stop and search law dissertation

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Stop and Search in England and Wales: An examination of its longevity in the face of criticism

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Darren Ellis

It has long been recognised that discretion is vital to good police work. However, in Britain (and many other countries), practices of discretion in the stop and search context have come under much scrutiny as it has widely been linked to racist practices, ie a disproportionate amount of Black and minority ethnic individuals are stopped and searched compared to White people.

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Have Police Powers Of Stop And Search Been Increased, Without Adequate Safeguards And Accountability? (2011)

The dissertation considers the extent of the effect to which the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 and more recent accretion of powers through legislation, ostensibly designed to deal with perceived problems in society of the day has had on police stop and search powers and their accountability to them if they abuse those powers. The fact is that police powers have increased over the years but there has been a failure to balance that increase with individual civil liberties.

Reform in the police complaints process and police complaints bodies such as the Independent Police Complaints Commission has failed to rectify reoccurring themes of discontent such as independence, under representation of complainants interests, longevity of the reform process and changing police priorities.

Proposals of reform to the complaints process in particular have failed to produce a viable alternative and the government seems unwilling to push reform further and go for a fully independent complaints body such as the Police Ombudsman in Northern Ireland. For the first time in 40 years the call for reform has fallen off the public agenda in favour of the police dealing with rising crime rates.

• 15,000 words – 88 pages in length
• Excellent use of literature
• Expertly written throughout
• Outstanding piece of work
• Ideal for law students

1 – What Powers Do Police Have In Relation To Stop And Search? Definition Of Stop And Search Powers How Have Stop And Search Powers Developed? Why Was Pace Introduced And What Happened When It Was Enacted? Safeguards And Reasonable Suspicion Is Pace Effective? Have New Powers Undermined Pace? Sporting Events (Control of Alcohol Etc) Act 1985 Criminal Justice And Public Order Act 1994 Serious Organised Crime Act 2007 Terrorism Act 2000 Concluding Remarks

2 – Police Accountability And Procedures Of Complaint What Is The Importance Of An Effective Complaints Procedure? Local Resolution What Is Local Resolution? The Effectiveness Of Local Resolution Is Local Resolution Independent? Local Resolution Concluding Remarks Formal Resolution What Is Formal Resolution? The Effectiveness of Formal Resolution The Difficulty Of Standard Of Proof Formal Resolution Concluding Remarks Formal And Local Resolution In The Light Of Stop And Search Complaints Alternative Systems The Use of Tort Tort And The Standard Of Proof Tort And Publicity Tort And Liability Tort And Concluding Remarks Recommendations For Reform – New South Wales New South Wales Concluding Remarks Concluding Remarks

3 – The Independent Police Complaints Commission History Of Police Complaint Bodies The Introduction Of The Independent Police Complaints Commission – New Powers Is The IPCC More Accessible And Independent? Independence Accessibility The IPCC In Relation To Stop And Search The IPCC’s Effect On Policing Concluding Remarks On The IPCC The Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland as an Alternative System Concluding Remarks

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Institutional racism, the police and stop and search: a comparative study of stop and search in the uk and usa.

Delsol, Rebekah (2006) Institutional racism, the police and stop and search: a comparative study of stop and search in the UK and USA. PhD thesis, University of Warwick.

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This research examines the utility of the concept of institutional racism in explaining racial disparities in stop and search practice in the UK and US. The concept of institutional racism was introduced in 1960s America. The concept was politically powerful in expanding existing understandings of racial inequalities which focused on individual prejudice and cultural pathology, to showing how racist discourses can become embedded in the structures of social formation. There were a number of analytical weaknesses inherent in the term at its conception. The concept has been utilized at various points of history in the US and UK. The 1999 Macpherson Report brought the concept of institutional racism back to popular usage in the UK, particularly in discussions around discrimination and policing. Macpherson took as evidence of the existence of institutional racism the continued disparities in stop and search use. The power to stop and search people in the street suspected of criminal activity has long been a feature of British and American policing. Research in both countries has continually shown that these powers are being disproportionately exercised against ethnic minorities. Thus this thesis explores whether the concept is useful in explaining disproportionate stop and search outcomes. The research is based on a study of police officers from two forces in the UK and two police departments in the US. It uses semi-structured interviews, observations and draws on official policy documents and statistics. The purpose of the research is to gain an understanding of the circumstances and decision-making by officers as they conduct stop and search and to understand the context in which these decisions take place. The findings reveal that discriminatory outcomes in stop and search are the product of not only the actions of individual officers but also national and local policies and practices. These policies and practices are devised and implemented by social actors. The disproportionate outcomes not only result from racism but also prejudice based on class and gender. The concept of institutional racism reifies individual institutions and obscures the role of social actors in institutions, who shape the policies and practices of an institution. Without an understanding of the contexts in which people draw on race ideas and what features of their social position allows them to assert these ideas into the policies and practices of an institution we are unable to apportion responsibility and build reform agendas. Thus institutional racism fails to explain the disparities in stop and search use in the UK and US.

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Dissertations@Portsmouth - Details for item no. 13738

Hussain, Arfan (2021) Stop and search: a legitimate police tactic or a discriminatory practice - a community stakeholder perspective . (unpublished BSc dissertation), University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth

Since the inception of Police and Criminal Evidence Act legislation (1984) police officers within the United Kingdom have used personal discretion to Stop and Search members of the public within adherence of policing guideline (Jefferson and Walker, 1993); controversially this has led to allegations of discrimination and disproportionality towards black and minority communities (Minhas and Walsh, 2021). The Lord Scarman report, later followed by the Macpherson report after the murder of Stephen Lawrence notably drew immense criticism upon the lack of interactive “equitable and inclusive” relationships citing Stop and Search as a considerable obstacle between police and communities (Foster et al, 2005; Macpherson, 1999a; Reiner, 2010; Scarman, 1981a). There continues to be rife debate and discussions amongst academics, practitioners and, equality and community groups on its practical use within policing the community which undoubtedly requires further exploration. A review of literature revealed polarised opinions within various statutory and non-statutory organisations. Government and Law enforcement agencies appeared to advocate Stop and Search, supporting the tactic within reducing knife and violent crime. In contrast, it was identified ethnic minority community perceptions inexplicitly disagreed due to disproportionality concerns. A small-scale study was than conducted amongst 48 community stakeholders to understand wider opinions from those who were based within the East London demography. The results collectively resembled that of the literature review whereby there appeared to be little consensus or bi-lateral agreements amongst respondents upon the tactic within community policing. However, the study found uniquely that some community stakeholders, whilst overly critical advocated Stop and Search practices if used proportionality. It was evident if conducted in a professional manner and with intelligence, the police tactic could positively impact crime. Conversely, the study equally found there was less favourable opinions upon the disproportionality amongst minority groups and an infringement of their human rights. It was concluded that’s Stop and Search is still widely debated and remains a contentious police power amongst key community stakeholders. Undoubtedly, further research will be required to evaluate in real terms the success upon reduction of crime and decreased community tensions.

Course: Risk and Security Management - BSc (Hons) - C1565

Date Deposited: 2021-11-05

URI/permalink: https://library.port.ac.uk/dissert/dis13738.html

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Best Law Dissertation Topics Ideas for University Students

Choosing a dissertation topic is one of the most challenging yet crucial steps for university students pursuing a degree in law. A well-chosen topic not only reflects a student’s interest and passion but also sets the stage for their research journey. If you’re struggling to find the right topic, this blog will provide a comprehensive guide on the best law dissertation topics ideas, ensuring that your dissertation is both impactful and engaging. Furthermore, if you find yourself in need of professional assistance, dissertation writing services and research paper writing services can offer valuable support.

1. Introduction to Law Dissertation Topics

The field of law is vast, encompassing various specializations such as criminal law, international law, corporate law, human rights, environmental law, and more. Selecting a dissertation topic involves balancing personal interest, the scope of the research, and the availability of resources. Here are some tips to help you get started:

• Identify Your Interests: Your dissertation will demand a significant amount of time and effort, so choose a topic that genuinely interests you.
• Consider the Scope: Ensure the topic is neither too broad nor too narrow. A broad topic might be overwhelming, while a narrow topic might lack sufficient research material.
• Review Existing Literature: Familiarize yourself with existing research paper writing service to identify gaps that your dissertation can fill.
• Seek Guidance: Discuss potential topics with your advisors or professors to gain insights and refine your ideas.

Now, let’s delve into some specific law dissertation topics across various specializations.

2. Criminal Law Dissertation Topics

Criminal law is a popular choice among law students due to its dynamic nature and societal relevance. Here are some compelling topics in this field:

2.1 The Effectiveness of Rehabilitation Programs for Juvenile Offenders

This topic explores the impact of rehabilitation programs on juvenile offenders’ reintegration into society and recidivism rates.

2.2 Cybercrime and the Law: A Comparative Study of Legislation in Different Countries

Analyze how different countries address cybercrime, focusing on the effectiveness of their legal frameworks and international cooperation.

2.3 The Role of Forensic Evidence in Securing Convictions in Criminal Cases

Investigate the significance of forensic evidence in criminal trials, including its reliability and challenges.

2.4 The Death Penalty Debate: Ethical, Legal, and Social Perspectives

Examine the arguments for and against the death penalty, considering ethical, legal, and social dimensions.

2.5 Racial Bias in the Criminal Justice System

Study the presence and impact of racial bias in various stages of the criminal justice process, from arrest to sentencing.

3. International Law Dissertation Topics

International law governs the relationships between nations and is crucial in maintaining global order. Here are some intriguing topics in international law:

3.1 The Role of the International Criminal Court in Prosecuting War Crimes

Evaluate the effectiveness of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in prosecuting individuals for war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity.

3.2 Climate Change and International Law: Obligations and Challenges

Explore the legal obligations of states under international environmental agreements and the challenges in enforcing these obligations.

3.3 The Protection of Refugees Under International Law

Analyze the legal frameworks for refugee protection, focusing on the 1951 Refugee Convention and the role of UNHCR.

3.4 Maritime Disputes and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Investigate how UNCLOS addresses maritime disputes, with case studies on specific conflicts.

3.5 Humanitarian Intervention and Sovereignty: A Legal Perspective

Examine the legality and ethical implications of humanitarian intervention in the internal affairs of sovereign states.

4. Corporate Law Dissertation Topics

Corporate law is essential for regulating business operations and ensuring corporate governance. Here are some significant topics in this area:

4.1 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Its Legal Implications

Study the legal requirements and voluntary practices of CSR, and their impact on corporate governance and stakeholder relations.

4.2 Mergers and Acquisitions: Legal Challenges and Solutions

Explore the legal complexities involved in mergers and acquisitions, including antitrust issues and shareholder rights.

4.3 Insider Trading Regulations: Effectiveness and Enforcement

Investigate the effectiveness of insider trading laws in preventing market manipulation and ensuring fair trading practices.

4.4 Corporate Governance and the Role of Board of Directors

Examine the legal responsibilities of board members in corporate governance and the measures to ensure accountability and transparency.

4.5 The Impact of Brexit on Corporate Law in the UK and EU

Analyze how Brexit has affected corporate law, focusing on regulatory changes and their implications for businesses.

5. Human Rights Law Dissertation Topics

Human rights law aims to protect the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals. Here are some important topics in this field:

5.1 The Right to Privacy in the Digital Age

Examine the challenges to privacy rights posed by digital technologies and the effectiveness of legal protections.

5.2 Gender Equality and Human Rights: Legal Progress and Challenges

Analyze the progress made in achieving gender equality through legal reforms and the ongoing challenges.

5.3 Human Trafficking: Legal Frameworks and Enforcement Challenges

Study the effectiveness of national and international legal frameworks in combating human trafficking.

5.4 Freedom of Expression vs. Hate Speech: A Legal Dilemma

Explore the legal boundaries between protecting freedom of expression and preventing hate speech.

5.5 The Rights of Indigenous Peoples Under International Law

Investigate the protection of indigenous peoples’ rights under international law, focusing on case studies of specific communities.

6. Environmental Law Dissertation Topics

Environmental law addresses the legal aspects of environmental protection and sustainability. Here are some relevant topics in this domain:

6.1 The Legal Framework for Renewable Energy Development

Examine the laws and policies promoting renewable energy, and their effectiveness in achieving sustainable energy goals.

6.2 Environmental Impact Assessments: Legal Requirements and Practical Challenges

Analyze the role of environmental impact assessments (EIAs) in project planning and the challenges in their implementation.

6.3 Legal Measures to Combat Climate Change: A Comparative Study

Compare the climate change laws of different countries, focusing on their effectiveness and enforcement mechanisms.

6.4 The Role of International Environmental Agreements in Biodiversity Conservation

Study the impact of international agreements, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, on biodiversity conservation efforts.

6.5 Environmental Justice: Legal Approaches to Addressing Environmental Inequality

Explore the concept of environmental justice and the legal measures to address environmental inequalities affecting marginalized communities.

7. Intellectual Property Law Dissertation Topics

Intellectual property (IP) law protects the creations of the mind, such as inventions, literary works, and trademarks. Here are some exciting topics in IP law:

7.1 The Protection of Traditional Knowledge Under Intellectual Property Law

Investigate the challenges and legal mechanisms for protecting traditional knowledge and cultural expressions.

7.2 Patent Law and Innovation: Balancing Protection and Access

Examine the role of patent law in promoting innovation while ensuring access to essential technologies.

7.3 Copyright in the Digital Age: Challenges and Solutions

Analyze the impact of digital technologies on copyright protection and the legal responses to address these challenges.

7.4 Trademark Law: The Protection of Brand Identity

Study the legal frameworks for trademark protection and their effectiveness in safeguarding brand identity.

7.5 Intellectual Property Rights and the Pharmaceutical Industry

Explore the interplay between intellectual property rights and the pharmaceutical industry, focusing on issues like drug patents and access to medicines.

8. Family Law Dissertation Topics

Family law deals with legal issues related to family relationships, such as marriage, divorce, and child custody. Here are some thought-provoking topics in family law:

8.1 The Legal Recognition of Same-Sex Marriages: Progress and Challenges

Examine the legal status of same-sex marriages in different jurisdictions and the challenges faced in achieving recognition.

8.2 Child Custody Disputes: Best Interests of the Child vs. Parental Rights

Study the legal principles guiding child custody decisions and the balance between the child’s best interests and parental rights.

8.3 Domestic Violence and Legal Protections: An International Perspective

Analyze the legal measures to protect victims of domestic violence and their effectiveness in different countries.

8.4 Surrogacy Laws: Ethical and Legal Considerations

Investigate the legal frameworks governing surrogacy and the ethical issues involved in surrogacy arrangements.

8.5 The Impact of Divorce Laws on Family Dynamics

Explore how different divorce laws affect family relationships and the well-being of family members.

9. Employment Law Dissertation Topics

Employment law regulates the relationship between employers and employees, addressing issues like workplace rights and discrimination. Here are some significant topics in employment law:

9.1 The Legal Protection of Gig Economy Workers

Examine the employment rights of gig economy workers and the legal challenges in ensuring their protection.

9.2 Workplace Discrimination: Legal Remedies and Effectiveness

Study the legal mechanisms to combat workplace discrimination and their effectiveness in promoting equality.

9.3 The Role of Trade Unions in Protecting Workers’ Rights

Analyze the legal status and functions of trade unions in advocating for workers’ rights and interests.

9.4 Occupational Health and Safety Laws: Implementation and Challenges

Investigate the legal requirements for workplace health and safety and the challenges in their enforcement.

9.5 Employee Privacy Rights in the Workplace

Explore the balance between employee privacy rights and employer interests, focusing on legal protections and limitations.

Cities [ edit ]

• 52.283333 104.3 1 Irkutsk — the attractive capital and largest city; one of the principal stops on the Trans-Siberian Railway and the gateway to Lake Baikal
• 52.566667 103.916667 2 Angarsk — the second largest regional city is home to the Museum of Clocks
• 56.152 101.633 3 Bratsk — a relatively large city on the Baikal-Amur Mainline
• 51.853611 104.869167 4 Listvyanka — located on the shores of Lake Baikal
• 51.659444 103.706111 5 Slyudyanka - southernmost point of the Baikal, famous for its marble railway station and smoked omul
• 54.9 99.016667 6 Nizhneudinsk — a small city on the Trans-Siberian with a pretty church; located near some interesting caves and a waterfall along the Uda River
• 55.933333 98.016667 7 Tayshet — nothing much to see, but many stop at this important rail junction to begin the Baikal-Amur Mainline

Other destinations [ edit ]

• 53.302778 108.004722 2 Lake Baikal — located between Buryatia and Irkutsk Oblast , is the deepest and oldest lake in the world and also the planet's largest body of freshwater.
• 51.72865 103.72159 3 Circum-Baikal Railway
• 53.15 107.4 4 Olkhon — the largest island in lake Baikal is a real jewel, and worthy of the effort it takes to reach it.
• 51.8531 104.882 5 Pribaikalsky National Park

Understand [ edit ]

Irkutsk Oblast, in particular the capital Irkutsk and the shores of Lake Baikal , is likely Siberia 's top travel destination.

Talk [ edit ]

Russian is understood and spoken by all; some members of ethnic minorities (especially the Buryat) are bilingual and speak their native languages with one another.

Get in [ edit ]

By plane [ edit ].

Irkutsk Airport ( IKT  IATA ) is one of Russia 's most important and receives international flights from Mongolia , China , South Korea , Thailand , and Uzbekistan . Domestic flights are available from most major Russian airports, including: Saint Petersburg , Moscow , Khabarovsk , Yekaterinburg , Vladivostok , and many others.

By train [ edit ]

Despite the importance of Irkutsk Airport, most travellers still arrive via the Trans-Siberian Railway , which stops at (from west to east): Taishet (junction with the Baikal-Amur Mainline ), Nizhneudinsk , Usolye-Sibirskoe , Angarsk , Irkutsk , among other less frequented settlements.

By car [ edit ]

Baikal Highway crosses the region from west to east. A bus from Ulan-Ude connects Irkutsk with Buryatia.

Get around [ edit ]

Bratsk and Ust-Orda are accessible via the Baikal-Amur Mainline from the Trans-Siberian Railway junction at Taishet.

Do [ edit ]

• Camping out on one of Lake Baikal 's islands
• Fishing galore
• Rafting on Irkut river. Whitewater grade is 1-3 in some places of 150 km river.

Read [ edit ]

• Michel Strogoff by Jules Verne.
• Plays by Alexander Vampilov.
• Writings by Valentin Rasputin.

Stay safe [ edit ]

• While being in woods, beware of snakes that are commonly warming in the sun on the stones. There is not many of them but some may be vipers.
• The other problem of this (and other regions of the North Hemisphere) is ticks. Their bites may be infectious. Usually vaccinations are taken beforehand.

Go next [ edit ]

Irkutsk Airport is a useful hub to jump off to different parts of the country.

For closer destinations, most will travel by the Trans-Siberian Railway , which leads to Kansk and further Krasnoyarsk in the west and to Ulan Ude in the east.

The Baikal-Amur Mainline , which runs on a parallel track to north of the Trans-Siberian, begins at Taishet in western Irkutsk Oblast and on to Severobaikalsk .

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The repeated degeneration or loss of traits in many evolutionary lineages has long been of interest to biologists. Despite broad appreciation of the phenomenon of regressive evolution, the mechanisms underlying character loss remain poorly understood. Important questions include how character loss affects the evolution of genes formerly involved in its development and function, whether degeneration is driven by natural selection or random processes, and if lost characters can be reacquired by later descendants.

Cave animals are popular examples of regressive evolution, as many lineages have independently lost their eyes and pigmentation. However, few studies have demonstrated that loss of eyes is associated with changes in vision-related genes at the molecular level. In particular, many studies have concluded that the visual photoreceptor gene rhodopsin , one of the best-studied retinal proteins, seems to have retained functionality in eyeless animals. Explanations for the apparent maintenance of function have focused on hypothetical roles for the protein in other, non-visual processes.

In contrast, our study of molecular evolution of rhodopsin in amblyopsid cavefishes (see image) revealed repeated loss of functional constraint in this gene, with at least three cave lineages having independently accumulated unique loss-of-function mutations over the last 10 million years. Although several cave lineages still possess an ostensibly functional rhodopsin , they exhibit increased numbers of mutations that have greater effects on the structure and function of the protein compared to mutations in surface lineages (Figure 2). Existence of functional eye-related genes in some cave lineages may be explained simply because they are recently descended from sighted, surface-dwelling ancestors, and not enough time has passed for the random accumulation of loss-of-function mutations. Although our results are consistent with the neutral accumulation of mutations in rhodopsin , adaptive mechanisms for degeneration of vision cannot be ruled out, as changes in other genes upstream in the eye developmental pathway might be advantageous in cave populations.

Another of our results regarding the evolutionary relationships of surface and cave-dwelling fishes raised the intriguing possibility that vision and use of surface habitats have re-evolved, in one instance, from a subterranean ancestor. A fundamental question in evolutionary biology is whether evolution in reversible. A theory dubbed "Dollo’s Law" posits that complex characters are unlikely to be reacquired once lost, yet the recent literature included several putative examples of re-evolution. When we took presence or absence of a functional eye as a single character and mapped it onto the phylogenetic tree of amblyopsids, our analysis supported re-evolution of eyes in a group called spring cavefishes. However, several other lines of evidence lead us to the alternative conclusion that spring cavefishes are descended from an unbroken line of sighted ancestors inhabiting the cave –surface interface, while eyeless cave specialists have repeatedly and independently branched off from that ancestral lineage. The evidence includes details of eye morphology (more nuanced than "presence or absence of a functional eye") and independent loss-of-function mutations in rhodopsin in different cave lineages. This work shows that ancestral reconstructions can occasionally yield strongly supported yet misleading results. Thorough analysis of molecular evolution of genes associated with a character of interest can provide important insights in studies of trait evolution and function.

In addition to the basic research findings, this project created the opportunity for us to train undergraduate students and engage in formal and informal outreach/education activities with...

Please report errors in award information by writing to: [email protected] .

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Article Contents

• Introduction
• A Short History of Stop and Search
• The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry (SLI) Reforms
• Data and Methods
• Trends in Searches
• Modelling the Impact of SLI Reforms
• Considering Alternative Explanations for the Changes in Search Patterns
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Stop and Search in England: A Reformed Tactic or Business as Usual?

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Joel Miller, Stop and Search in England: A Reformed Tactic or Business as Usual?, The British Journal of Criminology , Volume 50, Issue 5, September 2010, Pages 954–974, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azq021

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In 1999, the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry heavily criticized ethnic disparities in stop and search (‘disproportionality’), triggering a national reform effort to make the tactic fairer and more effective. Analyses of searches under core powers using up to 12 years of annual data from 38 police force areas in England indicate that aggregate disparities showed no improvement following the reforms. However, this overall finding is heavily influenced by London and, to a lesser extent, Greater Manchester and West Midlands, which are out of step with most of the rest of the country. The average force showed reductions in disproportionality associated with the reforms, although did not see improvements in arrest rates of searches. Theoretical implications of the results are discussed.

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Morning Rundown: Judge asks how Trump didn't notice 'classified marked' docs in bedroom, Iowa tornado leaves several dead, man fined for trying to 'body slam' orca

As conservatives put religion in schools, Satanists want in, too

When conservative lawmakers in Florida and Texas won the fight to allow religious chaplains in public schools, they swung open the door to ministers from other faiths — including the Satanic Temple. 

The demonic-sounding group, which describes itself as “nontheistic,” is using this debate and others like it to make a point about the growing encroachment of religion on public life. 

It would prefer no chaplains in schools, it says, but would settle for equal representation, intentionally goading conservatives, some of whom are explicit about wanting Christianity, rather than just religion, in public education. 

“If they pass these bills, they’re going to have to contend with ministers of Satan acting as chaplains within their school districts,” said Lucien Greaves, a co-founder of the Satanic Temple, who uses a pseudonym to protect him against threats. “We think the public should know in advance that that’s what the outcome of these bills can be.”The Satanic Temple, founded in 2013 and recognized as a religion by the IRS, is known for trolling the religious right by taking advantage of Christian campaigns. When Arkansas installed a statue of the Ten Commandments outside the State Capitol, the Temple unveiled its own statue of Baphomet , a goat-headed figure, there, too. It offered the Hellions Academy as an alternative to Christian studies during school hours and named a telehealth abortion clinic after Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito’s mom.

The Temple believes in reason, empathy and the pursuit of knowledge, its website FAQ helpfully explains. And it doesn’t worship Satan. “Satan is a symbol of the Eternal Rebel in opposition to arbitrary authority,” it states. But it’s not just a joke, supporters say. And opponents seem to agree.

One man was charged in January with a hate crime for vandalizing the temple’s altar at the Iowa State Capitol. Another was arrested and accused of throwing a pipe bomb at the group’s headquarters in Salem, Massachusetts, leaving a note that urged the group to “REPENT” and “TURN FROM SIN.” And a third was arrested this month and accused of plotting to blow up the headquarters.

“It definitely started with a kind of humorous or satirical element to it, but this is a movement with hundreds of people that’s been going for 10 years now — they’re quite serious about it,” said Joseph Laycock, a religious studies professor at Texas State University who wrote a book-length study about the group. “They’re willing to put up with death threats. They’re willing to wear bulletproof vests because Neo-Nazis have threatened to kill them if they give a public speech. People don’t normally take those kinds of risks for a joke.”

Interest in joining the Satanic Temple shot up in recent years, Greaves said, and the number of congregations more than doubled since 2021. That coincides with a decrease in the number of self-identified Christians in the U.S. and a growing movement among right-wing activists to insert conservative Christian doctrines into public policy and schools .

“The real fear of Christian nationalism is driving people into the arms of groups like the Satanic Temple,” Laycock said. “And then the fact that there are now Satanists taking to the streets of America is causing the Christian nationalists to double down, too, and making them even more determined to cling to power for as long as they can.”

The laws in Florida and Texas require school boards to vote on whether to appoint chaplains in their districts. Similar bills have been proposed in 13 other states this year. The proposals, which vary slightly, would have chaplains of various denominations serve in similar capacities as school counselors, in some cases with on-campus offices or salaries paid for by the districts.

“They are able to help the child work through their issues, work through their feelings, and also encourage them to work with their parents, in accordance with their family’s underlying religious foundations,” said Brad Dacus, president of Pacific Justice Institute, a conservative advocacy group that testified in favor of the Texas bill.

Proponents of chaplains in schools have gone on the offensive, vowing that the Satanic Temple won’t infiltrate their schools. “There will be no Satanists in Oklahoma Schools. Period,” Ryan Walters, the state’s right-wing superintendent of public instruction, recently tweeted . Florida Gov. Ron DeSantis declared at a bill signing for the new law last month that the Temple wouldn’t qualify to provide chaplains. “That is not a religion,” he said. 

But legal experts warn that conservatives disregard the Satanic Temple at their own peril, because the group’s strategy of stepping into spaces intended for other religions is often effective. In 2016, the Temple began running After School Satan Clubs, seeking to start them in schools that already had Christian-based groups on campus. A federal court sided with the Temple in a legal challenge last year, and there are currently seven clubs nationwide, where children make arts and crafts, learn about animals and do science experiments.

“The Constitution is unambiguous about this,” Greaves said. “You just cannot take a religious identity and cut it out from a public accommodation. It’s against the law, the school districts will lose, they’ll have to pay the attorneys fees, and frankly, they shouldn’t be pulling their budget into this culture war grandstanding B.S.”

One of the Temple’s first actions was to perform a “pink mass” in which gay couples made out over the grave of the mother of Fred Phelps, founder of the homophobic Westboro Baptist Church, and declared her a lesbian. The Temple has protested corporal punishment of children and sued states to argue that abortion restrictions violate their religious rights.“It is a poignant way of pushing the idea of what these governments really care about,” said Jay Wexler, a Boston University law professor who studies church-and-state issues. “Do they really care about opening up their spaces for religious pluralism, or do they actually care about just promoting one view of God and Christianity in the public space?”

People often ask why the Satanic Temple, with its lofty principles, uses such divisive names.

“If we were to name it the ‘fluffy bunnies and rainbows science club,’ or anything else, and people were to find out it is run by the Satanic Temple, we feel that that would actually cause more harm than good,” said June Everett, a Satanic Temple minister and the campaign director of the After School Satan Club. “Also, we are proud to be Satanists. So anyone that has a problem with the name or what we’re trying to do is free to just not send their kids.”

Rocky Malloy, a born-again Christian and founder of the National School Chaplain Association, said his group organized a phone bank and letter writing campaign to lobby for the Texas chaplains bill, according to video of his remarks at a fundraiser in November. Malloy called it an effort to “bring the boldness of Christ Jesus to public education” and a “legal way to bring God and prayer in school.” Malloy didn’t respond to an interview request.

The National School Chaplain Association offers certification provided by Oral Roberts University, a Christian school in Oklahoma that suspends students for being gay . 

“Who is against it? Alphabet people,” Malloy said, referring to members of the LGBTQ community. “It messes up their whole agenda,” he said at the fundraiser after having declared that school counselors are “confirming gender confusion.”

The Satanic Temple isn’t the only religious group opposed to chaplains in schools. In Florida, the Florida Council of Churches, Pastors for Florida Children and the National Council of Jewish Women opposed the bill. Over 100 Texas pastors signed an open letter asking school districts not to hire chaplains, and most school boards appeared to follow their advice. Only one district had hired a chaplain by last month, according to the San Antonio Express-News .

Greaves said the Temple is waiting to learn the details of how the chaplain programs will be implemented. But the Temple plans to start with placing its first ministers in Florida and Oklahoma.

Everett, the minister, is optimistic that they’ll be welcomed into some districts. “A lot more people are now aware of the Satanic Temple and what we’re doing,” she said. “Basically fighting fire with fire.”

Tyler Kingkade is a national reporter for NBC News, based in Los Angeles.

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Empathy is the ability to recognize, understand, and share the thoughts and feelings of another person, animal, or fictional character. Developing empathy is crucial for establishing relationships and behaving compassionately. It involves experiencing another person’s point of view, rather than just one’s own, and enables prosocial or helping behaviors that come from within, rather than being forced.

Some surveys indicate that empathy is on the decline in the United States and elsewhere, findings that motivate parents, schools, and communities to support programs that help people of all ages enhance and maintain their ability to walk in each other’s shoes.

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Empathy helps us cooperate with others, build friendships, make moral decisions, and intervene when we see others being bullied. Humans begin to show signs of empathy in infancy and the trait develops steadily through childhood and adolescence . Still, most people are likely to feel greater empathy for people like themselves and may feel less empathy for those outside their family, community, ethnicity , or race.

Empathy helps us connect and help others, but like other traits, it may have evolved with a selfish motive: using others as a “social antenna” to help detect danger. From an evolutionary perspective, creating a mental model of another person's intent is critical: the arrival of an interloper, for example, could be deadly, so developing sensitivity to the signals of others could be life-saving.

Babies display an understanding that people’s actions are guided by intentions and are able to act on that understanding before they are 18 months old , including trying to comfort a parent. More advanced reasoning about other people’s thoughts develops by around age 5 or 6, and research shows that parents who promote and model empathy raise more empathetic children.

Empathy, sympathy, and compassion are often used interchangeably, but they are not the same . Sympathy is feeling of concern for someone else, and a desire that they become happier or better off, while empathy involves sharing the other person’s emotions. Compassion is an empathic understanding of a person's feelings accompanied by altruism , or a desire to act on that person's behalf. 

Researchers believe people can choose to cultivate and prioritize empathy. People who spend more time with individuals different from themselves tend to adopt a more empathic outlook toward others. Other research finds that reading novels can help foster the ability to put ourselves in the minds of others. Meditation has also been shown to help cultivate brain states that increase empathy.

Some neuroscientists have advanced the concept of "mirror neurons” as a possible source of empathy . These neurons, it is theorized, enhance the capacity to display, read, and mimic emotional signals through facial expressions and other forms of  body language , enhancing empathy. But whether mirror neurons actually operate this way in humans is a subject of longstanding scientific debate, and some scientists question their very existence. 

The ability to convey support for a partner, relative, or friend is crucial to establishing positive relationships. Empathy enables us to establish rapport with another person , make them feel that they are being heard, and, through words and body language, mimic their emotions. Perspective-taking , or the empathic ability to assume the cognitive state of another person and see a problem through their eyes, can further cement a connection.

In healthy relationships, people expect their partners to empathize with them when they face hardship or personal struggles, but the ability to empathize with a partner in good times may be at least as important. In one study, displaying empathy for a partner’s positive emotions was five times more beneficial for relationship satisfaction than only empathizing with his or her negative emotions.

People high in narcissism, or who have narcissistic personality disorder , can exhibit empathy and even compassion. However, that ability only goes so far, as ultimately their own needs come first. Some researchers believe narcissists can develop greater empathy by developing greater self-compassion, which can increase their own feelings of security and self-worth and enable them to open up to hearing others.

Putting yourself in someone else’s shoes can be beneficial, but when it becomes one’s default mode of relating to others, it can blind an individual to their own needs and even make them vulnerable to those who would take advantage of them.

People who regularly put the feelings and perspectives of others above their own may experience feelings of emptiness or alienation and develop generalized anxiety or low-level depression . Psychopaths, on the other hand, are capable of empathic accuracy , or correctly inferring thoughts and feelings, but may have no experiential referent for it: a true psychopath does not feel empathy.

First responders, humanitarian aid workers, doctors, therapists, journalists, and others whose work involves opening themselves up to others’ pain tend to be highly empathic. However, they may come to share the heartbreak of those they help or whose stories they record. As such “emotional residue” accumulates, they may shut down , burn out , and become less willing or able to give of themselves.

Empaths are often characterized as being highly sensitive and overly focused on the needs of others. They may benefit from time alone, as they find it draining to be in the presence of other people. People who are very empathic are more likely to be targeted by manipulative individuals. For this reason, it is important to create healthy boundaries in all relationships, and to be cognizant of relationships with "energy vampires," who are draining to empaths and non-empaths alike.

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