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How to write a literature review for a dissertation, published by steve tippins on july 5, 2019 july 5, 2019.

Last Updated on: 22nd May 2024, 04:06 am

Chapter 2 of your dissertation, your literature review, may be the longest chapter. It is not uncommon to see lit reviews in the 40- to 60-page range. That may seem daunting, but I contend that the literature review could be the easiest part of your dissertation.

It is also foundational. To be able to select an appropriate research topic and craft expert research questions, you’ll need to know what has already been discovered and what mysteries remain. 

Remember, your degree is meant to indicate your achieving the highest level of expertise in your area of study. The lit review for your dissertation could very well form the foundation for your entire career.

In this article, I’ll give you detailed instructions for how to write the literature review of your dissertation without stress. I’ll also provide a sample outline.

When to Write the Literature Review for your Dissertation

Though technically Chapter 2 of your dissertation, many students write their literature review first. Why? Because having a solid foundation in the research informs the way you write Chapter 1.

Also, when writing Chapter 1, you’ll need to become familiar with the literature anyway. It only makes sense to write down what you learn to form the start of your lit review.

Some institutions even encourage students to write Chapter 2 first. But it’s important to talk with your Chair to see what he or she recommends.

How Long Should a Literature Review Be?

There is no set length for a literature review. The length largely depends on your area of study. However, I have found that most literature reviews are between 40-60 pages.

If your literature review is significantly shorter than that, ask yourself (a) if there is other relevant research that you have not explored, or (b) if you have provided enough of a discussion about the information you did explore.

Preparing to Write the Literature Review for your Dissertation

Step 1. Search Using Key Terms

Most people start their lit review searching appropriate databases using key terms. For example, if you’re researching the impact of social media on adult learning, some key terms you would use at the start of your search would be adult learning, androgogy, social media, and “learning and social media” together. 

If your topic was the impact of natural disasters on stock prices, then you would need to explore all types of natural disasters, other market factors that impact stock prices, and the methodologies used. 

You can save time by skimming the abstracts first; if the article is not what you thought it might be you can move on quickly.

Once you start finding articles using key terms, two different things will usually happen: you will find new key terms to search, and the articles will lead you directly to other articles related to what you are studying. It becomes like a snowball rolling downhill. 

Note that the vast majority of your sources should be articles from peer-reviewed journals. 

Step 2. Immerse Yourself in the Literature

When people ask what they should do first for their dissertation the most common answer is “immerse yourself in the literature.” What exactly does this mean?

Think of this stage as a trip into the quiet heart of the forest. Your questions are at the center of this journey, and you’ll need to help your reader understand which trees — which particular theories, studies, and lines of reasoning — got you there. 

There are lots of trees in this particular forest, but there are particular trees that mark your path.  What makes them unique? What about J’s methodology made you choose that study over Y’s? How did B’s argument triumph over A’s, thus leading you to C’s theory? 

You are showing your reader that you’ve fully explored the forest of your topic and chosen this particular path, leading to these particular questions (your research questions), for these particular reasons.

Step 3. Consider Gaps in the Research

The gaps in the research are where current knowledge ends and your study begins. In order to build a case for doing your study, you must demonstrate that it:

• Is worthy of doctoral-level research, and
• Has not already been studied

Defining the gaps in the literature should help accomplish both aims. Identifying studies on related topics helps make the case that your study is relevant, since other researchers have conducted related studies.

And showing where they fall short will help make the case that your study is the appropriate next step. Pay special attention to the recommendations for further research that the authors of studies make.

Step 4. Organize What You Find

As you find articles, you will have to come up with methods to organize what you find. 

Whether you find a computer-based system (three popular systems are Zotero, endNote, and Mendeley) or some sort of manual system such as index cards, you need to devise a method where you can easily group your references by subject and methodology and find what you are looking for when you need it. It is very frustrating to know you have found an article that supports a point that you are trying to make, but you can’t find the article!

One way to save time and keep things organized is to cut and paste relevant quotations (and their references) under topic headings. You’ll be able to rearrange and do some paraphrasing later, but if you’ve got the quotations and the citations that are important to you already embedded in your text, you’ll have an easier time of it.  

If you choose this method, be sure to list the whole reference on the reference/bibliography page so you don’t have to do this page separately later. Some students use Scrivener for this purpose, as it offers a clear way to view and easily navigate to all sections of a written document.

Need help with your literature review? Take a look at my dissertation coaching and dissertation editing services.

How to Write the Literature Review for your Dissertation

Once you have gathered a sufficient number of pertinent references, you’ll need to string them together in a way that tells your story. Explain what previous researchers have done by telling the story of how knowledge on this topic has evolved. Here, you are laying the support for your topic and showing that your research questions need to be answered. Let’s dive into how to actually write your dissertation’s literature review.

Step 1. Create an Outline

If you’ve created a system for keeping track of the sources you’ve found, you likely already have the bones of an outline. Even if not, it may be relatively easy to see how to organize it all. The main thing to remember is, keep it simple and don’t overthink it. There are several ways to organize your dissertation’s literature review, and I’ll discuss some of the most common below:

• By topic. This is by far the most common approach, and it’s the one I recommend unless there’s a clear reason to do otherwise. Topics are things like servant leadership, transformational leadership, employee retention, organizational knowledge, etc. Organizing by topic is fairly simple and it makes sense to the reader.
• Chronologically. In some cases, it makes sense to tell the story of how knowledge and thought on a given subject have evolved. In this case, sub-sections may indicate important advances or contributions. 
• By methodology. Some students organize their literature review by the methodology of the studies. This makes sense when conducting a mixed-methods study, and in cases where methodology is at the forefront.

Step 2. Write the Paragraphs 

I said earlier that I thought the lit review was the easiest part to write, and here is why. When you write about the findings of others, you can do it in small, discrete time periods. You go down the path awhile, then you rest. 

Once you have many small pieces written, you can then piece them together. You can write each piece without worrying about the flow of the chapter; that can all be done at the end when you put the jigsaw puzzle of references together.

Step 3. Analyze

The literature review is a demonstration of your ability to think critically about existing research and build meaningfully on it in your study. Avoid simply stating what other researchers said. Find the relationships between studies, note where researchers agree and disagree, and– especiallyy–relate it to your own study. 

Pay special attention to controversial issues, and don’t be afraid to give space to researchers who you disagree with. Including differing opinions will only strengthen the credibility of your study, as it demonstrates that you’re willing to consider all sides.

Step 4. Justify the Methodology

In addition to discussing studies related to your topic, include some background on the methodology you will be using. This is especially important if you are using a new or little-used methodology, as it may help get committee members onboard. 

I have seen several students get slowed down in the process trying to get committees to buy into the planned methodology. Providing references and samples of where the planned methodology has been used makes the job of the committee easier, and it will also help your reader trust the outcomes.

Advice for Writing Your Dissertation’s Literature Review

• Remember to relate each section back to your study (your Problem and Purpose statements).
• Discuss conflicting findings or theoretical positions. Avoid the temptation to only include research that you agree with.
• Sections should flow together, the way sections of a chapter in a nonfiction book do. They should relate to each other and relate back to the purpose of your study. Avoid making each section an island.
• Discuss how each study or theory relates to the others in that section.
• Avoid relying on direct quotes–you should demonstrate that you understand the study and can describe it accurately.

Sample Outline of a Literature Review (Dissertation Chapter 2)

Here is a sample outline, with some brief instructions. Note that your institution probably has specific requirements for the structure of your dissertation’s literature review. But to give you a general idea, I’ve provided a sample outline of a dissertation ’s literature review here.

• Introduction
• State the problem and the purpose of the study
• Give a brief synopsis of literature that establishes the relevance of the problem
• Very briefly summarize the major sections of your chapter

Documentation of Literature Search Strategy

• Include the library databases and search engines you used
• List the key terms you used
• Describe the scope (qualitative) or iterative process (quantitative). Explain why and based on what criteria you selected the articles you did.

Literature Review (this is the meat of the chapter)

• Sub-topic a
• Sub-topic b
• Sub-topic c

See below for an example of what this outline might look like.

How to Write a Literature Review for a Dissertation: An Example 

Let’s take an example that will make the organization, and the outline, a little bit more clear. Below, I’ll fill out the example outline based on the topics discussed.

If your questions have to do with the impact of the servant leadership style of management on employee retention, you may want to saunter down the path of servant leadership first, learning of its origins , its principles , its values , and its methods . 

You’ll note the different ways the style is employed based on different practitioners’ perspectives or circumstances and how studies have evaluated these differences. Researchers will draw conclusions that you’ll want to note, and these conclusions will lead you to your next questions. 

Next, you’ll want to wander into the territory of management styles to discover their impact on employee retention in general. Does management style really make a difference in employee retention, and if so, what factors, exactly, make this impact?

Employee retention is its own path, and you’ll discover factors, internal and external, that encourage people to stick with their jobs.

You’ll likely find paradoxes and contradictions in here that just bring up more questions. How do internal and external factors mix and match? How can employers influence both psychology and context ? Is it of benefit to try and do so?

At first, these three paths seem somewhat remote from one another, but your interest is where the three converge. Taking the lit review section by section like this before tying it all together will not only make it more manageable to write but will help you lead your reader down the same path you traveled, thereby increasing clarity. 

Example Outline

So the main sections of your literature review might look something like this:

• Literature Search Strategy
• Conceptual Framework or Theoretical Foundation
• Literature that supports your methodology
• Origins, principles, values
• Seminal research
• Current research
• Management Styles’ Impact on employee retention
• Internal Factors
• External Factors
• Influencing psychology and context
• Summary and Conclusion

Final Thoughts on Writing Your Dissertation’s Chapter 2

The lit review provides the foundation for your study and perhaps for your career. Spend time reading and getting lost in the literature. The “aha” moments will come where you see how everything fits together. 

At that point, it will just be a matter of clearly recording and tracing your path, keeping your references organized, and conveying clearly how your research questions are a natural evolution of previous work that has been done.

PS. If you’re struggling with your literature review, I can help. I offer dissertation coaching and editing services.

Steve Tippins

Steve Tippins, PhD, has thrived in academia for over thirty years. He continues to love teaching in addition to coaching recent PhD graduates as well as students writing their dissertations. Learn more about his dissertation coaching and career coaching services. Book a Free Consultation with Steve Tippins

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How To Write An A-Grade Literature Review

3 straightforward steps (with examples) + free template.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | October 2019

Quality research is about building onto the existing work of others , “standing on the shoulders of giants”, as Newton put it. The literature review chapter of your dissertation, thesis or research project is where you synthesise this prior work and lay the theoretical foundation for your own research.

Long story short, this chapter is a pretty big deal, which is why you want to make sure you get it right . In this post, I’ll show you exactly how to write a literature review in three straightforward steps, so you can conquer this vital chapter (the smart way).

Overview: The Literature Review Process

• Understanding the “ why “
• Finding the relevant literature
• Cataloguing and synthesising the information
• Outlining & writing up your literature review
• Example of a literature review

But first, the “why”…

Before we unpack how to write the literature review chapter, we’ve got to look at the why . To put it bluntly, if you don’t understand the function and purpose of the literature review process, there’s no way you can pull it off well. So, what exactly is the purpose of the literature review?

Well, there are (at least) four core functions:

• For you to gain an understanding (and demonstrate this understanding) of where the research is at currently, what the key arguments and disagreements are.
• For you to identify the gap(s) in the literature and then use this as justification for your own research topic.
• To help you build a conceptual framework for empirical testing (if applicable to your research topic).
• To inform your methodological choices and help you source tried and tested questionnaires (for interviews ) and measurement instruments (for surveys ).

Most students understand the first point but don’t give any thought to the rest. To get the most from the literature review process, you must keep all four points front of mind as you review the literature (more on this shortly), or you’ll land up with a wonky foundation.

Okay – with the why out the way, let’s move on to the how . As mentioned above, writing your literature review is a process, which I’ll break down into three steps:

• Finding the most suitable literature
• Understanding , distilling and organising the literature
• Planning and writing up your literature review chapter

Importantly, you must complete steps one and two before you start writing up your chapter. I know it’s very tempting, but don’t try to kill two birds with one stone and write as you read. You’ll invariably end up wasting huge amounts of time re-writing and re-shaping, or you’ll just land up with a disjointed, hard-to-digest mess . Instead, you need to read first and distil the information, then plan and execute the writing.

Step 1: Find the relevant literature

Naturally, the first step in the literature review journey is to hunt down the existing research that’s relevant to your topic. While you probably already have a decent base of this from your research proposal , you need to expand on this substantially in the dissertation or thesis itself.

Essentially, you need to be looking for any existing literature that potentially helps you answer your research question (or develop it, if that’s not yet pinned down). There are numerous ways to find relevant literature, but I’ll cover my top four tactics here. I’d suggest combining all four methods to ensure that nothing slips past you:

Method 1 – Google Scholar Scrubbing

Google’s academic search engine, Google Scholar , is a great starting point as it provides a good high-level view of the relevant journal articles for whatever keyword you throw at it. Most valuably, it tells you how many times each article has been cited, which gives you an idea of how credible (or at least, popular) it is. Some articles will be free to access, while others will require an account, which brings us to the next method.

Method 2 – University Database Scrounging

Generally, universities provide students with access to an online library, which provides access to many (but not all) of the major journals.

So, if you find an article using Google Scholar that requires paid access (which is quite likely), search for that article in your university’s database – if it’s listed there, you’ll have access. Note that, generally, the search engine capabilities of these databases are poor, so make sure you search for the exact article name, or you might not find it.

Method 3 – Journal Article Snowballing

At the end of every academic journal article, you’ll find a list of references. As with any academic writing, these references are the building blocks of the article, so if the article is relevant to your topic, there’s a good chance a portion of the referenced works will be too. Do a quick scan of the titles and see what seems relevant, then search for the relevant ones in your university’s database.

Method 4 – Dissertation Scavenging

Similar to Method 3 above, you can leverage other students’ dissertations. All you have to do is skim through literature review chapters of existing dissertations related to your topic and you’ll find a gold mine of potential literature. Usually, your university will provide you with access to previous students’ dissertations, but you can also find a much larger selection in the following databases:

• Open Access Theses & Dissertations
• Stanford SearchWorks

Keep in mind that dissertations and theses are not as academically sound as published, peer-reviewed journal articles (because they’re written by students, not professionals), so be sure to check the credibility of any sources you find using this method. You can do this by assessing the citation count of any given article in Google Scholar. If you need help with assessing the credibility of any article, or with finding relevant research in general, you can chat with one of our Research Specialists .

Alright – with a good base of literature firmly under your belt, it’s time to move onto the next step.

Need a helping hand?

Step 2: Log, catalogue and synthesise

Once you’ve built a little treasure trove of articles, it’s time to get reading and start digesting the information – what does it all mean?

While I present steps one and two (hunting and digesting) as sequential, in reality, it’s more of a back-and-forth tango – you’ll read a little , then have an idea, spot a new citation, or a new potential variable, and then go back to searching for articles. This is perfectly natural – through the reading process, your thoughts will develop , new avenues might crop up, and directional adjustments might arise. This is, after all, one of the main purposes of the literature review process (i.e. to familiarise yourself with the current state of research in your field).

As you’re working through your treasure chest, it’s essential that you simultaneously start organising the information. There are three aspects to this:

• Logging reference information
• Building an organised catalogue
• Distilling and synthesising the information

I’ll discuss each of these below:

2.1 – Log the reference information

As you read each article, you should add it to your reference management software. I usually recommend Mendeley for this purpose (see the Mendeley 101 video below), but you can use whichever software you’re comfortable with. Most importantly, make sure you load EVERY article you read into your reference manager, even if it doesn’t seem very relevant at the time.

2.2 – Build an organised catalogue

In the beginning, you might feel confident that you can remember who said what, where, and what their main arguments were. Trust me, you won’t. If you do a thorough review of the relevant literature (as you must!), you’re going to read many, many articles, and it’s simply impossible to remember who said what, when, and in what context . Also, without the bird’s eye view that a catalogue provides, you’ll miss connections between various articles, and have no view of how the research developed over time. Simply put, it’s essential to build your own catalogue of the literature.

I would suggest using Excel to build your catalogue, as it allows you to run filters, colour code and sort – all very useful when your list grows large (which it will). How you lay your spreadsheet out is up to you, but I’d suggest you have the following columns (at minimum):

• Author, date, title – Start with three columns containing this core information. This will make it easy for you to search for titles with certain words, order research by date, or group by author.
• Categories or keywords – You can either create multiple columns, one for each category/theme and then tick the relevant categories, or you can have one column with keywords.
• Key arguments/points – Use this column to succinctly convey the essence of the article, the key arguments and implications thereof for your research.
• Context – Note the socioeconomic context in which the research was undertaken. For example, US-based, respondents aged 25-35, lower- income, etc. This will be useful for making an argument about gaps in the research.
• Methodology – Note which methodology was used and why. Also, note any issues you feel arise due to the methodology. Again, you can use this to make an argument about gaps in the research.
• Quotations – Note down any quoteworthy lines you feel might be useful later.
• Notes – Make notes about anything not already covered. For example, linkages to or disagreements with other theories, questions raised but unanswered, shortcomings or limitations, and so forth.

If you’d like, you can try out our free catalog template here (see screenshot below).

2.3 – Digest and synthesise

Most importantly, as you work through the literature and build your catalogue, you need to synthesise all the information in your own mind – how does it all fit together? Look for links between the various articles and try to develop a bigger picture view of the state of the research. Some important questions to ask yourself are:

• What answers does the existing research provide to my own research questions ?
• Which points do the researchers agree (and disagree) on?
• How has the research developed over time?
• Where do the gaps in the current research lie?

To help you develop a big-picture view and synthesise all the information, you might find mind mapping software such as Freemind useful. Alternatively, if you’re a fan of physical note-taking, investing in a large whiteboard might work for you.

Step 3: Outline and write it up!

Once you’re satisfied that you have digested and distilled all the relevant literature in your mind, it’s time to put pen to paper (or rather, fingers to keyboard). There are two steps here – outlining and writing:

3.1 – Draw up your outline

Having spent so much time reading, it might be tempting to just start writing up without a clear structure in mind. However, it’s critically important to decide on your structure and develop a detailed outline before you write anything. Your literature review chapter needs to present a clear, logical and an easy to follow narrative – and that requires some planning. Don’t try to wing it!

Naturally, you won’t always follow the plan to the letter, but without a detailed outline, you’re more than likely going to end up with a disjointed pile of waffle , and then you’re going to spend a far greater amount of time re-writing, hacking and patching. The adage, “measure twice, cut once” is very suitable here.

In terms of structure, the first decision you’ll have to make is whether you’ll lay out your review thematically (into themes) or chronologically (by date/period). The right choice depends on your topic, research objectives and research questions, which we discuss in this article .

Once that’s decided, you need to draw up an outline of your entire chapter in bullet point format. Try to get as detailed as possible, so that you know exactly what you’ll cover where, how each section will connect to the next, and how your entire argument will develop throughout the chapter. Also, at this stage, it’s a good idea to allocate rough word count limits for each section, so that you can identify word count problems before you’ve spent weeks or months writing!

PS – check out our free literature review chapter template…

3.2 – Get writing

With a detailed outline at your side, it’s time to start writing up (finally!). At this stage, it’s common to feel a bit of writer’s block and find yourself procrastinating under the pressure of finally having to put something on paper. To help with this, remember that the objective of the first draft is not perfection – it’s simply to get your thoughts out of your head and onto paper, after which you can refine them. The structure might change a little, the word count allocations might shift and shuffle, and you might add or remove a section – that’s all okay. Don’t worry about all this on your first draft – just get your thoughts down on paper.

Once you’ve got a full first draft (however rough it may be), step away from it for a day or two (longer if you can) and then come back at it with fresh eyes. Pay particular attention to the flow and narrative – does it fall fit together and flow from one section to another smoothly? Now’s the time to try to improve the linkage from each section to the next, tighten up the writing to be more concise, trim down word count and sand it down into a more digestible read.

Once you’ve done that, give your writing to a friend or colleague who is not a subject matter expert and ask them if they understand the overall discussion. The best way to assess this is to ask them to explain the chapter back to you. This technique will give you a strong indication of which points were clearly communicated and which weren’t. If you’re working with Grad Coach, this is a good time to have your Research Specialist review your chapter.

Finally, tighten it up and send it off to your supervisor for comment. Some might argue that you should be sending your work to your supervisor sooner than this (indeed your university might formally require this), but in my experience, supervisors are extremely short on time (and often patience), so, the more refined your chapter is, the less time they’ll waste on addressing basic issues (which you know about already) and the more time they’ll spend on valuable feedback that will increase your mark-earning potential.

Literature Review Example

In the video below, we unpack an actual literature review so that you can see how all the core components come together in reality.

Let’s Recap

In this post, we’ve covered how to research and write up a high-quality literature review chapter. Let’s do a quick recap of the key takeaways:

• It is essential to understand the WHY of the literature review before you read or write anything. Make sure you understand the 4 core functions of the process.
• The first step is to hunt down the relevant literature . You can do this using Google Scholar, your university database, the snowballing technique and by reviewing other dissertations and theses.
• Next, you need to log all the articles in your reference manager , build your own catalogue of literature and synthesise all the research.
• Following that, you need to develop a detailed outline of your entire chapter – the more detail the better. Don’t start writing without a clear outline (on paper, not in your head!)
• Write up your first draft in rough form – don’t aim for perfection. Remember, done beats perfect.
• Refine your second draft and get a layman’s perspective on it . Then tighten it up and submit it to your supervisor.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Literature Review Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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38 Comments

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You’re welcome, Yinka. Thank you for the kind words. All the best writing your literature review.

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Thank you. I requested to download the free literature review template, however, your website wouldn’t allow me to complete the request or complete a download. May I request that you email me the free template? Thank you.

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• What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

• Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
• Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your  dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

Cite this Scribbr article

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AP ® Research Handbook

Chapter 2 literature review.

List resources for conducting literature review. Show example of literature review with inline citations. Show ways to keep track of sources for bibliography.

• contains example literature reviews from political science, philosophy, and chemistry.

Consider using a reference management system like Mendeley to organize your sources as you conduct your literature review. In fact, Mendeley has a Literature Search function, so you can manage sources and conduct literature reviews at the same time. See the Bibliography Management Section for more information on managing sources.

Databases for Literature Reviews

• Browse by subjects in the humanities and sciences. This can be your starting point if you have not developed a research topic.
• Open-access journal articles in fields such as mathematics, statistics, economics, physics, quantitative biology, quantiative finance, and electrical engineering
• arXiv to BibTex : Outputs automated citations in BibTeX and other formats by typing the arXiv number of the article. For instance, just type in 1905.03758 into the search engine if the article is labeled arXiv: 1905.03758.
• Alternatively, use Mendeley Web Importer to import article into Mendeley Desktop for automated citation outputs.
• Download Mendeley Desktop and register for a free account. Mendeley Desktop syncs with your online Mendeley account, but the literature search is currently only available in the desktop version.
• Mendeley is primarly a reference managements software, so you can organize your citations as you conduct your literature review.
• Search engine with the world’s largest collectin of open-access research papers.
• For batch searches of metadata and full texts, you may consider requesting a free API key to use the Core API .
• Search for content, authors, collections, and journals in the advanced search , where you have the option to search by discipline or key word.
• Search for articles in clincial sciences, biochemistry, public health, physical chemistry, and materials engineering.
• Search open-access journals and dissertations. Note that dissertations can vary in quality, since they have not gone through peer review.
• AP Research students should have access to a free EBSCO account from the AP Capstone program.
• Many of the social science articles are free access.
• Search for articles related to to education research.
• The search engine includes the open to search for full-text articles.
• Index of major computer science publications.
• Option to search for open-access articles.
• Search for journal articles, working papers, and conference papers in economics and business.
• You can sign up for a free MyJSTOR account to access up to six articles a month for free.
• This may be helpful for accessing articles that are not open access.

Tips for Accessing Paywalled Articles

• Search for the author’s website. Many researchers have draft manuscripts on their websites or research profiles on sites such as ResearchGate .
• Consult your school’s research librarian for other ways to access the article.
• Send the author an e-mail to request for a digital copy of the article. You should provide context in the e-mail request by including a brief description of your AP Research project and its relevance and connection to the author’s article.

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

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Ancillary Asset Data Stewardship and Models (2024)

Chapter: chapter 2 - literature review.

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

7   Literature Review This chapter provides an overview of previous work that has been conducted regarding ancillary asset data stewardship and models. The information in this chapter serves as back- ground for the survey questionnaire and for the case examples. 2.1 Transportation Asset Management State DOTs manage and maintain transportation assets in the United States. State DOTs usually prioritize the management of high-visibility, high-value assets such as pavements and bridges. However, transportation systems extend beyond pavement and bridges to include a wide variety of ancillary assets, including but not limited to lighting structures, roadway signs, operations facilities, and technology equipment (AASHTO 2022). In order to manage different transportation assets, state DOTs use a performance-based approach to maintain asset conditions to a desired service level. This is achieved by implementing Transportation Asset Management (TAM) strategies that require the availability of quality inventories, asset condition data, and tools that can support assessment of the impact that different investment levels have on network-wide conditions and in consideration of multiple objectives. Implementing efficient TAM strategies necessitates the existence of well-developed information technology (IT) systems to collect, process, and manage asset data (Allen et al. 2019). State DOTs develop TAMPs as a pivotal point for information about transportation assets and strategies for managing them, as well as for long-term expense forecasts and business management processes. TAMPs are necessary management tools for joining related business stakeholders and business processes in order to better understand and commit to improv- ing asset performance. A state DOT’s TAMP should include at least the following elements (FHWA 2021): (1) A summary listing of the pavement and bridge assets on the National Highway System in the state, including a description of the condition of those assets (2) Asset management objectives and measures (3) Performance gap identification (4) Life-cycle cost and risk management analysis (5) A financial plan (6) Investment strategies Since state DOTs are responsible for managing a variety of assets, they face challenges in how to prioritize their investments in advanced, formal asset management. Building asset management requires that DOTs evaluate different management approaches and determine the organization’s maturity level for implementing such approaches. AASHTO’s TAM Guide describes three methods for managing highway assets; each process requires additional data C H A P T E R   2

8 Ancillary Asset Data Stewardship and Models input and varied ways to generate and implement the management process. These methods include the following: 1. Reactive Based: Treatment is performed to fix a problem after it has occurred. 2. Interval Based: The asset is treated based on a time or usage basis, regardless of whether it is needed. 3. Condition Based (life-cycle approach): An intervention is selected based on a forecasted condition exceedance interval. Generally, a state DOT will start with a superficial asset management level and will mature toward more holistic and complex asset management to support asset prioritization and decision- making (AASHTO 2022). It is important that state DOTs first develop a list of asset classes in order to facilitate the prioritization process; each asset class should be well-defined (Allen et al. 2019). 2.2 Ancillary Asset Data Management Traditionally, state DOTs have focused on managing pavements and bridges; the availability of asset inventory and condition data for ancillary assets is less common. However, the variability of the assets composing the ancillary transportation asset system and its statewide spread can represent a significant part of the total value of a state DOT’s transportation system. For example, for fiscal year 2021, the Utah Department of Transportation (UDOT) was responsible for man- aging a transportation system with a total value of $51 billion, of which bridges accounted for $10 billion (19.6%), pavement accounted for $30 billion (58.8%), and ancillary assets accounted for $11 billion (21.6%) (Ammar, Nassereddine, and Dadi 2022). The need to focus on ancillary asset management was recognized in Akofio-Sowah et al. (2013). Although ancillary assets represent a significant portion of the total value of the trans- portation system managed by a transportation agency, managing this diverse type of assets is challenging. State DOTs often struggle with prioritizing the various ancillary assets and including them in a formal management system (Akofio-Sowah et al. 2013). To overcome this challenge, state DOTs are focusing their efforts to collect the data necessary for managing ancillary assets. However, issues including incomplete inventories, outdated asset conditions, and missing analysis tools that are needed to implement risk-based TAM are often encountered. Some state DOTs have implemented MQA programs to assist maintenance personnel in identifying and prioritizing maintenance requirements and in focusing on ancillary assets. Other state DOTs have taken the approach of including ancillary assets in their TAMPs (Allen et al. 2019). A list of common ancillary assets that state DOTs can include in their TAMPs, as developed by the National Highway Institute, is presented in Table 2-1 (National Highway Institute 2017). The Traffic Management Data Dictionary also provides a list of managed ancillary assets. These assets include traffic networks, closed-circuit television cameras and switches, dynamic message signs, environmental sensor stations, lane closure gates and swing bridges, highway advisory radio and low-power FM stations, lane control signals, ramp meters, traffic detectors, and traffic signals, as well as information on agencies, centers, systems, and users (Institute of Transportation Engineers 2020). The FHWA developed a handbook for including ancillary assets in TAM programs. In that handbook, the authors introduced a seven-step process that agencies can adapt in order to prioritize which assets are incorporated into their TAMPs, including (1) getting organized, (2) selecting criteria, (3) establishing a rating system, (4) establishing relative weights, (5) setting rating values, (6) calculating scores, and (7) developing priority tiers. As a result of implementing this process, each agency will generate its own prioritized list of asset classes that are grouped

Literature Review 9   Functional Area Asset Class Structures (not bridges or otherwise found in the National Bridge Inventory) Drainage Structures Overhead sign and signal Retaining walls (earth retaining structures) Noise barriers Sight barrier High-mast light poles Traffic control and management— active devices Signals ITS equipment Network backbone Traffic control and management— passive control devices Signs Guardrail Guardrail end treatments Impact attenuator Other barrier systems Drainage systems and environmental mitigation features Drain inlets and outlets Culverts (<20 ft total span)/pipes Ditches Stormwater retention systems Curb and gutter Erosion control Other drains (e.g., underdrain and edge drain) Other safety features Lighting Pavement markings Rockfall Roadside features Sidewalks Curbs Fence Turf Brush control Roadside hazard Landscaping Access ramps Bike paths Other facilities and items Rest areas Weigh stations Parking lots Buildings Fleet Roadside graffiti Roadside litter Table 2-1. Typical highway asset classes. into priority tiers. The handbook recommended that agencies document their prioritization process so that the tiers can be updated to keep track of inventory status, data collection costs, and asset management costs (Allen et al. 2019). NCHRP Project 08-36/Task 114, “Transportation Asset Management for Ancillary Structures,” aimed to provide guidelines on the application of asset management to selected ancillary assets. The contractor’s final report for the project developed an ancillary asset classification hierarchy that can be used as a common starting point for state DOTs in their enterprise approaches to asset management information when establishing inventories of ancillary assets and when devel- oping management systems for these assets. The report presents an asset hierarchy for ancillary assets by organizing ancillary asset classes into the following categories (Rose et al. 2014): • Structures [not bridges or otherwise found in the National Bridge Inventory (NBI)] • Traffic Control & Management – Active Devices • Traffic Control & Management – Passive Devices • Drainage Systems and Environmental Mitigation Features • Other Safety Features • Roadside Features

10 Ancillary Asset Data Stewardship and Models State DOTs are including ancillary assets in their TAMPs and defining different asset manage- ment tiers for various asset groups and asset classes. For example, UDOT developed a three-tier TAM plan; tier one is the most extensive management plan for the highest-value assets. The tiers are described as follows (UDOT 2019): UDOT Tier 1: Performance-based management. Assets in the Tier 1 management level are those of the highest value combined with the highest risk of negative financial impact for poor management. These are assets that are very important to UDOT. Tier 1 management plans include elements such as accurate and sophisticated data collection, set and tracked targets and measures, predictive modeling and risk analysis, and dedicated funding. Assets in Tier 1 include the following: • Pavements • Bridges • Automated traffic management systems devices • Signal devices UDOT Tier 2: Condition-based management. Assets in the Tier 2 management level are those of moderate value and of substantial importance to transportation system operation. These assets have a moderate risk of negative impact for poor management or asset failure. Tier 2 management plans include elements such as accurate data collection, condition targets, and risk assessment that are primarily based on asset failure. Assets in Tier 2 include the following: • Pipe culverts • Signs • Walls • Rumble strips • ADA-compliant ramps, barriers, and pavement markings UDOT Tier 3: Reactive management. Assets in the Tier 3 management level are generally the assets of lowest value and that have the lowest risk of negative impact for poor management or asset failure. Tier 3 management plans include elements such as risk assessment (primarily based on asset failure), general condition analysis, and repair or replacement when the asset is damaged. Assets in Tier 3 include the following: • Cattle guards • Interstate lighting • Fences • Rest areas • Curb gutters • Trails • Bike lanes • Surplus land • At-grade railroad crossings Similarly, the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT) developed four criticality tiers to represent the importance of each asset class to the agency’s mission and to establish the level of resources needed to manage each asset class (MnDOT 2022). MnDOT Tier 1 assets represent a combination of the highest monetary valued assets and assets critical to public safety, mobility, and the economy. Failure of a single asset could lead to an immediate safety risk or impact on the transportation network for an entire region. Assets classified as Tier 1 receive the greatest scrutiny and resources dedicated to inventory and con- dition data collection, investment decision-making, maintenance, and capital investments to provide the highest practical level of service and reliability. Assets in Tier 1 include the following:

Literature Review 11   • Bridges (vehicle bridges >10 ft and tunnels) • Pavements (highway mainline), maintenance (snow and ice winter plow routes) • Facilities (Class 1 rest areas, Class 1 truck stations, office buildings, and salt sheds) • Allied Radio Matrix for Emergency Response structures (ARMER System—radio towers, equipment shelters, radio transmission equipment, and facilities). MnDOT Tier 2 assets are typically not as high in value as Tier 1 assets but still represent a significant consequence to public safety for a corridor or municipality should they fail. Resources are therefore dedicated to proactively monitoring and conducting subsequent interventions on Tier 2 assets to prevent unacceptable performance. Asset inventory and condition data are used to identify, prioritize, and deliver maintenance and repair actions to manage these assets cost-effectively throughout their service lives. Assets in Tier 2 include the following: • Bike and pedestrian infrastructure [including ADA-accessible on-street parking, pedestrian curb ramps, signals, and sidewalks as well as bike lanes (not separated) and shared roadways] • Pedestrian, bicycle, and utility bridges • Geotechnical assets including earth retaining systems (gravity, soil nail, soldier pile, sheet pile, reinforced concrete cantilever, mechanically stabilized earth, crib, bin, timber, and other types on the TAM list), reinforced soil slopes, and improved ground MnDOT Tier 3 assets support safety and system performance at their specific locations. Individual failures of these assets can have significant local impacts but are of limited conse- quence to overall network performance. These assets typically benefit from a routine or cyclic replacement either of components or of whole assets to ensure proper performance. Asset inventory data is collected to support the efficient scheduling and delivery of appropriate cyclical work. Additionally, condition data may be collected for some assets in order to comply with mandates (e.g., municipal separate storm sewer systems), to optimize the maintenance and replacement cycles (e.g., sign panels), or both. Assets in Tier 3 include the following: • Bike and pedestrian, including shared-use paths, side paths, and separate bike lanes • Facilities including Class 2 and 3 rest areas, Class 2 and 3 truck stations, brine buildings (service and inspection operations), and weigh stations • Instrumentation systems such as inclinometers, pressure cells, gauges, cabinets, and piezometers • Geotechnical, including (1) special drainage systems such as chimney drains, perforated drains, herringbone drains, geomembrane caps and liners, and trench drains (but not including edge drains); (2) green assets (noxious weeds, deep stormwater tunnels); (3) hydraulic infrastructure such as ponds, infiltration basins, and underground storage; (4) storm sewer pipes and struc- tures; (5) structural pollution control devices; and (6) local road culverts • Maintenance, including Road Weather Information Systems and pavements (such as paved shoulders and low-volume frontage roads) • Structures such as wood noise walls and entrance monuments as well as traffic structures— including static sign panels, static panel ground-mounted sign structures, static panel overheads with foundations, and I-beam with static panel sign structures • Roadway lighting and barrier attenuators (crash cushions) • Barriers, including plate-beam end treatments, high-tension cable barriers, and plate-beam barriers • Pavement markings, including messaging and striping MnDOT Tier 4 assets represent a limited risk to the transportation network, and failure of one of these assets generally impacts only the location served by that asset. Guidelines regard- ing maintenance response times (to repair or replace assets within a certain period after being notified of the unacceptable condition) are set in order to minimize the impact that the asset’s condition or the maintenance work will have on safety and system performance. Asset data is

12 Ancillary Asset Data Stewardship and Models collected and inventories are routinely updated. However, no condition data is collected, and work performed to maintain, improve, or replace these assets is tracked (specific to each asset or installation). Assets in Tier 4 include the following: • Facilities (storage sheds and miscellaneous) and buildings (such as lift stations and hazmat) • Geotechnical—including natural hazard locations (locations off the right-of-way not other- wise addressed); improved subgrade fill (lightweight fill such as wood chips, tire-derived aggregate, geofoam, lightweight aggregate, cellular concrete, and grouted fill); and green assets (replacement wetlands) • Trees (types include historic, notable, high-risk, and land bearing) and native plants (such as pollinator plantings) • Snow fence maintenance (types include living, structural, and grading) • Rights-of-way, including land, boundary, excess, or surplus types • Structures (i.e., concrete noise walls) • Traffic (concrete barriers, rumble strips, and stripes) The Indiana Department of Transportation (INDOT) developed an inventory of critical ancillary assets that provides detailed information for culverts, bridge clearances, pedestrian assets, retaining walls, patching activity, signs, intelligent transportation system (ITS) assets, and others. Additionally, INDOT developed a geographic information system (GIS)-based web map along interstate and state routes in 2019. This web map is used for INDOT’s drainage asset inventory and contains information such as location, elevation, size, inspection report results, and environmental features. INDOT is making better budget estimates for maintenance and rehabilitation work as a result of the availability of an accurate inventory. INDOT is also devel- oping a system with which to import construction data on drainage assets directly to its GIS database without the need for manual entry of the data. In addition to drainage assets, INDOT has developed viewers and inventory tools for multiple ancillary assets that provide access to information about bridge clearances, pedestrian assets, retaining walls, patching activity, speed limit signs, and ITS assets (FHWA 2023). 2.3 Ancillary Asset Data Management Existing Research TAM is an extensive, data-dependent decision-making process to maintain, preserve, and extend the long-term service life of transportation assets (Yuan et al. 2017). State DOTs face several challenges to integrating data across systems and throughout an asset’s life cycle (Spy Pond Partners and Atkins North America 2021). Several researchers have investigated the challenges associated with transportation asset data management. Le et al. (2018) conducted multiple focus group discussions and interviews with highway professionals over the course of one year to understand the practices of state DOTs regarding handling, updating, and monitoring asset information in order to control the flow of data throughout the life cycles of different transpor- tation assets. They found that the handling of asset data after construction projects are complete is arduous work and that it leads to significant data loss and waste generation because data flow still heavily relies on paper or paper-based electronic documents. Some manual work is also required of asset maintenance personnel, who need to look up information in order for it to be included in the agency’s Transportation Asset Management System (TAMS). Additionally, asset data is often provided without consideration for how it will be used in the next stage of asset management; even if the data related to assets exists in digital format, it is not automatically transferred to maintenance and cannot be imported easily into the TAMS. The productivity and operational cost of maintaining transportation assets relies on the feasibility of extracting maintenance-related information. However, laborious, tedious work will

Literature Review 13   significantly increase costs if the project deliverables are poorly structured and require manual data extraction (Gallaher et al. 2004). A common practice adopted by state DOTs is to collect asset inventory data using mobile devices. This method could facilitate correct data flow to operations and maintenance, reduce work effort, enhance productivity, and reduce operating costs (Le et al. 2018). However, digital data flow from upstream processes to lower streams is still not feasible because of the disconnection between different departments (Yuan et al. 2016) and lack of interoperability (Lefler 2014). Moreover, the variation of priorities among different departments leads to a lack of data integration between design features that are found in the design deliverables and pay items in the construction records (Yuan et al. 2017). There is currently no formal standard for digital data flow generated during the design and construction stage to the operations and maintenance phase of a project; as-built plans are manually updated using red lines to demonstrate changes to asset details during construction (Yuan et al. 2016). This paper-based handover of updated data is not machine readable, so asset managers are required to extract the updated asset information manually and include them in the TAMS. This process is tedious, time-consuming, and susceptible to error, and it also demonstrates a weak link between projects and management (Le et al. 2018). Although most state DOTs have established TAMS and collect and track maintenance activities and capital projects, they still face challenges integrating data across systems and the asset life cycle (Spy Pond Partners and Atkins North America 2021). State DOTs must focus on six effective data management practices—data collection, data handling, data flow, data transfer, data governance, and data integration—to achieve a seamless data management approach and improve data value to enable informed decision-making (Ammar, Dadi, and Nassereddine 2022). Akofio-Sowah et al. (2013) investigated the state of practice of ancillary transportation asset management and its data collection needs and associated costs. They explored the necessary data analysis tools needed to enable data-driven decision-making and to support the adop- tion of strategies that can aid asset prioritization and demonstrate the benefits of implementing ancillary asset management practices. The authors conducted a targeted survey to collect informa- tion on the status of adopted ancillary asset management systems for ten asset classes: (1) culverts, (2) earth retaining structures, (3) guardrails, (4) mitigation features, (5) pavement markings, (6) sidewalks and curbs, (7) street lighting, (8) traffic signals, (9) traffic signs, and (10) utilities and manholes. They surveyed 16 state DOTs and two local transportation agencies. The survey results revealed that 50% of the surveyed agencies had management programs for six or more of the selected assets, and the most commonly managed assets were traffic signs and signals, followed by guardrails and culverts (where culverts are typically included with bridges in the existing building management system). However, only four agencies reported that they have fully integrated asset management systems (i.e., that they integrated their databases or that they integrated their databases and analytical tools) for the assets they manage. The most commonly reported database and analysis tools employed in ancillary transportation asset management (from the most to the least adopted) are Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Access, Oracle Database, Esri ArcGIS, GIS geodatabase, Pontis, and structured query language database systems. Ammar, Nassereddine, and Dadi (2022) and Ammar et al. (2023) investigated the current practices of state DOTs in digitizing ancillary asset data toward implementing the vision of digital twins to support transportation asset management. Ammar, Nassereddine, and Dadi (2022) investigated the practices of state DOTs in digitizing data collection for seven ancillary roadside asset classes by exploring the collected data format, data level of detail, data collection throughout the asset life cycle, collected data features, and adopted data collection techniques. Ammar et al. (2023) investigated the practices of state DOTs toward the digital transition of their ancillary transportation asset data for 25 different ancillary asset classes and contextualized DOT maturity in the advancement of digital processes. It was found that most state DOTs intend

14 Ancillary Asset Data Stewardship and Models to achieve the digital transition. However, there is scarce information related to the steps to be taken in order to accomplish this transition. Some ancillary asset classes (including guardrails, signs, other barrier systems, stormwater retention systems, pipes, culverts, impact attenuators, guardrail end treatments, and drain inlets and outlets) were found to be more advanced in their digitization transition compared to other ancillary asset classes. The list of ancillary assets considered for this synthesis is outlined in Table 2-2. The list was formulated using the FHWA list of ancillary assets and was revised following the feedback provided by the synthesis topic panel. Asset Class Included in This Study FHWA Asset Class (1) Access control limits Roadside features (2) Barriers: noise Structures (3) Bike paths Roadside features (4) Drainage: culvert pipes/transverse/cross drains Drainage systems and environmental mitigation features (5) Drainage: curb and gutter Drainage systems and environmental mitigation features (6) Drainage: ditches Drainage systems and environmental mitigation features (7) Drainage: inlets and outlets Drainage systems and environmental mitigation features (8) Drainage: longitudinal drain (e.g., underdrain; pipes) Drainage systems and environmental mitigation features (9) Drainage: small structure (culverts <20 ft total span) Structures (not bridges or otherwise found in the NBI) (10) Drainage: storm water retention basins/ponds Drainage systems and environmental mitigation features (11) Erosion control: permanent structure Drainage systems and environmental mitigation features (12) Geotechnical boring Not included (13) Guardrail: end treatments Traffic control and management—passive control devices (14) Guardrail: impact attenuator Traffic control and management—passive control devices (15) Guardrail: other barrier systems (e.g., cable barrier system) Traffic control and management—passive control devices (16) Guardrail: W Beam Not included (17) Landscaping Roadside features (18) Lighting: high-mast Structures (not bridges or otherwise found in the NBI) (19) Lighting: roadway other (e.g., luminaire; flashers) Not included (20) Parking lots/park and ride lots Other facilities and other items (21) Pavement markings/striping Other safety features (22) Pedestrian access ramps Roadside features (23) Retaining walls (earth retaining structures) Structures (not bridges or otherwise found in the NBI) (24) Right of way fence Roadside features (25) Rockfall Other safety features (26) Sidewalks Roadside features (27) Signals: cabinets Traffic control and management—active devices (28) Signals: heads and electrical equipment Structures (not bridges or otherwise found in the NBI) (29) Signals: signal supports, pole bases, and mast arms Structures (not bridges or otherwise found in the NBI) (30) Signs: ground-mounted roadside signs Traffic control and management—active devices (31) Signs: overhead panel signs only Structures (not bridges or otherwise found in the NBI) (32) Signs: overhead sign support structure Structures (not bridges or otherwise found in the NBI) (33) Survey monuments or control points Not included (34) Traffic management: ITS equipment only Traffic control and management—active devices (35) Traffic management: ITS equipment support structure Traffic control and management—active devices (36) Traffic management: network backbone (e.g., gigabit network backbone for large volumes of video data) Traffic control and management—active devices (37) Utilities: overhead Not included (38) Utilities: underground Not included Table 2-2. Ancillary asset classes included in the study.

Some state departments of transportation (DOTs) have begun to track data pertaining to ancillary assets (that is, assets other than pavements and bridges) in their Transportation Asset Management Plans. However, most DOTs do not track this information, even though they inventory and manage many of these ancillary assets.

NCHRP Synthesis 628: Ancillary Asset Data Stewardship and Models , from TRB's National Cooperative Highway Research Program, documents state DOT practices related to data models and data stewardship of ancillary assets.

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Management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe

• Open access
• Published: 24 May 2024
• Volume 2 , article number  56 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Steven Jerie 1 ,
• Takunda Shabani 1 &
• Tapiwa Shabani 1  

The management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe is a critical issue that requires comprehensive attention. Purpose: This review paper provides an in-depth analysis of the current state of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste management sector in Zimbabwe. Methods: Literature was searched from various databases for example African Journals Online, PubMed, Science Direct, Springer, Sage Publications, Google Scholar and Scopus. Key words such as construction and demolition waste, waste management, safety hazards, health hazards and risk assessment were used to retrieve data from different databases. Results: The paper finds that construction and demolition waste management is associated with physical, chemical, biological and ergonomic hazards. The review posits that there are existing regulatory frameworks and enforcement mechanisms related to safety and health in construction and demolition waste management in Zimbabwe for example Environmental Management Act [Chapter 20:27] and Urban Councils Act [Chapter 29:15]. Risk assessment and use of personal protective equipment were highlighted as strategies to manage safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. Proper handling, storage, transportation and disposal of construction and demolition waste reduce its impacts to the people and the environment. Challenges affecting Zimbabwe in managing safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste include economic constraints, lack of awareness and education as well as limited recycling and waste treatment facilities. Conclusion: Overall, this paper aims to provide valuable insights for policymakers, industry professionals, researchers and other stakeholders to enhance safety and health standards in construction and demolition waste management practices in Zimbabwe.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Construction and demolition (CDW) waste refers to the waste generated from construction, renovation and demolition activities [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. CDW waste often makes up 10–30% of the total waste disposed of at landfills in numerous cities globally [ 4 ]. This means that CDW serves as a significant contributor to urban solid waste. CDW includes materials such as concrete, wood, metals, bricks, plastics and other non-hazardous materials [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. CDW is a significant environmental concern globally due to its large volume and potential impact on human health and the environment [ 8 , 9 ]. This indicates that CDW comprise the majority of the solid waste stream, posing a significant environmental threat to many countries. According to [ 10 ] and [ 11 ], the construction industry generates a significant amount of waste, with the CDW accounting for approximately 35% and 50% of municipal solid waste in developed and developing countries, respectively. The composition and management approaches of CDW vary between developing nations and developed countries [ 12 , 13 ]. The management of CDW is gaining increased focus in less developed countries [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Nevertheless, the majority of less developed nations do not have the necessary financial and technical capabilities to handle CDW. Shortage of finance means inadequate collection and storage, as well as illegal dumping of construction and demolition waste.

In Zimbabwe, CDW is a growing issue as the construction industry continues to expand [ 17 ]. Zimbabwe is experiencing rapid urbanization and infrastructure development in recent years, leading to an increase in construction and demolition activities. As a result of this, the generation of CDW has also increased significantly in Zimbabwe [ 18 , 19 ]. Construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe is frequently disposed of without proper consideration, which encourages the illegal dumping of various types of waste [ 20 , 21 ]. This increases environmental impact and raises challenges to the public community. [ 22 ] and [ 23 ] opined that it is imperative to establish proficient and successful strategies to manage CDW to safeguard the environment and human health. However, stakeholders involved in CDW management have varying concerns and priorities, leading to challenges in waste management [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. This concludes that coordination of all entities involved in the process is crucial for the success of waste management operations.

Construction and demolition industry in Zimbabwe is a significant contributor to the country’s economy, with a growing demand for buildings, infrastructure and other structures [ 27 , 28 ]. However, this industry also generates a substantial amount of waste, including materials such as concrete, bricks, wood and other debris. In Zimbabwe urban areas, the municipal solid waste collection includes CDW, constituting 30.6% to 39.6% of the total waste in suburbs such as Monomotapa and Shamrock respectively [ 29 ]. According to [ 2 ] it is worth noting that composition of construction and demolition waste varies depending on the specific location and type of construction project. In recent years, there has been a growing concern about the management and health impacts of construction and waste if not properly disposed of [ 15 , 30 ]. In Zimbabwe, renovation and construction activities produce various waste materials such as iron sheets, asbestos, builder’s rubble and broken bricks [ 17 ]. However, these materials are then gathered and managed by municipalities to ensure proper disposal and recycling, with the majority of it ending up in landfills or being dumped in open spaces. This has led to environmental and health problems, that include air, water pollution and the spread of diseases. In Zimbabwe, the government has implemented various policies and regulations aimed at promoting sustainable management of CDW [ 27 , 29 ]. Policies and regulations for waste management in Zimbabwe include Environmental Management Act [Chapter 20:27], Public Health Act [Chapter 15:09] and the Urban Council Act [Chapter 29:15].

Waste management policies and regulations in Zimbabwe require construction and demolition companies to submit waste management plans before starting work and the establishment of designated waste disposal sites [ 28 , 29 , 77 ]. Despite these efforts, hazards associated with CDW still exist in Zimbabwe. Nevertheless, a significant gap exists in terms of literature focusing on strategies which effectively address safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. Literature which exist in Zimbabwe regarding construction and demolition waste management put much attention on matters which include waste generation, reuse, recycle, reduce and waste disposal procedures, while putting little attention to safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. As a result, this study seeks to cover the gap by examining management of safety and health hazards (MSHH) associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. The research questions of the review paper include:

What current measures are used to manage safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe?

What are the main types of safety and health hazards faced during handling, transportation and disposal of waste produced during construction and demolition activities in Zimbabwe?

How do safety policies and regulations in Zimbabwe address the issue of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste?

What recommendations can be provided to manage safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste inn Zimbabwe?

The hypotheses for the review paper include:

Hypotheses 1

Lack of adequate safety awareness training among employees result to increased risk of injuries and accidents related to management of construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe.

Hypotheses 2

Poor compliance to safety policies due to poor enforcement of the laws result to increased safety and health hazards during handling activities of construction and demolition waste.

Hypotheses 3

Implementation of sufficient risk assessment procedures may reduce the manifestation of safety and health hazards associated with management of construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe.

Through addressing exact problems faced by Zimbabwe concerning management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste, this review paper provide vital insights that can actually result to improvement of safety practices, regulations as well as policies focusing on management of construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. The findings of the study help Zimbabwe to achieve a number of Sustainable Development Goals. By recognizing and addressing health risks in the construction and demolition waste management process, the study’s conclusions can help to achieve SDG 3 which focus on Good Health and Well-being. This will make the working environment safer for those employed in the sector. Through suggesting creative ways to manage waste in the construction industry and promoting more environmentally friendly practices, Zimbabwe can achieve Sustainable Development Goal 9 which put much attention on industry, innovation and infrastructure. The study’s results offer a way to achieve Sustainable Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities. This means the findings of this study are vital in promoting appropriate methods to manage waste in urban areas and this reduce risks which affect the well-being of people and increase urban sustainability.

2 Conceptual model for the study

A well-known paradigm for categorizing hazard controls in workplace safety and health is the Hierarchy of Controls according to the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Hierarchy of controls offers an organized method for determining and putting into practice the best countermeasures to reduce the risks connected to occupational hazards. There are five categories in the hierarchy of controls, which are elimination, substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls and personal protective equipment/clothe (PPE/C) and they are arranged according to order of their efficacy. As a result of this, this study applies the hierarchy of controls as the conceptual model in management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. The hierarchy of controls is shown in Fig.  1 .

Source: National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (2015)

Hierarchy of controls management.

Elimination is indicated at the top of the hierarchy of controls. Removal of the risk from the workplace physically means elimination NIOSH, 2015. Redesigning procedures to generate fewer debris or adopting alternative materials with lower risks are two ways that can assist elimination of hazards at the source when it comes to management of construction and demolition waste. Substitution follows elimination on the hierarchy of controls as indicated in Fig.  1 . Substitution means changing potentially harmful substances or methods with less risky ones [ 31 ]. For example, reducing hazards for waste workers can be achieved by replacing harmful construction and demolition materials with healthier alternatives.

Engineering controls Engineering controls entail creating structural barriers to keep employees away from dangers [ 32 ]. Examples include utilizing automated equipment to reduce the dangers associated with manual handling or establishing ventilation systems to regulate dust exposure during construction and demolition operations. Administrative controls: In order to reduce exposure to hazards, administrative controls focus on changes in working practices and policies [ 33 ]. In the context of management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste, administrative controls may include implementation of proper safety training programs for employees on how to handle waste safely. Administrative members can establish clear safety protocols focusing on segregation of construction and demolition waste [ 34 ].

Personal Protective Equipment/Cothe (PPE/C) Personal Protective Equipment/Clothe is regarded as the last resort on the hierarchy of controls [ 31 ]. This means PPE/C is used to protect employees when other methods applied by the hierarchy of controls are not sufficient or feasible [ 35 ]. In the circumstance of managing safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste, appropriate personal protective equipment/clothe, for example, gloves, respirators, overalls and hardhats should be given to workers basing on hazards identified within the workplace [ 36 ]. Features of the hierarchy of controls indicates that researchers may thoroughly evaluate risks, rank measures used to control risks and create a safe work environment for workers through applying the hierarchy of controls framework in the management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste.

3 Study area

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa, bordered by Zambia to the north, Mozambique to the east, South Africa to the south and Botswana to the west [ 37 ]. Zimbabwe has diverse landscapes, with a mix of plateaus, highlands and low-lying areas. In Zimbabwe the high veld stretches from south west to north east and its altitude is 1 300 m because it’s a plateau. The other side is a low veld which is about 300–500 m in altitude. According to [ 38 ], the highlands in the east stretches for about 260 km from north (Nyanga) to south (Chipinge). The height of those highlands is above 2 000 m as shown by Mount Nyangani peak which is about 2592 m and is the highest [ 38 ], followed by Kweza located in the south which is 2437 m and Rukotso in the north is about 2405 m [ 38 ]. In Zimbabwe there is a Great Dyke, a massive geological for about 550 km long and 3 to 11 km wide [ 39 ]. Great Dyke is one of the largest platinum deposits in the world and has played a significant role in the country’s mining industry. The Great Dyke stretches from the north to the south through the center of Zimbabwe. Almost 66% of Zimbabwe consist crystalline rocks but granite is the most dominant hence, soils which originate from granite rocks covers 42% of the country [ 40 ]. According to [ 41 ], deep sands which originate from Kalahari deposits with high permeability dominates the other part of the country.

According to [ 37 ], Zimbabwe’s forest ecosystems consist of 45% of Mopane forest, 30% of Miombo forest and 25% of Baikiaena forest. The western part of the country is Baikiaea, the northern and eastern part is dominated by Miombo. The Save and Zambezi valleys are dominated by Mupane woodlands. According to [ 42 ], the miombo woodland is characterized by Julbernadia and Brachstegia trees and grass species such as Eragrostis. Ericaceous shrub land and montane grassland dominates the Eastern Highlands. As a result of this, Zimbabwe supports a wide variety of plant and animal life. The country is located between tropics and subtropics [ 43 , 44 ]. The climate of Zimbabwe is reflected by the topography and its seasonal, August to October is the dry season which is hot, November to March is the wet season which is hot and April to July is winter season which is cool and dry [ 45 , 46 ].

According to [ 47 ], Zimbabwe’s population is about 15.1 million. The population is divided into 7 289 558 males and 7 889 421 females hence, the sex ratio is 92 males and per 100 females. In Zimbabwe most of the people live in rural areas and they survive through subsistence farming. People in Zimbabwe grow different types of crops mhunga, rapoko, sorghum, maize, oil seeds and cash crops such as tobacco and cotton [ 48 ]. Due to the sporadic and insufficient precipitation in many regions of Zimbabwe, irrigation is a vital aspect for the prosperity of agricultural output in these areas. In Zimbabwe people are also involved in livestock rearing for example cattle and goats.

4 Methodology

The methodology used for literature search in the review paper involved a systematic approach to gather relevant information from various sources. Firstly, an extensive search was conducted on academic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Science Direct and Web of Science using key words related to CDW management, safety hazards and health hazards. Additionally, relevant government reports, policy documents and guidelines were accessed from official websites such as the Ministry of Health and Child Care and the Environmental Management Agency in Zimbabwe. Grey literature including conference proceedings and technical reports were also considered. Furthermore, manual searching was performed by reviewing the reference lists of identified articles to find relevant studies. The inclusion criteria for selecting articles included relevance to the topic, abstract and availability of full text articles. The exclusion criteria involved studies not conducted, not specifically addressing safety and health hazards associated with CDW. The review compiled by the researchers relied on a comprehensive retrieval of English literature published until 2023 to enhance the validity and reliability of the data used, which includes a wide range of scholarly articles, books and other sources. This was done to provide a thorough understanding of the topic. During literature review 102 papers were identified. Analysis of the retrieved documents was done through reading topic, abstract, keywords. After that 43 papers were selected and critically appraised for their quality and relevance to the research question. The findings from these sources were then synthesized to provide a comprehensive overview of the management of safety and health hazards associated with CDW in Zimbabwe. The research methodology flow chart is shown in Fig.  2 .

Source: Authors

Research methodology flow chart.

5 Summary introduction of the findings

The study explores the important aspect of controlling health and safety risks associated with building and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. The research findings emphasize the need of putting in place efficient safety measures to safeguard employees, communities and the environment by highlighting the common hazards and difficulties associated with managing waste from construction and demolition industries. In order to mitigate these risks, the study proposes various strategies which include appropriate waste segregation, the use of personal protective equipment, worker training initiatives and regulatory enforcement. The study offers useful insights for policymakers, industry stakeholders and practitioners to improve safety standards and promote sustainable waste management practices in the construction sector by analyzing the current practices and regulations in Zimbabwe regarding construction and demolition waste management.

6 Findings and discussion

6.1 types of construction and demolition waste.

There are several types of CDW, including concrete, wood, metal, bricks, glass, plastics and asphalt [ 3 , 14 , 49 ]. Concrete is one of the most common types of CDW, generated from construction sites and it poses challenges due to its weight and volume [ 50 , 51 ]. This designates that concrete waste is a significant component of CDW. Concrete waste includes concrete blocks, slabs, beams and other concrete structures that are removed during demolition or renovation activities [ 1 , 26 ]. Additionally, wood waste is another major component of CDW, arising from demolition activities and construction processes [ 13 , 52 ]. According to [ 9 ] wood waste from construction and demolition activities includes boards, plywood, pallets and timber as well as other wooden materials. Wood waste is often generated from framing, formwork and packaging materials in construction and demolition companies [ 16 , 23 ]. Metals, such as steel and aluminum, are also prevalent in CDW due to their use in structural components and fixtures [ 24 , 53 ]. This clearly means categories of metal waste produced during construction and demolition activities includes structural steel, pipes, wiring, roofing materials and metal fixtures. [ 54 ] and [ 22 ] indicated that construction and demolition activities produce waste related to bricks, glass and plastics. Bricks, blocks, tiles and other masonry materials are common components of CDW [ 12 , 25 ]. Plastic waste in construction and demolition activities includes packaging materials, pipes, fittings, insulation and other plastic products used in building construction [ 10 , 55 ]. Glass materials removed from buildings are regarded as CDW [ 6 , 34 ]. This indicates that glass waste from construction and demolition activities includes windows, glass doors, partitions and other glass components removed from buildings. Categories of construction and demolition waste and their examples are shown in Table  1 .

6.2 Safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste

Construction and demolition waste is associated with various safety and health hazards to people notably physical, chemical, biological and ergonomic hazards [ 2 , 30 ]. Physical hazards are prevalent in construction and demolition sites [ 6 , 35 ]. This suggests that falls, trips and slips are common accidents in construction and demolition industries that can result from uneven surfaces, cluttered work areas or inadequate safety measures. Physical hazards lead to severe injuries such as fractures or head trauma [ 10 , 22 ]. Construction and demolition waste is associated with falling objects which pose significant risks, especially when materials or debris are not properly secured or stored [ 24 , 54 ]. According to [ 16 ] and [ 23 ] construction and demolition workers should wear appropriate personal protective equipment like hard hats to minimize risk of head injuries from falling debris waste [ 9 ]. Opined that noise exposure is another physical hazard in construction and demolition environments. Construction and demolition machinery, power tools and other equipment used during construction and demolition works generate high levels of noise that can cause hearing loss or impairment if workers are not adequately protected [ 13 , 56 ]. As a result, employers should implement engineering controls like noise barriers or provide workers with hearing protection devices such as earplugs or earmuffs.

Construction and demolition works expose workers to vibration when they are operating vibrating tools or machinery for extended periods when dealing with brick waste which need to be destroyed [ 10 , 24 ]. Nevertheless, prolonged exposure to hand-arm vibration leads to conditions like hand-arm vibration syndrome, which affects blood vessels, nerves, muscles and joints in the hands and arms. In construction and demolition industries employees should be provided with anti-vibration gloves and regularly maintain equipment to vibration levels [ 1 , 26 ]. Additionally, dust is a common by-product of CDW [ 51 ]. This means that inhalation of dust particles is common among workers who deal with construction and demolition waste, however, this causes respiratory issues such as asthma, bronchitis or silicosis if it contains hazardous substances like crystalline silica. There is a need to protect workers from dust produced when dealing with construction and demolition waste through wetting down surfaces, through using local exhaust ventilation systems to reduce dust levels and through wearing respiratory protection [ 14 , 49 ]. Moreover, ergonomic hazards are prevalent in management of construction and demolition waste due to physical demands placed on workers’ bodies [ 13 , 17 ]. This specifies that management of construction and demolition waste is associated with manual handling of heavy objects which can lead to musculoskeletal disorders such as back injuries or strains. Cranes or forklifts ought to be vital mechanical aids in construction and demolition companies to reduce manual handling hazards among waste workers in construction and demolition industries [ 15 , 30 ]. Repetitive tasks performed during management of construction and demolition waste contribute to musculoskeletal disorders [ 29 , 33 ].

Hazardous materials are often present in CDW, posing significant risks to workers’ safety and health [ 6 , 34 ]. Asbestos is a well-known hazardous material commonly found in older buildings and inhalation of asbestos fibers can lead to serious diseases like lung cancer [ 5 , 57 ]. This means proper identification, handling and removal procedures should be followed when dealing with asbestos-containing materials. Lead-based paint is also regarded as hazardous material that may be encountered during construction and demolition works [ 16 , 23 ]. This clearly shows that in Construction and Demolition Company workers are exposed to lead which causes neurological damage as a result, strict containment and removal protocols should be followed to prevent lead exposure. Additionally, lead-based paint and lead pipes found in older buildings can contaminate the environment during demolition, posing a risk of lead poisoning particularly to children [ 58 , 59 ]. [ 60 ] and [ 61 ] indicated that exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from paints, solvents and adhesives commonly found in CDW materials result in eye, nose and throat irritation as well as long term health effects such as liver and kidney damage. Moreover, improper disposal of CDW through leaching of hazardous chemical waste into the soil and groundwater [ 17 , 30 ]. This denotes that improper management of CDW can contribute to environmental pollution and ecosystem degradation.

In areas where moisture is present biological hazards can arise from CDW leading to respiratory infections and allergic reactions among workers exposed to mold spores [ 9 , 52 ]. This implies that inadequate handling and disposal of CDW can also lead to biological hazards from exposure to bacteria and other pathogens present in damp or decaying CDW. Biological hazards may be present in CDW, especially in older structures where mold, bacteria and other microorganisms can thrive [ 10 , 34 ]. In addition, workers involved in waste sorting or handling may come into contact with sharp objects or contaminated materials that can cause cuts or puncture wounds, potentially leading to infections [ 29 , 33 ].

6.3 National legislation and regulations related to construction and demolition waste management in Zimbabwe

6.3.1 environmental management act [chapter 20:27].

The regulatory framework for managing safety and health hazards in Zimbabwe is primarily governed by national legislation and regulations related to CDW management. The Environmental Management Act (Chapter 20:27) is the primary legislation that governs waste management in Zimbabwe. Under the Environmental Management Act, the Environmental Management Agency (EMA) is responsible for overseeing waste management activities including those related to CDW. This entails that the Environmental Management Agency has also developed guidelines and regulations specifically addressing CDW management. Guidelines developed by EMA for addressing CDW provide guidance on waste minimization, segregation, storage, transportation and disposal practices. The Environmental Management Agency outlines the responsibilities of different stakeholders involved in construction projects including developers, contractors and waste generators. In relation to the management of safety and health hazards associated with CDW, the Environmental Management Act establishes several key provisions. These provisions aim to ensure that construction and demolition activities are carried out in a manner that minimizes risks to human health and the environment. One of the primary objectives of the Act is to promote sustainable development by preventing or minimizing pollution and environmental degradation. Section 4 of the Act states that every person has a duty to take reasonable measures to prevent or minimize pollution, ecological degradation and damage to the environment. This provision applies to all activities including construction and demolition activities which have the potential to generate waste and pose safety and health hazards. Section 73 of the Act specifically addresses waste management. It requires any person who generates waste, including CDW to take all reasonable steps to prevent pollution or harm to human health and the environment. This includes implementing appropriate measures for the safe handling, storage, transportation, treatment and disposal of waste.

6.4 Environmental impact assessment policy

In Zimbabwe the Environmental Management Act (Chapter 20:27) lists all projects that require Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) including housing developments projects. Under Part XI of the institutional and legal provisions for environmental management in Zimbabwe, all development projects, particularly those with substantial adverse environmental effects, must undergo comprehensive EIA. This infers that the Environmental Impact Assessment regulations (Statutory Instrument 14 of 2007) require all development projects including construction and demolition projects to undergo an EIA to identify potential environmental impacts and propose mitigation measures. According to [ 62 ], the use of the Environmental Impact Assessment tool is important in the management of waste, specifically during treatment and discarding stages. Municipalities in Zimbabwe are advised to conduct the EIA process prior to selecting sites for waste disposal and building waste treatment plants. According to the Environmental Impact Assessment, the positioning waste landfill should follow the standards of the Environmental Management Act (Chapter 20:27) in order to protect residents from hazards associated with inappropriate disposal of waste. This denotes that the EIA supports the municipalities in implementation of preventive measures such as implementing proper disposal methods and recycling programs to mitigate the negative impacts of waste on the environment and public health.

6.4.1 Factories and workers act [Chapter 14:08]

The Factories and Works Act was passed in 1996 and it aims to tackle concerns regarding the safeguarding of workers and the prevention of accidents in various workplaces. The Factories and Works Act was implemented following OHS legislations like the Statutory Instrument 68 of 1990 which outlines specific requirements for employers to provide a safe and healthy work environment for employees. Employers are required by the Factories and Workers Act to provide employees with an adequate supply of personal protective equipment/clothing. This signifies that workers involved in dealing with CDW should be equipped with PPE/C to protect them from safety and health hazards. According to the Act workers should be trained about safety and health hazards associated with CDW. As a result, government agencies, contractors, developers and workers involved in construction and demolition projects should comply with Factories and Workers Act [Chapter 14:08] to protect workers from safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste.

6.4.2 Hazardous substances and articles act [Chapter 15:17]

The Hazardous Substances and Articles Act [Chapter 15:17] is a legislation in Zimbabwe that regulates the management of hazardous substances and articles. While the Hazardous Substances and Articles Act does not specifically mention CDW, it provides a framework for managing safety and health hazards associated with such waste. The Act provides a system for classifying hazardous substances based on their properties and potential risks. This classification helps in identifying which materials in CDW may pose safety or health hazards. For example, asbestos is classified as a hazardous substance due to its carcinogenic properties. The Act requires individuals in activities related to hazardous substances to obtain licenses or registrations. Activities involved in hazardous substances include storage, transportation, handling or disposal of hazardous substances. Construction companies or waste management facilities dealing with construction and demolition waste may need to comply with these licensing requirements to ensure proper management of hazardous materials. The Hazardous Substances and Articles Act [Chapter 15:17] imposes a duty of care on persons who deal with hazardous substances or articles. This duty requires them to take all reasonable measures to prevent harm to human health and the environment. In the context of CDW, this duty requires contractors, builders and waste management operators to handle and dispose of hazardous materials safely. The Act requires proper labeling, packaging and storage to minimize the risk of accidents or exposure to hazardous materials during construction and demolition waste management. The Act also specifies methods and facilities approved for safe disposal or treatment of hazardous materials. As a result, CDW containing hazardous substances need to be disposed of in accordance with the Hazardous Substances and Articles Act to protect human health and environmental contamination.

6.4.3 The public health act [Chapter 15:09]

The Public Health Act [Chapter 15:09] of Zimbabwe outlines the regulations and guidelines for the management of safety and health hazards associated with CDW. The Act covers a wide range of topics related to public health, including the handling, storage, transportation and disposal of CDW. Under the Public Health Act, the responsible authorities for the management of CDW are the local authorities who are responsible for ensuring that all waste is disposed of in a safe and healthy manner. Local authorities are mandated by Sect. 83 of the Public Health Act to guarantee a clean environment within their jurisdiction for the purpose of safeguarding humanity. Nevertheless, private operators can collect CDW to prevent constant accumulation of waste at construction and demolition sites. The Act requires that all CDW be properly sorted, categorized and disposed of in accordance with the regulations set in the Act. According to the Act construction and demolition sites be inspected regularly to ensure compliance with the regulations of the Act. The responsible authorities are required to submit reports and records related to the management of CDW. In addition to the regulations set forth in the Act, there are also guidelines and standards for the management of CDW that must be followed. These guidelines and standards include the use of personal protective equipment, proper handling and storage of waste and the use of appropriate equipment and machinery for the disposal of waste. The Public Health Act provides for the establishment of a Health and Safety Committee, which is responsible for overseeing the management of safety and health hazards on construction and demolition sites. The Health and Safety Committee is composed of representatives from the employer, employees and the responsible authorities and responsible for ensuring that all safety and health regulations are being followed.

6.4.4 The urban councils act [Chapter 29:15]

The Act governs waste management in urban areas. The Act sets out the responsibilities of urban councils in ensuring the safe and healthy environment for their communities including the proper disposal of CDW. Under Sect. 14 of the Urban Council Act, urban councils are responsible for the collection, removal and disposal of refuse including CDW. The Urban Council Act requires urban councils to provide facilities for the storage and disposal of CDW and ensure that these facilities are properly maintained. Additionally, the Urban Council Act empowers urban councils to enter into agreements with other authorities, organisations or individuals for the purpose of managing CDW. This includes the establishment of joint ventures or partnerships to operate and maintain facilities for the disposal of CDW.

6.5 Risk assessment and management strategies in construction and demolition waste management

Construction and demolition waste management involves the identification, evaluation, implementation, monitoring and review of management strategies using risk assessment [ 13 , 51 ]. In Zimbabwe, like in many other countries, the risk assessment process is crucial to ensure the safety of workers, protect the environment and comply with regulations [ 63 , 64 ]. According to the [ 65 ] and [ 66 ] risk assessment helps to identify potential hazards, evaluate risks associated with different types of waste types, implement control measures to mitigate risks and continuously monitor and review risk management strategies.

The first step in risk assessment and management is to identify potential hazards in CDW management [ 30 , 67 ]. Hazards associated with CDW management include physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic and psychosocial risks [ 68 ]. To identify safety and health hazards associated with management of CDW, a thorough assessment of the CDW management process should be conducted [ 29 ]. However, risk assessment should consider all stages of waste management including waste collection, transportation and sorting, recycling, disposal and site remediation. Once potential hazards are identified the next step is to evaluate the risks associated with different types of CDW and activities performed during the management of waste [ 49 , 56 ]. This implies that evaluation involves assessing the likelihood and severity of potential incidents or accidents occurring and also considers the vulnerability of workers and the environment to risks associated with CDW. Different waste types pose varying levels of risk, for example, hazardous materials like asbestos or lead-based paint require special handling procedures due to their potential health effects [ 2 , 15 ]. In the management of CDW risk evaluation consider factors such as worker training and experience, availability of personal protective equipment and compliance with regulations related to CDW [ 52 , 54 ].

After evaluating risks associated with CDW, control measures should be implemented to mitigate those risks [ 69 ]. Measures implemented after evaluation of risks include engineering controls, administrative controls and personal protective equipment [ 31 , 32 , 70 ]. Administrative controls include providing proper waste management training, establishment of safe work practices and conducting regular inspections [ 33 , 34 ]. Personal protective equipment such as gloves, masks or safety goggles should be provided to workers dealing with CDW [ 17 , 35 ]. However, it is important to note that control measures should be tailored to specific waste types and activities associated with CDW. Once control measures are implemented it is crucial to continuously monitor and review risk management strategies [ 64 , 71 ]. As a result, monitoring and review of risk management helps to identify any new hazards that may arise during the waste management processes or any shortcomings in existing control measures used to manage CDW. Monitoring involves regular inspections of waste management sites [ 72 , 73 ]. By continuously monitoring and reviewing risk management strategies, improvements can be made over time to enhance safety and environmental protection in CDW.

6.6 Personal protective equipment/clothing (PPE/C) for construction and demolition waste management

Personal Protective Equipment/Clothe (PPE/C) refers to specialized clothing, equipment and accessories designed to protect workers from hazards in their work environment [ 74 , 75 ]. One of the primary reasons for using PPE/C in construction and demolition waste management is to protect workers from physical hazards [ 26 , 50 ]. Physical hazards include falling objects, sharp materials and debris that may cause injuries such as cuts, punctures or fractures [ 32 , 49 ]. This means PPE/C such as hard hats, safety goggles and steel-toed boots are essential in preventing head injuries, eye injuries and foot injuries. Additionally, gloves and other protective clothing can shield workers from contact with hazardous substances or chemicals commonly found in CDW [ 25 , 57 ]. Personal protective equipment/clothing plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety and well-being of workers in the CDW management industry [ 15 , 22 ].

Another critical aspect of PPE/C in management of CDW is respiratory protection [ 14 , 16 ]. Construction and demolition sites often generate dust, fumes and other airborne particles that can be harmful if inhaled [ 2 , 3 ]. This denotes that respiratory protective equipment such as masks or respirators are necessary to prevent respiratory diseases or conditions caused by exposure to hazardous CDW. Properly fitted masks or respirators filter out harmful particles and ensure that workers breathe clean air while performing their tasks related to construction and demolition activities [ 6 , 10 ]. This implies that PPE/C helps to protect workers from potential health risks associated with hazardous materials present in the CDW. Hazardous materials present in construction and demolition waste include asbestos, lead-based paint, silica dust and other harmful substances [ 9 , 57 ]. As a result, PPE/C acts as a shield by preventing direct contact or inhalation of hazardous substances and this reduces the risk of long-term health issues such as respiratory diseases or poisoning.

6.7 Construction and demolition waste segregation, handling and storage practices

Proper waste segregation, handling and storage practices are essential to minimize the risks associated with hazardous materials and promote sustainable waste management [ 2 , 10 ]. Waste segregation is the process of separating different types of waste materials based on their characteristics such as hazardousness, recyclability or biodegradability [ 17 , 62 ]. In the context of CDW management in Zimbabwe, effective waste segregation plays a crucial role in minimizing potential safety and health hazards [ 29 , 68 ]. This denotes that waste segregation allows proper disposal or recycling of different waste streams, reducing environmental pollution and promoting resource conservation. By segregating waste at the source, it becomes easier to manage and process different materials separately and this increases the efficiency of recycling and reduces the overall volume of waste sent to landfills. Segregating construction and demolition waste at the source allows for effective sorting and recovery of valuable materials like metals, wood, bricks and plastics [ 6 , 7 ]. This suggests that materials recovered during segregation of CDW can be recycled or reused in new construction projects and this reduces the demand for new resources. In addition, segregation of CDW is vital in identifying hazardous materials like asbestos or lead-based paints hence they can be handled separately to prevent contamination and health risks [ 8 , 9 , 16 ]. However, to implement effective CDW segregation practices in Zimbabwe it is important to establish clear guidelines and regulations that define the categories of waste materials and their appropriate segregation methods. Guidelines created regarding segregation of CDW should be communicated to all stakeholders involved in construction and demolition projects notably contractors, workers and waste management personnel [ 13 , 14 ].

Additionally, proper handling practices are essential to ensure the safe transportation and movement of CDW within a worksite or during its transfer to disposal facilities [ 2 , 23 ]. As a result, it is crucial in Zimbabwe to train workers involved in construction and demolition activities the safe handling of CDW to minimize safety and health risks associated with CDW. Safe handling techniques are crucial to protect workers’ health and prevent accidents and injuries during CDW management activities [ 22 , 26 ]. Nevertheless, it is important to note that different types of waste materials require specific handling procedures to minimize risks effectively. According to [ 49 ] and Ramos and [ 52 ] during construction and demolition activities recyclable materials such as metals, plastics and wood should be handled separately and stored in designated containers or bins to avoid injuries and ensure the quality of recyclable construction and demolition waste. Hazardous construction and demolition waste like asbestos and lead-based paints require special precautions during handling [ 1 , 34 ]. This clearly means trained professionals equipped with proper personal protective equipment should handle hazardous materials to avoid exposure. Asbestos-containing materials need to be wetted down to prevent the release of harmful fibers into the air [ 5 , 57 ]. [ 33 ] indicated that large debris such as concrete chunks or bricks need to be handled using appropriate lifting equipment like cranes or forklifts. This implies that the use of suitable equipment and machinery for lifting, moving or loading waste materials can significantly reduce the risk of accidents. Workers involved in manual handling of debris waste produced by construction and demolition industries should wear personal protective equipment such as gloves, safety boots and helmets to prevent injuries which affect their health [ 7 , 10 ]. Additionally, workers are trained about proper manual handling techniques to prevent strains, sprains and other musculoskeletal injuries associated with handling of construction and demolition waste [ 6 , 9 ]. This designates that workers should be taught correct lifting postures, avoiding overexertion and seeking assistance when handling heavy or bulky construction and demolition waste items.

Proper storage practices are crucial for maintaining a safe and organized construction site while minimizing the risk of accidents or environmental contamination [ 8 , 13 ]. In Zimbabwe, CDW should be stored in designated areas that are secure, well-maintained and easily accessible for waste collection or disposal [ 17 , 21 ]. Key considerations for effective waste storage practices include segregated storage areas, containment measures and signage and labeling [ 22 , 23 ]. Different types of waste materials should be stored separately to prevent cross-contamination and facilitate proper waste management [ 20 , 26 ]. However, this can be achieved by allocating specific storage areas for different waste streams, such as wood, concrete, metals or hazardous materials. To prevent the dispersion of dust, debris or hazardous waste produced by construction and demolition waste appropriate containment measures should be implemented [ 49 , 56 ]. Containment measures include covering waste piles with tarpaulins or using enclosed containers for hazardous materials [ 52 , 54 ]. Following the containment measures clear signage and labelling should be used to indicate the type of waste stored in each area [ 26 , 73 ]. This suggests that signage and labeling is vital since it helps workers to identify potential hazards associated with CDW and ensures that waste materials are handled correctly during disposal or recycling processes.

6.8 Transportation and disposal of construction and demolition waste

Transportation and disposal of CDW in Zimbabwe involve various practices, legal requirements and options for disposal [ 68 , 76 ]. This entails that it is essential to ensure safe loading and transportation of waste materials while adhering to the legal framework. Transportation of CDW involves the movement of materials from the construction or demolition site to a designated disposal facility [ 2 , 10 ]. In Zimbabwe, transportation of waste is often carried out using trucks and other heavy-duty vehicles [ 67 , 77 ]. However, it is essential to ensure that vehicles used to transport CDW are suitable for transporting waste, since improper transportation of waste can lead to spillage, accidents and environmental pollution [ 6 , 30 ]. This entails that proper transportation of CDW helps to prevent accidents, minimize environmental impacts and ensure safety of workers involved in construction and demolition waste. In construction and demolition industries managers should choose optimal transportation plans to transport CDW [ 14 , 16 ]. This advocates that an effective waste collection and transportation plan which significantly lowers expenses associated with waste collection and transportation is implemented by managers in industries.

Disposing of CDW is a significant environmental concern due to its large volume and potential for negative impacts on the environment [ 2 , 15 ]. This suggests that the disposal of CDW can lead to pollution, habitat destruction and resource depletion if not managed properly. Therefore, it is essential to employ effective waste management strategies to minimize the environmental impact of construction and demolition waste disposal. Disposal of solid waste including CDW in Zimbabwe involves various methods such as landfilling, recycling and reusing [ 20 , 21 ]. Land filling is a common method where the waste is deposited into designated landfills and it is common for disposing of CDW [ 17 ]. Properly designed and managed landfills can help to contain waste and prevent environmental contamination [ 62 , 77 ]. Nevertheless, the long term environmental impact of landfilling CDW should be carefully considered. According to [ 69 ] and [ 7 ] landfilling CDW material not only results in the wastage of resources, such as recyclable resources and land, but also leads to the pollution of groundwater and soil quality. This implies that landfilling should be used as a last resort after all other options such as recycling and reuse have been explored.

In recent years, there has been growing emphasis on recycling and reusing CDW to minimize environmental impact [ 6 , 34 ]. The study conducted by [ 78 ] compared three various methods (landfilling, incineration and recycling) and concluded that recycling and reuse is the most environmentally-friendly way to treat CDW, followed by incineration and then landfilling. This entails that one of the most effective ways to manage CDW is through recycling and reuse. Natural resources are limited, but recycling CDW can produce endless raw materials, making recycling the best choice for processing CDW [ 10 , 12 ]. Construction and demolition waste materials such as concrete, wood, metals and asphalt can often be recycled and used in new construction projects [ 2 , 8 ]. Diverting construction and demolition waste materials from landfilling to recycle and reuse helps to conserve natural resources and reduce the impact of CDW disposal [ 22 , 25 ]. However, implementing source separation at construction sites helps to segregate different types of waste for recycling or proper disposal. Source separation involves sorting materials at the point of generation, making it easier to recycle valuable resources and reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills [ 20 , 62 , 68 ]. Additionally, governments have started implementing regulations for environmental protection and promoting the use of recycling machines such as mobile or portable rock crushers to convert CDW into new-type aggregate [ 16 , 24 , 34 ].

Additionally, the cost of landfilling has risen due to the overall increase in urban land prices due to urbanization [ 55 , 73 ]. This means the increase in urbanization has led to a lack of urban land, reducing the availability of infrastructure land and constraining landfill space. As a result, incineration has become another option for the disposal of CDW, which is a viable solution for reducing the amount of waste sent to landfills and producing energy from waste materials [ 16 , 23 , 51 ]. This implies that some CDW can be processed through waste to energy facilities to generate electricity or heat. Incineration reduces the volume of construction and demolition waste sent to landfills while producing energy [ 13 , 77 ]. However, incineration of CDW not only produces harmful organic pollutants and toxic gases, for example, carbides, dioxins sulfides and nitrides, but also results in solid residues like combustion fly ash and slag [ 26 , 62 ]. Hence, it is crucial to follow regulations and guidelines for waste disposal to prevent environmental contamination and public health risks.

6.9 Challenges faced by Zimbabwe in managing construction and demolition waste

Zimbabwe faces several challenges in managing waste due to lack of proper infrastructure and facilities for waste management [ 17 , 19 ]. This implies that Zimbabwe has limited recycling and waste treatment facilities, leading to improper disposal of CDW. However, this results in environmental pollution and health hazards for the local communities and workers who deal with CDW [ 20 , 29 ]. Additionally, lack of awareness and education about sustainable waste management practices among developers and contractors involved in construction and demolition activities contributes to improper handling of CDW [ 2 , 16 ]. In developing countries there is a lack of stringent regulations and enforcement mechanisms for CDW management and Zimbabwe cannot be spared [ 19 , 21 , 79 ]. This denotes that existing waste management policies in Zimbabwe are not effectively enforced, leading to haphazard disposal practices by construction companies and individual builders. Lack of regulatory oversight exacerbates the environmental and health impacts of CDW [ 6 , 7 , 9 ].

Economic constraints pose a challenge to effective CDW management in Zimbabwe [ 13 ]. Economic constraints affect the availability of funds to use for proper management of CDW [ 8 , 78 ]. This clearly means limited financial resources hinder investment in modern waste management technologies and infrastructure, making it difficult to implement sustainable waste management practices. The cost of establishing recycling facilities and implementing proper disposal methods is prohibitive for many stakeholders in the construction and demolition industry [ 17 , 55 ]. There is a need for capacity building and skills development in the field of CDW management in Zimbabwe [ 15 ]. Lack of trained personnel and expertise in sustainable waste management techniques hinders the adoption of best practices in handling CDW in Zimbabwe [ 19 , 55 ]. This indicates that building the capacity of professionals in the construction and demolition industry is crucial for improving waste management processes and promoting environmentally friendly waste practices in Zimbabwe.

7 Conclusion and recommendations

The management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe is a critical issue that requires immediate attention and comprehensive strategies. The review paper has highlighted various hazards such as exposure to harmful substances, physical hazards and the potential for accidents. It has also discussed the existing regulations and policies related to waste management in Zimbabwe, emphasizing the need for stricter enforcement and implementation. Many challenges are faced by Zimbabwe in addressing safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste. There are many issues pertaining to health and safety risks that the construction and demolition sector in Zimbabwe must deal with. These issues include poor waste management techniques, inadequate worker training, inadequate enforcement of laws, and low awareness within stakeholders. It is evident that effective management strategies, including proper waste disposal, recycling and the implementation of stringent safety regulations, are essential for mitigating the risks posed by construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. As a result, enhancing safety and health standards in the construction industry of Zimbabwe can be achieved by encouraging a culture of safety consciousness within the industry, engaging with local communities to promote responsible waste disposal practices, conducting routine inspections and audits to ensure compliance with regulations, and offering rewards for best practices.

To effectively manage safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe, it is recommended that comprehensive risk assessments be conducted at construction and demolition sites. This should include identifying potential hazards, evaluating risks and implementing control measures to mitigate these risks. Additionally, there should be a focus on promoting awareness and training programs for workers to ensure they understand the risks associated with construction and demolition waste and are equipped with the necessary skills to handle waste safely. Furthermore, there is a need for collaboration between government agencies, industry stakeholders and local communities to develop sustainable waste management practices that prioritize safety and health. Strengthening regulatory frameworks and enforcement mechanisms is also crucial to ensure compliance with safety standards and regulations. Lastly, investing in research and innovation for sustainable waste management technologies can significantly contribute to reducing hazards associated with construction and demolition waste.

Data availability

The data generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Jerie, S., Shabani, T. & Shabani, T. Management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. Discov Environ 2 , 56 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-024-00088-4

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