hypothesis in media research

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• v.37(16); 2022 Apr 25

A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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2.2 Media Effects Theories

Learning objectives.

• Identify the basic theories of media effects.
• Explain the uses of various media effects theories.

Early media studies focused on the use of mass media in propaganda and persuasion. However, journalists and researchers soon looked to behavioral sciences to help figure out the effect of mass media and communications on society. Scholars have developed many different approaches and theories to figure this out. You can refer to these theories as you research and consider the media’s effect on culture.

Widespread fear that mass-media messages could outweigh other stabilizing cultural influences, such as family and community, led to what is known as the direct effects model of media studies. This model assumed that audiences passively accepted media messages and would exhibit predictable reactions in response to those messages. For example, following the radio broadcast of War of the Worlds in 1938 (which was a fictional news report of an alien invasion), some people panicked and believed the story to be true.

Challenges to the Direct Effects Theory

The results of the People’s Choice Study challenged this model. Conducted in 1940, the study attempted to gauge the effects of political campaigns on voter choice. Researchers found that voters who consumed the most media had generally already decided for which candidate to vote, while undecided voters generally turned to family and community members to help them decide. The study thus discredited the direct effects model and influenced a host of other media theories (Hanson, 2009). These theories do not necessarily give an all-encompassing picture of media effects but rather work to illuminate a particular aspect of media influence.

Marshall McLuhan’s Influence on Media Studies

During the early 1960s, English professor Marshall McLuhan wrote two books that had an enormous effect on the history of media studies. Published in 1962 and 1964, respectively, the Gutenberg Galaxy and Understanding Media both traced the history of media technology and illustrated the ways these innovations had changed both individual behavior and the wider culture. Understanding Media introduced a phrase that McLuhan has become known for: “The medium is the message.” This notion represented a novel take on attitudes toward media—that the media themselves are instrumental in shaping human and cultural experience.

His bold statements about media gained McLuhan a great deal of attention as both his supporters and critics responded to his utopian views about the ways media could transform 20th-century life. McLuhan spoke of a media-inspired “global village” at a time when Cold War paranoia was at its peak and the Vietnam War was a hotly debated subject. Although 1960s-era utopians received these statements positively, social realists found them cause for scorn. Despite—or perhaps because of—these controversies, McLuhan became a pop culture icon, mentioned frequently in the television sketch-comedy program Laugh-In and appearing as himself in Woody Allen’s film Annie Hall .

The Internet and its accompanying cultural revolution have made McLuhan’s bold utopian visions seem like prophecies. Indeed, his work has received a great deal of attention in recent years. Analysis of McLuhan’s work has, interestingly, not changed very much since his works were published. His supporters point to the hopes and achievements of digital technology and the utopian state that such innovations promise. The current critique of McLuhan, however, is a bit more revealing of the state of modern media studies. Media scholars are much more numerous now than they were during the 1960s, and many of these scholars criticize McLuhan’s lack of methodology and theoretical framework.

Despite his lack of scholarly diligence, McLuhan had a great deal of influence on media studies. Professors at Fordham University have formed an association of McLuhan-influenced scholars. McLuhan’s other great achievement is the popularization of the concept of media studies. His work brought the idea of media effects into the public arena and created a new way for the public to consider the influence of media on culture (Stille, 2000).

Agenda-Setting Theory

In contrast to the extreme views of the direct effects model, the agenda-setting theory of media stated that mass media determine the issues that concern the public rather than the public’s views. Under this theory, the issues that receive the most attention from media become the issues that the public discusses, debates, and demands action on. This means that the media is determining what issues and stories the public thinks about. Therefore, when the media fails to address a particular issue, it becomes marginalized in the minds of the public (Hanson).

When critics claim that a particular media outlet has an agenda, they are drawing on this theory. Agendas can range from a perceived liberal bias in the news media to the propagation of cutthroat capitalist ethics in films. For example, the agenda-setting theory explains such phenomena as the rise of public opinion against smoking. Before the mass media began taking an antismoking stance, smoking was considered a personal health issue. By promoting antismoking sentiments through advertisements, public relations campaigns, and a variety of media outlets, the mass media moved smoking into the public arena, making it a public health issue rather than a personal health issue (Dearing & Rogers, 1996). More recently, coverage of natural disasters has been prominent in the news. However, as news coverage wanes, so does the general public’s interest.

Through a variety of antismoking campaigns, the health risks of smoking became a public agenda.

Quinn Dombrowski – Weapons of mass destruction – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Media scholars who specialize in agenda-setting research study the salience, or relative importance, of an issue and then attempt to understand what causes it to be important. The relative salience of an issue determines its place within the public agenda, which in turn influences public policy creation. Agenda-setting research traces public policy from its roots as an agenda through its promotion in the mass media and finally to its final form as a law or policy (Dearing & Rogers, 1996).

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Practitioners of the uses and gratifications theory study the ways the public consumes media. This theory states that consumers use the media to satisfy specific needs or desires. For example, you may enjoy watching a show like Dancing With the Stars while simultaneously tweeting about it on Twitter with your friends. Many people use the Internet to seek out entertainment, to find information, to communicate with like-minded individuals, or to pursue self-expression. Each of these uses gratifies a particular need, and the needs determine the way in which media is used. By examining factors of different groups’ media choices, researchers can determine the motivations behind media use (Papacharissi, 2009).

A typical uses and gratifications study explores the motives for media consumption and the consequences associated with use of that media. In the case of Dancing With the Stars and Twitter, you are using the Internet as a way to be entertained and to connect with your friends. Researchers have identified a number of common motives for media consumption. These include relaxation, social interaction, entertainment, arousal, escape, and a host of interpersonal and social needs. By examining the motives behind the consumption of a particular form of media, researchers can better understand both the reasons for that medium’s popularity and the roles that the medium fills in society. A study of the motives behind a given user’s interaction with Facebook, for example, could explain the role Facebook takes in society and the reasons for its appeal.

Uses and gratifications theories of media are often applied to contemporary media issues. The analysis of the relationship between media and violence that you read about in preceding sections exemplifies this. Researchers employed the uses and gratifications theory in this case to reveal a nuanced set of circumstances surrounding violent media consumption, as individuals with aggressive tendencies were drawn to violent media (Papacharissi, 2009).

Symbolic Interactionism

Another commonly used media theory, symbolic interactionism , states that the self is derived from and develops through human interaction. This means the way you act toward someone or something is based on the meaning you have for a person or thing. To effectively communicate, people use symbols with shared cultural meanings. Symbols can be constructed from just about anything, including material goods, education, or even the way people talk. Consequentially, these symbols are instrumental in the development of the self.

This theory helps media researchers better understand the field because of the important role the media plays in creating and propagating shared symbols. Because of the media’s power, it can construct symbols on its own. By using symbolic interactionist theory, researchers can look at the ways media affects a society’s shared symbols and, in turn, the influence of those symbols on the individual (Jansson-Boyd, 2010).

One of the ways the media creates and uses cultural symbols to affect an individual’s sense of self is advertising. Advertisers work to give certain products a shared cultural meaning to make them desirable. For example, when you see someone driving a BMW, what do you think about that person? You may assume the person is successful or powerful because of the car he or she is driving. Ownership of luxury automobiles signifies membership in a certain socioeconomic class. Equally, technology company Apple has used advertising and public relations to attempt to become a symbol of innovation and nonconformity. Use of an Apple product, therefore, may have a symbolic meaning and may send a particular message about the product’s owner.

Media also propagate other noncommercial symbols. National and state flags, religious images, and celebrities gain shared symbolic meanings through their representation in the media.

Spiral of Silence

The spiral of silence theory, which states that those who hold a minority opinion silence themselves to prevent social isolation, explains the role of mass media in the formation and maintenance of dominant opinions. As minority opinions are silenced, the illusion of consensus grows, and so does social pressure to adopt the dominant position. This creates a self-propagating loop in which minority voices are reduced to a minimum and perceived popular opinion sides wholly with the majority opinion. For example, prior to and during World War II, many Germans opposed Adolf Hitler and his policies; however, they kept their opposition silent out of fear of isolation and stigma.

Because the media is one of the most important gauges of public opinion, this theory is often used to explain the interaction between media and public opinion. According to the spiral of silence theory, if the media propagates a particular opinion, then that opinion will effectively silence opposing opinions through an illusion of consensus. This theory relates especially to public polling and its use in the media (Papacharissi).

Media Logic

The media logic theory states that common media formats and styles serve as a means of perceiving the world. Today, the deep rooting of media in the cultural consciousness means that media consumers need engage for only a few moments with a particular television program to understand that it is a news show, a comedy, or a reality show. The pervasiveness of these formats means that our culture uses the style and content of these shows as ways to interpret reality. For example, think about a TV news program that frequently shows heated debates between opposing sides on public policy issues. This style of debate has become a template for handling disagreement to those who consistently watch this type of program.

Media logic affects institutions as well as individuals. The modern televangelist has evolved from the adoption of television-style promotion by religious figures, while the utilization of television in political campaigns has led candidates to consider their physical image as an important part of a campaign (Altheide & Snow, 1991).

Cultivation Analysis

The cultivation analysis theory states that heavy exposure to media causes individuals to develop an illusory perception of reality based on the most repetitive and consistent messages of a particular medium. This theory most commonly applies to analyses of television because of that medium’s uniquely pervasive, repetitive nature. Under this theory, someone who watches a great deal of television may form a picture of reality that does not correspond to actual life. Televised violent acts, whether those reported on news programs or portrayed on television dramas, for example, greatly outnumber violent acts that most people encounter in their daily lives. Thus, an individual who watches a great deal of television may come to view the world as more violent and dangerous than it actually is.

Cultivation analysis projects involve a number of different areas for research, such as the differences in perception between heavy and light users of media. To apply this theory, the media content that an individual normally watches must be analyzed for various types of messages. Then, researchers must consider the given media consumer’s cultural background of individuals to correctly determine other factors that are involved in his or her perception of reality. For example, the socially stabilizing influences of family and peer groups influence children’s television viewing and the way they process media messages. If an individual’s family or social life plays a major part in her life, the social messages that she receives from these groups may compete with the messages she receives from television.

Key Takeaways

• The now largely discredited direct effects model of media studies assumes that media audiences passively accept media messages and exhibit predictable reactions in response to those messages.
• Credible media theories generally do not give as much power to the media, such as the agenda-setting theory, or give a more active role to the media consumer, such as the uses and gratifications theory.
• Other theories focus on specific aspects of media influence, such as the spiral of silence theory’s focus on the power of the majority opinion or the symbolic interactionism theory’s exploration of shared cultural symbolism.
• Media logic and cultivation analysis theories deal with how media consumers’ perceptions of reality can be influenced by media messages.

Media theories have a variety of uses and applications. Research one of the following topics and its effect on culture. Examine the topic using at least two of the approaches discussed in this section. Then, write a one-page essay about the topic you’ve selected.

• Internet habits
• Television’s effect on attention span
• Advertising and self-image
• Racial stereotyping in film
• Many of the theories discussed in this section were developed decades ago. Identify how each of these theories can be used today? Do you think these theories are still relevant for modern mass media? Why?

David Altheide and Robert Snow, Media Worlds in the Postjournalism Era (New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1991), 9–11.

Dearing, James and Everett Rogers, Agenda-Setting (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 4.

Hanson, Ralph. Mass Communication: Living in a Media World (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2009), 80–81.

Hanson, Ralph. Mass Communication , 92.

Jansson-Boyd, Catherine. Consumer Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 59–62.

Papacharissi, Zizi. “Uses and Gratifications,” 153–154.

Papacharissi, Zizi. “Uses and Gratifications,” in An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research , ed. Don Stacks and Michael Salwen (New York: Routledge, 2009), 137.

Stille, Alexander. “Marshall McLuhan Is Back From the Dustbin of History; With the Internet, His Ideas Again Seem Ahead of Their Time,” New York Times , October 14, 2000, http://www.nytimes.com/2000/10/14/arts/marshall-mcluhan-back-dustbin-history-with-internet-his-ideas-again-seem-ahead.html .

Understanding Media and Culture Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Selective Exposure

Introduction, general overviews.

• Preliminary Works
• Related Concepts
• Selective Exposure and Other Constructs
• Research on Mediating Factors
• Selective Exposure in the Context of Different Media
• Political Dimensions
• Social Dimensions

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Selective Exposure by Hans-Bernd Brosius , Christina Peter LAST REVIEWED: 23 February 2011 LAST MODIFIED: 23 February 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756841-0023

The basic assumption in the study of selective exposure is that people expose themselves to external stimuli in a selective way. When referred to the area of mass communication, this means that people choose certain types of media content and avoid other types. Although this fact may sound rather trivial, it is important in understanding the effects of mass communication because it is our common understanding that people can only be influenced by media messages to which they actually expose themselves. Therefore, the selective exposure concept emphasizes the active role of the individual in the selection of media content. Research into this phenomenon is undertaken in the fields of both psychology and communication studies. Basically, there are two major trends in this research. Most studies focus on factors that lead to selective exposure or that mediate this process, whereas other studies deal with the consequences of selective exposure to information processing. The selection processes have also been examined in different contexts, such as in political or online communication.

Only a few textbooks and anthologies have focused exclusively on selective exposure, and most overviews have been published in academic journals. Many works like Frey and Wicklund 1978 , Frey 1986 , and D’Alessio and Allen 2007 define “selective exposure” as the result of cognitive dissonance, which leads people to seek information consonant with their beliefs and to avoid challenging information. However, in Freedman and Sears 1965 , the authors concluded that there is little empirical support for these assumptions. This controversy in the early research on the subject has led to a multitude of studies exploring the effects of selective exposure. In contrast, Katz 1968 gives an overview of studies on voting behavior. Bryant and Davis 2006 as well as the contributors to Zillmann and Bryant 1985 look at selective exposure from a different perspective and focus on entertainment choices. The contributors to Hartmann 2009 , on the other hand, give a more general insight in the research of media choice.

Bryant, Jennings, and John Davies. 2006. Selective exposure processes. In Psychology of entertainment . Edited by Jennings Bryant and Peter Vorderer, 19–33. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

This undergraduate text focuses on the role of emotions in the selective exposure process and provides a useful overview of the subject in the context of entertainment choices. As in Zillmann and Bryant 1985 , selective exposure is conceptualized in a similar way to mood management theory, with the premise that people choose information according to their emotional state.

D’Alessio, Dave, and Mike Allen. 2007. The selective exposure hypothesis and media choice processes. In Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis . Edited by Raymond W. Preiss, 103–119. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

This text provides three different meta-analytic reviews of studies dealing with selective exposure processes based on dissonance theory. It is extremely successful in imparting an overview of the empirical research on the subject. The authors replicate the analysis of Freedman and Sears 1965 and reach different conclusions.

Frey, Dieter, and Robert A. Wicklund. 1978. A clarification of selective exposure: The impact of choice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 14:132–139.

DOI: 10.1016/0022-1031(78)90066-5

This study identifies inconsistent findings concerning the selective exposure paradigm, which according to the authors, are attributable to inadequate methodological design and confounding factors. In this study, the variable of choice was manipulated, showing that selective exposure to supporting information increases when subjects perform a task voluntarily.

Frey, Dieter. 1986. Recent research on selective exposure to information. In Advances in experimental social psychology . Vol. 19. Edited by Leonard Berkowitz, 41–80. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

This text gives a broad overview of the early research into selective exposure. It is useful for both undergraduates and graduates who wish to understand the origins of the concept and several of the variables that influence the selective exposure processes.

Freedman, Jonathan L., and David O. Sears. 1965. Selective exposure. In Advances in experimental social psychology . Vol. 2. Edited by Leonard Berkowitz, 58–98. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

This text for advanced undergraduates and graduates provides a critical review of the research on selective exposure. It is one of the most cited and controversial articles discussed in the literature on selective exposure. After reviewing 23 studies on the subject, the authors conclude that the findings are inconsistent and, overall, there is little support for the selective exposure hypothesis.

Hartmann, Tilo, ed. 2009. Media choice: A theoretical and empirical overview. New York and London: Routledge.

Dealing with the different aspects of media choice, this anthology presents a modern view of selective exposure and examines the concept in a larger framework of media usage. The issues addressed in this volume concern the mechanisms that lead to the selection of media options and their consequences. It should be useful for both undergraduate and graduate students.

Katz, Elihu. 1968. On reopening the question of selectivity in exposure to mass communication. In Theories of cognitive consistency: A sourcebook . Edited by Robert P. Abelson, et al., 788–796. Chicago: Rand McNally.

This text is a review of the early research into selective exposure, focusing on exposure to mass communication. Katz lists studies outside cognitive dissonance theory, such as those on voting behavior. In contrast to other authors in the anthology, he finds considerable support for selective exposure theory.

Zillmann, Dolf, and Jennings Bryant, eds. 1985. Selective exposure to communication . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

This anthology, directed toward both undergraduate and graduate students, focuses on selective exposure processes in the realm of entertainment. The contributions to this volume are from both psychology and communication departments and deal mainly with exposure to television programs.

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Research Questions & Hypotheses

Generally, in quantitative studies, reviewers expect hypotheses rather than research questions. However, both research questions and hypotheses serve different purposes and can be beneficial when used together.

Research Questions

Clarify the research’s aim (farrugia et al., 2010).

• Research often begins with an interest in a topic, but a deep understanding of the subject is crucial to formulate an appropriate research question.
• Descriptive: “What factors most influence the academic achievement of senior high school students?”
• Comparative: “What is the performance difference between teaching methods A and B?”
• Relationship-based: “What is the relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement?”
• Increasing knowledge about a subject can be achieved through systematic literature reviews, in-depth interviews with patients (and proxies), focus groups, and consultations with field experts.
• Some funding bodies, like the Canadian Institute for Health Research, recommend conducting a systematic review or a pilot study before seeking grants for full trials.
• The presence of multiple research questions in a study can complicate the design, statistical analysis, and feasibility.
• It’s advisable to focus on a single primary research question for the study.
• The primary question, clearly stated at the end of a grant proposal’s introduction, usually specifies the study population, intervention, and other relevant factors.
• The FINER criteria underscore aspects that can enhance the chances of a successful research project, including specifying the population of interest, aligning with scientific and public interest, clinical relevance, and contribution to the field, while complying with ethical and national research standards.
• The P ICOT approach is crucial in developing the study’s framework and protocol, influencing inclusion and exclusion criteria and identifying patient groups for inclusion.
• Defining the specific population, intervention, comparator, and outcome helps in selecting the right outcome measurement tool.
• The more precise the population definition and stricter the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the more significant the impact on the interpretation, applicability, and generalizability of the research findings.
• A restricted study population enhances internal validity but may limit the study’s external validity and generalizability to clinical practice.
• A broadly defined study population may better reflect clinical practice but could increase bias and reduce internal validity.
• An inadequately formulated research question can negatively impact study design, potentially leading to ineffective outcomes and affecting publication prospects.

Checklist: Good research questions for social science projects (Panke, 2018)

Research Hypotheses

Present the researcher’s predictions based on specific statements.

• These statements define the research problem or issue and indicate the direction of the researcher’s predictions.
• Formulating the research question and hypothesis from existing data (e.g., a database) can lead to multiple statistical comparisons and potentially spurious findings due to chance.
• The research or clinical hypothesis, derived from the research question, shapes the study’s key elements: sampling strategy, intervention, comparison, and outcome variables.
• Hypotheses can express a single outcome or multiple outcomes.
• After statistical testing, the null hypothesis is either rejected or not rejected based on whether the study’s findings are statistically significant.
• Hypothesis testing helps determine if observed findings are due to true differences and not chance.
• Hypotheses can be 1-sided (specific direction of difference) or 2-sided (presence of a difference without specifying direction).
• 2-sided hypotheses are generally preferred unless there’s a strong justification for a 1-sided hypothesis.
• A solid research hypothesis, informed by a good research question, influences the research design and paves the way for defining clear research objectives.

Types of Research Hypothesis

• In a Y-centered research design, the focus is on the dependent variable (DV) which is specified in the research question. Theories are then used to identify independent variables (IV) and explain their causal relationship with the DV.
• Example: “An increase in teacher-led instructional time (IV) is likely to improve student reading comprehension scores (DV), because extensive guided practice under expert supervision enhances learning retention and skill mastery.”
• Hypothesis Explanation: The dependent variable (student reading comprehension scores) is the focus, and the hypothesis explores how changes in the independent variable (teacher-led instructional time) affect it.
• In X-centered research designs, the independent variable is specified in the research question. Theories are used to determine potential dependent variables and the causal mechanisms at play.
• Example: “Implementing technology-based learning tools (IV) is likely to enhance student engagement in the classroom (DV), because interactive and multimedia content increases student interest and participation.”
• Hypothesis Explanation: The independent variable (technology-based learning tools) is the focus, with the hypothesis exploring its impact on a potential dependent variable (student engagement).
• Probabilistic hypotheses suggest that changes in the independent variable are likely to lead to changes in the dependent variable in a predictable manner, but not with absolute certainty.
• Example: “The more teachers engage in professional development programs (IV), the more their teaching effectiveness (DV) is likely to improve, because continuous training updates pedagogical skills and knowledge.”
• Hypothesis Explanation: This hypothesis implies a probable relationship between the extent of professional development (IV) and teaching effectiveness (DV).
• Deterministic hypotheses state that a specific change in the independent variable will lead to a specific change in the dependent variable, implying a more direct and certain relationship.
• Example: “If the school curriculum changes from traditional lecture-based methods to project-based learning (IV), then student collaboration skills (DV) are expected to improve because project-based learning inherently requires teamwork and peer interaction.”
• Hypothesis Explanation: This hypothesis presumes a direct and definite outcome (improvement in collaboration skills) resulting from a specific change in the teaching method.
• Example : “Students who identify as visual learners will score higher on tests that are presented in a visually rich format compared to tests presented in a text-only format.”
• Explanation : This hypothesis aims to describe the potential difference in test scores between visual learners taking visually rich tests and text-only tests, without implying a direct cause-and-effect relationship.
• Example : “Teaching method A will improve student performance more than method B.”
• Explanation : This hypothesis compares the effectiveness of two different teaching methods, suggesting that one will lead to better student performance than the other. It implies a direct comparison but does not necessarily establish a causal mechanism.
• Example : “Students with higher self-efficacy will show higher levels of academic achievement.”
• Explanation : This hypothesis predicts a relationship between the variable of self-efficacy and academic achievement. Unlike a causal hypothesis, it does not necessarily suggest that one variable causes changes in the other, but rather that they are related in some way.

Tips for developing research questions and hypotheses for research studies

• Perform a systematic literature review (if one has not been done) to increase knowledge and familiarity with the topic and to assist with research development.
• Learn about current trends and technological advances on the topic.
• Seek careful input from experts, mentors, colleagues, and collaborators to refine your research question as this will aid in developing the research question and guide the research study.
• Use the FINER criteria in the development of the research question.
• Ensure that the research question follows PICOT format.
• Develop a research hypothesis from the research question.
• Ensure that the research question and objectives are answerable, feasible, and clinically relevant.

If your research hypotheses are derived from your research questions, particularly when multiple hypotheses address a single question, it’s recommended to use both research questions and hypotheses. However, if this isn’t the case, using hypotheses over research questions is advised. It’s important to note these are general guidelines, not strict rules. If you opt not to use hypotheses, consult with your supervisor for the best approach.

Farrugia, P., Petrisor, B. A., Farrokhyar, F., & Bhandari, M. (2010). Practical tips for surgical research: Research questions, hypotheses and objectives.  Canadian journal of surgery. Journal canadien de chirurgie ,  53 (4), 278–281.

Hulley, S. B., Cummings, S. R., Browner, W. S., Grady, D., & Newman, T. B. (2007). Designing clinical research. Philadelphia.

Panke, D. (2018). Research design & method selection: Making good choices in the social sciences.  Research Design & Method Selection , 1-368.

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• Open access
• Published: 05 March 2020

Social media, nature, and life satisfaction: global evidence of the biophilia hypothesis

• Chia-chen Chang 1   na1 ,
• Gwyneth Jia Yi Cheng 1   na1 ,
• Thi Phuong Le Nghiem 1 ,
• Xiao Ping Song   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8825-195X 2 , 4 ,
• Rachel Rui Ying Oh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2716-7727 3 ,
• Daniel R. Richards   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8196-8421 4 &
• L. Roman Carrasco   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2894-1473 1  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  4125 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Human behaviour
• Psychology and behaviour

Humans may have evolved a need to connect with nature, and nature provides substantial cultural and social values to humans. However, quantifying the connection between humans and nature at a global scale remains challenging. We lack answers to fundamental questions: how do humans experience nature in different contexts (daily routines, fun activities, weddings, honeymoons, other celebrations, and vacations) and how do nature experiences differ across countries? We answer these questions by coupling social media and artificial intelligence using 31,534 social media photographs across 185 countries. We find that nature was more likely to appear in photographs taken during a fun activity, honeymoon, or vacation compared to photographs of daily routines. More importantly, the proportion of photographs with nature taken during fun activities is associated with national life satisfaction scores. This study provides global evidence of the biophilia hypothesis by showing a connection between humans and nature that contributes to life satisfaction and highlights how nature serves as background to many of our positive memories.

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Introduction.

Ecosystems provide multiple benefits to humans, encompassing economic, ecological, cultural, and social values 1 , 2 . Despite these benefits, continuing environmental degradation has placed millions of animal and plant species under risk of extinction 3 , 4 . Removal and degradation of natural environments is expected to have negative consequences on human wellbeing 5 . This disparity between the overexploitation of natural resources and its importance to humans stems largely from the difficulty in integrating the value of nature’s benefits to people (“ecosystem services”) into policy 6 .

The value of ecosystem services is complex and multifaceted 6 . Although significant progress has been made in the economic and ecological valuation of ecosystem services, much less attention has been paid to cultural and social values, which are the most complex to capture 7 . Cultural ecosystem services are intangible benefits that people gain from experiencing nature 7 , 8 . The concept of “nature” is amorphous, so here we define nature as including biodiversity, ecosystems, living organisms, landscapes, and seascapes 5 . Nature provides an environmental space for cultural practices (including interacting with nature directly or using nature as background for other social activities) and yields various benefits 9 . These benefits include, among others, spiritual experiences, recreation, ecotourism, aesthetic appreciation, and further improved social cohesion and subjective wellbeing 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 .

Quantifying cultural ecosystem services is challenging as they represent immaterial benefits and the assessment involves untangling the reasons behind why people enjoy a particular space 7 , 10 . Collecting such information involves surveys or interviews that are resource-intensive and typically limited to small spatial scales 11 , 12 . Especially, how people experience nature in everyday lives (e.g., urban greenspace) and how people interact with nature under different contexts (e.g., relaxation, celebration, socialization, or daily routines) are particularly difficult to study in a large spatial scale. Recent breakthroughs in the study of cultural ecosystem services and understanding human-nature interactions have been possible through the use of social media. For instance, analyzing the user-defined “tags” of photographs can help understand the context under which the photograph was taken and potentially the self-reported emotional state of users. Analysis of social media photographs has been used, for instance, to study recreational 13 and aesthetic qualities of natural areas 14 , preferences for nature-based activities in protected areas 15 , and associations between the use of outdoor space and happiness 16 . Despite these advances, global multi-country comparisons of cultural ecosystem services are lacking. Coupling social media with artificial intelligence for automated approaches in image recognition opens up unique opportunities to carry out large-scale studies of cultural ecosystem services to advance our understanding in human-nature relationships 17 .

One discipline that has studied the relationships between the experience of nature and human wellbeing is environmental psychology. According to the biophilia hypothesis (i.e., humanity’s innate tendency to connect with nature), humans largely relied on natural resources for survival and reproduction in human history, leading humans to evolve a tendency to prefer being close to nature through an emotional connection 18 . Psychological studies have demonstrated the capacity of nature to increase life satisfaction and improve attention restoration and stress recovery 19 , 20 , 21 . The psychological benefits gained from experiencing nature provide an important aspect of cultural ecosystem services 5 . People’s favorite places tend to have high restorative potential 10 . The locations where individuals can feel relaxed, forget their worries, and reflect on personal matters are often natural spaces 10 . We hypothesize that nature may play a role as a backdrop for key social contexts in a human’s life.

To test this hypothesis, we integrate both the fields of ecosystem services and environmental psychology to study how humans experience nature in various contexts, and how this relates to life satisfaction scores at a national level. Using the concept of cultural ecosystem services, we aim to analyze the links between nature (background), cultural practices (various contexts and activities), and benefits (cultural association between nature and positive social contexts and further life satisfaction). Based on the biophilia hypothesis and the capacity of nature for psychological restoration 19 , 20 , 21 , we hypothesize that humans tend to associate nature with positive social contexts, such as fun activities, celebrations, weddings, honeymoons, and vacations. In addition, we also investigate whether the relationship between nature experience and life satisfaction holds true at a cross-cultural level. We hypothesize that a nation with a stronger culture of experiencing nature would show higher life satisfaction as compared to other nations with a weaker culture in nature experience. We do this at an unprecedented global scale by leveraging on social media data and image recognition using machine learning algorithms.

We analyzed a total of 31,534 social media photographs uploaded on Flickr—a popular social media platform—using the Google Cloud Vision API. We used Flickr as the source of data because there are a large number of users (over 70 million users) and geotagged photographs (over 197 million) 13 . Flickr contains information about the location where many of the uploaded photographs were taken. These geotagged photographs allowed us to identify which country photographs were taken in. The photographs used in this study were geo-located across 185 countries, over a period of 11 years. We first assessed nature labels (i.e., image contents detected and generated by Google Cloud Vision API as nature-related labels) in photographs tagged by the users as “nature” and later checked the frequency of those labels within photographs tagged with specific contexts by users: people’s daily routines (as a baseline for comparisons with other contexts), fun activities, weddings, celebrations, honeymoons, and vacations. These social contexts were selected as they are likely to reflect people’s choice of favorite places when holding memorable social events/activities in their lives.

Analyzing the content of 5,362 photographs tagged by users as “nature”, we listed the most common nature labels identified by the image content analysis. These common nature labels covered from 7.3% to 40.2% of photographs (Fig.  1 ). These labels were subsequently categorized as: water, terrestrial landscapes, plants, animals, and nature in general terms (Fig.  1 ).

Word cloud showing the 40 most common nature labels detected by the image content analysis in 5,362 nature-tagged photographs. Word size is proportional to the frequency of occurrence. Nature labels were subsequently categorized into five different nature categories (color-coded, green: plants, brown: terrestrial landscapes, black: general terms, blue: water, purple: animals).

Comparing the frequencies of these nature labels identified in photographs tagged with various contexts by users (n = 26,172 photographs), we found that, across all five nature categories, photographs tagged with fun activities, honeymoons, and vacations were more likely to have nature labels identified in them than photographs tagged with daily routines (Figs.  2 , 3 , Table  S1 ). Honeymoon and vacation photographs were more likely to have nature labels in them than fun activity photographs, with the exception of animals (Table  S1 ). However, there was no difference between honeymoon photographs and vacation photographs in terms of the frequency of nature labels identified (Table  S1 ). Celebration photographs were less likely to have nature labels than daily routine photographs, except for plants (Figs.  2 , 3 , Table  S1 ). There was generally no significant difference between wedding photographs and daily routine photographs, except that wedding photographs were likely to have more plants and less animals (Figs.  2 , 3 , Table  S1 ). This indicates that people tend to associate fun activities, honeymoons and vacations with nature, but not celebratory social events.

The relationship between social contexts and the presence of nature. The coefficient estimate (± SE) of the generalized linear mixed-effects models for each social context and nature category. A positive (negative) coefficient indicates a more (less) propensity for photographs to contain nature labels than the control photographs. Control photographs were used as the baseline (photographs tagged with “daily” or “routine”). Fun activity, honeymoon, and vacation photographs were more likely to contain nature labels as compared to daily routine photographs, for all categories of nature (Table  S1 ). Celebration photographs were less likely to have nature labels than daily routine photographs, except for plants (Table  S1 ).

The proportion of photographs with nature labels identified with different nature categories (plants, terrestrial landscapes, general terms, water, animals) for each social context (daily routines, fun activities, weddings, celebrations, honeymoons, and vacations). Each point represents one country, and the size of points is proportional to the total number of photographs, and grey points represent the total number of photographs that are less than 10.

There was a wide variation in terms of how commonly nature appeared in photographs across countries (Table  S2 , Fig.  3 ). Nature commonly appeared in the photographs taken in some countries (e.g., for general nature terms: Iceland, Tanzania, Maldives, New Zealand, and Montenegro), but not in others (e.g., for general nature terms: Russia, Myanmar, China, Czech Republic, and Singapore).

We found that, at a cross-national level, there was a positive association between the national life satisfaction score and the proportion of nature labels (plants) in the fun activity photographs (Fig.  4a , Table  S3 , Coefficient = 4.70 ± 1.29, t value = 3.64, unadjusted p value = 0.0006, FDR adjusted p value = 0.039). However, this relationship was not significant in the vacation photographs (Fig.  4b , Table  S3 , Coefficient = 1.95 ± 1.21, t value = 1.61, unadjusted p value = 0.113, FDR adjusted p value = 0.516), which may have been taken by a higher proportion of overseas tourists. This relationship was also not significant in daily routine photographs (Fig.  4c , Table  S3 , Coefficient = −1.95 ± 3.96, t value = −0.49, unadjusted p value = 0.626, FDR adjusted p value = 0.881). These results suggest that the context-dependent relationship between the national level of life satisfaction score and nature experience appears in the residents of the country.

The relationship between national life satisfaction scores and the proportion of photographs with plant-related labels identified in three social contexts ( a fun activity, b vacation, c daily routine). National life satisfaction was positively associated with the proportion of nature labels (plants) in fun activity photographs, but not associated in the context of vacations and daily routines. The size of the point is proportional to the number of photographs.

Our results reveal that people are more likely to interact with nature in the context of fun activities, honeymoons, and vacations, suggesting an association between nature and these fun or relaxing moments. We also find that countries with more nature (plant-related) in fun activity photographs had higher life satisfaction, such as Costa Rica and Finland. These results, taken together, suggest the importance of nature in providing the background to positive social contexts, presumably fond memories, as well as in contributing to life satisfaction in communities worldwide.

A preference for natural environments during fun activities supports the biophilia hypothesis 18 . This biophilic relationship is more evident in the context of vacations and honeymoons, as both social contexts are intended to provide relaxation from daily routines and the possibly stressful period of organizing weddings or other celebratory events. This implies that humans not only associate nature with emotional happiness but also desire to experience nature probably because of experiences of awe, relaxation, and stress relief  22 , 23 . For instance, visiting nature has been shown to improve cognitive ability, reduce stress, and lower the risk of depression 5 , 19 , 24 . These results further confirm the importance of nature for travel and tourism worldwide 25 , which not only provides economic value but also psychological and cultural values.

Landscape aesthetics as a cultural ecosystem service is particularly important given that the biophilic relationship is pervasive across cultures. Analyzing photographs allows us to understand what and when people want to capture as memories and share with other people. The high frequency of nature in photographs taken during fun activities and vacations implies the significance of nature in some of our fondest memories. For example, national parks in South Africa and marine sites in the UK provide cultural and social values by providing a place identity (a sense of place, such as “reliving childhood memories” and “I miss these sites when I have been away from them for a long time”) 26 , 27 . Similarly, the Satoyama landscape in Japan tends to be regarded as “home” for many Japanese people 28 . Some other famous natural landscapes have been identified as important cultural values to local communities, such as the Waikaraka Estuary in New Zealand 29 and the Arafura-Timor seascape in Southeast Asia 30 . The human influence and loss of nature could potentially lead to the loss of these natural backgrounds to fond memories as well as diminish the cultural values of ecosystem services 30 .

In contrast, wedding photographs were not significantly different from daily routine photographs in terms of the presence of nature labels, and celebration photographs were generally less likely to have nature than daily routine photographs. This suggests that, unlike honeymoons or vacations, urban areas and closed settings (e.g. hotels) are chosen presumably for the convenience to organize social gatherings through high accessibility and to conform to traditional ceremonies 31 , and are thus prioritized over biophilic needs.

People vary in their connectedness to nature 32 , 33 . For example, some people spend time interacting with nature and perceive nature as an important component to their lives, but other people do not. We found that the frequency of nature that appeared in photographs varied widely across countries. This variation could be related to cultural and sociodemographic differences 34 , 35 . For example, it has been shown that Menominee Native Americans spend more time interacting with nature directly in their outdoor activities, as compared to European Americans 34 . Another comparative study also showed that Swiss participants preferred forests with high biodiversity, while Chinese participants did not show such preference 35 . The cultural variation in nature connectedness is important to be considered in the assessment and research in cultural ecosystem services.

Our study further reveals a positive relationship between life satisfaction and the presence of nature in fun activity photographs across multiple countries. Being correlational, these results could either point towards nature contributing to life satisfaction through fun memories, or to the tendency of people satisfied with their lives to spend time in a natural setting. Further research should focus on disentangling the cause and effect behind the observed patterns, as this could be an opportunity to design better programs for interacting with nature and improving human wellbeing. This result also points to the potentially synergistic effect of having social activities in the presence of nature. Different from the other contexts analyzed, fun activities are likely to be a social setting where people tend to interact with each other in a group. The combination of both social interaction and nature connection can be more rewarding than having either element alone 36 , 37 , 38 . Being related to both humans and nature is likely to contribute to our life satisfaction. For instance, it has been shown that in natural environments people tend to behave more altruistically and less selfishly, and that nature enhances social cohesion in communities and increases life satisfaction 23 , 39 . Interactions with nature, or within a natural backdrop, could strengthen social cohesion and improve life satisfaction.

Our analyses present several limitations. Although we know the country where the photograph was taken, we do not know whether it was taken by a local or a foreigner travelling to the country. Also, our focus on English tags assigned by Flickr users biased our results toward English-speaking nations and users. Further research could attempt to replicate our methods across multiple languages and photograph-sharing platforms. Although we performed verification checks to ensure that user-assigned tags led to the intended photographs (e.g. we excluded “proposal” as a tag for a special life event because it turned out to be ambiguous), some tags may lead to unrelated pictures, thus introducing noise to the analysis.

Integrating both the fields of cultural ecosystem services and environmental psychology through a photograph analysis at an unprecedented scale, we showed that people have a preference for nature in their fun activities, vacations, and honeymoons globally. Although our study represents only small steps in this line of inquiry, the findings suggest there is a whole underestimated dimension of the relationship between humans and nature through positive social contexts, presumably in the form of fond memories ultimately associated with life satisfaction. The main implication is that the loss of nature may mean more than losing quantifiable economic and ecological benefits; it could also mean losing the background to our fondest memories.

Choice of tags and nature labels

To select suitable nature elements that people associate with nature, we used “nature” as the tag, which is a self-reported keyword added by social media users when they upload to increase the photographs’ visibility. The common nature-related labels detected and generated by the Google image recognition API within the nature-tagged photographs were used as the nature labels in subsequent analyses.

We considered six contexts in this study. These were daily routines (as the baseline for comparisons), fun activities, weddings, celebrations, honeymoons, and vacations. Similarly, we used “tags” to identify these contexts. Daily routine related tags “daily” and “routine”, on separate searches, were used to retrieve daily routine photographs to be used as the baseline for comparisons. To identify general fun activities, we used the tags “fun” and “activity” on separate searches to retrieve the fun activity photographs. To investigate whether nature labels were more likely to be present in critical life events (weddings and honeymoons), we used wedding-related tags “wedding” and “marriage” to retrieve wedding photographs. The tag “honeymoon” was used solely for the honeymoon photographs. To distinguish between weddings and other types of celebrations as well as between honeymoons and other types of vacations, we also used the tag “celebration” to correspond to the celebration photographs, and vacation-related tags “vacation”, “holiday”, and “travel” to retrieve vacation photographs. Contexts and the tags used are summarized in Table  S4 .

Image extraction and content detection

To extract photographs globally, we used Flickr’s public API to retrieve photographs with tags. We used the abovementioned 12 target tags, and retrieved photographs across 11 years, from 1 st of January 2008 to 31 st December 2018. As users varied in the number of photographs uploaded, we randomly selected one photograph from each Flickr user per returned tag search and therefore each photograph corresponds to an unique user in each tag search. We retrieved only photographs that users of Flickr had chosen to make publicly visible, by filtering the privacy setting. We also extracted all other tags that users added in the retrieved photographs to confirm that the retrieved photographs contained the target tags. Photographs without target tags were removed. To identify the geographical location of the photographs, we also extracted the GPS coordinates of the photographs and used the revgeo package with OpenStreetMap 40 to identify the country of origin (n = 185).

To automatically detect the content within photographs, we used the Google Cloud Vision API through the RoogleVision package in R v3.5.3 41 . We used the label detection function to detect the content in a photograph. The Vision API can detect and generate various labels such as general objects, activities, locations, and products. We extracted a maximum of 15 labels from each photograph with a minimum confidence score of 0.5 (ranging from 0 to 1).

We performed a random manual check of 200 photographs (10 photographs across 20 countries) to verify the tags linked with the intended photographs, locations of photographs, and the accuracy of label detection. Among 200 photographs, all photographs showed correct contexts and countries, and captured nature content correctly for 91% of photographs (182/200) with the use of our nature labels.

Statistical analyses

Association between the presence of natural labels and tags.

We obtained 5,362 nature-tagged photographs. To understand what natural elements people may associate with nature, we first identified the common natural labels in the nature-tagged photographs. The Google Cloud Vision API detected and generated a total number of 2,942 labels, and we selected the 50 most frequently shown labels (each label appeared at least in 389 photographs among nature-tagged photographs). After filtering out irrelevant and ambiguous labels (i.e., adaptation, evening, green, morning, photography, reflection, sky, cloud, atmosphere, and atmospheric phenomenon), we grouped the nature-related labels into five nature categories: water, terrestrial landscapes, plants, animals, and nature in general terms (Table  S5 with frequency). These natural labels were used as the labels to identify the presence of nature in the photographs with various contexts.

Photographs that were retrieved using the “celebration” tag may actually be wedding photographs and, similarly, the “vacation” tag may retrieve honeymoon photographs. To further refine the separation of wedding photographs from generic celebration photographs, we searched “wedding” tags in celebration-tagged photographs, and those photographs were then categorized as wedding photographs. Similarly, we searched “honeymoon” tags among vacation-tagged photographs and considered those photographs as honeymoon photographs. After the regrouping, some photographs that were tagged with multiple target tags (e.g., fun and holiday) were included in the sample of more than one contexts, as they may contain multiple contexts according to our definitions. In total, we obtained 26,172 photographs, and 3,781 of them were categorized into more than one contexts. We had 3,236 photographs classed as daily routine photographs, 8,589 photographs classed as fun activity photographs, 3,098 photographs classed as wedding photographs, 4,227 photographs classed as celebration photographs, 880 photographs classed as honeymoon photographs, and 10,129 photographs classed as vacation photographs. To evaluate the effect of including photographs in multiple contexts on the conclusions, a second analysis was run with the dataset after removing repeated photographs (n = 22,391, Table  S6 ).

We performed generalized linear mixed-effects models with a binomial error structure. The presence or absence of certain nature categories (according to previously identified nature labels) was coded as a response variable (e.g., a photograph in which it was detected the presence of the nature label “tree” was considered as an instance of “plants” in the nature category, Table  S5 ). The context was coded as the fixed effect, and country was considered as the random effect. The random effect for country attempted to account for national-level cultural differences and availability of natural space. The random effect for each country was extracted using the ranef function. We performed a total of four sets of analyses with different contexts as the baseline: 1) comparing fun activities, weddings, celebrations, honeymoons, and vacations against daily routines, 2) comparing weddings, celebrations, honeymoons, and vacations against fun activities, 3) comparing between weddings and celebrations, and 4) comparing honeymoons and vacations. We ran five models (for each nature category separately) in each set of analyses except for the natural category animal in 3) and 4) due to convergence failures. The p values were adjusted for multiple comparisons using the false discovery rate (FDR, with a total of 53 p values).

Association between life satisfaction and presence of natural labels in photographs

To investigate the association between the life satisfaction and proportion of photographs with the presence of nature at a cross-national level, we calculated the proportion of the photographs containing nature labels (for each nature category) in each context (i.e., daily routine, fun activity, wedding, celebration, honeymoon, and vacation) for each country. To ensure that each country is adequately represented, we removed countries that had less than 10 photographs for a given context.

We used life satisfaction in the Cantril Ladder scale (ranging from 0 to 10) with the average of survey responses from each country in 2017 42 , 43 . To control for the income of countries, we used GDP per capita based on purchasing power parities in 2017 42 , 43 , 44 . A total of 69 countries were used in the statistical analysis.

We ran linear regressions with life satisfaction as a response variable, and GDP per capita (to control for the relationship between wealth and life satisfaction), proportion of photographs with nature labels for each nature category, and the interaction between both variables were considered as the explanatory variables. We ran different models for different social contexts and each nature category was run separately. The p values were adjusted for multiple comparisons using the false discovery rate (with a total of 60 p values).

Data availability

All the photographs data can be retrieved using Flickr’s public API, and national life satisfaction and GDP data are available in Our World in Data (see ref. 43 ).

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge research funds from the National Parks Board and the Ministry of National Development, Singapore.

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These authors contributed equally: Chia-chen Chang and Gwyneth Jia Yi Cheng.

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Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore

Chia-chen Chang, Gwyneth Jia Yi Cheng, Thi Phuong Le Nghiem & L. Roman Carrasco

Department of Architecture, National University of Singapore, 117566, Singapore, Singapore

Xiao Ping Song

School of Biological Sciences, Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Sciences, University of Queensland, 4072, Brisbane, Australia

Rachel Rui Ying Oh

ETH Zurich, Singapore-ETH Centre, 1 Create Way, 138602, Singapore, Singapore

Xiao Ping Song & Daniel R. Richards

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L.R.C. and D.R.R. conceptualized the research. C.C., G.J.Y.C., L.R.C. collected data and performed data analysis. C.C., and L.R.C. produced the first draft. All authors revised the manuscript.

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Chang, Cc., Cheng, G.J.Y., Nghiem, T.P.L. et al. Social media, nature, and life satisfaction: global evidence of the biophilia hypothesis. Sci Rep 10 , 4125 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-60902-w

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Research Methods

Hypothesis in Mass Communication & Media Research Method

Hypothesis:

A  hypothesis  is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study.

A hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome. In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment  do not support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies. There are many ways to come up with a hypothesis. In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research.

A hypothesis states what we are looking for. When facts are assembled, ordered and seen in a relationship they constitute a theory. The theory is not speculation but is built upon fact. Now the various facts in a theory may be logically analyzed and relationships other than those stated in the theory can be deduced. At this point there is no knowledge as to whether such deductions are correct. The formulation of the deduction however constitutes a hypothesis; if verified it becomes part of a future theoretical construction.

A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity. It may seem contrary to or in accord with common sense. It may prove to be correct or incorrect. In any event however, it leads to an empirical test. Whatever the outcome, the hypothesis is a question put in such a way that an answer of some kind can be forthcoming. The function of the hypothesis is to state a specific relationship between phenomena in such a way that this relationship can be empirically tested. The basic method of this demonstration is to design the research so that logic will require the acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis on the basis of resulting data.

A hypothesis should be stated clearly using appropriate terminology; testable; a statement of relationships between variables and limited in scope (focused).

Different Types of Hypothesis:

There are different types of hypotheses

Simple hypothesis : This predicts the relationship between a single independent variable and a single dependent variable.

Complex hypothesis : This predicts the relationship between two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables.

Directional hypothesis:  They may imply that the researcher is intellectually committed to a particular outcome. They specify the expected direction of the relationship between variables i.e. the researcher predicts not only the existence of a relationship but also its nature.

 Non-directional   hypotheses : Used when there is little or no theory, or when findings of previous studies are contradictory. They may imply impartiality. Do not stipulate the direction of the relationship.

Associative and causal hypotheses : Propose relationships between variables – when one variable changes, the other changes. Do not indicate cause and effect.

  Causal hypothesis: Propose a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables.

The independent variable is manipulated to cause effect on the dependent variable.

The dependent variable is measured to examine the effect created by] the independent variable.

Null hypotheses : These are used when the researcher believes there is no relationship between two variables or when there is inadequate theoretical or empirical information to state a research hypothesis. Null hypotheses can be:

•   Simple or complex
•   Associative or causal

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The organizational impact in Kibs companies of certain digital marketing factors: digital capabilities and internet technologies

• Original Article
• Published: 21 May 2024

Cite this article

• Jorge Alberto Marino-Romero   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9624-5154 1 , 2 ,
• Pedro R. Palos-Sanchez 3 &
• Félix Velicia-Martin 1  

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The concept of digital marketing is currently fragmented due to the emergence of many sub-areas of research. This is motivated by the evolution of markets that believe in the widespread adoption of digital technologies and online social networks. These changes generate turbulent environments. However, companies have not evolved uniformly, and there is a dearth of research, results, and conclusions for small businesses to compete with more objective, relational, and interactive marketing techniques. This paper aims to explore the relationship between dynamic capabilities, social media, and cloud computing in the context of digital marketing, based on resource and capability theory. It also develops and validates a measurement scale for digital marketing in knowledge-intensive business services (KIBS) companies with knowledge management business strategies. The study used an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to identify underlying factors, followed by a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to validate the model. The dataset used for this analysis was collected through an online survey of 335 KIBS owners in Spain. An innovative and perfectly adapted conceptualisation of digital marketing for KIBS is presented. Specifically, digital marketing capabilities (DMC) with a holistic perspective are aligned with social networks and cloud technology. These factors optimise knowledge management through their absorptive capacity and increase the efficiency of their business operations via the proper implementation of operational capabilities.

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Marino-Romero, J.A., Palos-Sanchez, P.R. & Velicia-Martin, F. The organizational impact in Kibs companies of certain digital marketing factors: digital capabilities and internet technologies. J Market Anal (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41270-024-00322-1

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Americans have mixed views about how the news media cover Biden’s, Trump’s ages

At age 81, Joe Biden is already the oldest president in American history . But former President Donald Trump, who will turn 78 in June, will become the oldest person ever elected president – surpassing Biden – if he wins back the White House this year.

It’s no surprise, then, that the ages of the candidates have been a major topic of conversation in news coverage of the 2024 presidential election. A new Pew Research Center survey finds that Americans have mixed feelings about the way news organizations are handling the issue for each candidate, with views sharply divided by political party.

To examine Americans’ perceptions of news coverage of the 2024 U.S. presidential candidates, Pew Research Center surveyed 8,709 U.S. adults from April 8 to April 14, 2024.

Everyone who completed the survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the  ATP’s methodology .

Here are the  questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey  methodology .

Pew Research Center is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder. This is the latest analysis in Pew Research Center’s ongoing investigation of the state of news, information and journalism in the digital age, a research program funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts, with generous support from the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation.

Overall, similar shares of U.S. adults believe news organizations are giving too much attention (32%) or too little attention (29%) to Biden’s age. An additional 38% think the media cover Biden’s age about the right amount.

By comparison, Americans are less likely to say the news media are overemphasizing Trump’s age (19%) and more likely to think that news organizations give it about the right amount of attention (49%).

The same survey found that a larger share of American voters express confidence that Trump has the physical and mental fitness needed to be president than say the same about Biden.

Americans’ opinions on news coverage are split along party lines. Each party’s supporters tend to say that the opposing candidate’s age is getting too little attention.

Nearly half of Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents (46%) say news organizations are giving Trump’s age too little attention, compared with just 14% of Republicans and GOP leaners.

The numbers are virtually flipped when it comes to Biden: 48% of Republicans say Biden’s age is getting too little attention, while only 12% of Democrats say the same. 

When it comes to coverage of their own party’s candidate, patterns within each party differ. While 48% of Democrats say that Biden’s age is getting too much attention, far fewer Republicans (23%) hold this view about Trump. Instead, most Republicans (63%) say Trump’s age is getting about the right amount of attention.

Any differences between older and younger Americans are much smaller than the gaps between partisans. Among Americans ages 65 and older, for example, 34% say news organizations give Biden’s age too little attention. That compares with 29% of those ages 50 to 64, 27% of those ages 30 to 49 and 26% of adults under 30.

Note: Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey methodology . Senior Researcher Kirsten Eddy and Research Assistant Emily Tomasik contributed to this analysis.

• Donald Trump
• Election 2024
• News Coverage
• Presidents & Press

Katerina Eva Matsa is a director of news and information research at Pew Research Center .

Michael Lipka is an associate director focusing on news and information research at Pew Research Center .

Use of anonymous sources uncommon in early Biden coverage, least likely in outlets with right-leaning audiences

Covid-19 was pervasive in the media’s early coverage of the biden administration, trump mentioned in about half of biden stories during early weeks in office, but less so over time, immigration was a top focus of early biden coverage, especially among outlets with right-leaning audiences, at 100 day mark: coverage of biden has been slightly more negative than positive, varied greatly by outlet type, most popular.

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Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event Timed Research and rewards

Stakataka and Blacephalon make their debut in Pokémon Go

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Share All sharing options for: Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event Timed Research and rewards

Pokémon Go is hosting an “ Ultra Space Wonders ” event to wrap up the “World of Wonders” season, which will end in June. The event runs from May 23-28 and it features the debut of the Ultra Beasts Stakataka and Blacephalon .

The event also boosts the spawn of poison-type Pokémon, adds the last leg of the “World of Wonders” Special Research , and rewards doubled XP for winning raids against Ultra Beasts. Mareanie is also available shiny for the first time ever .

Below, we list out all the perks of the Pokémon Go “Ultra Space Wonders” event, including the paid Timed Research, Collection Challenge, and event Field Research.

This is a paid research for $5 . Once you buy it, you’ll only have until May 28 at 8 p.m. in your local time to complete it.

Is the ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ paid research ticket worth it?

The value of the “Ultra Space Wonders” paid research ticket is technically worth it, but I would only buy this if you are really hunting for shiny Mareanie or if you want the Naganadel Wings cosmetic.

Step 1 of 1

• Catch 5 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Earn 2,000 Stardust (10 Revives)
• Catch 10 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Earn 4,000 Stardust (10 Hyper Potions)
• Catch 15 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Earn 6,000 Stardust (15 Poké Balls)
• Catch 20 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Earn 8,000 Stardust (15 Great Balls)
• Catch 25 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Earn 10,000 Stardust (15 Ultra Balls)
• Catch 30 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Win a raid (1 Lucky Egg)

Rewards : 4 Premium Battle Passes, Mareanie encounter, Naganadel Wings cosmetic

Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event Collection Challenge

There are a few Collection Challenges to complete that involve you catching and evolving specific Pokémon.

Ultra Space Wonders Collection Challenge: Catch

• Catch a Tentacool
• Catch a Mareanie
• Catch a Skrelp

Rewards : 1,000 XP, Mareanie encounter

Ultra Space Wonders Collection Challenge: Research

• Catch a Nidoran-F
• Catch a Nidoran-M
• Catch a Trubbish

Rewards : 5,000 XP, Mareanie encounter

Ultra Space Wonders Collection Challenge: Raid

• Catch a Bagon
• Catch a Deino
• Catch a Druddigon

Rewards : 10,000 XP, Mareanie encounter

Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event Field Research and rewards

Spinning a PokéStop during the event period may yield one of these tasks:

• Catch 10 Pokémon (Nidoran-F or Nidoran-M encounter)
• Power up Pokémon 5 times (Trubbish encounter)
• Power up Pokémon 10 times (Mareanie encounter)
• Win a raid (Goomy encounter)
• Win 3 raids (Jangmo-o encounter)

Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event boosted spawns

These Pokémon will spawn more frequently during the event period:

Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event raid targets

The following Pokémon will be in raids during the event:

• Paldean Wooper (1-star)
• Hisuian Qwilfish (1-star)
• Hisuian Sneasel (1-star)
• Bagon (1-star)
• Deino (1-star)
• Galarian Weezing (3-star)
• Druddigon (3-star)
• Turtonator (3-star)
• Stakataka (5-star, eastern hemisphere only)
• Blacephalon (5-star, western hemisphere only)
• Mega Pidgeot (Mega)
• Pokémon Go guides
• “Rediscover Kanto” Special Research
• How to find Wiglett
• Ditto disguises

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Research: Technology is changing how companies do business

By sarah mangus-sharpe.

A new study from the Cornell SC Johnson College of Business advances understanding of the U.S. production chain evolution amidst technological progress in information technology (IT), shedding light on the complex connections between business IT investments and organizational design. Advances in IT have sparked significant changes in how companies design their production processes. In the paper " Production Chain Organization in the Digital Age: Information Technology Use and Vertical Integration in U.S. Manufacturing ," which published April 30 in Management Science, Chris Forman , the Peter and Stephanie Nolan Professor in the Dyson School of Applied Economics and Management , and his co-author delved into what these changes mean for businesses and consumers.

Forman and Kristina McElheran, assistant professor of strategic management at University of Toronto, analyzed U.S. Census Bureau data of over 5,600 manufacturing plants to see how the production chains of businesses were affected by the internet revolution. Their use of census data allowed them to look inside the relationships among production units within and between companies and how transaction flows changed after companies invested in internet-enabled technology that facilitated coordination between them. The production units of many of the companies in their study concurrently sold to internal and external customers, a mix they refer to as plural selling. They found that the reduction in communication costs enabled by the internet shifted the mix toward more sales outside of the firm, or less vertical integration.

The research highlights the importance of staying ahead of the curve in technology. Companies that embrace digital technologies now are likely to be the ones that thrive in the future. And while there are still many unanswered questions about how these changes will play out, one thing is clear: The relationship between technology and business is only going to become more and more intertwined in the future.

Read the full story on the Cornell SC Johnson College of Business news site, BusinessFeed.

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Ronnie Lippin Cancer Support and Navigation Project Launches with Tower Cancer Research Foundation

By William Earl

William Earl

• Ronnie Lippin Cancer Support and Navigation Project Launches with Tower Cancer Research Foundation 2 days ago
• Comedian Paul Scheer Hadn’t Realized His Childhood Was Abusive. His New Memoir Examines His Pain With Humor: ‘I’m Not Trying to Write a Therapy Session’ 2 days ago
• Variety to Host Inaugural Indigenous Storytelling in Entertainment Breakfast 2 days ago

The Tower Cancer Research Foundation has launched the Ronnie Lippin Cancer Support and Navigation Project at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center to assist underserved cancer patients.

The program is funded by a grant from the Lippin Family Trust as a tribute to the late music publicist and manager, who died of breast cancer in December 2006 at age 59. She was married for 34 years to veteran communications strategist Dick Lippin, founder and chairman of Lippin Group.

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The importance of providing a strong “cancer navigation” systems for patients and their families has been championed by President Joe Biden and first lady Dr. Jill Biden as part of the White House’s “Cancer Moonshot” program.

In 2012, Dick Lippin and his daughter, publicist and Lippin Group executive Alexandra Lippin, established the Ronnie Lippin Cancer Information and Resource Line , also in partnership with Tower Cancer Research Foundation.

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