with the last few events missing. Have students fill-in the gaps.

56. Intentional Mistakes

The teacher inserts intentional mistakes into their teaching materials (such as misspellings in their presentations) or their speech in order to:

• Check students’ depth of knowledge,
• Make memorable teaching moments, or
• Keep students critically engaged.
• It keeps students on their toes throughout the lesson, particularly during the boring parts.
• It can make learning into a game if you let the students know to look out for the mistakes in advance. You could also offer a reward for the person who identifies the mistake.
• It can lead to critical discussion about common mistakes that students make in a topic.
• You may risk having students believe you had made the mistakes intentionally.
• Students may believe the mistakes are truths and end up believing things that are untrue.
• Create intentional spelling errors in your worksheets and powerpoint presentations.
• Mispronounce a word and see if students realize.
• Flip two words in a sentence and see if anyone realizes.

57. Reflection-in-Practice / Immediate Feedback

Immediate feedback is any feedback that takes place during a lesson rather than after a lesson or exam has been completed.

There are two primary types of immediate feedback: feedback from students to teachers, and feedback from teachers to students.

The feedback’s purpose should be to make impromptu changes during the lesson before it is too late.

• Teachers can adjust their teaching methods in the moment to ensure the lesson is a success.
• Students can adjust the ways they are going about completing a task to ensure it is successful.
• In large groups, one-to-one feedback can be difficult.
• Teachers need to be able to think on their feet to make immediate adjustments.

David Schon’s ‘Reflection in Practice’: According to Schon, successful practitioners reflect in practice rather than just on practice. Reflection in practice requires practitioners to reflect on what they’re doing while they’re doing it.

• Asking for a thumbs up / thumbs down from students to see if they understand something.
• Looking over the shoulder at children’s work to see how they’re coming to their conclusions.
• Accepting ‘hands up’ questions at any point during an explanation or lecture.

58. Whole Group Class Discussion (a.k.a Circle Time)

A whole group class discussion gets all students in the class talking to one another in one group. When I use this strategy, I try to get students sitting in a conversation circle. The benefits of students sitting in a circle include:

• There is a neutral power structure with no one at the head of the discussion.
• All students can see one another.
• Whole class discussions encourage all students to develop the confidence to share their own views publicly.
• If the whole class gets into it, there can be a lot of great back-and-forth.
• Often, the loudest and most confident students dominate the discussion.
• Some students are too shy to speak up.
• It is easy to embarrass a student, so be careful to be sensitive.
• Use a speaking stick so only one person speaks at a time. The only person who can speak is the person with the speaking stick.
• Use discussion circles so that all students can see each other when talking.
• If conversation is slow to start, consider asking individual students direct questions.
• Use open-ended questioning to force students to answer in full sentences.

59. Concentric Circles

Concentric circles is a method that builds on the whole group circle time discussion. Students sit in two concentric circles with the inner circle facing the outer circle. The students in the inner circle should be paired one-to-one with a student in the outer circle (like speed dating).

The teacher poses a question and the pairs are given 60 seconds to discuss the problem. Then, the students from the inner circle rotate one person to the right so they are facing a new partner for the next question.

• Disagreements about pairing and students working with their friends are resolved because each student gets a turn working with another student.
• Students get to learn and communicate with other students they don’t usually spend time with.
• Discussion can help students see perspectives that they did not come up with on their own.
• There needs to be an even number of students in the class so each student has a partner to work with.

Sociocultural theory: students learn by interacting with others to help them test, challenge and extend their own ideas.

60. Hot Seat

One student takes the role of a character from a book, history, etc. They dit in front of the class and get interviewed by their classmates. The student must stay in character and answer the questions from the perspective of that character.

• Students explore topics from perspectives other than their own, helping them to develop lateral thinking skills .
• Students need time to research their character and brainstorm their character’s perspectives on various topics before being put in the hot seat.
• Shy students or students who are not confident with the material may be intimidated by this instructional strategy.
• This strategy can be linked up with strategies like De Bono’s thinking hats where students would answer questions from a particular perspective.

61. Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers are visual aids in the classroom designed to help students visualize and conceptualize ideas and their relationships with other ideas. Examples of graphic organizers include flowcharts, mind maps and venn diagrams. Use them to help students think more deeply about topics.

• Very useful for students who are visual learners.
• Provides a framework for deeper and critical thinking.
• Provides structure to help students who are unsure of how to proceed with critical thinking.
• Don’t stick to just one framework as the frameworks narrow the scope of thinking in exchange for depth. Mix up your graphic organizers.

Cognitive Constructivism: cognitive constructivists such as David Jonassen believe graphic organizers help students to share their cognitive load with the organizer, helping them to organize and sort ideas in their heads more effective.y

• Flow charts
• Venn diagrams
• Concept maps
• Network or family tree
• Spider diagram
• Compare-contrast matrix
• Series of events chain
• Character charts

62. Think Pair Share

This is one of the simplest, most frequently used, but also most effective classroom teaching strategies. Students think about a topic on their own. Then, they pair up with a partner and discuss, compare and contrast their thoughts together. Thirdly, the pair share what they discussed with the whole class.

• Moves students from individual thinking to social thinking in a clear process.
• Helps students to vocalize their own thoughts in small and large groups.
• Helps students to see other people’s perspectives by encouraging communication, compare and contrast.
• Students need the confidence to speak up in front of the whole class. I have found some students like to have the comfort of flip chart (butcher’s) paper as a prop when presenting their discussions to the class.

Sociocultural theory: learning through conversation allows students to see diverse perspectives and therefore improve on their own perspectives.

• Step 1: Think. Students are given 2 minutes to think about the topic on their own and take 5 bullet points on their own.
• Step 2: Pair. Students get together in pairs (or groups of 3 if appropriate) to compare and contrast their own ideas. Students discuss the ideas and come up with a collective group of ideas.
• Step 3: Share. Each group shares their own thoughts with the whole class. As each group presents, other classmates can challenge ideas or take additional notes to add to their own group’s thoughts.

63. Group Roles

Assigning group roles for students who are doing small group work is another simple instructional strategy to try. There are many group role types to be found online. I tend to use the roles of: timekeeper, moderator, notekeeper, and collector. All students should be equal discussion contributors, and this is managed by the moderator.

• Helps to structure the activity, give students certainty in what they are doing, and reduce the uncertainty from group work.
• Encourages communication to get students hearing other students’ ideas and perspectives
• Students must be explicitly taught the group roles and need time to practice them.

Sociocultural Theory: By communicating with peers, students widen their perspectives and (with more knowledgeable peers) have their knowledge scaffolded.

• Ensure you model the group roles before beginning the activity. Consider using a fishbowl method by having a sample group sit in the middle of a circle modeling the roles to the rest of the class.
• For the class’s first attempt at group roles, structure it very clearly by getting the students to follow a clear step-by-step guide. Slowly release responsibility to students when they are ready.

64. Barometer

The barometer method gets a measure of students’ opinions by asking them to stand on a line from 0 to 10 (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = unsure or conflicted, 10= strongly agree).

• Students tend to find this a non-intimidating way of sharing their opinions.
• Can be a good way of getting students talking. Once they stand on the line, you can ask them to explain why they stood where they did.
• It may be beneficial to prevent students from taking a neutral “I don’t know” stance without sufficient defence of this position.

Critical theory : The barometer could be paired with critical theory if students critique assumptions in society with a focus on the perspectives of marginalized groups.

• Introduce a complex or controversial issue through a book, video or class discussion.
• Ask students to stand on an imaginary line from 0 to 10 representing their opinion.
• Place students into three groups based on their position in the line: agree, unsure and disagree. Have the three groups present their 5 best arguments to the class.

65. Cognitive Tools

Cognitive tools are educational technologies designed to promote thinking beyond what a student can do without the technology. This might include using wearable technologies to help students map out their own movements to then test their knowledge of geography, use of excel sheets to create financial estimations, etc.

• Educational technologies can help us do things we couldn’t do without them.
• Can engage students who love computers and technology in learning tasks.
• Teachers must ensure technology use is focused on helping students learn more or at a higher level of critical thinking than if they didn’t have technology.

Cognitive Constructivism: this approach, invented by david Jonassen, emphasizes that computer technologies should be used to extend and promote higher-order cognition.

See my full article: Examples of Congitive Tools in Education .

66. Anticipation / Guestimation

Anticipation and guestimation is an instructional strategy designed to get students thinking about the consequences or flow-on effects of actions. Teachers ask students to make predictions based on limited knowledge about a topic

• Students often have to use mathematics and logical reasoning to succeed in this task.
• Students are required to be resourceful and seek clues that will show them the possible consequences of action.
• It is important to strike a balance between giving enough information to make informed guesses and not too much information that the students can deduce the full answer.

67. Silent Conversation

A silent conversation is a way of getting students to communicate without having them speak up in front of the class. Students write their responses to a prompt on sheets of paper but cannot speak while doing so. They should then also write responses to one another’s points so that they are ‘conversing’ through writing.

• Students who are shy to speak up my be more willing to participate, especially if their written response can stay anonymous.
• It can often be easier to respond in writing than speaking because students have time to reflect and think about the wording of their response before writing it.
• Only one student at a time can write their response. Consider what other students will be doing during this time.
• Students must be competent writers.

Sociocultural theory: we learn and extend our knowledge through social interaction. By seeing others’ points, we can improve or amend our own.

• One way to do this is to have a flip chart paper sheet (butcher’s paper) on a wall with a discussion prompt written above. Have students walk up to the paper intermittently thought a lesson to write responses to the prompt. After the first few students write their responses, the rest of the students must respond not to the prompt but to the answers written by previous students – how can they add to or challenge what someone else has already said?
• The second common way of having a silent conversation is to pass a piece of paper around the class and have students write their responses to conversation chains on the piece of paper.

68. Devil’s Advocate

A devil’s advocate is someone who argues for an opposing point of view in order to stir up an argument and poke holes in other points of view. The devil’s advocate does not necessarily need to believe the points they are arguing. Either the teacher or students can be the devil’s advocate I’m this teaching strategy.

• Encourages students to see their own blind spots or misunderstandings.
• Helps students to see a diversity of points of view.
• Improves students’ debating skills.
• Students and parents may interpret you devil’s advocate position as an attempt to teach unsavory views in the classroom.

Critical theory: A devil’s advocate can help students with skills desirable within critical theory, like seeing views of people who are not commonly heard in society and the capacity to critique dominant narratives in society.

• The teacher can note in their lesson plan moments when they believe there are opportunities to play devil’s advocate role promote debate.
• The teacher can give students debating points where one person acts as devil’s advocate and another as the person defending the dominant perspective.

69. Strategic Pauses

Strategic pauses are one of the most important tools in a teacher’s toolbox of teaching strategies. A strategic pause is a gap between statements to let a point sink in or linger, or to give students a moment to think about an answer before the teacher moves on.

•  An excellent classroom management strategy
• Encourages students to think and not rely on teacher prompting
• Emphasizes important points
•  Can leave students confused
• Requires follow-up and knowledge testing

Cognitive load theory: Too much information at one time can cause a student to lose track. Time is required for the mind to interpret, sort, stack, save and withdraw information in their mind (‘create cognitive schemata’).

• Pause after a question for 10 seconds before discussing the answer.
• If the class has started getting unsettled, often a pause in the teacher’s speaking is enough to settle them again and remind them to re-engage with the learning materials.
• Slow speech with sufficient pauses between ‘chunks’ of information (seeL ‘chunking’ strategy) can help students arrange information in their minds appropriately.

70. Chunking

Chunking involves presenting information in manageable ‘chunks’ to allow students to sufficiently process information before moving on to the next section of a lesson or task.

Teachers should present only a manageable amount of information to students before giving them a chance to consolidate the information and practice their new knowledge.

Without giving sufficient time to consolidate information before giving new information to a student, the student will struggle to keep up with the information and old information may fall away before it is secured into their memory.

• Less students will be left behind, confused and disillusioned in the classroom if they are given consolidation time.
• There is often not enough time in a crowded school curriculum to chunk information well enough.
• It is hard to tell how much is ‘too much’ information, and how long is long enough before knowledge is consolidated into memory.

Cognitive Overload Theory: If students are given too much information, their mind becomes ‘overloaded’ and they are unable to process more information. We only have a limited amount of working memory space in our minds. See: John Sweller’s cognitive overload theory .

• Only teach two or three key points per lesson.
• Provide a lot of discussion and practice time before moving on to presenting new information.
• Consistently use formative assessment and reflection in action during the lesson to see when is the ideal time to move on.

71. Snowball Discussions

Snowball discussions are another twist on the think-pair-share method. For snowball discussions, students start in pairs and share their thoughts and ideas together. Then, the pairs join up with another pair to create a group of four. These four people share thoughts together, compare notes, debate ideas, and come up with an agreed list of points on a topic.

Then, groups join up again to make groups of eight. The groups of eight compare points and perspectives, then join up to create groups of 16, etc. until it ends up being a whole class discussion.

• An effective strategy for promoting discussion between students. It can be useful for getting students to compare how different groups of students approach points from different perspectives.
• The class group needs to be large (20+) for enough rounds of this strategy to happen.

Sociocultural theory: social interaction helps students see perspectives that are not their own and challenge their own views. This helps them pick holes in their own points and improve their misconceptions.

72. Homework: Knowledge Consolidation

Yes, homework is a teaching strategy! A traditional approach to homework sees it as an opportunity for students to consolidate information that was taught in class. Studying for upcoming exams is often also an important part of homework.

Other homework strategies like flipped classroom are possible – see the flipped classroom discussion earlier in this article.

• Help students to consolidate information learned in class.
• Ensures students have an opportunity to keep information fresh in their minds and be reminded of information learned in previous months.
• Excessive homework can impede students’ rights to enjoyment, sports and extracurricular activities out of school.
• Students often do not have support at home if they get stuck.

Behaviorism: repetition over time helps memory retention.

73. Active Listening

Active listening involves using strategies to pay close attention to what someone is saying. Teachers can explicitly model active listening by giving students strategies like pointing their bodies at the speaker, keeping their eyes on the speaker, nodding when they agree, and putting hands up to ask questions or clarification.

• Active listening encourages respect in the classroom.
• It could help students to remember better because it minimizes distractions.
• Students may be more likely to contribute questions if they are paying more attention.
• Some students (such as students with autism) need stress balls, fidget toys, etc to help them concentrate.

Examples that show active listening include:

• Facing the speaker square-on
• Eye contact
• Asking questions
• Repeating, paraphrasing or summarizing the speaker’s statement.

74. Connect, Extend, Challenge

The “connect, extend, challenge” teaching strategy is a three-step strategy designed to get student thinking about how their knowledge is progressing.

In step 1, students ‘connect’ what they’re learning to their prior knowledge. In step 2, students think about how the new knowledge ‘extends’ what they already knew. In step 3, students reflect on what ‘challenges’ they still face: what is still confusing to them?

• This is a framework that gets students to explicitly think about how they are progressing in their learning.
• The clear steps give students guidelines to help them achieve success.
•  Requires prompting and scaffolding

Social Constructivism: This strategy has implicit links to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. Students look at how their backgrounds impact their thinking, what level they are at, and what is still sitting in their ‘zone of proximal development’ (.e.g what they need to learn next).

• Split a piece of paper into three columns to help students in this task: one column for ‘connect’, one for ‘extend’, and one for ‘challenge’.

75. Create a Headline

While a seemingly simple activity, this instructional strategy gets students to refine the topic they’re exploring down to one simple sentence that catches the essence of the issue.

For this strategy, have students come up with a headline for the lesson as if they’re a journalist reporting on the issue at hand. Get them to think about how it can be catchy, explain the problem at hand, and provide an engaging ‘hook’ to draw readers in.

• Helps students identify the key point of a lesson, forcing them to think about what is really important in the lesson.
• Some issues are complex and refining it down to one sentence may risk simplification.

To extend this activity, have students write a journalistic piece to go under the headline.

76. Lesson Objective Transparency

Being transparent about a lesson objective is a teaching strategy designed to help students understand the purpose of the lesson. By knowing the objective from the outset, the students are less likely to get confused about the purpose and direction of their lesson.

• Students are aware of the purpose of the lesson, which may make it more relevant .
• Students can more objectively measure how successful they have been in the lesson.
• Lesson objectives are often worded for adults not children, so the wording may just confuse the students at times.
• Write your lesson objectives on the first slide of lecture slides if relevant.

77. Open-Ended Questioning

Open-ended questioning involves asking questions that require an elaboration in the response. In other words, it cannot be a question that can be answered with “yes” or “no”.

• Students are required to provide explanations and justifications for the points they make.
• Teachers get a more detailed appreciation of students’ levels of knowledge .
• Make a habit of using open ended questions when talking to students about their work.
• Write all assessment tasks with open ended questions.
• Pose open ended questions as stimulus prompts.

78. Fishbowl

The fishbowl strategy gets a small group of students to sit in a circle in the center if the classroom with the rest of the class sitting in a circle around the group.

The students in the middle of the circle complete a discussion or task as a demonstration for the students observing.

• Teachers can use advanced students in the middle of the group as a way of modeling skills or behaviors for the remainder of the class.
• More knowledgeable students can model behavior for less knowledgeable students.
• Students get a chance at performing in front of others.
• Many students will find doing a task I’m front of their peers intimidating.

Bandura’s observational learning : Bandura argues that students can learn from observing the modeling of others.

• Get older students from higher grades to sit in the middle of the fishbowl.
• Or, use the fishbowl as the “we do” step in the I do, we do, you do method.

79. Four corners

Use the four corners of the classroom as different stations for answering questions proposed by a teacher.

The stations may have answers like: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree. Another example may be periods of time for a history exam: the 50s, 60s, 70s, 80s. Or, the corners may have specific answers in the corners related to the questions being asked.

• This activity may be appealing for kinesthetic learners who want to move about to stay engaged.
• Provides a visual comparison between different views of students in the class.
• When students head to the corners, the teacher needs to ask students to explain their decisions to ensure depth is achieved in the lesson.

Multiple Intelligences: The lesson can help students who are kinesthetic learners.

80. Give One, Get One

This strategy involves getting students to trade ideas with one another.

Students write down their answer or thoughts to a TEACHER’S question. Then, they pair up. The students give their answer to their partner and take their partner’s answer. They discuss the differences between and merits of each answer.

Students then split up and find a new partner to repeat the activity.

• Writing down an answer ensures all students participate and that all students provide an explicit response.
• Seeing other people’s answers helps students get a broader perspective on a topic.
• Pre-plan for what to do when you don’t have an even number of students in the class.

Sociocultural theory: students learn from their peers through discussion. Discussion can help broaden horizons and allows students to see multiple perspectives on an issue.

• Present a discussion topic or question to the class.
• Have each student write down 3 points on a piece of paper to answer the question.
• Pair students up to discuss their answers. Get them to consider similarities and differences as well as pros and cons of each answer.
• Have students break apart and trade answers in another pair.

81. Brainstorming

Brainstorming involves asking students to come up with their initial thoughts on an issue. The thoughts do not have to be refined or correct. Instead, the students should use the brainstorming time to get their mind flowing and discussion started. Usually, this activity takes place using flip chart / butcher’s paper.

• A good way to start discussion among students, especially if they don’t know each other well or are shy.
• The students may need to assign some roles to group members. Consider rotating the role of ‘writer’ between students (usually one person writes an idea for the whole group on the brainstorming paper).
• A good way of doing this activity is to place students in small groups and provide them a large sheet of paper to write down all their initial thoughts.
• Students can then report all their thoughts back to the class.

82. Expert Jigsaw

The expert jigsaw method teaching method involves having students split into groups of ‘experts’ and then ‘topics’.

First, each ‘expert’ group focuses on a sub-area of a topic to develop their ‘expertise’ as a group.

Once the initial group work discussion has concluded, the ‘expert groups’ split.

The teacher then forms new ‘topic groups’ with one student from each of the original expert groups in the new groups.

The idea is that each group in the second part of the lesson will have an ‘expert’ on a particular area of a topic. Every expert will be able to contribute their perspective to the group

For example, if the topic is dinosaurs, the initial ‘expert groups’ may get together to discuss separate issues: Group 1 will discuss extinction, Group 2 will discuss bones, Group 3 will discuss diets, and Group 4 will discuss geographical locations.

When the ‘topic groups’ converge, they should contain one expert on extinction, one expert on bones, one expert on diets and one expert on geographical locations. The topic group will therefore have a broad range of expert knowledge to discuss and share.

• Gives each student a sense that they have something meaningful to contribute because they will be an expert on something when converging in the ‘topic’ groups.
• Encourages collaboration and positive interdependence in group work.
• Requires forethought and organization by the teacher.

Social Constructivism: social interaction helps students construct ideas in their minds. Each student gets to hear the expert perspective of another student who is a ‘more knowledgeable other’, while also acting as the more knowledgeable other when it is their turn to share their expertise.

83. KWL Charts

A KWL chart is a type of graphic organizer that can be used throughout the course of a lesson to help students keep track of their learning.

The chart can be on a simple piece of paper split into three columns: (K) What I already know; (W) What I want to know in this lesson; (K) What I learned.

At the start of the lesson the students can fill out the first two columns. The first column will help the teacher assess prior knowledge. The second column will help the teacher and students guide the lesson by outlining what they want out of it.

At the end of the lesson, the third column can be filled-in: (L) What I learned in the lesson. This helps students reflect on the lesson to show them that they did actually learn something!

• Students can keep track of their own learning.
• There is physical evidence of what was learned that teachers can use in students’ final report card comments and teaching portfolios.
• It is a good structured tool to help guide a lesson.
• It would be good if there was a fourth column for ‘what I still want to know’ so student can leave the lesson with more questions that can be addressed in future classes.
• Students sometimes place topics in the (W) What I want to know column that are relevant but not covered in a pre-made lesson plan. This can require the student to get a bit creative in re-arranging their lesson on the fly.

84. SWOT analysis

A SWOT analysis is a teaching tool used to help students identify their own Strengths , Weaknesses , Opportunities , and Threats .

It is often used at the beginning of a term or unit of work to help students self-identify how best to proceed in their studies.

A SWOT analysis starts with a piece of paper split into four quadrants. The top-left has ‘Strengths’, top-right has ‘Weaknesses’, bottom-left has ‘Opportunities’ and the bottom-right has ‘Threats’.

There are plenty of templates online you could download also.

Students then fill out the SWOT sheet, identifying their strengths and weaknesses (e.g. ‘I am organized’ or ‘I am time poor’) and opportunities and threats (e.g. ‘I have the opportunity to work with my peers to improve’ or ‘I have an upcoming swim meet that will take up more of my time’).

• Students are taught to self-assess and plan ahead to avoid upcoming challenges in their lives.
• Students can balance affirming statements about their own skills with honest recognition of their weaknesses.
• I often find students use generic phrases copied from their neighbors. It’s a good idea to insist on depth of engagement and thinking when doing this strategy .

85. Read Aloud

Read aloud is a strategy that involves the teacher reading a text out loud to students. The strategy relies on the teacher using strategic pauses, pitch and tone changes, pace and volume changes, and questioning and comments. These reading aloud strategies help students to become more engaged in a lesson and get more out of the reading experience.

• Can be more engaging than getting students to read to themselves.
• By using strategic pauses and asking questions of students, the text can both be read and analyzed at the same time. This may improve comprehension.
• I’ve found many pre-service teachers get nervous doing this task. Remember that people of all ages love being read to.

86. SIT: Surprising, Interesting, Troubling

A SIT analysis asks students to list aspects of a lesson that were surprising, interesting and troubling. It is useful following the viewing of a short film or reading a book about a topic that seems bizarre or a fact that is counterintuitive.

Like a KWL chart, you could do this task by splitting paper into three columns: one for ‘surprising’, one for ‘interesting’ and one for ‘troubling’.

• Gets students to take a critical stance and make judgements (particularly for ‘troubling’)
• Is a good way to take stock of students’ interests in order to create follow-up lessons based on topics the students have already demonstrated concern for.
• The ‘troubling’ part is often hard for students to complete – consider explicitly modeling a sample response before asking students to complete it alone.

Critical theory: students can use a SIT analysis to critique the justice or inequality issues presented in a text.

87. Higher Order Thinking

When writing a lesson plan, it’s often a very good idea to note any time you’re encouraging higher order thinking – especially if there’s a column in your lesson plan for ‘teaching strategies’. This help people reading the lesson plan to see that you’ve been intentional about promoting higher order thinking.

Following Bloom’s taxonomy, higher order thinking usually includes tasks that involve verbs like : Judge, Appraise, Evaluate, Compare, Criticize, Assess, Estimate, Deduce, Hypothesize and Generalize.

• Helps a teacher to be more explicit in their language and to ensure a lesson is challenging for students.
• Ensures students are practicing their critical thinking skills rather than just repeating a teacher’s ‘facts’.
• For higher order thinking tasks, it’s important that you don’t give students the answers. Instead, give them hints, pointers and resources that will help them to come up with the answers on their own.

Constructivism: Bloom was a constructivist who believed learning happens when students build knowledge in their mind rather than just copying facts from an authority figure in the classroom.

88. Debating

Getting students to debate an idea is a great way of getting them to build coherent and logical arguments in defence of a position. It requires them to gather, analyze and sort facts before they present them to an audience.

• Students learn to identify positive arguments on a topic even if they disagree with it, helping them to see things from multiple perspectives.
• Students may require resources to do background research to come up with strong points for or against a position.
• Split the class into two groups and assign each group a position for or against a statement.
• Give each group 15 minutes to come up with some arguments for their side of the argument. Each student in the group should have one argument to make for the team. The student writes their argument down on a piece of paper.
• Line the two groups of students up facing one another.
• Go down the lines getting each student to make their point for or against the position. Zig-zag from one group to the next as you go down the line
• Once the students have completed, do an anonymous poll of the class to find out which position is most convincing. For the poll, students do not have to vote for their team’s position.

89. Note Taking (Cornell Method)

Note taking involves getting students to actively listen out for key points in a speech or video and synthesize it into key points for remembering later.

A popular framework for not taking is the Cornell method. This involves splitting a page into two columns.

The column on the left is a ‘Cue’ column. In the cue column write key words, phrases or Quotes as if they were headings or headline points to remember.

The column on the right is the note taking column. This column is larger and allows space to add detail and diagrams explaining the ‘cues’ that were written on the left in more detail.

• Turns passive learning during a didactic explicit instruction lesson into a more active learning environment.
• Helps students organize and synthesize their thoughts.
• Helps with studying for exams later on.
• Teachers may talk too fast for students to take detailed notes. Remember to use strategic pauses and remind students at strategic times that they need to be taking notes.
• Feel free to download cornell method worksheets off the internet. Just look for them on your favorite search engine!

90. Lesson Recording

Recording a lesson involves using either video, audio or Screencast technology to save the lesson for revision later on.

• This method is very useful for students with learning disabilities who may require more time to process information. They can rewatch later on and make use of pause, rewind and slow functions during the revision.
• Great for when students miss a day so they can catch up.
• Whenever you work with technology, be prepared for issues to arise that may delay the lesson.
• Use Screencasts when teaching a lesson online.
• Screencasts can also save your work when writing on an Interactive Whitenoard. Revision at a later date will show the steps you took in doing the ‘working out’.

91. Word Wall

Word walls are sections on the walls of a classroom where teachers and students can record new vocabulary, quotes or key terms they encounter during a unit of work.

• Word walls can be visible evidence of progression through a unit.
• Students can refer to the word walls when trying to explain their points and ideas to the class.
• During exams, remember to cover the word walls so students can’t cheat by looking over at the answers.
• Word walls can be great props for refreshing students’ memories at the start of a lesson. Start the lesson by reviewing the vocabulary learned in the previous lesson.

92. Goal Setting

Goal setting involves explicitly instructing students on how to set short (within a lesson), medium (within a unit of work) and long term (through the year) personal targets for success.

The goals can be for a whole group or individual.

• Goal setting gives students something to strive toward.
• It is a way of gamifying education. Students can challenge themselves to reach their step by step goals.
• It helps students understand where they are headed and what the purpose of the lesson is.
• Ensure goals are achievable lo that students do not become disillusioned.
• Have students prepare their daily goals at the end of the previous day or start of the current day.
• Reflect on medium-term goals weekly.

93. Worked Examples

A worked example is a completed piece of work that students can look to as models for their own work.

A worked example could be a sample of a completed diagram our 3D model, a completed essay or anything else that is a finished product of something the students are about to attempt.

• Students feel more secure knowing what they are working toward.
• Students can get ideas from the worked sample that they can adapt for their Ken work.
• Sometimes students copy the sample too closely rather than using their own thinking. Consider using a sample that requires similar skills and processes but a different end product.
• Make sure you spend time discussing the steps it takes from going from nothing to the completed product.
• Provide students with past examples of creative writing pieces and discuss the strategies used by the authors.
• Show samples that are good and poor. Get students to discuss how the poorer samples could be improved.

94. Multiple Intelligences

Students have different learning styles (or more accurately, different learning preferences ).

One theory proposes that there are eight ‘intelligences’. A student may have one that is dominant and others that are weaker.

The eight intelligences are:

• Visual-Spatial : Prefers learning through images and visual arts. Uses diagrams to model relationships between concepts.
• Linguistic-Verbal : Prefers learning through storytelling, reading and writing.
• Interpersonal : Good at working in social situations, gets energy from social interaction, and can empathize with others easily. Enjoys group work.
• Intrapersonal : An introverted person who prefers learning alone. They do a lot of thinking and reading but mostly like to think through things in their own time (see: intrapersonal skills ).
• Logical-Mathematical : Sees patterns easily. Enjoys mathematical puzzles.
• Musical : Enjoys learning through music, songs and rhymes.
• Bodily-Kinesthetic : Learns through movement. Prefers lessons that require moving about.
• Naturalistic : Has an affinity with nature. Learns well in calm natural environments.

A teacher can integrate different activities into a lesson plan that appeal to different people’s learning preferences. In this way, they create a more inclusive classroom for multiple different types of learners.

• Inclusion: Teachers can use this theory to engage students who do not learn well in traditional lessons.
• Attempts to be student-centered and teach in ways that are appealing to students.
• In 2004, a detailed study in Scotland found no evidence or scientific toxic basis for the theory that different people have learning styles. Furthermore, it argued that the 8 styles in the multiple intelligences model were a arbitrarily contrived. Thus, learning styles may simply be learning preferences.
• It is unclear whether a teacher should create lessons catered to a student’s learning preference or help students strengthen their skills in areas students identify as their weaknesses.
• If students are not given a chance to practice all “styles” (not just their preferences) they may miss important skills, such as mathematical skills or literacy skills.

Howard Gardner: The theory of multiple intelligences was invented by Howard Gardner in the United States.

95. Non-Interventionism

Non-interventionism involves a teacher taking the role of ‘unobtrusive observer’ while students learn. The students are left to come to their own conclusions, face up to their own challenges, and ‘struggle’ through the lesson.

The teacher’s intervention may come through changing what they plan for the next lesson based on what they see, or lightly intervening after the students have struggled for some time.

Other reasons for intervention may be for safety or fairness reasons.

• Struggling to find an answer is Important for learning. Students can make mistakes and learn why the mistakes are wrong instead of just being told what us correct.
• Without a teacher imposing their views, students can come up with creative and thoughtful solutions to problems that the teacher dis not foresee.
• Students develop independent minds.
• Many parents and mentors watching your lesson may come away with a sense that you were lazy or did not do enough to help the students. This approach needs to be clearly explained and justified in lesson plans (I’d recommend referring to Montessori in your justification) and situations when you would go from observer to intervener should be spelled out in advance.
• If students are struggling too much, learning may not occur – there is a limit to this approach!

Montessori Classrooms: The role of the teacher as “unobtrusive observer” was pioneered by Maria Montessori.

Montessori argued that children learn best when placed in resource rich environments and left to explore. Our interventions may impede creativity, self-belief, autonomy and self-discovery.

96. Constructive Alignment

Constructive alignment involves explicitly linking the lesson assessment tasks to the compulsory learning outcomes in the curriculum.

This is an impressive thing to see in a lesson plan.

Use language (including verbs and nouns) from the learning outcome in the assessment task. Furthermore, make sure to provide a criteria for what constitutes pass or fail.

• Teachers can easily justify their lesson choices to their boss or assessor.
• The assessment tasks are always relevant and focused.
• Students can see the relevance of the assessment task to their learning goals.
• If the language of the curriculum objectives are complex or obtuse, it may just confuse students to use that language in their assessment task.

Biggs: Constructive alignment was invented by John Biggs who designed this method to ensure all lessons are relevant and move students a step closer to completing all learning outcomes.

97. Zone of Proximal Development

The ‘ zone of proximal development ‘ is a phrase used to explain the ideal difficulty level for a lesson.

A lesson that is too easy won’t help a student progress.

A lesson that is too hard will disengage a student who just won’t be able to do the task.

But a lesson that is difficult but achievable with effort will push a student forward. These lessons that are just hard enough but not too hard are lessons in the “zone of proximal development”.

• Students get lessons catered to their own needs.
• There is always catered support for any student in the class.
• By creating lessons that are always challenging, you are setting high expectations for all students.
• Differentiation like this can lead to bug Differences in ability levels across the whole class.
• You’re often under pressure to teach content that is too hard for students to meet standardized curriculum requirements

Sociocultural theory: Lev Vygotsky, one of the most famous educational psychologists, invented this approach to help teachers provide lessons that are at the right level for progressing a student’s learning.

• Weave the ZDP into a lesson plan by stating that you will assess a student’s current ability then teach them the thing that is the logical next.step.
• Another way to do this is create three student worksheets for three different ability levels. State in your lesson plan that you will assess each student’s ability and give them the appropriate worksheet. Each worksheet should build on the previous to help students move through their ZPD one step at a time.

98. Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is the use of praise, stickers, candy or other rewards to show students that they have done a good job.

Teachers can stack positive reinforcements so students can take steps to get small, medium and large rewards to encourage students to keep on trying and working hard consistently.

• Students get clear signals to know when they have done well.
• Students get encouragement to keep going and keep trying in order to get the reward.
• Too much positive reinforcement can come across as insincere and lose students’ respect. Furthermore, students may become desensitized to praise if it occurs too much. Praise ‘scarcity’ makes occasional praise more valuable.
• Explicit reinforcements are extrinsic motivation . The best sort of motivation is intrinsic motivation (wanting to do something for the pleasure of doing it). For more, see my full guide on intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation .

Behaviorism: Positive reinforcement is believed to be beneficial for changing behavior over time. See: John Watson’s operant conditioning examples .

• Sticker charts
• A subtle nod or wink
• Certificates and awards

99. Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement involves the removal of a privilege, points or tokens when a student gets an answer wrong.

This is often confused with punishments. For me, negative reinforcements should not punish but be used in limited learning scenarios as part of the learning ‘game’.

An example might be losing points in a gamified lesson so the student is less likely to win against their opponents. Students know it is part of the game and not a punishment designed to distress the student.

• Provides very clear messages to students about what is correct and incorrect, helping them to learn quickly.
• Parents often do not like any negative reinforces, so be very careful to set clear guidelines and use this strategy in limited circumstances.
• Be careful not to embarrass students in front of their classmates.

Behaviorism: Watson brought negative reinforcements into education, arguing that repeated use of them can change students’ behaviors.

• Losing points in a class contest.
• Failing a level in an educational computer game.

100. Drop Everything and Read

Drop everything and read (DEAR) involves getting students to stop what they are doing and read for 10 minutes.

It is a strategy that helps build students’ literacy skills (especially when students can choose their own book). However, it is also useful for helping students get more depth of knowledge on a topic being taught when you give them all an article or book to read to help them have more knowledge for subsequent parts of the lesson.

• An effective way of getting students to spend intense time learning about a topic.
• Helps integrate literacy into your daily activities.
• There will always be a small group of students who squirm and struggle when asked to read. Consider alternatives like the Read Aloud strategy or using videos instead if DEAR doesn’t work for your class.
• Make sure to follow up DEAR time with discussion and comprehension tasks.
• Introduce a topic with initial information to engage the class.
• Set a 10 minute silent reading task based on the topic.
• Discuss what was read with comprehension prompts.

101. Gallery Walk

A gallery walk involves a teacher placing stimulus questions on flip chart paper (butcher’s paper) around the walls of the classroom.

The charts the teacher has put up are stations that students will stop at during the activity.

The teacher places students into groups. If there are 5 stations around the room, the teacher will create 5 groups.

Students get a set amount of time at each station to read the prompt questions. The students can write on the chart paper with their group response and also respond to other groups who have already written their points.

Once all students have rotated through the stations, the students end up back at the station where they began. The teacher the. gives each group 3 minutes to present to the class a summary of the comments written on the paper at their station.

• Students get to learn from others and see other groups’ responses.
• The students are up and moving about which may help the concentration of bodily-kinesthetic learners.
• Some students may not participate fully. Consider getting students to rotate who writes on the paper at each station to mitigate this challenge a little.

102. Metacognition

Note whenever you would encourage metacognition in a lesson within your lesson plan. This will help anyone reading it know that you’ve thought about giving students strategies for “thinking about thinking”.

Metacogntion is about thinking about how you think. Strategies include:

• Thinking aloud
• Writing your steps to reach an answer
• Explaining your thought processes
• Reflecting on your learning and considering faster ur more efficient processes
• Helps students understand the processes required for thinking deeply about an issue.
• Gives students the strategies and skills to learn any task, not just the ones at hand.
• Metacognition is difficult because it requires explanation of your thinking. However, it is necessary if people want to know how to think .

103. Case Studies

Case studies are in-depth examples of an issue being examined. A case study should show how an issue or theory looks in real life. Teachers can present case studies through videos, newspaper articles, magazine articles, guests coming into the classroom, etc.

• Case studies help students to see how theories and ideas look in real life. This can also help a student understand the relevance of the topic being studied.
• A case study may help students make sense of a complex idea by putting it in real concrete terms.
• Case studies might not be representative of a generalized issue – they may be outliers or flukes. Pick your case study carefully and discuss whether it is a typical or outlier sample.
• A case study of city planning may be an innovative city that has recently been designed.
• A case study in mathematics may include looking at the mathematics underpinning a famous bridge’s construction.
• A case study during a unit of work on refugees might look at the experiences of one real-life refugee.

104. Mystery Making

Educators can create ‘mystery’ in their classroom by carefully structuring lessons that give ‘clues’ to a mystery that needs to be solved by the students. Ask the students to act as detectives and place clues around the classroom (like a gallery walk). Have students move around the classroom taking notes on the mystery which will reveal an answer after thorough investigation.

• Creates a sense of excitement in the classroom, helping students to engage.
• Forces students to use critical, logical and lateral thinking in order to find the answer.
• Ensure the mystery is not too far outside a student’s zone of proximal development so that the mystery can be solved.

105. Storytelling

Storytelling in the classroom involves teaching through narrative-style stories rather than telling (‘didactic learning’). Teachers can tell stories by reading books (see: Read Aloud strategy), turning a dry explanation into an allegorical story off the cuff, or bringing people into the classroom who have an engaging personal story to tell.

• Stories can draw students into a topic through the creation of a sense of excitement and entertainment.

Steiner-Waldorf Schools: Rudolf Steiner called the teacher the ‘chief storyteller’ whose role is to create a sense of enchantment around learning through stories.

• Invite guests into the classroom who have stories to tell.
• Use stories that have a moral of the the story, then analyze the moralistic message.

106. Newspaper Clippings

Use newspaper clippings to link topics and theories to current affairs. Teachers can bring in recent newspapers to let students search through them for relevant stories or use old newspapers to search for how a topic was discussed in the past. Alternatively, teachers can get students to search for newspaper articles online.

Teachers could also assign reading through newspapers and bringing newspapers to class as a part of their homework.

• Newspaper stories can show students how the topic being discussed plays out in real life.
• They also show students how the topic is relevant to the present-day lives of people in the community,
• Newspapers are increasingly uncommon – consider adjusting this to use online news sites and printing out articles from the web.
• Some topics won’t have relevant news articles associated with them. Do a search in newspapers and online yourself for articles before using this teaching strategy.

107. Self-Paced Learning

Self-paced learning involves.letting students progress from activity to activity in their own time. For this approach, a teacher lays out a list of 10 – 20 lessons that students can work on at their own pace. Students work on the activities while the teacher walks around and gives support.

• Students are encouraged to reflect on their own learning development and only move on when they are confident that they have consolidated the knowledge from an assessment.
• Less students will fall behind if the teacher doesn’t pressure them to move on.
• Teachers have time to work one-on-one with students while students work away at student-led tasks.
• Fast students will need extension tasks or personal projects to complete once they have finished and are waiting for slower students.
• There is often not enough time for slower students to finish.

These teaching strategy examples are clearly not the only ones out there – there are probably thousands! But, in my time teaching, these have been the most effective and common teaching strategies that I have come across. Use this teaching strategies list for your own lesson plans to demonstrate pedagogical knowledge and depth of understanding of how to educate a range of different learners.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 10 Magical Thinking Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Social-Emotional Learning (Definition, Examples, Pros & Cons)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ What is Educational Psychology?
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ What is IQ? (Intelligence Quotient)

4 thoughts on “List of 107 Classroom Teaching Strategies (With Examples)”

this is valuable in my course production of Instructional materials in social studies. maraming Salamat!

Thank you very much for these valuable teaching strategies & techniques which can be used to enliven the classroom atmosphere, encourage students to do their tasks and learn more in the process. God bless!

As a student of Curriculum and Pedagogic Studies and also the Curriculum Lead in my school, this is best of resources I have had on the subject of teaching strategies. Thanks so much.

Thank you so much, these are very helpful and remind me that some of my teaching styles are already mentioned here.

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How to Plan Project-Based Learning Lesson Plans

Rebecca Gray December 3, 2020 Education

Project-based learning lesson plans are one of the most labor-intensive undertakings for any educator.  It’s tough to create lesson plans that are relevant and achievable. And it’s even tougher when those lessons have to be hands-on, collaborative, and meaningful.  It’s a lot of work to create the lesson, set up a realistic timeline, and lead students to “big ideas” that they can take ownership of.  Meanwhile, you need to make sure you’re sticking to your learning objective, meeting state standards, and convincing your administration that this out-of-the-box teaching style is actually benefiting your students.  Whew!  Deep breaths.

We get it – It’s a lot to juggle.

But you know what?  The data tells us over and over again that project-based learning works.  It’s meaningful.  Nothing prepares a student for solving real-world problems and engaging in critical thinking than hands-on, project-based learning.  When you put them in charge of their own education, it inspires a love of the learning process that is long-lasting and concrete.

What is Project-Based Learning?

The formal definition of project-based learning, according to  PBLWorks  is as follows:

“Project-based learning is a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging and complex question, problem or challenge.”

In real-people speak:  Project-based learning is a teaching method where learning comes alive for students because they’re learning by doing.

Learning objectives are met with comprehensive projects that kids enjoy.  They are learning, working, and collaborating – but banking all of this incredible knowledge because they’re having fun doing it.  Lessons look less like lessons, and more like social time as peers and classmates work together to meet an end goal.  They feed off of each other’s successes, ask questions, and motivate each other to be better.  They realize what it’s like to be part of a successful team of thinkers and doers.  (Lightbulb! Life skills anyone?)

Project-Based Learning Lesson Plans

Where does project-based learning fit into the curriculum?  The obvious answer here is science and STEM learning.  We all remember science projects, chemistry labs, animal dissections, and solar system models.  But education today is innovative, and light years ahead of what we experienced as students.  Yeah – we used to “do projects” in school. But check this out:

“Doing a project” and “Project-Based Learning” are not the same thing.

Sounds crazy right?  But hear us out:

Doing a project is like putting a one-room addition on a home.  The main lesson you teach acts as the “house”.  This house might look like a lecture.  It’s built with books, worksheets, exams, and homework.  When you open the front door, students are all sitting in neat rows of desks quietly writing, working solo on their own grades in every small room of that house.  They’re cramming knowledge for short-term regurgitation.  When all that boring stuff is out of the way, you let the kids do a fun little project to ‘cap off the main lesson’.  This fun little project is the “addition” to the house.  Let’s call it a “playroom”.

Project-based learning is a different structure altogether.  Think of PBL as the frame for the WHOLE house. Only this house looks different.  It’s an open floor concept where kids are on their feet talking, discussing, asking questions, and working together in small groups in every room.  They are learning through exploration, creativity, and discovering the answers to driving questions set forth by the home-builder (a.k.a. their teacher).

With PBL, the project IS the learning experience.  It is an entire thematic learning unit.  There may be mini-lessons along the way – but each mini-lesson is meant to help students to make their way through the project itself.  The end-goal is met through the project work itself, instead of the other way around.

The Benefits of Project-Based Learning

Today’s educators know that there is a place for project-based learning lesson plans beyond the walls of the science classroom or the STEM lab.  It can be integrated, where appropriate, into every classroom, regardless of grade levels or subjects.

PBL lets preschoolers learn and play as they adjust to new situations and form opinions about school.

PBL exploits the curiosity of elementary-age students during a critical time of growth, and development.  Nurturing their love for learning can help create a positive outlook towards school in general.

PBL even pulls middle school students out of their awkward shells and promotes student engagement with interactive learning units that they need to explore together. (Middle-schoolers wouldn’t be caught dead raising their hand to answer an open-ended question in class. You know it.  I know it.  Trey Kennedy knows it .)

It plunges high school and college students into in-depth inquiry where their subject areas become more meaningful.

It has a place in social studies, math, and language arts.  PBL is actually a custom-made opportunity to combine disciplines – bringing literacy and poetry into a science class for example.  Or using technology resources to pull off some distance collaboration on a political science project in history.  Students, with the guidance and feedback from their teachers, can curate a final project for a PBL Unit that has tapped into multiple disciplines and subject areas.

Project-based learning benefits individual learners as well – by giving them opportunities to apply their strengths.  It allows different learning styles in the classroom to really shine.  Tactile and kinesthetic learners can thrive and contribute in ways they are unable to during traditional lecture-style teaching.

Is Project-Based Learning Effective?

Studies have shown us repeatedly that project-based learning is working.   Project-based learning lesson plans are worth the time-intensive efforts we pour into them.  When purposefully developed and implemented well, PBL has some of the following proven results:

Increased (and long-term) retention of content

Improved student attitudes toward learning

Increased student engagement

Increased scores on achievement tests

Promoting a deeper understanding of the material

While PBL has a time and place in our classroom, it can be as or more effective than traditional teaching methods.  So when faced with the Shakespearean decision: To PBL? Or not to PBL? Remember – it’s the student-centered approach that’s bringing success to our kids.

If the mountainous to-do list seems too intimidating, remind yourself that the results are worth it.  Consider choosing projects that are already developed and attached to a proven curriculum.  There are plenty of free and paid resources at your disposal, including curriculum, projects, planning tools, rubrics, and parent letters.  Check out some of the following:

Thimble’s curated projects and curriculum

You for Youth Tools and Resources

PBL Works Resources

Performing In Education’s Planning Resources

Project Foundry PBL Examples

How to Plan Project-Based Learning

The planning stage feels super-daunting.  It’s exactly what teachers are referring to when they say project-based learning lesson plans are time-intensive.  Don’t go it alone!  Seriously – take time to check out the resources above – and these handy tips below:

1.    Choose a standards-aligned topic that will inspire your students!

Think of 3-4 topics that are age-appropriate and can be aligned with grade-level standards, and/or  Next Generation Science Standards .  Have a class discussion with your students.  Inform them that you’ll be beginning a project-based learning unit, and layout your topic possibilities.

Have students come to some consensus about what topic interests them most.  Let them decide, make lists of pros and cons, or discuss what they already know about each topic.  Hold a vote – and if it turns out like the November 2020 presidential election, throw in the towel.  Kidding!

Come to a diplomatic decision that lets your students feel a measure of control over their own learning. They are more likely to actively engage in a project that they are genuinely interested in.  You only need a broad topic at this stage.  Don’t worry about sharing all the details with them just yet.  Sharing too many details might make their decision process difficult.

2.    Set Clear Learning Objectives.

Once your students have come to a consensus on the topic they are most passionate about, you need to think hard about what concrete learning objectives you would like to see your students achieve through this project-based learning.  Your students will need an end goal.

Your learning objectives will often hold hands with  a driving question .  This is an open-ended question that students will be attempting to answer.  Driving questions often have multiple answers, and are exploratory.  They are developed carefully to guide student’s learning.

3.    How Will You Manage Your Classroom?

You’ll need to decide how your classroom and your students are going to function for the duration of this project-based learning unit.  Will they work as an entire class or in small groups?  Will they work in stations?  Will different groups be expected to interact?  How will students be split into groups?

Your students will need some guidelines on time management.  They’ll need a rough idea of what they are supposed to be doing each day, and routines are helpful.  Perhaps the first few minutes of class are a group recap, followed by experimentation and data collection.  Each day may end with a certain amount of time dedicated to returning equipment and materials to their proper places.

Whatever your classroom management style may be, set it in stone before beginning the unit.  Your expectations should be clear, consistent, and communicated to students frequently.

4.    Feedback

Periodic feedback will be necessary so that students aren’t wasting too much time heading in the wrong direction.  Students or groups will arrive at different conclusions and at different times, but several rounds of feedback throughout the project will ensure that groups are all on track to at least meet their learning objectives.

Decide how often you will provide feedback, and with what methods.  Will your feedback be formal or informal?  Are you setting dates for written feedback (formal feedback), or offering verbal feedback during daily monitoring (informal feedback)?

5.    Final Presentation Methods

When the projects are complete, students need to present their products, findings, and conclusions.  You’ll need to decide, and inform students in advance, of what their final presentation will look like.

How will they present their projects?

Projects can be presented as videos, skits, tables, charts, graphs, speeches, poems, robots, structures, blog posts, etc.  This list of presentation formats is virtually endless.  It can combine presentation methods and can be done individually or as a group.

Who will their audience be?

Will they be presenting their project to a panel of judges, a single teacher, their peers from class, an auditorium full of students, or professionals from the community?

Voice and Choice

Giving students choices about their preferred method of presentations (from a list of options you approve of) is another great way to give them ownership of their own learning.

6.    How Will You Assess Your Student’s Outcomes?

Did your students meet the learning objectives that you set forth at the beginning of your planning stages?  How do you know?  You’ll need to choose measurable outcomes that you can assess.  Some outcomes feel immeasurable, and for that reason, we create rubrics to keep a level of objectivity.  Students must have access to the rubric you will be using before they begin the project.

7.    Make Necessary Adjustments.

Keep an anecdotal log of each phase of the project.  It doesn’t need to be anything fancy or formal.  A half-used notebook will do. Make note of what works and what doesn’t.  You can make adjustments to squeaky wheels (unless those squeaky wheels are cheeky children) for the following year.

PBL isn’t perfected overnight.  You’ll learn what works and what doesn’t through trial and error – just like your students.  Don’t beat yourself up for the things that didn’t work.  We all learn through failure.

The Importance of STEM in The Classroom

Why is project-based learning important anyway?  The answer is:  It’s one of the most effective ways to immerse students in STEM concepts.

So then the real question becomes – Why is STEM important?

STEM learning is more important than ever as the global workforce explodes with job openings that can only be filled by graduates with STEM degrees.  STEM occupations are  projected to increase 8%  from 2019-2029 – more than double the increase of non-STEM jobs,

Producing digitally literate and STEM confident graduates is an uphill battle.  And it’s a battle that needs to begin in preschool and primary school classrooms.  STEM is the boiler in the factory that’s churning out the world’s critical thinkers and problem solvers.  It’s what pushes technology, medicine, science, and space exploration forward to better our lives every day.

10 Project Based Learning Examples for Educators

Project-based learning lesson plans can be developed at all grade-levels, and across multiple disciplines.  We’ve curated a list of examples of PBL units, projects, and lesson plans here to illustrate the versatility of this teaching method.  Many topics and age groups can benefit from the in-depth content exploration provided by the PBL format.  Check out the bonus project-based learning idea at the end of this list!  (We might be biased, but we think it’s pretty great.)

1. Shrinking Our Footprint

Subjects: Math/Science Grade Level Recommendation: 3-6

Source:  PBL Works from Buck Institute of Education (BIE)

Driving Question:  How can we use data to reduce our families’ impact on the environment?

Overview:  Students collect data on their families’ usage of things like water, gasoline, garbage, and food waste. They then use this data to create and implement a plan to reduce their family’s carbon footprint.

2.  The Dog Project

Subjects:  Literacy, Art, Math, Social Studies, Science

Grade Level Recommendation: Pre-K – Kindergarten

Source:   Project Approach

Driving Question:  Students form their own initial list of driving questions with this project, and then work to answer their curiosities.

Overview:  Students spend a good portion of their school year investigating dogs through a myriad of activities and projects.  Community connections are made with local veterinary clinics, dog parks, and animal trainers.  Students work in groups to create their own model of a dog park and talk about the purpose of each part of their model.   This is a long-lasting project for such a young age group and can be aligned to many pre-k and kindergarten learning standards.

3. Community Assets

Subjects:  Social Studies, engineering, math/measurement

Grade Level Recommendation:  7-12

Source:  Edutopia’s 10 Ready-to-Borrow Projects (Project #7)

Driving Question:  How can we, as future city planners, reimagine empty lots as places of importance in our community? Overview:  Students take an inventory of usable spaces within the community.  They can use the engineering design process to think like innovators and create a new and useful design for spaces that are otherwise offering no benefit to the community.  They can work on deciding how they would convince the city to approve their plans.  This project blends key concepts of community, engineering design process, social studies, and math for a thought provoking project for older students.

4. Google Historical Voyages and Events

Subjects:  Social Studies, English Language Arts, 21st Century Skills

Grade Level Recommendation: 6-12

Source:   Carol LaRow; Google Certified Teacher and Smithsonian Laureate

Driving Question:  What historical event, voltage, explorer or local history would you like to share with other schools? Overview:  Students choose a rich piece of their local history or heritage and research the event, person, or voyage.  They implement Google earth satellite images to walk the walk those explorers actually walked, and then share their findings with other schools and audiences.  This is a great project to give students a “Voice and Choice” for their presentation methods or topics.  Carol LaRow does a great job of encouraging 21st Century Skills through this project and has great tips and resources for how to use Google tools to enhance research and presentation.

5. The Noon Day Project

Subjects: Science, math/measurement

Grade Level Recommendation: 8-12th Grade

Source:   Ciese

Driving Question:  How can we use the  Eratosthenes Experiment  to determine the circumference of the earth with the tools in our classroom?

Overview:  Students review a historical math/science marvel in the experiment of Eratosthenes around 240 B.C.E. when he predicted the circumference of the earth with shadows, measurement, and mathematics to within 10% of estimations made with today’s technology.  Students can then use his methods to make the estimate themselves.

6. Movie in the Making

Subjects:  Language Arts, Video/Tech, Art, Drama

Grade Level Recommendation:  5-12th Grade

Driving Question:  How can we turn *insert class novel* into a motion picture for *appropriate audience*?

Overview:  Students will read a novel as a class or in small groups, then analyze and discuss the character traits, setting, plot, climax, and other story elements.  Afterward, they will decide how they could cast actors, create sets, and turn their novel into a motion picture.  This project can be taken as far as actually creating the motion picture by working with the drama department.  They could make movie posters to advertise their movie with graphic design software, or their own two hands.

7. Kid 2 Kid Puerto Rico Solar Oven

Subjects:  Social Studies, Science, Social Studies, Physics, Video/tech, Drama

Grade Level Recommendation:  Grade 7

Source:   Take Action Science Driving Question:  How can an average family without power in Puerto Rico make an effective solar oven out of household items?

Overview:  This project-based learning lesson plan was developed out of an obvious need during a long power outage observed in Puerto Rico.  Sue Boudreau and her colleagues outline the project on her Take Action Science blog.  The students were challenged to make a solar oven that could effectively be used by families in need in Puerto Rico to prepare food for their tables.  Students then had to create “how-to” videos, explaining the build process step by step.

8. Finding Dory: Saving the Coral Reefs Through Captive Breeding

Subjects:  Science, Biology, Social Studies, Humanities

Grade Level Recommendation: Grade 12

Source:   High Tech High

Driving Question:  How can scientists find creative ways to protect coral reef systems?

OR In what ways is science a humanitarian endeavor?

Overview:  Students conduct a study of the coral reef systems in the oceans, and learn about the ecosystems supported on the coral reefs.  They dive into the “ornamental fish” trade and how overfishing ornamental saltwater fish for pet stores causes a domino effect that can kill entire coral reef systems.  Students decide how scientists can possibly breed fish in captivity to avoid fishing from their natural habitats.  High Tech High outlines this in-depth five-month project-based learning lesson plan in great detail.

9. Homelessness in America

Subject:  Social Studies, Humanities, Communications

Grade Level Recommendation:  11

Source:   High Tech High

Driving Question:  How can we end homelessness in America? OR  What is the face of homelessness in America?

Overview:  Students learn about the issues surrounding homelessness, homeless rates, and programs for the homeless in their local community.  This seven-week project includes a fundraiser for homeless programming, as well as community connections.  This is a humbling project-based learning lesson plan for students that can be both informative and character building.

10. Climate Change

Subjects:  Science, History, 21st Century Leadership Skills,

Grade Level Recommendation:  Grade 10-12

Source:   Envision Projects

Driving Question:  How does global warming affect industrialization today?

Overview:  Students explore the concept of climate change and global warming.  They then take a look at industrialization and manufacturing practices, and how environmental regulations are affecting industrialization in the world around us.  This 5-week project-based learning lesson plan is incredibly in-depth and well organized.

Bonus Project:

Subjects:  Science, Engineering, Math, Robotics, Coding, Video/Technology

Grade Level Recommendation: 6-12th grade

Source:  Thimble.io

Driving Question:  How can a middle school student use electronics components and coding to build a useful item like a doorbell, nightlight, or thermometer?

Overview:  Students learn to use basic sensors, actuators, indicators, and coding with Arduino to create a plethora of useful and interesting projects.  They can learn about basic circuits and electricity, as well as coding.  Thimble’s education experts have created a dynamic curriculum. Thimble even offers live classes that allow you to be the facilitator of student achievement, actively engaging, helping, and observing while Thimble’s experts lead your class in meaningful STEM learning.

Project-Based Learning Lesson Plans Can Be Your Next Classroom Success

Now that you know the ins and outs of project-based learning, we hope it doesn’t feel so impossible.  Many educators have successfully implemented PBL in their classrooms with incredible success, and you can too!  Shake off the fear, use our resources, and get planning.  If you’re still nervous about how you’ll manage this type of teaching method,  start with a ready-made project-based learning unit designed by Thimble !  We promise your students, parents, and administration will sit up and take note of the successful buzz from your classroom!

Before you go, check this out!

We have lots more on the site to show you. You've only seen one page. Check out this post which is one of the most popular of all time.

The Engage-Study-Activate (ESA) Method of Teaching

When teaching English, you must prepare and plan to create a beneficial and constructive learning experience for your students.

Engage-Study-Activate (ESA) is the most effective teaching methodology.  Teachers who use ESA can productively organize their lessons.  Through ESA, students are focused and highly motivated to learn. 

First coined by Jeremy Harmer in his book “How to teach English”, ESA is a method of structuring your lessons in three elements. The different stages of ESA can be flexible and used to keep students engaged at all times.

The Engage Phase – Warming Up

It is essential to always start a lesson with the engage phase. It is here where students start starting and thinking in English. Before learning new content, students need to prepare for learning English. Games, showing pictures, discussions, listening to music, brainstorming vocabulary and storytelling are some excellent activities to engage and immerse students in the class.

It is paramount that all students participate and interact with the class during the engage phase.  Teachers should focus on facilitating engagement and making sure that every student has at least spoken once before moving on. 

Once the engage phase has finished, students should be thoroughly warmed up and eager to begin the next part of the lesson.

The Study Phase – Learning New Things

This phase is mainly the board work of the lesson. It is here where students will learn or review English language topics. Teachers can use textbooks, study materials, videos and drilling exercises to help students learn and use the English language accurately. Other activities include gap fill quizzes, matching exercises and word order arrangement.

After students learn the topic of the lesson, the teacher then checks their understanding. As a teacher,  you must never ask the question   “do you understand?”  as students are naturally inclined to answer yes despite not fully understanding.

Instead, ask a question about what’s been taught and see how they respond. If the student answers the question about the topic correctly, then they will have understood. In cases where students don’t understand, the teacher will go over the text again and ask more questions.

The Activate Phase – Using English Practically

The final aspect of an ESL lesson is the activate phase, where students use what they have learned in activities such as role-plays, dialogues, debates and surveys.

The purpose of the activate phase is to apply the topics learned in the study phase in a realistic situation. By doing this, students will begin to use the English language. As with the engage phase, it is vital that every student participates and speaks during the activities.

During this stage, teachers help students with their pronunciation, rhythm and fluency. Teachers can do this through elicitation and demonstration. Teachers must conduct the activate phase at the end of the lesson as the way students perform will be an indicator of how much they understood during the study phase. If there are gaps in the students’ learning at this stage, then teachers will need to focus more on improving the study phase.

Different Types of ESA Lessons

Straight-arrow esa lesson.

The most common application of the ESA method, teachers simply start with the engage phase and end with the activate phase.

An example lesson plan of a Straight-Arrow ESA lesson

Boomerang esa lesson.

The structure of a Boomerang lesson is Engage-Activate-Study-Activate (EASA).

Unlike a Straight-Arrow lesson, a Boomerang lesson dives straight into the activate phase of the lesson before the study phase, then finishing by reactivating the students.

During the initial activate phase, students will most likely be unable to use the language correctly. They will make mistakes with grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, which will reveal gaps in the students’ knowledge. Once the students have learned the new topic, they will then do the activity again, filling in any gaps they may have had at the beginning of the lesson.

An example boomerang lesso n

Engage: Discussion of different jobs and occupations.

Activate: Role-play as different types of people e.g lawyer, police officer, firefighter, etc.

Study : Use boardwork and worksheets to enhance students’ vocabulary and understanding of different jobs.

Activate: Repeat the role-play. This time, students will have more vocabulary to use and thus make the activity more fun and exciting.

The objective of a Boomerang lesson is accuracy of the English language and consistently improving through good practice.

Patchwork ESA Lesson

A patchwork ESA lesson always begins with the engage phase and finishes with the activate phase. However, what happens between these phases can be arranged by the teacher as they see fit.

An example structure of a patchwork lesson can be E-A-S-A-E-S-A.

The patchwork lesson is flexible and can be used to target specific areas of student learning. If students need to increase their understanding of a topic, then a study phase will be conducted. To make a lesson more interesting, a teacher can initiate the activate stage or use the engage stage to introduce new topics. Anything is possible.

The ESA methodology is the most organized and time-efficient way of conducting a lesson. It will allow students to learn in an engaging, exciting, productive and fun way.

The engage phase sparks the initial interest in the topic, the study phase is the absorption of new knowledge, and the activate phase puts everything into practice.

This methodology can help you as an ESL teacher to structure your lessons to fit your style of teaching and educational needs of your students. It is by far the best method of teaching English.

This site is owned and operated by AJM Laird. EnglishTeacherGuide.com is a participant in various affiliate programs designed to provide a means for the site to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to products. We are compensated for referring traffic and business to these affiliate partners and other companies linked to on this site.

Teacher Aidan

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• Education and Communications
• Creating Lesson Plans

How to Build a Lesson Plan: Templates, Requirements, and More

Last Updated: April 7, 2024 Fact Checked

Sample Lesson Plans

Constructing a lesson plan, adjusting your lesson plans efficiently, presenting the lesson, expert q&a.

This article was co-authored by César de León, M.Ed. and by wikiHow staff writer, Eric McClure . César de León is an Educational Leadership Consultant and currently serves as an Assistant Principal for the Austin Independent School District in Austin, TX. César specializes in education program development, curriculum improvement, student mentorship, social justice, equity leadership, and family and community engagement. He is passionate about eradicating inequities in schools for all children, especially those who have been historically underserved and marginalized. César holds a Bachelor’s degree in Education and Biology from Texas State University and a Master’s degree in Educational Leadership from The University of Texas at Austin. There are 20 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 3,799,783 times.

As a teacher, developing a thoughtful lesson plan is an essential part of your job. Not only do your lesson plans lay out everything you’ll do in a given class, but they can be shared with subs to complete your lessons when you’re out sick, and administrators can use them to provide feedback and monitor your classroom. While writing a lesson plan may seem like a daunting task at first, take it from a former teacher that they’ll soon become second nature. In this article, we’ll walk you through what you need to include in each lesson plan, show you how to use your lesson plan to make you a better teacher, and walk you through what a class might look like based on your plans.

Things You Should Know

• A lesson plan outlines what you’ll teach in a given lesson and provides justification for why you’re teaching it.
• Every lesson plan needs an objective, relevant standards, a timeline of activities, an overview of the class, assessments, and required instructional materials.
• Overplan in case your lesson ends early and tailor your plans to suit the needs of your students.

• An example of a good objective might be, "Students will be able to analyze nonfiction texts by performing a close reading on a historical document."
• Most teachers will use Bloom’s taxonomy when choosing their objective verb.
• Teachers often abbreviate “Students will be able to” with “SWBAT” on their lesson plans.
• Many teachers start with the objective then work their way out from there, choosing class activities last. This is called “backmapping” and it’s the most widely accepted lesson organization style around today. [2] X Research source

• Our previous objective aligns nicely with the CCSS R.L.8.2, which reads “Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze in detail its development over the course of the text…”
• A handful of states, including Florida, Virginia, and Texas, refuse to adopt common core. They have their own state standards.
• If you’re still in school to become a teacher, you may not have specific standards you need to cover just yet.
• Many schools will allow teachers to cover the objectives in whatever order they’d like so far as they cover all of them. Some schools will map out the standards to cover in their curriculum, though.

• For example, if your class is about Shakespeare's Hamlet , your overview might be “Introduction to Hamlet . Historical context, biographical info, and preliminary information. We’ll cover the folio, character list, and assign reading roles. Start Act 1 if time allows.”
• A single overview may get you through multiple classes, so you may find yourself copy and pasting the same overview into multiple plans. That’s totally okay!

• 1:00-1:10: Warm up . Bring class into focus and recap yesterday's discussion on great tragedies; relate it to Hamlet .
• 1:10-1:25: Present information. Discuss Shakespearean history briefly, focusing on his creative period 2 years before and after Hamlet.
• 1:25-1:40: Guided practice . Class discussion regarding major themes in the play.
• 1:40-1:55: Freer practice. Class writes single paragraph describing current event in Shakespearean terms. Individually encourage bright students to write 2 paragraphs, and coach slower students.
• 1:55-2:00: Conclusion. Collect papers, assign homework, dismiss class.

• Formative assessments are instructional tools. They’re anything you use to check if students are learning so you can adjust your lessons. Examples include: class discussions, teacher questions, pop quizzes, group work, surveys, and self-reflections.
• Summative assessments are how you prove a student learned something. They occur at the end of lesson arcs, units, or sections. Examples include: tests, quizzes, essays, presentations, and final projects.
• All summative assessments (outside of tests and quizzes) have rubrics, which are the set of standards you’re judging students on. You do not need to include your rubrics in the lesson plan, but you should be making rubrics.

• You might list textbooks, worksheets, novels, calculators, or whiteboards. If you need to borrow a TV or need a link to a specific YouTube video, include that, too.
• Skip the basic school supplies every student needs. You don’t need to mention pens, pencils, etc.
• Need a worksheet or special materials for a class but don’t want to spend super long making them from scratch? Check out Teachers Pay Teachers . Seasoned educators sell their instructional material to other teachers for cheap!

• Over time, you’ll need to do this less and less. Eventually, you'll be able to go in with practically nothing at all!

• If you find yourself constantly running over your schedule, know what you can and cannot scratch. What must you cover in order for the children to learn most? What is just fluff and time killers?

• Odds are you'll be working with a pile of extroverts and introverts. Some students will benefit more from working alone while others will thrive in pair work or in groups. Knowing this will help you format activities to different interaction preferences. [11] X Research source
• You'll also wind up having a few students that know just about as much as you do on the topic and some that, while smart, look at you like you're from another planet. If you know who these kids are, you can plan accordingly.

Joseph Meyer

Effective teaching strategies consider a student's individual strengths. Tailoring instruction to a student's existing skills and encouraging collaborative activities can improve a student's outcome. Recognizing diverse learning styles allows for a stronger approach, fostering potential in all learners.

• Really, any activity can be manipulated to be done separately, in pairs, or in groups. If you have ideas already mapped out, see if you can revamp them at all to mix it up.

• Every student learns differently. Some need to see the info, some need to hear it, and others need to literally get their hands on it. If you've spent a great while talking, stop and let them talk about it.
• You will likely have some students with IEPs, or Instructional Educational Plans. These are legal documents for students with special needs that require specific instructional adjustments.

• The easiest thing to do is to come up with a quick concluding game or discussion. Throw the students together and have them discuss their opinions or ask questions.

• Avoid using shorthand or acronyms that only you’ll be able to understand.

Eric McClure

"It helps if your backup lesson plans are very easy to find and clearly labeled as substitute plans. If there are any handouts, print those out ahead of time as well. This is the kind of thing that’s easy to overlook early in the year, but trust me—you’ll need a day off at some point and when you do, you won’t want to come in just to drop off lesson plans."

• The warm up can be a simple game (possibly about vocab on the topic to see where their current knowledge lies (or what they remember from last week!). Or, it can be questions, a mingle, or pictures used to start a conversation. Whatever it is, get them talking and thinking about the topic.

• Go over the objective at the beginning of class! Always let your students know why they’re doing what they’re doing.

• This is often explained by teachers as “I do, we do, you do.” In other words, you show them how to do it. Then, the whole class does it together. Finally, the students do it on their own.
• If you have time for two activities, all the better. It's a good idea to test their knowledge on two different levels -- for example, writing and speaking (two very different skills). Try to incorporate different activities for students that have different aptitudes.

• If you've been teaching the same group for a while, odds are you know the students who might struggle with certain concepts. If that's the case, pair them with stronger students to keep the class going.
• You don't want certain students left behind, but you also don't want the class held up, waiting for everyone to get on the same level.

• It all depends on the subject at hand and the skills you want to use. It can be anything from a 20-minute puppet making project to a two-week long dalliance with the oversoul in a heated debate on transcendentalism.

• If you have a group full of kids that can't be paid to raise their hands, turn them amongst themselves. Give them an aspect of the topic to discuss and 5 minutes to converse about it. Then bring the focus to the front of the class and lead a group discussion. Interesting points are bound to pop up!

• Assign and hand out any homework at the end of the class.

• Don’t worry if lesson planning feels really unfulfilling and pointless to you. A lot of new teachers think they feel like busy work at first—especially when classes don’t go as planned. Luckily, once you finish one year of teaching, you’ll have a full year’s worth of lessons to use! [24] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Lesson plans typically cover a single class period, although a more complex lesson may require 2-3 days to get through. A single lesson plan may also bleed over into multiple classes if there’s a fire alarm, some behavioral issue that requires attention, or you have to modify your schedule due to a school-wide event. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 1

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.nea.org/professional-excellence/student-engagement/tools-tips/5-tips-improve-your-lesson-plan
• ↑ https://www.calstate.edu/csu-system/why-the-csu-matters/graduation-initiative-2025/co-requisite-mathematics-summit/Handouts/Backmapping_example_and_template.pdf
• ↑ https://drexel.edu/soe/resources/student-teaching/advice/how-to-write-a-lesson-plan/
• ↑ https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/cnm/cresource/q4/p16/
• ↑ https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/Formative-Summative-Assessments
• ↑ https://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~slm/AdjCI/Lessonplan/Elements.html
• ↑ https://awildsurmise.medium.com/improving-teaching-scripting-5950e1d15f54
• ↑ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/511257/Eliminating-unnecessary-workload-around-planning-and-teaching-resources.pdf
• ↑ César de León, M.Ed.. Educational Leadership Consultant. Expert Interview. 11 November 2020.
• ↑ https://onlineprograms.ollusa.edu/ma-in-counseling/resources/learning-styles-of-introverts-and-extroverts
• ↑ http://www.auburn.edu/~nunnath/engl6240/seating.html
• ↑ https://teach.com/what/teachers-know/learning-styles/
• ↑ https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/pacing-lessons-for-optimal-learning
• ↑ https://www.chalk.com/introduction-to-lesson-planning/why-lesson-plan/
• ↑ https://www.edutopia.org/blog/having-an-off-day-josh-stock
• ↑ https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/teaching/teaching-how/chapter-2-teaching-successful-section/running-class
• ↑ https://readingrecovery.clemson.edu/home-2/reading-comprehension/lesson-structure/guided-practice/
• ↑ https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/professional-development/teachers/knowing-subject/d-h/free-practice
• ↑ https://teaching.cornell.edu/teaching-resources/engaging-students/using-effective-questions
• ↑ https://www.tefl.net/elt/ideas/younglearners/finishing-preschool-english-lessons/

About This Article

If you need to make a lesson plan, start by creating a timeline based on the length of the class or the school day. As you get to know your class throughout the year, try to tailor your lesson plan to their strengths. For instance, some groups might learn better by taking notes during a lecture, while others might benefit more from group discussions or worksheets. Try to include several different activities during each class period so the kids don’t get bored, and also to appeal to the different learning styles in the classroom. Read on for sample lesson plans and more tips on how to budget your time! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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The impact of transformational leadership on classroom interaction in UAE secondary schools

• Open access
• Published: 16 May 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Haifaa Y. Abuhassira 1 ,
• Ahmad Zabidi Abdul Razak 1 &
• Kazi Enamul Hoque   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8152-9250 1  

Department heads play a critical role in executing school plans, particularly in adopting contemporary instructional methods, integrating technology, assessing student progress, and maintaining high standards of classroom interactions. They facilitate essential interactions within the classroom, spanning teacher-student, student–student, and student-content interactions, aligning with transformational leadership practices. This study explores the influence of department heads' transformational leadership on classroom interaction, mediating teachers' teaching experience in enhancing leadership capacity. Using a straightforward random sampling procedure, 374 teachers from 226 privately owned secondary schools were selected. Descriptive statistics were employed to represent the extent of department heads' engagement in transformational leadership practices. Findings indicate that teachers' role in clarifying activities and assignments to encourage classroom involvement received the highest average rating, emphasizing the importance of diverse instructional approaches. The study reveals a significant, positive influence of teachers' years of experience as a moderating factor in the relationship between department heads' transformational leadership and classroom interaction. A positive correlation was observed between student–teacher interactions and department heads' use of transformational leadership practices, with teachers' experience levels shaping these relationships. Notably, the study suggests that teachers' experience partially affects this phenomenon. The research concludes with recommendations for policymakers and educators to leverage their pedagogical expertise in fortifying the impact of school leadership on heightened student participation within the classroom.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Despite the critical significance of the department head's role within educational institutions, the academic literature has shown a relatively limited focus on delineating the characteristics of an effective department head (Coats, 2000 ; Williams, 2001 ). Yielder and Codling ( 2004 ) assert that academic leadership, encompassing department heads, requires a more precise definition. Middle leadership or management in schools primarily comprises department heads (Shaked & Schechter, 2017a ), who bear responsibility for achieving educational objectives, fostering collaboration, and guiding specific academic activities. Consequently, establishing a comprehensive definition of the role of the department head is imperative to address pertinent issues in this domain. In academia and management, multifaceted leadership and decision-making processes emerge. These terms encompass determining future directions, objectives, visions, and goals. An ethical approach by the department head is essential to foster an environment of ethical, professional, and interpersonal interactions among personnel in leadership positions (Osseo-Asare et al., 2005 ).

Building on Middlehurst ( 1993 ), Gordon and Patterson ( 2006 ) underscores five pivotal academic leadership dimensions: 1. accountability, 2. mentoring, 3. achieving results, 4. personnel management, and 5. distinguishing leaders from their counterparts. This study adopts the nomenclature "Department Head (DH)" to signify a leadership role within the school, responsible for collaborating with school leadership to uphold high standards in teaching and learning practices under the guidance of the Head of Curriculums (Bolam & Turner, 2003 ). Furthermore, department heads necessitate appropriate training not only in their administrative roles but also in curriculum development and pedagogy. This expectation often leads to perceptions among teachers that department heads are primarily faultfinders (Alkutich, 2017 ).

In line with these demands, it is critical that department heads receive further training in the ever-evolving curriculum (Tapala, 2020 ) to ensure effective teaching and support for personnel development (Christie et al., 2007 ; Mampane, 2017 ). Thorpe and Bennet-Powell ( 2014 ) emphasize the primary responsibility of department heads in enhancing curriculum leadership to elevate the performance of students and teachers, thereby facilitating effective handling of various classroom situations and educational content.

The department head's role assumes a pivotal position in bridging the gap between classroom dynamics and school objectives. This is achieved by providing necessary resources, professional development opportunities, and facilitating the teaching and learning process. Department heads play a crucial part in implementing school plans, especially when it comes to adopting contemporary instructional methods, technology, student progress assessment, and maintaining high standards of classroom interactions (Tapala, 2019 ). They are also responsible for conducting classroom visits and lesson observations to ensure qualitative and quantitative curriculum implementation (Ogina, 2017 ). Their role extends to monitoring syllabus coverage in each subject, necessitating substantial training and development (Tapala, 2020 ).

While the leadership of department heads holds a delicate position due to its significant impact on daily educational operations and goal attainment (Tapala et al., 2022 ), it remains imperative to elucidate the direct influence of department heads on classroom participation. Leadership styles have evolved to address the multifaceted challenges encountered, with department heads emerging as key figures in achieving and sustaining educational reform. The extent of their responsibilities varies according to school size and the scope of their duties. They may oversee one or more subjects and departments, ensuring positive learning outcomes and teacher performance (Ogina, 2017 ; Tapala, 2020 ). Their oversight extends to managing the divisions they lead (Bambi, 2012 ), and they bear the ultimate accountability for student and teacher performance (Manasseh, 2016 ). As part of their curriculum leadership responsibilities, department heads must supervise and moderate the work of teachers and students.

In a related study by Al-Ghamdi ( 2008 ), it was observed that department heads have developed extensive educational competencies, particularly in student assessment methods, teaching method diversity, and classroom interaction, albeit with moderate proficiency in planning and the utilization of teaching aids. These findings underscore the need for a transformational leadership role for department heads to enhance classroom interaction by supporting teachers throughout the planning, implementation, and evaluation processes and by providing solutions and proposals to elevate the quality of classroom interaction.

In many educational systems across the globe, the position of the Department Head occupies a significant role within the framework of middle leadership or management in schools (Shaked & Schechter, 2017b ). These individuals are also variously referred to as curriculum leaders, subject leaders, subject coordinators, and, in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), as department heads (MoE, 2017 ). The role of an educational department head is defined as "a facilitator and advisor appointed by the school administration to aid teachers in their personal and professional development" (Al-Balawi, 2011 ). Procedurally, an educational department head is designated as a teacher appointed by the school administration to oversee the educational process with the objective of achieving academic and educational goals, improving teachers' performance, and enhancing their professional competence through various supervisory techniques.

The contemporary understanding of the role of department heads, which the department head and school administration should embrace, revolves around the fundamental notion that all teachers possess the potential for professional growth provided they are placed in an environment conducive to making informed choices for effective teaching and goal attainment (Mulford, 2003 ). Consequently, the traditional practices of department head leadership, which primarily involve advice and direction, have given way to a more modern and nuanced concept of leadership (Bennett, 2008 ).

These definitions closely mirror the description of department heads in the UAE, where they are perceived as facilitators, observers, developers, supervisors, and guides in the teaching and learning process. Nevertheless, department heads are often encumbered with numerous administrative tasks, which, at times, reduce their capacity to effectively manage their departments and actively engage in subject development activities (Fullan, 2015 ; Flückiger et al., 2015 ; Lárusdóttir & O'Connor, 2017 ; Javadi et al., 2017 ).

In their study, Elyakim et al. ( 2023 ) identified four modalities of the principal's ongoing leadership presence in social media networks: branding and communicative, transformational, supportive-protective, and enforcement presence. In this study, transformational leadership is employed as a focal variable, aligned with the UAE perspective, given the prevalent utilization of transformational leadership by school leaders in the UAE (Alshammari & Al-Mahdy, 2018 ; Al-Taneiji & McLeod, 2019 ; Alzaydi & Alghamdi, 2019 ). A comparison of leadership styles among 22 principals in public and private schools in the UAE indicated that transactional and passive/avoidant leadership styles were less frequently practiced (Al-Taneiji & McLeod, 2019 ). Furthermore, research conducted by Ibrahim and Al-Taneiji ( 2012 ), examining the relationships between the principal's leadership style (transformational, transactional, or laissez-faire) and school performance, underscored the predominance of transformational leadership over other styles. Consequently, the selection of transformational leadership as the focus of this study is substantiated.

From a UAE perspective, studies have yielded mixed results regarding the use of dimensions of transformational leadership. Burns ( 1978 ) transformational leadership traits, which encompass idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, personalized attention, and inspirational motivation, resonate with the practices of department heads. Idealized influence, as defined by Bass ( 1985 ), signifies the transformative leader's ability to convey a compelling vision and motivate followers effectively. In the UAE, Al-Taneiji and McLeod ( 2019 ) conducted a study involving 22 private and public school principals, revealing Burns ( 1978 ) dimensions, including idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, personalized attention, and inspirational motivation in the practices of UAE school leaders. However, a study by Alshammari and Al-Mahdy ( 2018 ) involving 30 public school principals produced slightly different findings, highlighting patterns of idealized influence and individualized consideration among school leaders. In their qualitative study of ten public schools, Alzaydi and Alghamdi ( 2019 ) identified the presence of inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation practices among UAE school principals. Consequently, this study incorporates all the dimensions of transformational leadership, acknowledging the variability in study results.

Classroom interaction" encompasses the dynamic exchanges that transpire among educators and learners or between learners themselves (Eisenring & Margana, 2019 ; Li, 2023 ; Tsui, 2001 ). It may also encompass the interactions between educators. Historically, studies on classroom interaction primarily centered on the language employed by instructors and students, the resulting interactions arising from this language use, and the consequential impact on students' learning capabilities (Waring, 2017 ; Sert, 2019 ). Recent research endeavors have ventured beyond these surface-level analyses to explore the underlying factors that mold classroom interaction. These influencing factors include the beliefs held by educators and students, the socio-cultural backgrounds of educators and students, and the psychological dimensions of the learning process (Sundari, 2017 ; Tsui, 2001 ). Moore's model has been the basis for the development of subsequent interaction models (Anderson, 2003a , 2003b ; Hirumi, 2013 ), encompassing various forms of interaction, such as teacher-student interaction and student-interface interaction. Research suggests that learning is a product of students' interactions with educators and peers, irrespective of the context of these interactions (Tirri & Kuusisto, 2013 ).

Both student–teacher and student–student interactions entail multifaceted communication processes involving two or more individuals. Student–student interaction involves the reciprocal exchange of ideas, information, and knowledge related to the subject matter. Teacher-student interaction pertains to communication between educators and students, which can take on various forms, including assessment, feedback, guidance, and support. "Student-content interaction" pertains to the relationship between students and the educational material as they engage with and reflect upon it (Moore & Kearsley, 1996 ; Anderson, 2003a , 2003b ; Miyazoe & Anderson, 2010 ). Overbaugh and Nickel ( 2011 ) also underscore the significance of interactions between educators and students in fostering a sense of community and, consequently, enhancing student satisfaction (Kuo et al., 2014 ). This study places its focus on the interactions occurring within the classroom, encompassing teacher-student, student–student, and student-content interactions. It aims to elucidate the influence of department heads' transformational leadership practices in effectively facilitating classroom interactions by fulfilling their roles and responsibilities.

Moreover, studies have indicated that experienced teachers tend to be more responsive to the directives of department heads compared to their less experienced counterparts. In the realm of school improvement activities, research by Leithwood et al. ( 2002 ) emphasized that experienced teachers aligned their activities more closely with school leaders' mission and vision. Similarly, the OECD ( 2019 ) found that experienced teachers placed greater value on school leaders' feedback and support than those with less experience. Notably, head teachers often encounter challenges in acquainting new teachers with the curriculum instruction, as reported in a study by Edutopia ( 2020 ). Teachers with over 15 years of experience were found to engage less effectively in cooperative activities concerning instructional plans (Ronfeldt et al., 2015 ), requiring leadership support and a sense of significance in their work compared to their less experienced counterparts (Walker & Slear, 2011 ). Additionally, teachers with over seven years of experience encountered challenges beyond the classroom, necessitating greater teaching support (Louws et al., 2017 ). Thus, understanding how teaching experience can influence the relationship between leadership and classroom interactions is of paramount importance.

Based on this conception, the following research questions were formulated to investigate the impacts of department heads' transformational leadership practices on classroom interaction in UAE secondary schools:

What is the Department heads' transformational leadership practice level in UAE private secondary schools?

What is the level of classroom interaction among teachers-students and students-students, and student-content in UAE private secondary schools?

Do department heads’ transformational leadership practices significantly impact classroom interaction?

Does teachers’ teaching experience moderate the relationships between the department heads’ transformational leadership and classroom interaction?

2 Literature review

2.1 department heads’ transformational leadership.

In many countries, the Department Head is part of the school's middle leadership or management structure (Shaked & Schechter, 2017b ). They are also termed curriculum leaders, subject leaders, subject coordinators, and departmental heads, as they are called in UAE (department heads) (MoE, 2017 ). The educational department head is "the facilitator and advisor appointed by the school administration, who helps teachers develop themselves personally and professionally" (Al-Balawi, 2011 ). The educational department head is procedurally defined as a teacher assigned by the school administration to supervise the educational process to achieve its academic and educational goals to improve teachers' performance and raise their professional levels through various supervisory methods.

The modern concept of the department head that the department head and head of the school should adopt is based on the fundamental idea that all teachers have the potential for professional development to the extent that they can make the right choices to plan effective learning and accomplish their goals if they work in the right environment (Mulford, 2003 ). Consequently, the traditional practices of the department head's leadership, based on advice and direction, have replaced a more contemporary idea of leadership (Bennett, 2008 ).

All the previous definitions are identical to the description of the department head in the UAE, as the department head is considered a facilitator, an observer, a developer, a supervisor, and a guide to the teaching and learning process. In addition, department heads are nevertheless needed to carry out a lot of administrative tasks while spending less time managing their departments and participating in subject development activities (Fullan, 2015 ; Flückiger et al., 2015 ; Lárusdóttir & O'Connor, 2017 ; Javadi et al., 2017 ). This study used transformational leadership as a study variable from the UAE perspective because it is evident that UAE school leaders mostly use transformational leadership in their practices (Alshammari & Al-Mahdy, 2018 ; Al-Taneiji & McLeod, 2019 ; Alzaydi & Alghamdi, 2019 ). While comparing the methods of different leadership styles, such as transformational, transactional, and passive/avoidant leadership styles of 22 principals in UAE public and private schools, transactional and passive/avoidant leadership styles exhibited less practice (Al-Taneiji & McLeod, 2019 ). Similarly, Ibrahim and Al-Taneiji ( 2012 ) examined the relationships between the principal's leadership style (transformational, transactional, or laissez-faire) and school performance, which indicated the dominance of transformational leadership over others. Thus, the use of transformational leadership for this study is more justified.

Different studies found mixed results from UAE perspectives regarding the use of dimensions of transformational leadership. Burns ( 1978 ) transformational leadership traits—idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, personalized attention, and inspiring motivation—apply to these department heads. Bass ( 1985 ) defines idealized influence as the transformative leader's ability to communicate a vision and motivate followers convincingly. In the UAE, Al-Taneiji and McLeod ( 2019 ) conducted a study on 22 principals in private and public schools concerning transformational leadership practices. They found the presence of Burns ( 1978 ) dimensions, such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, personalized attention, and inspiring motivation in the practices of UAE school leaders. However, Alshammari and Al-Mahdy's ( 2018 ) study on 30 public school principals showed slightly different results in that they found patterns of idealized influence and individualized consideration among school leaders. In their qualitative study on ten public schools, Alzaydi and Alghamdi ( 2019 ) found inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation practices among UAE school principals. This study employed all the dimensions of transformational leadership, as different study results are inconsistent.

2.2 Classroom interaction

Classroom interaction refers to the interaction between the instructor and the learners or among the learners (Eisenring & Margana, 2019 ; Li, 2023 ; Tsui, 2001 ). It may also refer to the contact between the teacher and other teachers. The earlier study on classroom interaction mainly focused on the language that the instructor and the students used, the interaction that emerged from the language, and the impact of the interaction on the student's ability to learn (Waring, 2017 ; Sert, 2019 ). Recent studies have begun to examine the underlying factors that shape classroom interaction. These factors include beliefs held by teachers and students, the social and cultural backgrounds of teachers and students, and the psychological aspects of learning (Sundari, 2017 ; Tsui, 2001 ;). Based on Moore's model, further interaction models have been constructed by (Anderson, 2003a , 2003b ; Hirumi, 2013 ), including models for various types of interaction (teacher-student interaction, student-interface interaction). According to research, learning occurs whenever students connect with teachers and other students, regardless of the contact situation (Tirri & Kuusisto, 2013 ).

Both student–teacher and student–student interactions include a process of communication between two or more individuals. Student–student interaction is a two-way street where students share Ping, ideas, information, and knowledge about the course. Interaction between students and teachers refers to communication between them. It may take various forms, including assessment, feedback, and direction or assistance. "Student–content interaction" refers to the relationship between students and the course material as they develop and reflect on it (Moore & Kearsley, 1996 ; Anderson, 2003a , 2003b ; Miyazoe & Anderson, 2010 ). Overbaugh and Nickel, ( 2011 ) also mentioned that the interaction between students and teachers is critical for fostering a feeling of community and, as a result, increasing student happiness. Effective teacher-student interaction (TSI) is crucial for promoting learning efficiency and fostering harmonious interpersonal relationships between teachers and students (Jiang et al., 2023 ; Kuo & Yu-Chun, 2014 ).

This study focuses on the interactions that occur in the classroom with the interaction forms between teacher-student, student–student, and student-content, which reflects the department heads' transformational leadership practices in enabling classroom interaction effectively by fulfilling the DHTL roles and responsibilities.

2.3 Department heads’ transformational leadership practices and classroom interaction

Interactions between school leaders and teachers have undergone tremendous changes ((Ping et al., 2023 ). Evidences show that transformational leadership fosters frequent interaction with teacher which significantly promote teachers’ job satisfaction, student learning, and participation in the classroom (Bolkan & Goodboy, 2009 ; Liang & Zhang, 2021 ). Hallinger’s ( 2003 ) research on educational leadership has linked leadership behaviors that indirectly affect student academic achievement development through their behaviors and actions and affect what is going on in the class. It also has an impact on the effectiveness of teachers' performance. This highlighted the role of leadership in promoting students' continuing education and teachers' professional development. Effective educational leadership is of great importance to achieving success for the school, and many programs have been adopted around the world to train academic leaders in schools to achieve this success and, thus, the educational institution's success (Hallinger, 2005 ). Hallinger also concluded that progress had been made in finding a model through which the tasks performed by the academic leader can be determined and that have an impact on the learning process, as well as in his possession of competencies, experiences, and visions in which he can develop the learning in collaboration with the rest of the members the learning community to ensure the dissemination and achievement of the school's vision and goals. (Hallinger, 2011 ). Alkutich ( 2017 ) examined the impacts of the Department head's (DH) leadership on Arabic language instruction at two Abu Dhabi private schools. In this study, teachers viewed them as fault finders, needing to lead by example and continuous professional development. Leithwood ( 2016 ) examined 42 studies from traditional literature searches to determine how department-head leadership affects student learning, how departments compare to schools as change agents, and the barriers to significant department-head leadership. The study found schools and school administrators have less impact on classroom interaction than department heads. Well-performing departments may improve without school leaders. Leithwood ( 2016 ) also identified reasonable departmental and personal leadership procedures. These strategies and materials reflect a proven school leadership model. In its mini-dissertation data, Rajoo ( 2012 ) suggests that the HoD/middle manager/curriculum increases learning and teaching. As middle management, the Head of Department (HoD) should have the vision to attain academic excellence in a subject area and holistically develop learners.

In New Zealand, Highfield's ( 2012 ) surveys identified five intermediate leadership traits: teamwork, clear goals and objectives, student academic achievement, resource management, and a pleasant learning environment for students and instructors. In addition, among 30 departments in 10 institutions, the results showed that certain variables positively correlated with academic achievements and others adversely. Middle leaders had better certification scores but not NCEA Level 1 (15-year-old) outcomes. Goals, resource management, and a good learning environment predict academic performance.

2.4 The role of teaching experience in enhancing leadership capability and interaction

Teaching experience helps students understand leaders' instructions (Hallinger & Heck, 1996 ), receive effective guidance and support (Leithwood et al., 2004 ), and thus influence classroom practices and student achievement. In line with this, Robinson et al. ( 2008 ) revealed teaching experience as one of the factors that help HoDs enhance a conducive and orderly learning environment. A study by Day et al. ( 2009 ) explored the relationship between school leaders’ professional development, learning, and capacity building and their impact on student outcomes. They discovered that experienced teachers developed a shared vision and collaboration with leadership, which enhanced teaching and learning quality. In connection with better student achievement in mathematics, reading, and science in PISA, Hallinger et al. ( 2014 ) discovered a strong association between more experienced teachers and leadership instructions. Based on this evidence, this study assumed that teachers’ experiences (moderating variable) might influence the HoD’s transformational leadership style (independent variable) and classroom interaction (dependent variable).

3 Materials and methods

3.1 research design and data collection.

The present quantitative study employs a correlational methodology to examine the association between the department heads and classroom interaction and the moderation of teachers' teaching experience in UAE private secondary schools. The questionnaire was distributed to more than the required sample, so about 400 questionnaires were sent to ensure that all the required data were collected. Two hundred were sent via a Google form, and two hundred through schools were done on paper. The questionnaire instrument comprised three different existing questionnaires, from which the research instruments were adapted and adopted for use in this study. The questionnaire consists of two main subsections: demographic variables, Department Heads' Transformational Leadership, and Classroom interaction. This research conducted a comprehensive survey among educators to assess the extent to which department heads' transformational leadership practices impact classroom interactions within private secondary schools in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). These private schools encompass various curricula, including American, British, Indian, Asian, and Arabic, where the roles and responsibilities of department heads tend to be more subject/department-specific. To ensure the questionnaire's reliability and validity, a pilot study was conducted with a random sample of 30 participants from a secondary school in Ras Al-Khaimah. The participants provided feedback and comments on the questionnaire's clarity and comprehension. The reliability of the questionnaire was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, resulting in a coefficient of 0.934 for the instrument developed for teachers, which consisted of 23 items. Several modifications were made to enhance the questionnaire's clarity and comprehensibility, including reorganizing instructions and providing definitions for terms participants found challenging to understand, such as "classroom interaction types."

3.2 Participants

Based on the statistical data available for the year 2020, the study's population was initially estimated, revealing approximately 6,452 teachers within the secondary education sector of private schools in the UAE. The research sample consisted of 226 private secondary schools and a total of 374 teachers.

In terms of their teaching experience, 85 teachers (22%) of the participants have years of experience from (1–5) years, whereas 114 of the teachers (31%) had teaching experience between 4 to 7 years. In the meantime, 126 teachers (33.6%) have years of experience from (6–15) years, while 93 teachers (25%) and 43 teachers (11%) of the participants have (21–25) years, and (11%) also have (more than 25 years of experience) in the field of teaching (Table  1 ).

3.3 Instruments

The questionnaire used in this study was developed based on an extensive literature review to investigate the impact of department heads' transformational leadership practices on classroom interaction. It aimed to identify the critical competencies for department heads to lead the teaching and learning process effectively.

The questionnaire consists of three sections. The first section collects demographic information, including participants' gender, to assess whether gender plays a role in department heads' leadership. The second section comprises the Department Heads' Transformational Leadership Scale (DHTL), which includes ten items. The third section covers the Classroom Interaction Scale (CI), which measures various aspects of classroom interaction, including teacher-student, student–student, and student-content interactions, and their influence on learning. This section consists of thirteen items. Respondents used a five-point Likert scale (ranging from "Strongly agree" to "Strongly Disagree"), where a higher score (5) indicates a stronger presence of the construct. In comparison, a lower score (1) suggests a weaker presence of the construct.

3.3.1 Department heads’ transformational leadership (DHTL)

A total of 10 items were used in the study to validate the instrument to examine Department heads' leadership (DHL) in schools. Previous research has shown that the dimensions included in the Leithwood leadership survey are reliable, with Cronbach's alpha scores ranging from 0.78 to 0.85 (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006 ). Four dimensions of the Leithwood School Leadership Survey exhibit internal solid consistency, according to a recent study by Boberg and Bourgeois ( 2016 ). The researchers reported Cronbach's alpha coefficients for each dimension: a) defining goals: 0.93, b) developing people: 0.93, c) reorganizing the company: 0.94, and d) enhancing the company: 0.95. A Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.98 was reported for the complete scale of Transformational School Leadership. According to the study conducted by Boberg and Bourgeois in 2016, it was found that.

3.3.2 Classroom interaction (CI)

A total of (13) items were used in the study to validate the instrument to examine classroom interaction. A previous study used Cronbach's alpha to perform the reliability test, with scores ranging from 0.713 to 0.913. These findings indicate that the items in each factor have high internal consistency or may be used to test the same underlying meaning of the factors, indicating that the factor analysis is adequate. The original scale consisted of three dimensions: 'Teacher-student,' 'student–student,' 'student-content'. The number of items under each dimension comes from a) 4 items for 'Teacher-student' based on the study of (Balagová & Haláková ( 2018 ), b) 4 items for 'student–student' from Lasfeto, ( 2020 ) study, and c) 5 items from the study of Çakiroğlu et al. ( 2009 ) for the 'student-content.'

3.4 Data collection and analysis procedures

Multiple data collection methods were employed in this research study. Initially, a total of 400 questionnaires were distributed to teachers. The first stage involved obtaining consent letters from the faculty, followed by supervisor approval. Questionnaires with proper authorization were submitted to the UAE Ministry of Education for approval to conduct research within educational institutions. School administrators subsequently granted permission for questionnaire distribution to instructors. Instructors were selected using a basic random sampling technique. Each participant received a physical copy of the questionnaire and was given sufficient time to complete it, with a seven-day response period. The data collection faced challenges, particularly in transporting and collecting questionnaires from the seven Emirates (cities). The online Google Form survey was distributed via email and WhatsApp groups to expedite responses. Data collection began in September 2022 and extended over several months due to unforeseen difficulties in some schools, including teachers' heavy professional commitments and the end of the academic year. To ensure sufficient data collection, more than the required sample of 400 questionnaires were sent, resulting in a response rate exceeding 85%. In total, 374 responses were collected, surpassing the target population size.

The collected data were analyzed using SPSS (Version 29) to address the research questions. Descriptive and inferential statistics were applied to uncover findings. Central tendency and data dispersion were assessed, and measurement reliability was evaluated using Cronbach's alpha. Descriptive analysis was employed to identify prevalent practices, while regression analysis examined the associations between dependent and independent variables. The mean scores in this research were categorized into three levels of interpretation: a mean value between 1 and 2, considered in the lower range; values from 3 to 3.99, classified as moderate; and values ranging from 4 to 5, commonly regarded as high, following the categorization proposed by Hoque et al. ( 2020 ).

In order to assess the extent of transformational leadership practices and classroom interaction among department heads, descriptive statistics, specifically percentages. The research used a method of item-level analysis wherein the perceptions categorized as 'strongly agree' and 'agree' were combined into a single positive perception, represented as percentages. The mean and standard deviation were utilized to determine the level of each variable, as well as their respective dimensions (sub-constructs) and items.

To ascertain the direct relationship or effect between the variables under study, the researchers utilized partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The study employed a hierarchical component model (HCM) consisting of reflective-formative and reflective-reflective constructs, necessitating a two-stage analysis approach. The researcher used a two-stage hierarchical component model (HCM) analysis, utilizing a repeated indicator approach and latent scores to address the challenges associated with this particular analytical framework (Hair et al., 2017 ). During the initial phase, a methodology known as the repeated indicator approach was employed to obtain the latent variable scores about the subconstructs or lower-order components (LOC). Subsequently, the latent inconsistent scores are utilized as indicators, specifically manifest variables, within the higher-order construct (HOC) measurement model in the subsequent phase of the analysis. The evaluation of the structural model was initiated by examining the presence of collinearity issues within the model. Path coefficients were estimated using ordinary least squares (OLS) regression to assess the direct relationship between variables. This involved regressing endogenous variables on their corresponding antecedent variables or constructs. The hypothesized relationships among the variables in the present study were directional.

The research employing Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) must take measures to verify that the analyzed data do not show a substantial departure from normality. This can be accomplished by evaluating the degree to which the data deviate from a distribution that adheres to the normal distribution. Hence, normality can be evaluated by obtaining skewness and kurtosis values, as proposed by Hair et al. ( 2017 ). Hence, the determination of data normality in this study was predicated upon the statistical analysis of skewness and kurtosis. Table 2 shows skewness and kurtosis values for the overall variables of the study (Table 3 ).

4.1 Respondents’ experience

The inclusion of experience is considered a crucial component in providing support for this study. Most teachers who participated in this study possessed ample teaching experience. A total of 85 participants, constituting 22% of the sample, reported having 1 to 5 years of teaching experience. Additionally, 114 teachers, accounting for 31% of the participants, indicated having teaching experience ranging from 4 to 7 years. Altogether 126 teachers, accounting for 33.6% of the participants, possess 6 to 15 years of teaching experience. Additionally, 93 teachers (25%) have accumulated between 21 and 25 years of experience, while 43 (11%) fall within the same range. Furthermore, 11% of the participants have acquired more than 25 years of experience in teaching.

4.2 Level of department heads’ transformational leadership practices

Table 4 shows that the teachers' opinion of their department heads’ transformational leadership had a mean score of 3.945. According to the data above, mean values indicate a moderate level of satisfaction in most areas.

Table 4 shows participants' first axis paragraph replies. Item 1, "Department Head seeks high expectations for your teaching," obtained the highest average score of 4.12. Participants strongly feel the Department Head values good teaching standards. Teacher performance is directly affected by such expectations. Paragraph (5), where the department head promotes best practices in teaching and learning to meet curricular goals, took second place. The arithmetic mean of 4.05 shows that the department head's support and motivation of people and staff are vital to curricular goals. Paragraph (2) emphasizes the department head's role in encouraging innovative teaching concepts, ranking third. This paragraph averaged 4.01 with a standard deviation of 1.091. To sum up, the department head's support as a form of transformational leadership style is essential for encouraging new and varied teaching methods that foster creative and good thoughts .

4.3 Level of classroom interaction

The level of classroom interaction was measured at a high rate (4.204). The first item, on teacher-student interaction, highlighting the teacher's role in clarifying activities and assignments to encourage classroom involvement by presenting examples and explanations, had the highest average rating of 4.307. Student–student interaction significantly impacts educational outcomes, highlighting its importance. The third item about integrating students into group class activities had the highest arithmetic mean of 4.214. After that, the third item on student-content interaction, "pictures and shapes help students engage in the classroom." The arithmetic mean was 4.25%. This emphasizes the need to add forms, diagrams, and visuals to interest students. Overall, the study found that the teacher's role in clarifying activities and assignments to encourage classroom involvement by presenting examples and explanations, had the highest average rating which emphasizes the need to add forms, diagrams, and visuals to interest students.

4.4 DHs’ Transformational Leadership Practices and Classroom Interaction

The regression analysis has been performed to determine the effect of DHTLP on CI. The results show that DHTLP significantly impacts classroom interaction (β = 0.659). The results of the study are presented in Tables 5 .

As shown in Table 7 , as a whole, the model is significant (R2 change = 0.434, F = 0.000, p  < 0.05). The coefficient table (Table  6 ) shows the impact of the independent variable (TL) on Classroom interaction (CI). The β value of TL (β = 0.588, p  ≥ 0.05) significantly impacts CI. It means TL explains 58.8% of the variance in CI.

4.5 Teaching Experience as a Moderator

Table 7  shows the interaction between department heads' transformational leadership practices and teachers' years of teaching experience (t-value = 0.476) significantly and positively influences the relationship between DHTLP and classroom interaction (CI).

This finding underscores the importance of considering teachers' years of teaching experience as a moderating factor when exploring the impact of DHTLP on CI.

Additionally, the interaction coefficient between department heads' transformational leadership practices and teachers' years of teaching experience was negative (β = -0.036), indicating that the interaction effect has a negative influence on the relationship between department heads' transformational leadership practices. In this context, it suggests that as teachers' years of teaching experience increase, the impact of department heads' transformational leadership practices on the outcome becomes less favorable or more negative (Fig. 1 ).

Moderation analysis

5 Discussion

This study emphasizes the crucial role of department heads' support, a form of transformational leadership, in promoting diverse teaching methods that nurture creativity and critical thinking. Leithwood and Jantzi ( 2000 ) propose a direct connection between transformational leadership and student learning, with Harvey et al. ( 2003 ) highlighting its positive impact on student learning. Research, including Cheng and Tam ( 1997 ), underlines the correlation between transformational leadership strategies employed by department heads and increased student engagement and classroom interaction.

Similarly, Wang et al. ( 2019 ) investigation shows a positive association between the adoption of transformational leadership strategies and enhanced collaboration among teachers, as well as increased student engagement. The study contends that department heads' transformational leadership practices directly influence classroom interaction by fostering a positive school climate, encouraging collaboration among teachers, setting high expectations, and providing personalized support to both students and teachers.

In contrast, comparative studies, like Alkutich's ( 2017 ), reveal discrepancies in recognizing the impact of department heads' transformational leadership on classroom interaction within some UAE societies. This study acknowledges the need for further research to understand the varying effects of department heads' transformational leadership in diverse UAE communities. Cultural and social factors, such as differing perspectives on teacher autonomy and the role of department heads in instructional leadership, may contribute to these variations.

The research also explores the moderating effect of teachers' experience on the relationship between department heads' transformational leadership and classroom interactions. It suggests that as teachers gain more experience, the influence of department heads' leadership may diminish due to increased teacher autonomy, aligning with OECD findings ( 2019 ). Moreover, the study underscores the importance of leadership education for department heads, advocating policy-level actions to enhance their skills.

Notably, the research observes concerns among instructors regarding department heads' involvement in curriculum and unit creation in centralized systems. It suggests that department heads' formative input and collaborative efforts are underutilized transformational leadership techniques in UAE secondary schools.

6 Practical implications

The findings of the current study bear significant implications for theories, policymakers, and practitioners, particularly school leadership and department heads in UAE schools. Distinguished by its unique exploration of department heads' transformational leadership and its impact on classroom interaction in UAE secondary schools, this study stands out as one of the most critical in the country. The practical implications derived from these findings extend to department heads, who are urged to employ transformational leadership practices to foster classroom interactions conducive to student learning. However, the choice of leadership style should be attuned to the diverse personal and contextual needs of teachers.

In supporting blended learning practices, department heads can cultivate a collaborative working atmosphere among teachers, fostering knowledge sharing, peer support, and the exchange of innovative teaching practices. This collaborative approach instills a sense of shared purpose and collective growth, ultimately enhancing classroom interactions. Additionally, department heads are encouraged to actively support and motivate teachers by providing tailored professional development opportunities and resources. This proactive support empowers teachers, boosting their confidence and enthusiasm for implementing effective teaching practices, thereby positively influencing classroom interactions.

The study underscores the evidence supporting the adoption of transformational leadership by department heads, emphasizing the promotion of collaboration, motivation of teachers, and provision of individualized support to create an environment that values and supports classroom interactions. By doing so, department heads can effectively enhance classroom interactions, contributing to a positive and engaging learning experience for both teachers and students.

7 Limitations

The study acknowledges some limitations. The generalization of results is limited to UAE secondary schools, and the context specificity may vary. The inclusion of qualitative research methods, such as phenomenological or case studies, could provide deeper insights into how department heads' transformational leadership influences classroom interaction in the specific sociocultural context of UAE secondary schools.

8 Conclusion

The study establishes that the transformational leadership practices of department heads exert a significant influence on classroom interaction. Moreover, the research affirms that department heads' transformational leadership acts as an indicator of classroom interaction. These findings offer fresh insights into the pivotal role played by department heads' transformational leadership in advancing classroom interaction. The study underscores the importance of providing leadership education to department head candidates for the enhancement of their leadership skills. Advocating for policy-level actions, the study suggests initiatives such as developing a clear school vision, instituting staff evaluation systems, and adopting self-assessment techniques to improve the leadership abilities of department heads. The research concludes that the positive impact of department heads' transformational leadership practices on classroom interactions is evident in their contribution to fostering a conducive educational atmosphere, encouraging teacher collaboration, setting high expectations, and providing personalized support to both students and teachers.

For department heads to effectively promote classroom interaction, they must employ well-established and well-practiced transformational leadership methods. Particularly during periods of significant educational reform, such as the adoption of new UAE secondary schools, implications connected to both theory and practice become crucial drivers of essential changes. When incorporating the study's conclusions, it is imperative to carefully assess its limitations. A long-term investigation would provide valuable support for the research's conclusions.

Data availability

Data are preserved with the authors. They will be available upon request.

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Abuhassira, H.Y., Razak, A.Z.A. & Hoque, K.E. The impact of transformational leadership on classroom interaction in UAE secondary schools. Educ Inf Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12701-3

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Evaluation of the feasibility of a midwifery educator continuous professional development (CPD) programme in Kenya and Nigeria: a mixed methods study

• Duncan N. Shikuku 1 , 2 ,
• Hauwa Mohammed 3 ,
• Lydia Mwanzia 4 ,
• Alice Norah Ladur 2 ,
• Peter Nandikove 5 ,
• Alphonce Uyara 6 ,
• Catherine Waigwe 7 ,
• Lucy Nyaga 1 ,
• Issak Bashir 8 ,
• Eunice Ndirangu 9 ,
• Carol Bedwell 2 ,
• Sarah Bar-Zeev 10 &
• Charles Ameh 2 , 11 , 12  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  534 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Midwifery education is under-invested in developing countries with limited opportunities for midwifery educators to improve/maintain their core professional competencies. To improve the quality of midwifery education and capacity for educators to update their competencies, a blended midwifery educator-specific continuous professional development (CPD) programme was designed with key stakeholders. This study evaluated the feasibility of this programme in Kenya and Nigeria.

This was a mixed methods intervention study using a concurrent nested design. 120 randomly selected midwifery educators from 81 pre-service training institutions were recruited. Educators completed four self-directed online learning (SDL) modules and three-day practical training of the blended CPD programme on teaching methods (theory and clinical skills), assessments, effective feedback and digital innovations in teaching and learning. Pre- and post-training knowledge using multiple choice questions in SDL; confidence (on a 0–4 Likert scale) and practical skills in preparing a teaching a plan and microteaching (against a checklist) were measured. Differences in knowledge, confidence and skills were analysed. Participants’ reaction to the programme (relevance and satisfaction assessed on a 0–4 Likert scale, what they liked and challenges) were collected. Key informant interviews with nursing and midwifery councils and institutions’ managers were conducted. Thematic framework analysis was conducted for qualitative data.

116 (96.7%) and 108 (90%) educators completed the SDL and practical components respectively. Mean knowledge scores in SDL modules improved from 52.4% (± 10.4) to 80.4% (± 8.1), preparing teaching plan median scores improved from 63.6% (IQR 45.5) to 81.8% (IQR 27.3), and confidence in applying selected pedagogy skills improved from 2.7 to 3.7, p  < 0.001. Participants rated the SDL and practical components of the programme high for relevance and satisfaction (median, 4 out of 4 for both). After training, 51.4% and 57.9% of the participants scored 75% or higher in preparing teaching plans and microteaching assessments. Country, training institution type or educator characteristics had no significant associations with overall competence in preparing teaching plans and microteaching ( p  > 0.05). Qualitatively, educators found the programme educative, flexible, convenient, motivating, and interactive for learning. Internet connectivity, computer technology, costs and time constraints were potential challenges to completing the programme.

The programme was feasible and effective in improving the knowledge and skills of educators for effective teaching/learning. For successful roll-out, policy framework for mandatory midwifery educator specific CPD programme is needed.

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Introduction

Quality midwifery education underpins the provision of quality midwifery care and is vital for the health and well-being of women, infants, and families [ 1 ]. The recent State of the World’s Midwifery report (SoWMy) (2021) indicates that urgent investments are needed in midwifery, especially quality midwifery education, to improve health outcomes for women and neonates. Despite evidence to support midwifery, midwifery education and training is grossly underfunded in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) with variation in the quality, content and duration of content between and within countries [ 2 ]. Barriers to achieving quality education are: inadequate content, lack of learning and teaching materials, insufficient and poorly trained educators and weak regulation, midwifery educators having no connection with clinical practice or opportunities for updating their knowledge or skills competencies [ 3 , 4 ].

The WHO, UNFPA, UNICEF and the International Confederation of Midwives’ (ICM) seven-step action plan to strengthen quality midwifery education, and ICM’s four pillars for midwives to achieve their potential emphasize strengthening midwifery faculty to teach students as a key priority [ 4 , 5 ]. Consequently, ICM recommends that (i) at least 50% of midwifery education curriculum should be practise-based with opportunities for clinical experience, (ii) midwifery faculty should use fair, valid and reliable formative and summative assessment methods to measure student performance and progress in learning and (iii) midwifery programmes have sufficient and up-to-date teaching and learning resources and technical support for virtual/distance learning to meet programme needs [ 6 ]. To achieve this, WHO’s Midwifery Educator Core Competencies and ICM’s Global Standards for Midwifery Education provide core competencies that midwifery educators must possess for effective practice [ 6 , 7 ]. The WHO’s global midwifery educator survey in 2018–2019 reported that fewer than half of the educators (46%) were trained or accredited as educators [ 5 ]. Educators are important determinants of quality graduates from midwifery programmes [ 7 ]. However, the survey identified that none of the educators felt confident in all of WHO’s midwifery educator core competencies [ 5 ]. Further evidence shows that many midwifery educators are more confident with theoretical classroom teaching than clinical teaching despite advances in teaching methods and have low confidence in facilitating online/virtual teaching and learning [ 4 , 8 , 9 ]. To remain competent, design and deliver competency-based curriculum and strengthen midwifery practice, ICM and WHO emphasize that midwifery faculty should engage in ongoing professional development as a midwifery practitioner, teacher/lecturer and leader [ 6 , 10 , 11 ]. However in many settings there is inadequate provision or access to faculty development opportunities [ 12 ].

Continuous professional development (CPD)

Continuous professional development has been defined as the means by which members of the profession maintain, improve and broaden their knowledge, expertise, and competence, and develop the personal and professional qualities required throughout their professional lives [ 13 ]. This can be achieved through multiple formal educational pathways based on the ICM Global Standards for Midwifery Education whilst incorporating the ICM Essential Competencies for Basic Midwifery Practice [ 6 , 14 ]. There are formal CPD activities where there is structured learning that often follows set curricula, usually approved by independent accreditation services or informal CPD that is usually self-directed learning. Participating in accredited CPD programmes is beneficial to the profession. A requirement of regular CPD renewal by a country to maintain licensure ensures an up-to-date, relevant nursing and midwifery workforce [ 15 ] and increases the legitimacy of CPD [ 16 ]. Structured learning (direct or distant), mandatory training, attending workshops and conferences, accredited college/university courses and trainings, research and peer review activities are opportunities for CPD [ 17 ]. Importantly, these CPD programmes are essential for safe, competent and effective practice that is essential to the universal health coverage (UHC) & maternal and newborn health SDGs agenda particularly in developing countries [ 18 , 19 ].

Whilst regulatory bodies and employers in many countries have requirements for midwives to complete CPD programmes and activities, these programmes and supporting activities are found to be ineffective if CPD is irrelevant to the practitioners’ practice setting, attended only because of monetary or non-monetary benefits, geared towards improving a skill for which there is no demonstrated need, and taken only to meet regulatory requirements rather than to close a competency gap [ 20 ]. In most LMICs, midwifery licensure is permanent, without obligation to demonstrate ongoing education or competence [ 15 ]. Consequently, CPD processes are not in place, and if in place, not fully utilised. A systematic review on CPD status in WHO regional office for Africa member states reported that nurses and midwives are required to attend formalised programmes delivered face-to-face or online, but only16 out of 46 (34.7%) member states had mandatory CPD programmes [ 15 ]. This underscores the need for designing regulator approved midwifery educator CPD programmes to improve the quality of midwifery education in LMICs.

Modes and approaches for delivery of CPD

Face-to-face contact is a common mode of delivery of CPD although mHealth is an emerging platform that increases access, particularly to nurses and midwives in rural areas [ 12 , 21 ]. Emerging platforms and organisations such as World Continuing Education Alliance (WCEA) offer mHealth learning opportunities in LMICs for skilled health personnel to access CPD resources that can improve health care provider knowledge and skills and potentially positively impact healthcare outcomes [ 22 ]. Although there is evidence of capacity building initiatives and CPD for midwifery educators in LMICs [ 23 ], these have been largely delivered as part of long duration (2-year) fellowship programmes and led by international organisations. In addition, these programmes have largely focused on curriculum design, leadership, management, research, project management and programme evaluation skills in health professions education with little on teaching and learning approaches and assessment for educators [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Successful CPD initiatives should be (i) accredited by the national regulatory bodies (Nursing and Midwifery Councils); (ii) multifaceted and provide different types of formal and informal learning opportunities and support; (iii) combine theory and clinical practice to develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes and (iv) must be adapted to fit the local context in which participants work and teach to ensure local ownership and sustainability of the initiatives [ 16 ].

Short competency-based blended trainings for educators improve their competence and confidence in delivering the quality midwifery teaching. However, systems for regular updates to sustain the competencies are lacking [ 27 , 28 ]. Evidence on effectiveness of the available CPD initiatives is limited. Even where these initiatives have been evaluated, this has largely focused on the outcomes of the programmes and little attention on the feasibility and sustainability of such programmes in low-resourced settings [ 24 , 25 , 29 ]. As part of global investments to improve the quality of midwifery education and training, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine (LSTM) in collaboration with the UNFPA Headquarters Global Midwifery Programme and Kenya midwifery educators developed a blended midwifery educator CPD programme (described in detail in the methods section). The CPD programme modules in this programme are aligned to the WHO’s midwifery educators’ core competencies [ 7 ] and ICM essential competencies for midwifery practice [ 14 ]. The programme is also aligned to the nursing and midwifery practice national regulatory requirements of Nursing and Midwifery Councils in LMICs such as Kenya and Nigeria, and relevant national policy [ 30 , 31 , 32 ].This programme aimed at sustaining and improving the educators’ competencies in delivery of their teaching, assessments, mentoring and feedback to students. To promote uptake, there is need to test the relevance and practicability of the CPD programme. Feasibility studies are used to determine whether an intervention is appropriate for further testing, relevant and sustainable in answering the question – Can it work [ 33 ]? The key focus of these studies are acceptability of the intervention, resources and ability to manage and implement intervention (availability, requirements, sustainability), practicality, adaptation, integration into the system, limited efficacy testing of the intervention in controlled settings and preliminary evaluation of participant responses to the intervention [ 33 , 34 , 35 ].

This study evaluated the feasibility of the LSTM/UNFPA midwifery educator CPD programme using the Kirkpatrick’s model for evaluating training programmes [ 36 ]. This model is an effective tool with four levels for evaluating training programmes. Level 1 (Participants’ reaction to the programme experience) helps to understand how satisfying, engaging and relevant participants find the experience. Level 2 (Learning) measures the changes in knowledge, skills and confidence after training. Level 3 (Behaviour) measures the degree to which participants apply what they learned during training when they are back on job and this can be immediately and several months after the training. This level is critical as it can also reveal where participants might need help to transfer learning during the training to practice afterwards. Level 4 (Results) measures the degree to which targeted outcomes occur because of training. In this study, participants’ reaction to the programme – satisfaction and relevance of the programme to meeting their needs (level 1) and change in knowledge, confidence and skills after the CPD programme (level 2) were assessed. Also, user perspectives and barriers to implementing the CPD programme were explored.

Study design

This was a mixed methods intervention study using a concurrent nested/embedded/convergent design conducted in Kenya and Nigeria in May and June 2023. This was designed to evaluate the feasibility of the midwifery educator CPD programme. The goal was to obtain different but complementary data to better understand the CPD programme with the data collected from the same participants or similar target populations [ 37 ].

The quantitative component of the evaluation used a quasi-experimental pre-post and post-test only designs to evaluate the effectiveness of the blended CPD programme intervention among midwifery educators from mid-level training colleges and universities from the two countries. Pre and post evaluation of knowledge (online self-directed component) and skills (developing a teaching plan during the face-to-face component) was performed. Post intervention evaluation on programme satisfaction, relevance of CPD programme and microteaching sessions for educators was conducted.

The qualitative component of the evaluation included open-ended written responses from the midwifery educators and master trainers to describe what worked well (enablers), challenges/barriers experienced in the blended programme and key recommendations for improvement were collected. In addition, key informant interviews with the key stakeholders (nursing and midwifery councils and the national heads of training institutions) were conducted. Data on challenges anticipated in the scale up of the programme and measures to promote sustainability, access and uptake of the programme were collected from both educators and key stakeholders.

A mixed methods design was used for its strengths in (i) collecting the two types of data (quantitative and qualitative) simultaneously, during a single data collection phase, (ii) provided the study with the advantages of both quantitative and qualitative data and (iii) helped gain perspectives and contextual experiences from the different types of data or from different levels (educators, master trainers, heads of training institutions and nursing and midwifery councils) within the study [ 38 , 39 ].

The study was conducted in Kenya and Nigeria. Kenya has over 121 mid-level training colleges and universities offering nursing and midwifery training while Nigeria has about 300. Due to the vastness in Nigeria, representative government-owned nursing and midwifery training institutions were randomly selected from each of the six geo-political zones in the country and the Federal Capital Territory. Mid-level training colleges offer the integrated nursing and midwifery training at diploma level while universities offer integrated nursing and midwifery training at bachelor/master degree level in the two countries (three universities in Kenya offer midwifery training at bachelor level). All nurse-midwives and midwives trained at both levels are expected to possess ICM competencies to care for the woman and newborn. Midwifery educators in Kenya and Nigeria are required to have at least advanced diploma qualifications although years of clinical experience are not specified.

It is a mandatory requirement of the Nursing and Midwifery Councils for nurse/midwives and midwifery educators in both countries to demonstrate evidence of CPD for renewal of practising license in both countries [ 40 , 41 ]. A minimum of 20 CPD points (equivalent to 20 credit hours) is recommended annually for Kenya and 60 credit hours for Nigeria every three years. However, there are no specific midwifery educator CPD that incorporated both face-to-face and online modes of delivery, available for Kenya and Nigeria and indeed for many countries in the region. Nursing and midwifery educators are registered and licensed to practice nursing and midwifery while those from other disciplines who teach in the midwifery programme are qualified in the content they teach.

Study sites

In Kenya, a set of two mid-level colleges (Nairobi and Kakamega Kenya Medical Training Colleges (KMTCs) and two universities (Nairobi and Moi Universities), based on the geographical distribution of the training institutions were identified as CPD Centres of Excellence (COEs)/hubs. In Nigeria, two midwifery schools (Centre of Excellence for Midwifery and Medical Education, College of Nursing and Midwifery, Illorin, Kwara State and Centre of Excellence for Midwifery and Medical Education, School of Nursing Gwagwalada, Abuja, FCT) were identified. These centres were equipped with teaching and EmONC training equipment for the practical components of the CPD programme. The centres were selected based on the availability of spacious training labs/classes specific for skills training and storage of equipment and an emergency obstetrics and newborn care (EmONC) master trainer among the educators in the institution. They were designated as host centres for the capacity strengthening of educators in EmONC and teaching skills.

Intervention

Nursing and midwifery educators accessed and completed 20 h of free, self-directed online modules on the WCEA portal and face-to-face practical sessions in the CPD centres of excellence.

The design of the midwifery educator CPD programme

The design of the CPD modules was informed by the existing gap for professional development for midwifery educators in Kenya and other LMICs and the need for regular updates in knowledge and skills competencies in delivery of teaching [ 9 , 15 , 23 , 28 ]. Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine led the overall design of the nursing and midwifery educator CPD programme (see Fig.  1 for summarised steps taken in the design of the blended programme).

This was a two-part blended programme with a 20-hour self-directed online learning component (accessible through the WCEA platform at no cost) and a 3-day face-to-face component designed to cover theoretical and practical skills components respectively. The 20-hour self-directed online component had four 5-hour modules on reflection practice, teaching/learning theories and methods, student assessments and effective feedback and mentoring. These modules had pretest and post-test questions and were interactive with short videos, short quizzes within modules, links for further directed reading and resources to promote active learning. This online component is also available on the WCEA platform as a resource for other nurses and midwifery educators across the globe ( https://wcea.education/2022/05/05/midwifery-educator-cpd-programme/ ).

Practical aspects of competency-based teaching pedagogy, clinical teaching skills including selected EmONC skills, giving effective feedback, applying digital innovations in teaching and learning for educators and critical thinking and appraisal were delivered through a 3-day residential face-to-face component in designated CPD centres of excellence. Specific skills included: planning and preparing teaching sessions (lesson plans), teaching practical skills methodologies (lecture, simulation, scenario and role plays), selected EmONC skills, managing teaching and learning sessions, assessing students, providing effective feedback and mentoring and use of online applications such as Mentimeter and Kahoot in formative classroom assessment of learning. Selected EmONC skills delivered were shoulder dystocia, breech delivery, assisted vaginal delivery (vacuum assisted birth), managing hypovolemic shock and pre-eclampsia/eclampsia and newborn resuscitation. These were designed to reinforce the competencies of educators in using contemporary teaching pedagogies. The goal was to combine theory and practical aspects of effective teaching as well as provide high quality, evidence-based learning environment and support for students in midwifery education [ 4 ]. These modules integrated the ICM essential competencies for midwifery practice to provide a high quality, evidence-based learning environment for midwifery students. The pre and post tests form part of the CPD programme as a standard assessment of the educators.

As part of the design, this programme was piloted among 60 midwifery educators and regulators from 16 countries across Africa at the UNFPA funded Alliance to Improve Midwifery Education (AIME) Africa regional workshop in Nairobi in November 2022. They accessed and completed the self-directed online modules on the WCEA platform, participated in selected practical sessions, self-evaluated the programme and provided useful feedback for strengthening the modules.

The Nursing and Midwifery Councils of Kenya and Nigeria host the online CPD courses from individual or organisation entities on the WCEA portal. In addition, the Nursing Council of Kenya provides opportunities for self-reporting for various CPD events including accredited online CPD activities/programmes, skill development workshops, attending conferences and seminars, in-service short courses, practice-based research projects (as learner, principal investigator, principal author, or co-author) among others. In Nigeria, a certificate of attendance for Mandatory Continuing Professional Development Programme (MCPDP) is required as evidence for CPD during license renewal. However, the accredited CPD programmes specific for midwifery educators are not available in both countries and Africa region [ 15 , 42 ].

Midwifery educator CPD programme design stages

Participants and sample size

Bowen and colleagues suggest that many feasibility studies are designed to test an intervention in a limited way and such tests may be conducted in a convenience sample, with intermediate rather than final outcomes, with shorter follow-up periods, or with limited statistical power [ 34 ].

A convenience random sample across the two countries was used. Sample size calculations were performed using the formula for estimation of a proportion: a 95% confidence interval for estimation of a proportion can be estimated using the formula: \(p\pm 1.96\sqrt{\frac{\text{p}(1-\text{p})}{n}}\) The margin of error (d) is the second term in the equation. For calculation of the percentage change in competence detectable Stata’s power paired proportion function was used.

To achieve the desired level of low margin of error of 5% and a 90% power (value of proportion) to detect competence change after the training, a sample of 120 participants was required. Using the same sample to assess competence before and after training, so that the improvement in percentage competent can be derived and 2.5% are assessed as competent prior to training but not after training (regress), a 90% power would give a 12% improvement change in competence after the training.

A random sample of 120 educators (60 each from Kenya & Nigeria; 30 each from mid-level training colleges and universities) were invited to participate via an email invitation in the two components of the CPD programme (Fig.  2 ). Importantly, only participants who completed the self-directed online modules were eligible to progress to the face-to-face practical component.

Flow of participants in the CPD programme (SDL = self-directed online learning; F2F = face-to-face practical)

For qualitative interviews, eight key informant interviews were planned with a representative each from the Nursing and Midwifery Councils, mid-level training institutions’ management, university and midwifery associations in both countries. Interviews obtained data related to challenges anticipated in the scale up of the programme and measures to promote sustainability, access and uptake of the programme.

Participant recruitment

Only nursing and midwifery educators registered and licensed by the Nursing and Midwifery Councils were eligible and participated. This was because they can access the WCEA website with the self-directed online programme via the Nursing and Midwifery Councils’ websites, only accessible to registered and licensed nurses and midwives.

The recruitment process was facilitated through the central college management headquarters (for mid-level training colleges’ educators) and Nursing and Midwifery Councils (for university participants). Training institutions’ heads of nursing and midwifery departments were requested to share the contact details of all educators teaching midwifery modules, particularly the antepartum, intrapartum, postpartum and newborn care modules in the two countries. A list of 166 midwifery educators from 81 universities and mid-level training colleges was obtained through the Heads of the Department in the institutions.

The research lead, with the assistance by the co-investigator from Nigeria then randomly sampled 120 educators based on institution type and region for representativeness across the countries. Following the selection of participants, the two investigators shared the electronic detailed participant study information sheet and consent form to the potential participants one week before the start of the self-directed online modules. Clear guidance and emphasis on the conduct of the two-part program including completing the mandatory four self-directed online modules was provided. Due to the large number of eligible participants, the recruitment and consenting process was closed after reaching the first 30 participants consenting per institution type and region, with 1–2 educators per institution randomly recruited. This allowed as many institutions to be represented across the country as possible. Participants received a study information sheet and an auto-generated copy of the electronic consent form completed in their emails. Other opportunities for participating in the two-part programme were provided as appropriate for those who missed out. Only those who completed the four online modules were invited for the practical component. A WhatsApp community group for the recruited participants was formed for clarifications about the study, troubleshooting on challenges with online access and completion of the modules before and during the programme.

Self-directed online component

Upon consenting, the contact details of the educators from each level were shared with WCEA program director for generation of a unique identification code to access the self-directed online modules on the WCEA portal. Educators completed their baseline characteristics (demographic and academic) in the online platform just before the modules. Each self-directed online module was estimated to be completed in five hours. Only after completing a module was the participant allowed to progress to the next module. The modules were available for participants to complete at their own time/schedule. An autogenerated certificate of completion with the participant’s post-completion score was awarded as evidence of completing a module. Participants completed a set of 20 similar pretest and posttest multiple choice questions in each module for knowledge check. A dedicated staff from WCEA actively provided technical support for educators to register, access and complete the online modules. At the end of each module, participants completed a self-evaluation on a 5-point Likert scale for satisfaction (0 = very unsatisfied, 1 = unsatisfied, 2 = neutral, 3 = satisfied and 4 = very satisfied) and relevance of the modules (0 = very irrelevant, 1 = irrelevant, 2 = neutral, 3 = relevant and 4 = very relevant). This provided participants’ reactions to the different components of the modules on whether they met the individual educator’s development needs. In addition, participants responded to the open-ended questions at the end of the modules. These were on what they liked about the modules, challenges encountered in completing the modules and suggestions for improvement of the modules. A maximum period of two weeks was given for educators to complete the modules before progressing to the practical component.

Practical component

The practical component was delivered by a pool of 18 master trainers who received a 1-day orientation from the research lead before the training. The master trainers were a blend of experienced midwifery and obstetrics faculty in teaching and clinical practice actively engaged in facilitating EmONC trainings selected from Kenya and Nigeria. Four of these master trainers from Kenya participated in the delivery of both sets of trainings in Kenya and Nigeria.

Only educator participants who completed the self-directed online modules and certified were invited to participate in a 3-day residential practical component. Two separate classes were trained (mid-level and university level educators) per country by the same group of eight master trainers. The sessions were delivered through short interactive lectures; small group and plenary discussions; skills demonstrations/simulations and scenario teaching in small breakout groups; role plays and debrief sessions. Sessions on digital innovations in teaching and learning were live practical sessions with every participant using own laptop. Nursing and Midwifery Councils representatives and training institutions’ managers were invited to participate in both components of the programme.

Participant costs for participating in the two-part CPD programme were fully sponsored by the study. These were internet data for completing the self-directed online component and residential costs – transport, accommodation, and meals during the practical component.

Data collection

Self-directed online knowledge pretests and post-tests results, self-rated measures of satisfaction and relevance of the modules including what they liked about the modules, challenges encountered in accessing and completing the modules and suggestions for improvement data was extracted from the WCEA platform in Microsoft Excel.

On day 1 of the practical component, participants using their personal computers developed a teaching plan. On the last day (day 3), participants prepared a teaching plan and powerpoint presentation for the microteaching sessions. No teaching plan template from the trainers was provided to the participants before the training. However, they used formats from their institutions if available. A standard teaching plan template was provided at the end of the training.

The group of master trainers and participants were divided into groups for the microteaching sessions which formed part of the formative assessment. Each participant delivered a powerpoint presentation on a topic of interest (covered in the teaching plan) to the small group of 13–15 participants. This was followed by a structured session of constructive feedback that started with a self-reflection and assessment. This was followed by peer supportive and constructive feedback from the audience participants and faculty/master trainers identifying areas of effective practice and opportunities for further development. Each microteaching session lasted 10–15 min. Each of the microteaching session presentation and teaching plan were evaluated against a pre-determined electronic checklist by two designated faculty members independently during/immediately after the microteaching session. The checklist was adapted from LSTM’s microteaching assessment of the United Kingdom’s Higher Education Academy (HEA)’s Leading in Global Health Teaching (LIGHT) programme. The evaluation included preparing a teaching plan, managing a teaching and learning session using multiple interactive activities, designing and conducting formative assessments for learning using digital/online platforms, and giving effective feedback and critical appraisal. The master trainers received an orientation training on the scoring checklist by the lead researcher/corresponding author.

Self-rated confidence in different teaching pedagogy skills were evaluated before (on day 1) and after (day 3) the training on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = not at all confident, 1 = slightly confident, 2 = somewhat confident, 3 = quite confident and 4 = very confident). A satisfaction and relevance of practical component evaluation on a 5-point Likert scale was completed by the participants on an online designed form on day 3 after the microteaching sessions of the practical component. This form also had a similar qualitative survey with open-ended questions on what they liked about the practical component, challenges encountered in completing the practical component and suggestions for improvement of the component.

Using a semi-structured interview guide, six qualitative key informant interviews, each lasting about 30–45 min, were conducted by the lead researcher with the Nursing and Midwifery Councils focal persons and training institutions’ managers. These were audio recorded in English, anonymized, and deleted after transcription. These interviews were aimed at getting their perspectives on the programme design, anticipated barriers/enablers with the CPD programme and strategies for promoting uptake of the CPD programme. These interviews were considered adequate due to their information power (indicating that the more information the sample holds, relevant for the actual study, the lower amount of participants is needed) [ 43 ] and upon obtaining data saturation, considered the cornerstone of rigor in qualitative research [ 44 , 45 ].

Assessment of outcomes

Participants’ reaction to the programme (satisfaction and relevance) (Kirkpatrick level 1) was tested using the self-rated 5-point Likert scales. Change in knowledge, confidence and skills (Kirkpatrick level 2) was tested as follows: knowledge through 20 pretest and post-test multiple choice questions per module in the self-directed online modules; confidence in applying different pedagogy skills through the self-rated 5-point Likert scale; and teaching skills through the observed microteaching sessions using a checklist.

Reliability and validity of the data collection tools

The internal consistency (a measure of the reliability, generalizability or reproducibility of a test) of the Likert scales/tools assessing the relevance of the online and practical modules and satisfaction of educators with the two blended modules were tested using the Cronbach’s alpha statistic. The Cronbach’s alpha statistics for the four Likert scales/tools ranged from 0.835 to 0.928, all indicating acceptably good to excellent level of reliability [ 46 ]. Validity (which refers to the accuracy of a measure) of the Likert scales were tested using the Pearson correlation coefficient statistic. Obtained correlation values were compared to the critical values and p-values reported at 95% confidence intervals. All the scales were valid with obtained Pearson correlation coefficients reported − 0.1946, which were all greater than the critical values ( p  < 0.001) [ 46 ]. The semi-structured interview guides for the qualitative interviews with the training institutions’ managers and midwifery councils (regulators) were developed and reviewed by expert study team members with experience in qualitative research.

Data management and analysis

Data from the online/electronic tools was extracted in Microsoft Excel and exported to SPSS version 28 for cleaning and analysis. Normality of data was tested using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test suitable for samples above 50. Proportions of educator characteristics in the two countries were calculated. Differences between the educator characteristics in the two countries were tested using chi-square tests (and Fishers-exact test for cells with counts of less than 5).

For self-rated relevance of CPD programme components and satisfaction with the programme on the 0–4 Likert scales, descriptive statistics were calculated (median scores and proportions). Results are presented as bar graphs and tables. Cronbach alpha and Pearson correlation coefficients were used to test the reliability and validity of the test items respectively.

Change in knowledge in online modules, confidence in pedagogy skills and preparing teaching plans among educators was assessed by comparing pre-training scores and post-training scores. Descriptive statistics are reported based on normality of data. Differences in the scores were analysed using the Wilcoxon signed ranks tests, a non-parametric equivalent of the paired t-test. Differences between educators scores in microteaching by country and institution type were performed by Mann-Whitney U test. Level of competence demonstrated in the teaching plan and microteaching skill was defined as the percentage of the desired characteristics present in the teaching plan and microteaching session, set at 75% and above. The proportion of participants that achieved the desired level of competence in their teaching plan and microteaching skill was calculated. Binary logistic regression models were used to assess for the strengths of associations between individual educator and institutional characteristics (age, gender, qualifications, length of time as educator, training institution and country) and the overall dichotomised competent score (proportion achieved competence in teaching plan and microteaching skills). P-values less than 0.05 at 95% confidence interval were considered statistically significant.

Preparation for qualitative data analysis involved a rigorous process of transcription of recorded interviews with key informants. In addition, online free text responses by midwifery educators on what worked well, challenges encountered, and recommendations were extracted in Microsoft Excel format and exported to Microsoft Word for data reduction (coding) and theme development. Qualitative data was analysed using thematic framework analysis by Braun and Clarke (2006) as it provides clear steps to follow, is flexible and uses a very structured process and enables transparency and team working [ 47 ]. Due to the small number of transcripts, computer assisted coding in Microsoft Word using the margin and comments tool were used. The six steps by Braun and Clarke in thematic analysis were conducted: (i) familiarising oneself with the data through transcription and reading transcripts, looking for recurring issues/inconsistencies and, identifying possible categories and sub-categories of data; (ii) generating initial codes – both deductive (using topic guides/research questions) and inductive coding (recurrent views, phrases, patterns from the data) was conducted for transparency; (iii) searching for themes by collating initial codes into potential sub-themes/themes; (iv) reviewing themes by generating a thematic map (code book) of the analysis; (v) defining and naming themes (ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each sub-theme/theme, and the overall story the analysis tells); and (vi) writing findings/producing a report. Confidentiality was maintained by using pseudonyms for participant identification in the study. Trustworthiness was achieved by (i) respondent validation/check during the interviews for accurate data interpretation; (ii) using a criterion for thematic analysis; (iii) returning to the data repeatedly to check for accuracy in interpretation; (iv) quality checks and discussions with the study team with expertise in mixed methods research [ 39 , 47 ].

Integration of findings used the parallel-databases variant and are synthesised in the discussion section. In this common approach, two parallel strands of data are collected and analysed independently and are only brought together during interpretation. The two sets of independent results are then synthesized or compared during the discussion [ 39 ].

Quantitative findings

Midwifery educators’ characteristics.

A total of 116 (96.7%) and 108 (90.0%) educators from 81 institutions completed the self-directed online learning and practical component respectively from the two countries. There were no significant differences between countries in educators’ qualifications, when last taught a midwifery class and whether attended any CPD training in the preceding year before the study ( p  > 0.05). Overall, only 28.7% of the educators had a midwifery related CPD training in the preceding year before the study. Midwifery educator characteristics are outlined below (Table  1 ).

Change in knowledge

This was assessed in each of the four self-directed online modules. The results from ranked scores based on Wilcoxon signed ranks test showed significant improvements in educators’ knowledge in all the four online modules completed ( p  < 0.001). The highest mean score improvement was observed in students’ assessment module, 48.1% (SD ± 15.1) to 85.2% (SD ± 15.7), a 37.1% improvement. Improvements in knowledge in the other modules were as follows: reflective practice (27.6%), mentoring and giving effective feedback (27.4%) and teaching methods (19.2%). Overall knowledge score for all modules improved from 52.4% (SD ± 10.4) to 80.4 (SD ± 8.1), p  < 0.001 (Table  2 ).

Relevance of self-directed online modules

The internal consistency of each of the four modules was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the four items was 0.837, a good and acceptable level of reliability. All the four modules assessed were valid with calculated Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

Educators from the two countries, on a scale of 0–4 rated the online modules as very relevant with a median score of 4 out of 4 (IQR 0) for each of the four modules: reflective practice, teaching methods, students’ assessments and mentoring and giving effective feedback. There were no ratings of 0, 1 and 2 for all the modules (Fig.  3 ).

Educators’ ratings of the relevance of self-directed online modules

Satisfaction with the self-directed online modules

The internal consistency of each of the eight items was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the eight items was 0.928, an excellent level of reliability. All the eight items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

Each of the eight items rated on satisfaction had a median score of 4 out of 4 (IQR 0). Over 80% of the educators were very satisfied with the online modules’ content as presented in a logical format and informative. Also, the modules helped them to learn something new, updated their knowledge and the materials were useful and valuable for their practice. Over 70% were very satisfied with the modules as they helped them refresh their knowledge and skills with the links and activities embedded in the modules useful in adding to their learning. None of the educators were dissatisfied (rated 0 or 1) with the online modules (Table  3 ).

Change in confidence in different pedagogy skills

The internal consistency of each of the eight items assessed was tested with Cronbach’s alpha using the baseline data. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the eight items was 0.893, a good level of reliability. All the eight items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

Changes in confidence before and after the training were compared using the Wilcoxon signed rank test, a parametric equivalent of the paired t-test when data is not normally distributed. The mean score of self-rated confidence of educators on a scale of 0–4 for all the eight skills significantly improved after the training from 2.73 (SD ± 0.68) to 3.74 (SD ± 0.34) ( p  < 0.001). Mean confidence was highest in facilitating a lecture (3.23, SD ± 0.8) and lowest on using digital innovations (Mentimeter) in formative assessment of teaching/learning (1.75, SD ± 1.15) before the training. These improved significantly after the training to 3.84 (SD ± 0.41) for facilitating a lecture and 3.50 (SD ± 0.63) for using digital innovations (Mentimeter) in formative assessment of teaching/learning, p  < 0.001. The mean confidence of educators was largely average before the training and significantly improved after the training in six skills ( p  < 0.001). These were designing learning outcomes using measurable Bloom’s taxonomy verbs, preparing a teaching plan, identifying relevant resources to enhance learning, facilitating a scenario teaching, facilitating a practical simulation/demonstration and giving effective feedback for learning (Table  4 ).

Preparing a teaching plan and microteaching skills

The overall median score in preparing a teaching plan was 63.6% (IQR 45.5) before the training and improved significantly to 81.8% (IQR 27.3) after the training, p  < 0.001. The median scores differed significantly by country before and after the training. Before the training, Kenyan educators had higher median scores (72.7%, IQR 27.3) compared to Nigeria counterparts (54.5%, IQR 36.4), p  < 0.001. After the training, Kenyan educators had significantly higher median scores (81.2%, IQR 18.2) than Nigerian counterparts (72.7%, IQR 18.2), p  = 0.024. However, there were no significant differences in the median scores between the training institutions before and after the training, p  > 0.05. For microteaching, the overall median score was 76.5% (IQR 29.4). There were no significant differences between countries and training institutions in the microteaching scores, p  > 0.05. Kenya educators (82.4%, IQR 29.4) had slightly higher scores than Nigeria (76.5%, IQR 29.4), p  = 0.78. Mid-level educators (79.4%, IQR 29.4) had slightly higher scores than university educators (76.5%, IQR 28.7), p  = 0.515 (Table  5 ).

The inter-rater reliability/agreement of the eight pairs of assessors in both countries were assessed by Cohen Kappa statistic. The Kappa statistics for the eight pairs ranged between 0.806 and 0.917, p  < 0.001, showing near perfect agreement between the pairs of assessors.

Association between independent educator and institutional characteristics and the microteaching skill scores

Categorised skills scores (≥ 75% mean score as competent) showed that 55 (51.4%) and 62 (57.9%) of the educators scored 75% or higher in the teaching plan preparation and microteaching skill assessments respectively. Logistic regression analysis showed that educator’s country, age, gender, qualifications, training institution type and length as educator were not significantly associated with the overall categorised teaching plan or microteaching scores ( p  > 0.05).

Relevance of the practical component

The internal consistency of each of the six skills items was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the six items was 0.866, a good level of reliability. All the six skills items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

On a self-rating Likert scale of 0–4, the median score for each of the six skills assessed and trained was 4 out of a maximum of 4, indicating that the educators found the different pedagogy skills very relevant after the training. Over 80% of the educators rated the sessions on teaching plan (85.2%), scenario teaching (87.0%), simulation/demonstration teaching (82.4%) and giving effective feedback (85.2%) as very relevant. Over three-quarters (77.8%) of the educators rated the sessions on lecture teaching and use of digital innovations (Mentimeter) in assessment as very relevant (Fig.  4 ).

Relevance of the practical components

Satisfaction with the practical component

The internal consistency of each of the six skills items was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the six items was 0.835, a good level of reliability. All the six skills items assessed were valid with their obtained Pearson correlation coefficient values greater than the critical value of 0.1946 ( p  < 0.001) at 95% confidence interval.

On a self-rating Likert scale of 0–4, the median score for each of the six skills assessed was 4 out of a maximum of 4, indicating that educators were very satisfied with the practical skills sessions. Over 70% of the educators were very satisfied with the sessions on giving effective feedback (79.6%), lecture teaching (75.9%), scenario and simulation teaching (73.1% each). Two-thirds of the educators (67.6%) were very satisfied with the digital innovations in teaching (use of Mentimeter) for formative assessment in teaching and learning. All educators were satisfied with the preparing of teaching plan in teaching and learning with the majority (63.0%) as very satisfied while the remaining 37.0% satisfied. None of the educators were dissatisfied with the practical component of the training (Fig.  5 ).

Satisfaction with practical skills

Qualitative findings

What educators liked about the self-directed online modules.

Educators from both levels and countries had similar views on the online component. These are broadly summarised under the sub-themes: (i) educative and relevant for practice, (ii) flexible and convenient learning and (iii) motivating, interesting and interactive.

Educative and relevant for practice

Educators reported the online modules as educative and informative and, improved their knowledge in teaching, assessments, reflective practice and providing effective feedback to students to promote learning as well as increasing their self-confidence and critical thinking skills. Besides, educators found the modules valuable and relevant for their professional growth and practice.

“The modules were well organized, they were relevant to my practice and met my expectations” university midwifery educator, Kenya. “The materials are very rich with current information to guide. Very informative & valuable to my professional growth” university midwifery educator, Nigeria.

Flexible and convenient learning

Educators reported that they could access and complete the online modules at their flexible and convenient time. This flexibility enhanced and stimulated them to complete the informative modules at their comfort times either at home or office without disruption to their schedules.

“(The modules) gave me ample time to read at my own pace and time without any hurry to understand the content well. They were well organised. Also, flexibility of learning and the access to materials was excellent” university midwifery educator, Kenya. “It is flexible and convenient. It empowers the learner to take ownership of the learning process. Learning is personalized” mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria.

Motivating, interesting and interactive

Educators reported that the online modules were well structured, motivating, interesting and had components that promoted interaction for learning. For example, pretests, various quizzes within the modules and posttest questions and the added specific short extra reading segments promoted interaction and learning.

“The intermittent assessment questions. It helped maintain my focus” university midwifery educator, Nigeria . “Very interactive. They were very informative and extra reading assignments complemented the content” university midwifery educator, Kenya .

Challenges encountered with the self-directed online learning modules

Four sub-themes emerged that summarised the challenges experienced by midwifery educators in the two countries to access and complete the self-directed online modules. These are (i) network/internet connectivity, (ii) technology challenges, (iii) electricity power supply and power outages and, (iv) time constraints.

Network/internet connectivity

Network and internet connectivity difficulties and fluctuations was the commonest reported challenge in completing the self-directed online modules by educators from both countries. This affected the access, progress, downloading extra resources embedded within the modules and completing the integrated evaluations within the modules.

“Accessing the modules, problem with submitting forms and exams, had network problem” mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria . “I kept going offline and I would have to restart every time. They were too internet dependent” university midwifery educator, Kenya.

Technology challenges

Technological challenges were observed as well as reported among educators from both countries. These ranged from poor access to emails due to forgotten email addresses, usernames or passwords, difficult access and navigation through the online modules, completing the matching questions that required dragging items, completing the evaluations and downloading certificates after completion of the modules.

“I am not very good with ICT, so I had issues using my laptop” mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria. “Accessibility was difficult. I had to restart the process a number of times. The modules would sometimes take you back more than 20 slides which delayed the completion rate” university midwifery educator, Kenya.

Electricity power supply interruptions and fluctuations

Power interruptions, fluctuations and outages especially in Nigeria were cited as a challenge to complete the online modules. This delayed the completion of the modules as electric power was critical to access and complete the modules on either WCEA app on mobile phones or computers.

“The modules should not start from beginning whenever there is interrupted power supply” MLC midwifery educator, Nigeria. “Network failure due to interrupted power supply” university midwifery educator, Nigeria.

Time constraints

Although educators commented the flexibility with which to complete the online modules, time to complete the online modules was also cited as a challenge in both countries.

“It requires a lot of time, this is a challenge because I am also involved with other activities at the place of work which require my attention” university midwifery educator, Kenya.

What educators liked about the practical component

Educators written feedback on what they liked about the practical component of the CPD programme was categorised into the four sub-themes: new knowledge and relevant for practice; improved knowledge, skills and confidence to teach; enhanced participatory and active learning; individualised support in learning.

New knowledge and relevant for practice

The practical component provided new learning particularly on the use of digital platforms (Mentimeter and Kahoot) for formative assessment to evaluate learning during classroom teaching. In their integrated teaching using both online and face-to-face delivery, use of technology (Mentimeter and Kahoot) in classroom assessment was not a common practice as most of them had not heard about the available online platforms. They found Mentimeter (and Kahoot) to be interesting resources for formative assessments in class to facilitate teaching and learning. The techniques of giving effective feedback using the sandwich and ‘stop, start, continue’ methods were viewed to promote interaction between the educator and the learner for effective learning. Educators also acknowledged new knowledge and skills updates on EmONC relevant for their practice.

“Giving feedback, innovation of the online formative assessment, the teaching plan. I wish we would adapt them for daily application rather than the traditional teacher centered one.” Mid-level training college educator, Kenya . “(I liked) Everything, especially the technological innovations for assessment” Mid-level training college educator, Nigeria .

Improved knowledge, skills and confidence to teach

Educators reported that the practical sessions were interactive and engaging with good combination of theory and practice which facilitated learning. They reported that participating in the practical component enabled them to update and improve their knowledge, skills and confidence in planning and delivering theoretical and practical teaching using multiple methods. Similar improvements were reported on preparing and conducting students’ assessments and giving effective feedback to promote learning. On use of technology in formative assessments, the interactive practical sessions boosted the confidence of educators in using Mentimeter (and Kahoot) online platforms during classroom teaching.

“It helped build my confidence, had hands on practice on clinical skills and teaching skills, learnt about outdated practices and current evidence based clinical and teaching skills.” Mid-level training college educator, Nigeria . “They were very interesting especially the scenarios and skills. I was able to enhance my practical skills and technology in evaluating learning.” University midwifery educator, Kenya .

Enhanced participatory and active learning

The practical component complemented the self-directed online learning for educators. They highly commented and benefitted from the hands-on opportunities to actively engage through return demonstrations during the practical programme. This component also enabled them to brainstorm and contribute actively during the sessions. They highlighted that the practical component enhanced and reinforced learning through active participation in demonstrations, questions, group discussions and plenary sessions.

“This face-to-face module provided me with the opportunity to brainstorm with other educators, facilitators and resource persons. This will enhance my teaching skills.” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria . “Interaction with facilitators who could clarify points that I had earlier not understood, interaction with other participants and was also able to learn from them.” University midwifery educator, Kenya .

Individualised support in learning

Educators received individualised peer support and learning during the practical component. They had opportunities within the small breakout groups for peer learning and one-to-one support from the facilitators to update and learn new knowledge and skills.

“A chance to get immediate feedback was availed by the presenters.” University midwifery educator, Kenya . “Facilitators were well informed and gave learners opportunity for return demonstration and support.” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Kenya .

Challenges encountered with the practical component

Key challenges reported by the mixed group of educators and master trainers across the two countries include: inadequate time, computer technology challenges and poor internet connectivity for practical components.

Inadequate time

Although small breakout sessions were utilised to provide each educator with an opportunity to practice the skills, it was commonly reported that time was inadequate for skills demonstrations and return demonstrations by all educators. This was especially for areas educators had inadequate knowledge and new skills that were observed thus adequate time for teaching and repeat demonstrations for mastery was required. Similar observations were made by the master trainers who felt that some educators had never encountered some of the basic EmONC skills demonstrated or never practised and thus required a longer duration for familiarisation and practice.

“Time was short hence not enough to return demo” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Kenya . “Some of the things were new and required more time for demonstration and practice.” Mid-level training college midwifery educator, Nigeria .

Computer technology challenges and poor internet connectivity for practical components

Some educators encountered technical difficulties in using computers during the practical component. In some cases, this was compounded by poor network/internet connectivity. This delayed completion of practical components requiring the use of computers including pretests, preparing teaching plans and presentations, post-tests and classroom demonstrations using digital innovations in teaching and learning. However, assistance was provided by the trainers as appropriate to those who needed technical support.

“(There were) technical challenges with use of computers for few participants.” Master trainer, Nigeria . “Slow internet can hinder smooth flow of sessions.” Master trainer, Kenya .

Key areas for additional support

For quality education and training, master trainers generally recommended that all educators should be trained and regularly supported in the basic EmONC course to strengthen their competencies for effective teaching of EmONC skills. Further support in computer technology use including basics in navigation around windows/programmes, formatting in Microsoft Office Word and Powerpoint, literature searching, and referencing were other critical components to be strengthened.

Perspectives from training institutions managers and midwifery regulators

Measures to ensure midwifery educators take specific cpds that have been designed to improve their teaching competencies.

Key informant interviews with the pre-service training institutions’ managers and nursing and midwifery councils from the two countries were conducted and revealed key strategies outlined below that should ensure access and completion of the blended CPD programme specific for educators’ teaching competencies.

Awareness creation, integrating programme into policy and performance appraisal

The aspect of online CPD was highlighted as a new concept in Nigeria. Due to this novelty, the country was reluctant to accredit many online CPD programmes for in-service and pre-service nursing and midwifery personnel. However, the regulatory Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria had established monitoring mechanisms to evaluate its uptake to meet the definition of CPD and is still work in progress.

“For the online, it’s actually a relatively new concept, in fact because of monitoring and evaluation, we have struggled with accepting online CPDs… So, we’re struggling on how to develop a guideline for online CPDs. So, we’re now starting with the WCEA. So far, only the WCEA has that approval to provide CPD…We said let’s look at how this works out before we can extend it to other providers.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

Both countries emphasized the need to create awareness of the CPD programme for midwifery educators and a policy framework for CPD. Regulators emphasized the need to have the CPD programme as mandatory for all midwifery educators through a policy directive. They suggested that the blended CPD programme should form a mandatory specified proportion of the content addressing their specific competencies. Besides, the training institution recommended that the programme should form part of the educator’s performance appraisal on a regular basis. Active monitoring systems were suggested to be in place to ensure compliance of participation and completion to acquire specific relevant competencies in pedagogy.

“…Ensure that educators take the particular modules before license renewal. Tie modules that are related to midwifery education to the educators and make them mandatory. Yes, we make it as a matter of policy that you should be taking these courses over and over again.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

It was strongly suggested that attaching incentives as motivators to completing the programme would attract educators to complete the CPD programme. These incentives include certification, recognition for participation in curriculum reviews, national examination setting, facilitating national examinations, promotion and service and eligibility as trainers of trainers to colleagues.

“You attach a course, one training, you cannot guarantee that these courses will be taken. So we find a way to attach something to it. You must have evidence that you attended these programs. So once you attach something like that, they will all flock because there is an incentive to it. Because we say, as an educator, before you go after every examination to examine students, you must have taken these courses.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

Internet connectivity

Training institutions’ managers suggested investments in internet connectivity for training institutions to support educators access and complete the self-directed online programme. This was also highlighted as a critical challenge for the online component by the educators in both countries.

“The issues of internet connectivity and I think we need to be proactive about it so that we have a way to constantly bring it to the forefront especially in our policies. But connectivity would be a major area to look at as people are using their money.” Mid-level training college manager, Kenya .

Anticipated challenges in the scale-up of the CPD programme

Key challenges anticipated in the roll-out and scale-up of the blended CPD programme were identified as inadequate skills of the educators in the use of information and communication technology during the practical component (including preparation of powerpoint presentations and completing tasks using a computer), and participant costs to attend the practical component (including participants’ residential costs and investments in proctor technology for ensuring academic integrity and monitoring and evaluation tool for educators’ compliance.) It was also emphasized that due to low remuneration of the educators, additional costs from their pocket to undertake the CPD could be a limiting factor for the intended faculty development initiatives. Other challenges included maintaining quality and academic integrity of the programme, potential bias in the selection of educators to attend future CPD programmes that is based on pre-existing relationships and ensuring an adequate pool of in-country trainers of trainers with midwifery competencies to deliver the practical component of the CPD programme.

There were strong suggestions that personal commitment by educators was required for personal and professional development. There were observations that educators sometimes completed the professional development programmes purely for relicensing and not necessarily for professional development. Regulators and institutional managers emphasized that educators need to understand the value of continuous professional development and create time to participate in the targeted CPD programmes to improve their competencies.

“We do advise our nurses, or we continue to inform them that taking these courses shouldn’t be tied to license renewal. It shouldn’t be tied to licence expiration or renewal of licences. You should continue to take these courses to develop yourself and not waiting until your licence expired before you take the courses. Yes, we actually try as much as possible to dissociate the renewal of licences with these courses.” Nursing and Midwifery Council, Nigeria .

Key results

Our study evaluated the feasibility of what the authors believe to be the first blended programme with online and face-to-face learning available in Africa, as a tool to reach midwifery educators in both urban and rural low-resource areas. In addition, our study is in line to an important call by WHO, UNFPA, UNICEF and ICM for an effective midwifery educator with formal preparation for teaching and engages in ongoing development as a midwifery practitioner, teacher/lecturer and leader [ 6 , 7 ]. Consequently, our intervention is part of investments for improving and strengthening the capacity of midwifery educators for quality and competent midwifery workforce as recommended by multiple global reports [ 4 , 5 , 11 ] and other publications [ 12 , 15 , 23 , 42 ]. Our study findings showed that the midwifery educators were very satisfied with the blended CPD programme. Educators rated the programme as highly relevant, educative, flexible, interesting and interactive, improved their knowledge, confidence and practical skills in their professional competencies for practice. Use of digital technology in teaching and students’ assessment was found to be an effective and innovative approach in facilitating teaching and learning. Key challenges experienced by educators included deficiencies in computer technology use, internet/network connectivity for online components, time constraints to complete the blended programme and isolated electric power outages and fluctuations which affected completion of the self-directed online components. Costs for participating and completing the programme, motivation, investments in information and communication technology, quality assurance and academic integrity were highlighted as critical components for the scale-up of the programme by institutional managers and training regulators. Establishment of a policy framework for educators to complete mandatory specific and relevant CPD was recommended for a successful roll-out in the countries.

Interpretation of our findings

Our study findings demonstrated that educators found the theoretical and practical content educative, informative and relevant to their practice. Recent evidence showed that midwifery educators had no/limited connection with clinical practice or opportunities for updating their knowledge or skills [ 15 , 42 ]. This underscores the value and importance of regular opportunities of CPD specific for educators to improve their professional competencies. It has provided these educators with a flexible educational model that allows them to continue working while developing their professional practice.

The use of a blended programme was beneficial as educators’ needs were met. It provided opportunities for educators to reflect, critically think, internalise and complement what was learned in the self-directed online component during the practical phase. This approach has been considered a means to adequately prepare midwifery faculty and improving national midwifery programmes in low-resource and remote settings [ 48 , 49 ]. Use of self-directed online platforms has emerged as a key strategy to improve access to CPD with flexibility and convenience as educators take responsibility for their own learning. Evidence suggests that the flexibility of net-based learning offers the midwifery educators a new and effective educational opportunity that they previously did not have [ 50 , 51 ]. A practical – based learning is important in pre-service education settings where the capacity of midwifery educators needs to be strengthened [ 52 , 53 ]. However, without continuous regular training, the midwives’ competence deteriorate and this in turn threaten the quality of pre-service midwifery education [ 52 , 54 ]. Implementation of this flexible blended educational model allows educators to continue working while developing their professional practice.

The quality of educators is an important factor affecting the quality of graduates from midwifery programmes to provide quality maternal and newborn health services [ 7 ]. Evidence suggests that many midwifery educators are more confident with theoretical classroom teaching than clinical practice teaching and that they also struggle to maintain their own midwifery clinical skills [ 4 , 5 ]. Our findings showed that the programme was effective, and educators improved their knowledge, confidence and skills in teaching, students’ assessment, effective feedback, reflective practice, mentoring and use of digital innovations in teaching and assessments. Our findings are similar to other related models of capacity building midwifery educators in other developing countries [ 24 , 50 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 57 ]. It is expected that educators will apply the learning in their planning for teaching, delivery of interactive and stimulatory teaching, monitoring learning through formative and summative assessments and mentoring their students into competent midwives. This is a pathway for accelerating the achievement of maternal and newborn health SDGs, universal health coverage, ending preventable maternal mortalities and every newborn action plan targets.

The value for CPD on educators’ knowledge, confidence and skills has been demonstrated with opportunities for improvement. Specific CPD targeted to relevant professional competencies is beneficial to the profession, quality of graduates for maternal and newborn health care and global targets. However, further investments in strengthening capacity of educators in EmONC skills and information and communication technology for effective teaching and learning is mandatory. Related challenges with individual technical capacity, technological deficiencies and infrastructure to support the technological advancement have been reported in other studies that have used a blended learning approach [ 58 ]. Resource constraints – financial and infrastructural (e.g. computers) as well as internet access are key challenges to participation in CPD activities especially the self-directed learning [ 16 ]. Designing self-directed modules that can be accessed and completed offline will increase access especially in poorly connected settings with electric power and network coverage.

Strengths and limitations

This study assessed the feasibility a blended midwifery educator CPD programme in low resource settings. This was conducted in a multi-country and multi-site context which provided opportunities for learning across the two countries, two levels of training institutions and specific in-country experiences [ 20 ]. The study served to improve awareness of the availability of the CPD programme so that (1) regulators can ensure that midwifery educators take this as part of mandatory CPD required for relicensing and (2) training institutions can plan to support their educators access/participate in the practical components of the programme after the study. It is a mandatory requirement of the Nursing and Midwifery Councils of Kenya and Nigeria for nurse/midwives and midwifery educators to demonstrate evidence of CPD for renewal of practising license [ 40 , 41 ]. The use of mixed methods research design with multiple evaluations was relevant to address the aims and objectives of the study and ensure methodological rigour, depth and scientific validity as recommended for good practice in designing pilot studies [ 37 , 38 ]. This also enhanced triangulation of findings and enabled the capturing of broad perspectives important in strengthening sustainable implementation of the blended CPD programme [ 39 ]. Preliminary findings were disseminated to participant stakeholders from Kenya and Nigeria at the knowledge management and learning event in Nairobi. This approach enhanced the credibility and trustworthiness of the final findings reported. We believe our study findings from different participants using multiple data collection methods are robust, transparent and trustworthy for generalization to other contexts [ 38 ].The self-directed learning component of the blended CPD programme is hosted on the WCEA platform which is accessible to healthcare professionals in over 60 countries in Africa, Asia and Middle East and accredited for continuous professional development (59). Although our sample size was small, it is sufficient, geographically representative for training institutions across the countries and acceptable for feasibility studies [ 34 ].

The additional cost analysis of implementing the blended midwifery educator CPD programme is relevant and key to the uptake, scale-up and sustainability of the programme but this was not conducted due to limited funding. Different CPD programme funding models exist. In Nigeria, educators are required to meet the costs for accessing and completing the CPD programme components, while in Kenya the cost of accessing the online component is minimal (internet access costs only) and the face-to-face component has to be funded. The cost of implementing the programme should be explored in future studies and optional models for sustainable funding explored with stakeholders.

Implications

Our findings show demand for the CPD programme. Regular continuous professional development could help to bridge the gap between theory and practice and improve the quality of teaching by midwifery educators. A blended CPD programme is effective in improving the teaching and clinical skills of midwifery educators and increasing their confidence in effective teaching. However, midwifery educators require motivation and close support (individual capacity, time, technological infrastructure and policy) if the blended CPD approach is to be mandatory and successfully implemented in resource limited settings. Besides, regular quality assurance modalities including review of content, monitoring and evaluation of uptake of the CPD programme should be undertaken to ensure that updated and relevant content is available.

For quality CPD programmes, hands-on teaching is more effective than didactic classroom teaching and should be used when feasible to transfer clinical skills. Distance education models (self-directed learning) in combination with short residential training and mentoring should be embraced to strengthen capacity strengthening of midwifery educators; and CPD programmes must consider the local context in which participants work and teach [ 16 , 23 ]. Evidence has shown that knowledge and clinical skills are retained for up to 12 months after training [ 54 ]. Taking the CPD programme annually will potentially maintain/improve knowledge, skills and practice by midwifery educators for quality teaching and learning leading to a competent midwifery workforce.

For quality midwifery education and practice, educators need contact with clinical practice to strengthen classroom teaching [ 6 , 7 ]. This will promote and enable students to acquire the skills, knowledge, and behaviours essential to become autonomous midwifery practitioners. Therefore, demonstrating relevant practical clinical CPD should be included in midwifery educator CPD policy. In addition, a business case by the CPD hubs on the sustainability of the face-to-face practical components in the centres is necessary. Stakeholder engagement on cost and sustainability are required as key policy components for the scale-up of the blended midwifery educator CPD programme for impact.

The blended CPD programme was relevant, acceptable and feasible to implement. Midwifery educators reacted positively to its content as they were very satisfied with the modules meeting their needs and rated the content as relevant to their practice. The programme also improved their knowledge, confidence and skills in teaching, students’ assessments and providing effective feedback for learning and using digital/technological innovations for effective teaching and learning. Investments in information and communication technology, quality assurance and academic integrity were highlighted as critical components for the scale-up of the programme. For successful and mandatory implementation of the specific midwifery educator CPD programme to enhance practice, a policy framework by midwifery training regulators is required by countries.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to the confidentiality of the data but are available from the corresponding author on request.

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World Continuing Education Alliance (WCEA). Improving Health Outcomes: WCEA delivering sustainable solutions for CPD & lifelong learning2023 26th December 2023. https://wcea.education/ .

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Acknowledgements

The study was made possible through the financial support of the Johnson and Johnson Foundation for the three-year “Design, implementation and evaluation of Nursing/Midwifery CPD Educator Programme in Kenya” (2021 – 2023) and the Alliance to Improve Midwifery Education through UNFPA Headquarters. Special acknowledgement to nursing and midwifery educators from mid-level training colleges and universities in Kenya and Nigeria, Ministries of Health, Nursing Council of Kenya, Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria, KMTC headquarters management who participated in the study. Also, we specially appreciate the World Continuing Education Alliance for the dedicated support with the online modules and expert trainers who participated in the delivery of the face-to-face training component: Aisha Hassan, Dr. Mojisola Ojibara, Dr. Eniola Risikat Kadir, Aminat Titi Kadir, Benson Milimo, Esther Ounza, Marthar Opisa, Millicent Kabiru, Sylvia Kimutai, Dr. Joyce Jebet, Dr. Steve Karangau, Dr. Moses Lagat and Dr. Evans Ogoti. Gratitude to Boslam Adacha and Roselynne Githinji for their dedicated support with data preparation for analysis and Dr. Sarah White for her statistical analysis expert guidance and support. Thank you also to Geeta Lal at UNFPA Headquarters. Lastly, the authors would like to acknowledge the special technical and logistical support provided by the LSTM – Kenya team (Onesmus Maina, Martin Eyinda, David Ndakalu, Diana Bitta, Esther Wekesa and Evans Koitaba) and LSTM Nigeria team (Dr. Michael Adeyemi and Deborah Charles) during the trainings.

The study was funded by the Johnson and Johnson Foundation as part of the three-year “Design, implementation and evaluation of Nursing/Midwifery CPD Educator Programme in Kenya” and the Alliance to Improve Midwifery Education through UNFPA. The Johnson and Johnson Foundation were not involved in the research – study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication.

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Duncan N. Shikuku & Lucy Nyaga

Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine (UK), Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK

Duncan N. Shikuku, Alice Norah Ladur, Carol Bedwell & Charles Ameh

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Hauwa Mohammed

Moi University, P.O. Box 4606-30100, Eldoret, Kenya

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Contributions

DNS, SBZ and CA conceived the idea and designed the study protocol; DNS designed the online data collection tools/checklists/assessments, performed data extraction, cleaning, analysis and interpretation of the results, drafted the primary manuscript, reviewed and prepared it for publication; DNS, HM, LM, PN and AU conducted the training intervention, collected data and reviewed the drafts and final manuscript; AL participated in the design of the study, qualitative data analysis, interpretation of findings and reviewed draft manuscripts; CW, LN, IB, EN, CB and SBZ participated in the design of the study procedures and substantively reviewed the drafts and final manuscript. CA reviewed study procedures, data collection tools, provided oversight in investigation, analysis, interpretation and substantively reviewed the manuscript drafts. SBZ and CA obtained funding for the study. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Duncan N. Shikuku .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Ethics review and approvals were obtained from Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine’s Research Ethics Committee (LSTM REC No. 23 − 004) and in-country ethical approvals from Kenya (MTRH/MU – IREC FAN 0004383; NACOSTI License No: NACOSTI/P/23/25498) and Nigeria (NHREC Approval Number NHREC/01/01/2007- 31/03/2023). Participation in the study was strictly voluntary and did not form part of the educator’s performance appraisals. Not taking part in the study did not disadvantage some educators who consented but missed out. Informed electronic and written consent was obtained from all participants. Unique participant codes were used for identification and all the data collection tools/forms and datasets were de-identified with no participant identifying information. All interviews were conducted at the offices of the respective stakeholders maintaining privacy during data collection process.

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Shikuku, D.N., Mohammed, H., Mwanzia, L. et al. Evaluation of the feasibility of a midwifery educator continuous professional development (CPD) programme in Kenya and Nigeria: a mixed methods study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 534 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05524-w

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Published : 14 May 2024

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Scientists craft bold plan to unlock secrets of RNA

Goal to sequence rna could add $4 trillion each year to health, medicine, agriculture, more.

A chemist who leads the University of Cincinnati’s Office of Research is playing a prominent role in a boldan audacious scientific undertaking to unlock the secrets of RNA.

The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine published a report that lays out an ambitious plan to sequence the molecules that play a crucial role in sharing genetic information between cells.

The report outlines the steps to create the technology and assemble the collective scientific resources needed to succeed within the next 15 years.

Patrick Limbach

The project has been likened to the Human Genome Project, the massive 13-year effort completed in 2003 by scientists around the world to sequence human DNA. But Patrick Limbach, UC’s vice president for research, said there is one important difference — sequencing RNA is much, much harder.

“It’s a challenging undertaking,” Limbach said.

Limbach serves on the National Academy of Sciences study committee that outlined the scope of the project.

“The Human Genome Project captured the imaginations of many people to understand who we are as human beings,” Limbach said. “But DNA doesn’t change all that much. RNA by comparison is dynamic. It’s constantly being produced and degraded. And cells can modify the same RNA differently, which adds to the complexity of biological systems.”

Limbach said studying DNA is like closely scrutinizing every detail of a photo. But studying RNA is like “trying to examine every frame of a movie while it’s playing. It requires a different set of technologies.”

UC Vice President for Research Patrick Limbach speaks at the opening of UC's Digital Futures building. He is a key figure in the National Academies’ massive undertaking to sequence RNA in the next 15 years. Photo/Andrew Higley/UC Marketing + Brand

If we follow the roadmap, we think it’s doable in 15 years.

Patrick Limbach, UC Vice President for Research

Limbach is an Ohio Eminent Scholar and professor of chemistry in UC’s College of Arts and Sciences. In his lab, he has been using tools such as mass spectrometry to study RNA. He holds two patents relating to his work in RNA analysis. His lab’s work was cited 30 times in the recent National Academies’ report.

“Presently, my lab is part of a multinational collaborative project that is trying to find some of the best operating principles to study RNA modifications,” he said.

Health benefits

Sequencing RNA in all its many forms could benefit public health in profound ways.

“The past several decades have included a remarkable trend toward precision medicine, driven by groundbreaking efforts such as the sequencing and mapping of the human genome, but we now know that our genetic code alone doesn’t tell the whole story,” said Victor J. Dzau, president of the National Academy of Medicine.

“Understanding RNA modifications and harnessing this knowledge holds immense potential — not only for human health and medicine but also for shaping all living systems and the products and technologies stemming from them.”

Titled “Charting a Future for Sequencing RNA and its Modifications,” the report explains how RNA is “edited” and revised, giving rise to sometimes thousands of distinct RNA molecules for each gene. This complex system is essential in the growth and maintenance of cells. But breakdowns in RNA can also lead to a wide range of human diseases: from cancer and heart disease to neurological and autoimmune disorders.

“The basic tenet of molecular biology is that DNA creates RNA and RNA creates the proteins that our cells need,” Limbach said. “So if RNA has errors or is misread or is not modified properly, it can make the wrong protein, leading to all kinds of diseases in human health.”

The report outlines how the project could help improve the diagnosis and treatment of disease and identify more effective means to control harmful pathogens.

UC College of Pharmacy pharmacist Mary Burns draws a syringe from a vial during clinical trials for the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine in this 2020 file photo. Photo/Colleen Kelley/UC Marketing + Brand

RNA and the pandemic

Most everyone is already familiar with one example of how scientists are harnessing the power of RNA in medicine. Both the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines use a type of RNA called mRNA to create antibodies against COVID-19. UC led the clinical trials for the Moderna vaccine in 2020.

University of Pennsylvania researchers Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman were awarded a Nobel Prize for their groundbreaking work in RNA modification that led to the vaccine.

“Had they not already done the work they did on RNA modification, we might have been stuck with COVID vaccines that weren’t nearly as effective,” Limbach said. “The vaccines make our project much more accessible to the public to understand why scientists are interested in this.”

“Moderna showed this technology worked against COVID. Researchers are developing vaccines against cancer and other diseases,” he said. “It’s an enabling technological platform.”

At UC’s Cancer Center, scientists are using similar technology to develop a vaccine to treat pancreatic cancer, a deadly disease that afflicts more than 66,000 people every year in the United States. The technology is giving new hope to patients fighting a disease that is fatal in 95% of cases.

But the mysteries of RNA hold untold other possibilities, from improving the yield on crops to creating more efficient renewable energy. And that has significant implications for national security, Limbach said.

The report estimates that improving our understanding of RNA modifications could boost the economy by $4 trillion per year.

“All major sectors — including health and medicine, agriculture, energy, commerce, defense and national security — stand to benefit from a better understanding of RNA modifications,” said committee co-chair Brenda Bass, a distinguished professor at the University of Utah. “There is a huge section of the bioeconomy just waiting to be unlocked, but it needs a coordinated effort and investment from public and private sectors to be realized.”

UC researchers could play a significant role in a National Academies plan to sequence RNA in the next 15 years. Photo/Andrew Higley/UC Marketing + Brand

Where it begins

Limbach said the project will require a public commitment to expand research opportunities and advance technology.

“The report recommends that this should be an international, collaborative effort in a similar way as the Human Genome Project,” he said.

As a Research 1 public university, Limbach said UC would be a good candidate to participate in the project. Grants would be competitive as they are in most all other research projects.

“What we don’t yet have is the technology the report is pushing for — the capability to take a single molecule of RNA and sequence it and all the modifications from one end to the other,” Limbach said.

That will require a large upfront investment both in infrastructure and expertise. The report recommends ways to close the gap in tools and technology and public and private investment to accelerate innovation.

“You have to have the talent pipeline. Future generations will be the ones to solve these problems. It’s not going to be me,” he said.

This relatively new field of science also requires a more rigorous set of standards for preparing samples, sequencing, mapping and analysis to ensure reproducible results and access to data.

“If we follow the roadmap, we think it’s doable in 15 years,” Limbach said.

The project recognizes the importance of research to which Limbach has dedicated his career. He credited his postdoctoral mentor, the late chemist James McCloskey Jr., with spurring his interest in RNA modifications. McCloskey was a chemist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Baylor College of Medicine and the University of Utah, where he served as president of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry.

“I dabbled in some other things as a faculty researcher but came back to looking at modified RNA,” Limbach said.

Students with experience in this field are in high demand today. But that wasn’t always the case, he said.

“My graduate students would complain that at conferences only three or four other labs were doing similar work, making it harder for them to get jobs,” he said.

But the technology is finally catching up with research questions Limbach and his colleagues have been asking for the past 30 years. So students interested in answering them today have a bright future, he said.

“These days, my colleagues in industry are definitely calling to see if anyone in my lab is looking for a job studying RNA modifications ,” Limbach said.

Featured image at top: The double helix of DNA. Illustration/Unsplash

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3. coding adventure, 4. national geographic kids, 5. brainpop, 6. pbs kids, 7. adventure academy, 8. lightbot, 9. duolingo, 10. funbrain.

According to a survey, a significant 88% of teachers who use digital games in their classrooms report that it increases student engagement. This statistic highlights the effectiveness of game-based learning platforms in making education enjoyable and engaging. In this blog, we will explore the top 10 game-based learning platforms that combine fun with learning to enhance the educational experience for kids.

SplashLearn: Most Comprehensive Learning Program for PreK-5

SplashLearn inspires lifelong curiosity with its game-based PreK-5 learning program loved by over 40 million children. With over 4,000 fun games and activities, it’s the perfect balance of learning and play for your little one.

Who is it for: Pre-K to Grade 5

Subjects: Math , ELA , Early Skills

SplashLearn is one of the best game-based learning platforms for kids that excels in making foundational math, and reading skills engaging for kids. It offers interactive games that not only cover essential academic topics but also enhance early skills such as critical thinking, logic, problem-solving, creativity, and motor skills . 

Each game is designed to adapt to a child’s learning pace, ensuring they are both challenged and adequately supported. This adaptability helps keep the learning process dynamic and aligned with each student’s needs, promoting a deeper understanding of the subjects.

Why Choose SplashLearn?

• Comprehensive Curriculum: This game-based curriculum covers a wide array of essential early education topics:
• Math: Engages children with topics such as number sense , addition , subtraction , shapes , division , fractions , money , measurement , algebra , decimals , and more.
• Reading Skills: Develops crucial capabilities in reading , writing , grammar, vocabulary, and spelling.
• Early Skills: Introduces children to general knowledge , art & creativity , critical thinking, and motor skills.
• Flexible and Adaptive Learning Path: SplashLearn’s learning path is highly adaptable, allowing it to perfectly align with each student’s individual learning pace and needs.
• Extensive Resource Library: With a vast collection of over 5000 ELA and math games , SplashLearn ensures that learners always have fresh and exciting challenges available.
• Rewards and Motivation: To further engage students, SplashLearn incorporates rewards like coins and access to non-curricular games such as puzzles and quizzes. These games sharpen critical thinking skills and provide a delightful break from traditional learning.
• Multiplayer Games: The platform includes multiplayer games that allow children to compete and cooperate with peers, adding a social element to learning. 
• Progress Tracking and Insights : Provides detailed feedback on a child’s progress, helping parents and educators make informed decisions about the next steps in their educational journey.
• Cost-Effective with Free Trial: Offers a free trial period before committing to a subscription, and it is completely free for teachers.

Devices: Accessible on the web , iOS , and Android .

Who is it for: Grades K-12

Subjects: Wide range, including Math, Science, Languages, and Social Studies

Kahoot! is a gamified learning platform that turns quiz-based learning into a fun competition. Teachers can create their own quizzes or choose from millions shared by others, which cover a broad range of subjects. The interactive, game-like format encourages active participation and can be used to review material or introduce new concepts. Its engaging, fast-paced nature makes it a popular choice in classrooms worldwide.

Who is it for: Grades 2-9

Subjects: Computer Programming

Coding Adventure is a standout among gamified apps for education designed to teach kids programming through a series of fun and challenging games. The platform uses a story-based approach, where students help characters solve problems by writing code. It covers basic to advanced programming concepts, helping build logical thinking and problem-solving skills. Features include personalized learning paths and real-time feedback.

Who is it for: Grades K-6

Subjects: Geography, Science, Social Studies

National Geographic Kids is one of the most fun game-based learning platforms for students that offers a wealth of resources like videos, images, and games focused on the natural world. The content is rich with real-world geographical and scientific information that engages young learners’ curiosity about animals, ecosystems, cultures, and more. The platform is educational yet entertaining, making learning about the Earth enjoyable and memorable.

Devices: Accessible on the web .

Who is it for: Grades 3-12

Subjects: Science, Math, Social Studies, English, Health, Arts, and Technology

BrainPOP features a variety of animated movies, quizzes, and activities designed to make complex subjects understandable for kids. The content is presented by the engaging robot character, Moby, and his friends. It’s widely used to introduce new topics and deepen knowledge through interactive tools and tailored learning paths. BrainPOP also includes resources for teachers and parents to track learning outcomes.

Who is it for: Pre-K to Grade 3

Subjects: Reading, Math, Science, and Social Skills

PBS Kids offers a range of educational games and videos connected to PBS’s children’s television programming. The platform includes characters from beloved shows like ‘Arthur’, ‘Curious George’, and ‘Sesame Street’, making learning familiar and fun. The educational content is developed by experts to enhance children’s creativity and critical thinking.

Who is it for: Grades 3-8

Subjects: Math, Reading, Science, and Social Studies

Adventure Academy is a virtual world where kids can explore a wide range of academic subjects through interactive quests and activities. This gamified learning platform combines high-quality educational content with an engaging, multiplayer online experience. It allows children to learn at their own pace in an immersive, adventure-driven environment, which helps to build essential skills in a context that feels more like play than work.

Who is it for: Grades 2-8

Subjects: Computer Science, Programming

Lightbot is one of the best game-based learning apps that introduces children to programming concepts through puzzle-solving gameplay. It teaches basic programming logic, such as sequencing, overloops, and conditionals, all without typing or complex code. By guiding a robot to light up tiles and solve levels, children develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills in a fun, engaging way.

Devices: Accessible on the web , iOS , and Amazon .

Who is it for: All ages (including Grades K-12)

Subjects: Languages

Duolingo is a widely recognized gamified learning platform that teaches languages through short, interactive lessons. The app uses a combination of listening, speaking, reading, and writing exercises to enhance language learning. Its strength lies in its adaptive learning technology, which tailors lessons to the user’s pace and learning style , making language learning accessible and effective for everyone.

Who is it for: Pre-K to Grade 8

Subjects : Math, Reading, Literacy

Funbrain is a game-based learning platform that offers a variety of educational games, books, comics, and videos designed to develop skills in math, reading, and literacy. Each activity is crafted to be fun and engaging while providing valuable educational content that aligns with curriculum standards. Funbrain’s friendly and intuitive interface ensures that kids enjoy learning and gain confidence in their abilities through interactive play.

Devices: Accessible on the web , and iOS .

Why Choose Game-Based Learning for Your Kids?

• Games naturally capture children’s interest, keeping them engaged longer and making learning feel like play.
• Interactive elements in games encourage active participation, which can lead to deeper understanding and retention of information.
• Most game-based learning platforms provide instant feedback, helping children understand their mistakes and learn from them quickly.
• Many platforms adjust the difficulty levels based on the child’s performance, ensuring they are neither too easy nor frustratingly hard.
• Beyond academic knowledge, these games help develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.
• Games often include elements like points, levels, and badges that motivate children to set goals and achieve them, enhancing their learning experience.

Game-based learning platforms offer a unique and effective way to engage children in their education. By combining fun with learning, these platforms help students develop a love for knowledge and a deeper understanding of various subjects. 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What are the two types of game-based learning.

The two types of game-based learning are content-embedded games, where learning objectives are integral to the game mechanics, and content-adjacent games, where the game indirectly supports learning through engagement and critical thinking skills enhancement.

Which is the best educational game site for kids?

One of the best educational game sites for kids is SplashLearn. It not only teachers math and reading but also early skills through interactive games.

What is the game-based learning method of teaching?

The game-based learning method of teaching involves using games to deliver educational content, helping students learn and practice new skills through gameplay. This approach makes learning interactive, enjoyable, and often collaborative, enhancing motivation and retention of information.

How do you implement game-based learning in the classroom?

To implement game-based learning in the classroom, educators can start by identifying suitable games that align with their educational goals . They should integrate these games into the curriculum as supplemental tools, set clear objectives for what students should achieve through gameplay, and provide guidance and support as students engage with the games.

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Personal Finance

Best 529 college savings plans for 2024.

Our evaluations and opinions are not influenced by our advertising relationships, but we may earn a commission from our partners’ links. This content is created independently from TIME’s editorial staff. Learn more about it.

When you're ready to start saving for college, a 529 plan is one option to consider. It allows you to set aside money for future education expenses on a tax-advantaged basis. Contributions grow tax-deferred, and withdrawals are tax-free when used for qualified education expenses.

All 50 states offer at least one 529 savings plan, but which one is right for you? Here's a closer look at the best 529 college savings plan options.

Best 529 plans compared

Our recommendations, bright start college savings (illinois).

Why we picked it : The Illinois Bright Start College Savings plan offers a generous tax incentive for residents and higher lifetime contribution limits. State residency is not required to contribute, and there's no minimum opening deposit. Anyone can contribute, including parents, grandparents, and other family members.

You can make up to $500,000 in lifetime contributions per beneficiary, and there's no age requirement for making withdrawals. Married couples filing jointly can deduct up to $20,000 in contributions yearly, with a $10,000 deduction limit for single filers. The deduction applies to original contributions and rollover contributions from other plans.

Bright Start's investment options revolve around three types of portfolios: age-based, target date, and individual funds. Depending on your goals, time frame for investing, and individual risk tolerance, you can choose from an aggressive, moderate, or conservative asset allocation.

Bright Start incorporates low-cost index funds into its portfolios and charges no annual or up-front enrollment fees.

• A $500,000 lifetime contribution limit.
• Generous state income tax deduction.
• Multiple portfolios and investment options.
• Tax deduction is limited to state residents only.
• Some funds have higher expense ratios than others.

How to get started: You can open a Bright Start account online or complete the paperwork and mail it in. If you'd like to open a 529 account online, you'll need to share the following:

• Your name, address, date of birth, and Social Security number.
• Name, address, date of birth, and Social Security number of your beneficiary.
• Bank account number and routing number.

You'll also need to tell Bright Start what you want to invest in. When completing the application, you'll have the option to set up automatic contributions and choose a successor account owner.

CollegeAdvantage (Ohio)

Why we picked it : Ohio CollegeAdvantage is open to anyone age 18 or older who wants to make tax-advantaged contributions to college savings. There's a state income tax deduction of up to $4,000 per child per year, and there are no restrictions on how many accounts you can open for different beneficiaries.

The lifetime contribution limit is well above what many other states offer, allowing you to contribute a significant amount toward your student's education. Similar to some of the other best 529 college savings plans, investment options include:

• Age-based portfolios.
• Target portfolios.
• Individual fund portfolios.

CollegeAdvantage leans heavily on Vanguard funds, which have a reputation for being exceptionally inexpensive. You can also choose from individual fund options, including bond-focused and equity-focused portfolios.

• High lifetime contribution limit.
• Portfolio and fund options to fit every risk tolerance.
• Open to residents and nonresidents.
• Tax deduction is smaller than other plans.
• The administrative fee is slightly higher than other plans.

How to get started: You can open an Ohio CollegeAdvantage savings plan online. There's an opening deposit requirement, but at $25, it's relatively low.

If you'd rather complete the application process offline, you can request a CollegeAdvantage Kit that includes everything you'll need to evaluate the plan and open your account.

New York's 529 College Savings Program

Why we picked it : New York's 529 College Savings Program is a great option for people who prefer Vanguard funds to other mutual funds or exchange-traded funds (ETFs). There's no minimum deposit required to open an account, no age or income restriction, and no state residency requirement.

The current tax deduction for contributions maxes out at $10,000 for married couples filing jointly and $5,000 for single filers. You don't have to be a state resident, either; the deduction extends to people who work in New York and pay taxes in the state but live elsewhere.

You can make origination contributions to the plan, rollover funds from another 529, or contribute proceeds from the sale of U.S. savings bonds or assets in a Coverdell ESA. Plan costs are low, and the lifetime maximum contribution limit is well above what you'll find with other 529 plans.

• Higher lifetime contribution limit.
• Exceptionally low fees.
• The state tax deduction is better than what you'll find with other plans.
• May not appeal to savers looking for options beyond Vanguard.
• Not everyone will qualify for the deduction.

How to get started: You can open a New York 529 college savings plan online, and there's no minimum deposit requirement. All you'll need to do is gather personal information for yourself and your student and make your investment selections. If you're unsure whether this plan might be right for you, you can participate in a free webinar to learn more about how it works.

Michigan Education Savings Program (MESP)

Why we picked it : The Michigan Education Savings Program (MESP) offers state residents tax benefits and a higher lifetime contribution limit. Currently, married couples filing a joint return can claim a deduction of up to $10,000 per year, and single filers can deduct up to $5,000 in contributions.

MESP is administered by TIAA-CREF and offers a variety of funds and multiple portfolio options. Overall, the fees are among the lowest of any 529 college savings plan. A $25 minimum deposit is required, but you can decide how much to contribute going forward through either manual or automatic contributions.

You don't need to be a state resident to contribute, though you must live and pay taxes in Michigan to claim the tax deduction. MESP allows other people to make contributions to plans on behalf of a named beneficiary, which is great if you'd like to get the entire family involved in saving for college.

• State residency is not required to contribute.
• Low fees, with no account opening fees.
• Access to multiple college planning tools.
• No tax deduction benefit for nonresidents.
• Limited to TIAA-CREF funds.

How to get started: You can open an MESP account online using your and your beneficiary’s personal information. You'll be able to link your bank account using your routing number and account numbers to make the $25 minimum deposit. If you prefer to read through the paperwork in more detail before opening an account, you can download it, fill it out, and mail it in.

my529 (Utah)

Why we picked it : The Utah my529 Plan is unusual in that eligible savers can take advantage of a tax credit rather than a tax deduction. Tax credits reduce your tax liability on a dollar-for-dollar basis, while tax deductions lower your taxable income for the year. You'll need to be a Utah taxpayer to claim the credit.

There are numerous investment options from which to choose, with underlying funds from Vanguard, Dimensional Fund Advisors, and PIMCO. Anyone can open and contribute to a my529 account, and there's no minimum contribution requirement.

The plan has some of the lowest fees of any 529 plan option, with my529 charging a flat asset administrative fee only. Expense ratios vary by fund, but the plan incorporates a number of low-cost options.

• Open to residents of other states besides Utah.
• Wide variety of funds and portfolios from which to choose.
• A tax credit may provide less value than a deduction.
• Tax benefits don't extend to nonresidents.

How to get started: You can open a my529 college savings account online with any amount. When you complete the account setup, you'll be asked for your personal information and details about your beneficiary. You'll also need to tell my529 how you'd like to invest initially, though you can change your investment selections twice a year.

Methodology

We analyzed 529 college savings plans nationwide using a number of metrics, including in-state tax breaks, minimum and maximum contribution limits, and portfolio selection. We also considered the fees and expenses associated with each plan, as well as the eligibility requirements for making contributions.

The final plans selected represent the best options overall for 529 college savings based on the range of investments offered, cost, contribution limits, and availability.

Alternatives to 529 plans to save for college

A 529 plan is just one way to prepare for higher education costs. If you're looking for some alternatives, you might consider these possibilities instead.

Coverdell Education Savings Account (ESA)

A Coverdell Education Savings Account (ESA) is another tax-advantaged college savings option. With this account, you can save up to $2,000 per year on behalf of your student(s) until they turn 18. Withdrawals are tax-free when used for eligible education expenses, but there's a catch.

All money in a Coverdell ESA must be withdrawn by the student's 30th birthday. Any remaining funds are subject to a steep tax penalty.

A Roth IRA is a tax-advantaged account designed to help you build wealth for the future. You can contribute after-tax dollars up to the annual contribution limit, which you can withdraw tax-free once you reach age 59½. Early withdrawals are subject to a 10% tax penalty.

The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) allows some exceptions to this rule. One is waiving the early withdrawal penalty when you use early distributions to pay for qualified higher education expenses.

Using a Roth IRA to pay for college may negate the need to take out student loans. However, taking money from your retirement fund means it won't have a chance to benefit from the power of compounding interest over the long term.

If you're interested in opening a Roth IRA , consider Robinhood. You can open your account online in minutes and contribute new money or rollover funds from an existing IRA or 401(k). Robinhood offers a 1% match for every dollar you deposit from any account.

Brokerage account

Brokerage accounts allow you to buy and sell securities without the annual contribution limit restrictions of IRAs. Depending on the type of brokerage account you have, you might be able to trade:

• Mutual funds.
• Cryptocurrency.

A brokerage account might be a good option if you believe you can get better returns with your personal investment strategy. Keep in mind, however, that when it's time to sell your investments, capital gains tax may apply if you're turning a profit.

When comparing brokerage accounts, look for one that offers the best combination of variety and low fees. Public, for example, offers everything from stocks to Treasuries to crypto, and you can build a portfolio that matches your risk tolerance and goals. You also have the option to keep your uninvested funds in a high-yield cash account until you're ready to use them.

Life insurance

A life insurance policy can help you prepare for the unexpected, but it may also be a useful tool for college planning. Life insurance can be used to pay for college expenses in one of two ways.

• Death benefits from a term life policy can help pay higher education costs should the person covered by the policy pass away.
• Cash value accumulation in a permanent life insurance policy can be withdrawn or borrowed against.

Term life is usually the more affordable of the two, and it may make the most sense if you know you'll only need coverage for a certain period.

When considering term life insurance, it's helpful to shop around and compare rates based on the type of policy you plan to buy, the coverage amount, and your overall health. With Ethos, you can get a life insurance quote online and be covered in minutes with no medical exam or blood tests required. Getting up to $2 million in coverage for as little as $2 per day is possible.

More on 529 plans

If you're unfamiliar with how 529 plans work, it helps to understand the basics. If you're considering opening a college savings account, here are additional things to know.

What is a 529 plan?

A 529 plan is a tax-advantaged account designed for college savings. When you open a 529 account, you can contribute to the plan, and the balance grows tax-deferred. You can then withdraw those funds to pay for qualified higher education expenses. Withdrawals are always tax-free when used for education expenses.

A 529 plan is not a bank account, though you might be able to open one through a bank. It's not a retirement account either; 529 accounts are specifically intended only to help pay for school. However, your investment options may include mutual funds or ETFs, which you can also own in an IRA.

How does a 529 plan work?

College savings plans allow you to make contributions at your own pace, invest them, and earn interest on a tax-deferred basis. When it's time to pay college expenses, you can withdraw your original contributions and earnings tax-free.

A college 529 savings plan can be used to cover any or all of the following:

• Tuition and fees.
• Room and board.
• Equipment and supplies.
• Student loan debt (up to $10,000 lifetime).
• Off-campus housing.
• Computers and computer software.
• Internet service.
• Special-needs expenses.

The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act expanded the list of eligible educational institutions by allowing parents to withdraw money to pay for public, private, or parochial tuition at elementary and secondary schools. These withdrawals are tax-free, though there is a $10,000 annual limit on how much you can take out.

529 Plan Pros and cons

• Contributions grow tax deferred and some states offer a tax deduction
• Qualified distributions for education expenses are tax-free
• Funds can be used for college, elementary, and secondary school expenses
• Some plans allow generous lifetime contribution limits
• Plans can be transferred to another beneficiary if necessary
• Some states may restrict who can contribute
• Nonqualified distributions are subject to ordinary income tax
• Some plans may carry higher expenses
• Portfolio options may be limited
• There may be limits on how often you can change your investment selection

529 plans by state

All 50 states have at least one 529 college savings plan, though they aren't all alike. The biggest differences among college savings plans typically include:

• Who can contribute.
• Minimum and maximum contribution limits.
• State tax benefits.
• Portfolio selection.
• Expenses and fees.

If you're looking for a 529 plan to save for college, your state's plan is usually the best place to start. You can compare the features and fees of your state's plan as a starting point for deciding what you need most from a 529 account.

Remember that some states may allow anyone to contribute to their 529 plan, while others may restrict contributions to residents. Also, while some states offer a tax benefit for 529 contributions, they're not required to do so, and there's currently no federal tax deduction or tax credit for 529 contributions.

529 plan rules

The main rules regarding 529 plans center on how you can use the money and when you can withdraw it. Here's a quick recap of the IRS guidelines regarding 529 plans.

• Contributions grow tax-deferred, with lifetime contribution limits determined by the plan sponsor.
• Withdrawals are tax-free for qualified education expenses; otherwise, they are taxable distributions.
• You are not required to invest in your state's plan, but your contributions to other states' plans may be limited.
• States can offer a tax deduction or credit, but they are not required to do so.
• The account holder maintains ownership of the funds and may change the beneficiary at any time.

There's one more rule to know regarding 529 plans and the gift tax, which applies when you make financial gifts to someone else that exceed the annual exclusion limit. For 2024 that limit is $18,000 per person, doubling to $36,000 for married couples filing a joint return.

This means that if you have five kids, you could contribute up to $18,000 for each of them to a 529 plan without triggering the gift tax. If you're married and file a joint return, you could contribute up to $36,000 per student without owing gift tax. The gift tax exclusion limit is periodically adjusted for inflation.

How do I open a 529 plan?

It's possible to open a 529 plan online. First, you must decide on the plan to which you want to contribute and then complete the application process.

When you open a 529 plan, you must provide identifying information about yourself as the account owner and the person you'd like to name as the beneficiary. Typically, this would be your child, but you could open a 529 on behalf of:

• Your spouse.
• A grandchild.
• A younger sibling.
• Cousins or other family members.
• Anyone you want to help with saving for college.

You also need to choose your investments when you open your account. The options offered will depend on the plan, but it's not unusual for 529 portfolios to be built around target-date funds. These mutual funds adjust their allocation based on your student's expected college enrollment date.

Once your plan is open, you can decide how often and in what amount to contribute. You can set up recurring deposits each month, or you can choose to make contributions at your own pace. Just remember to keep the annual gift tax limits in mind.

TIME Stamp: 529 college savings plans can help you get a handle on education expenses

No one is required to open a 529 college savings plan to pay for school, but there are some compelling reasons to consider doing so. Researching the best 529 college plans by state can give you a better idea of which one is most likely to help you further your savings goals.

Frequently asked questions (FAQs)

Can you lose money in a 529 plan.

If you're investing in a 529 college savings plan, you could lose money if your investments decline in value. This is the risk associated with investing. Building a balanced, diversified portfolio can help you manage risk and minimize the chances of losing money in a 529 plan.

How do 529 plans work with multiple kids?

If you have multiple children, you can set up a 529 college savings plan for each of them. You'd be the account owner for each plan, with each child listed as the beneficiary of the account intended for their use. Alternatively, you could set up one 529 plan and change the beneficiary from one child to another should one of them decide not to go to college.

What happens to a 529 plan if it's not used?

If you don't withdraw money from a 529 plan, it doesn't go anywhere. You can take it out once you need it to pay for your student's expenses or transfer it to another beneficiary. It would be treated as a taxable distribution if you decide to withdraw money for anything other than qualified higher education expenses.

The information presented here is created independently from the TIME editorial staff. To learn more, see our About page.

• houston isd

HISD students plan walkout as investigation launches into state-appointed superintendent Mike Miles

HOUSTON, Texas (KTRK) -- Calls for Houston ISD Superintendent Mike Miles' resignation are growing louder amid scathing allegations.

The latest controversy surrounds a Spectrum News report that accuses Miles of funneling money to charter schools out of state. The Texas Education Agency (TEA) is pledging to investigate.

TEA Commissioner Mike Morath appointed Miles to his current position.

Miles said he welcomes the investigation and hopes it results in clarity for the HISD community.

"Right now, at this moment, I am so excited that people are waking up in Houston," Jessica Campos, an HISD parent, said.

Campos added that the alarms are sounding everywhere to warn the community of trouble in the district.

One of her children attends Pugh Elementary and the other DeBakey High School.

"Moms are mad. We are done. We are finally out there screaming and saying, 'We are done with this. This guy has got to go,'" Campos said.

The calls for Miles to be shown the door came just a year after he walked through it.

A variety of issues have led to the upheaval.

The Spectrum News report alleges Miles sent Texas public school tax dollars out of state to his network of charter schools in Colorado.

Miles forcefully denied the allegations on Wednesday, calling the report irresponsibly inaccurate.

The TEA said it would investigate the claims but also seemed to defend Miles in a lengthy statement.

"The limited information included in the news story does not in of itself constitute evidence of a misappropriation of funds," Morath wrote.

However, parents and students ABC13 talked to on Wednesday said they are more worried about budget cuts, layoffs, and school restructuring.

"There's been a complete overhaul of the way teachers are allowed to teach, it is completely ineffective to my mind. They are being forced to use specific strategies that don't actually help with learning," Helen Repass, who attends an HISD school in Midtown, said.

Repass is one of dozens of students planning to walk out of their schools on Friday as part of the "Students Against Mike Miles" movement.

"I am proud of our kids because our kids are starting to voice their opinions about what the adults are doing for their future because we are ruining their future," Campos said.

For updates on this story, follow Alex Bozarjian on Facebook , X and Instagram .

Related Topics

• HOUSTON ISD
• INVESTIGATION
• EMBEZZLEMENT

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What Is a Teaching Methodology?

A teaching methodology is essentially the way in which a teacher chooses to explain or teach material to students so they can learn the material. There are many different methodologies that can be utilized by a teacher, and the methods chosen often depend on the educational philosophy and preferences of a teacher. It is also not uncommon for a teacher to utilize multiple methods within a single lesson or over the course of several lessons. A methodology of teaching can include the use of lecturing, group or small group discussion activities, and engaging students as teachers for their peers.

It is important to understand that a teaching methodology is not the same as an educational philosophy for a teacher, though they can often be related. The philosophy a teacher chooses usually indicates how the teacher believes students can best learn new material, and the ways in which students and teachers should relate and interact in the classroom. This philosophy often impacts the choices a teacher can make regarding which teaching methodology or methodologies he or she chooses to use, but they are not necessarily directly connected. Teachers commonly refer to their preferred teaching methods and philosophies together, to give other teachers or students an understanding of their approach to education.

While a number of different methodologies can be used by a teacher, one common and traditional teaching method is often referred to as lecturing or explaining. This is essentially an approach to education that regards the teacher as an expert on a subject, and he or she provides information to students who are expected to absorb and understand the material. Sometimes derisively referred to as a “sage on the stage” approach, this teaching methodology has lost favor in recent years with many instructors. Even those teachers who do still use this method often supplement it with other methodologies.

Some increasingly popular methodologies focus on the importance of the student in the learning process. One such teaching methodology utilizes group discussions with an entire classroom, or smaller group discussions with numerous small groups at once. Students are encouraged to take responsibility for their education and to be active participants in the learning process.

This can also be utilized with a teaching methodology in which students take on the role of teacher to instruct other students in the class. Small group discussions, for example, are often followed by larger group discussions in which each group presents what they learned or discussed to the rest of the class. Similarly, individual students may be charged with researching a particular subject, and then teaching that material to the other students in the class.

AS FEATURED ON:

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Discussion Comments

Post your comments.

• By: paylessimages The way a teacher explains material to a class is referred to as a teaching methodology.
• By: WavebreakmediaMicro Lecturing is one type of methodology, but it is not suitable for every subject.
• By: yanlev Some teaching methods might focus on the inclusion of computers and technology.
• By: pressmaster Interactive lessons require active participation from students.
• By: Prod. Numérik Some teaching methodologies place an emphasis on student engagement.
• By: atikinka2 Teaching methodology may utilize a student's peers as a source of help.