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How to write a speech that your audience remembers

Whether in a work meeting or at an investor panel, you might give a speech at some point. And no matter how excited you are about the opportunity, the experience can be nerve-wracking . 

But feeling butterflies doesn’t mean you can’t give a great speech. With the proper preparation and a clear outline, apprehensive public speakers and natural wordsmiths alike can write and present a compelling message. Here’s how to write a good speech you’ll be proud to deliver.

What is good speech writing?

Good speech writing is the art of crafting words and ideas into a compelling, coherent, and memorable message that resonates with the audience. Here are some key elements of great speech writing:

• It begins with clearly understanding the speech's purpose and the audience it seeks to engage. 
• A well-written speech clearly conveys its central message, ensuring that the audience understands and retains the key points. 
• It is structured thoughtfully, with a captivating opening, a well-organized body, and a conclusion that reinforces the main message. 
• Good speech writing embraces the power of engaging content, weaving in stories, examples, and relatable anecdotes to connect with the audience on both intellectual and emotional levels. 

Ultimately, it is the combination of these elements, along with the authenticity and delivery of the speaker , that transforms words on a page into a powerful and impactful spoken narrative.

What makes a good speech?

A great speech includes several key qualities, but three fundamental elements make a speech truly effective:

Clarity and purpose

Remembering the audience, cohesive structure.

While other important factors make a speech a home run, these three elements are essential for writing an effective speech.

The main elements of a good speech

The main elements of a speech typically include:

• Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your speech and grabs the audience's attention. It should include a hook or attention-grabbing opening, introduce the topic, and provide an overview of what will be covered.
• Opening/captivating statement: This is a strong statement that immediately engages the audience and creates curiosity about the speech topics.
• Thesis statement/central idea: The thesis statement or central idea is a concise statement that summarizes the main point or argument of your speech. It serves as a roadmap for the audience to understand what your speech is about.
• Body: The body of the speech is where you elaborate on your main points or arguments. Each point is typically supported by evidence, examples, statistics, or anecdotes. The body should be organized logically and coherently, with smooth transitions between the main points.
• Supporting evidence: This includes facts, data, research findings, expert opinions, or personal stories that support and strengthen your main points. Well-chosen and credible evidence enhances the persuasive power of your speech.
• Transitions: Transitions are phrases or statements that connect different parts of your speech, guiding the audience from one idea to the next. Effective transitions signal the shifts in topics or ideas and help maintain a smooth flow throughout the speech.
• Counterarguments and rebuttals (if applicable): If your speech involves addressing opposing viewpoints or counterarguments, you should acknowledge and address them. Presenting counterarguments makes your speech more persuasive and demonstrates critical thinking.
• Conclusion: The conclusion is the final part of your speech and should bring your message to a satisfying close. Summarize your main points, restate your thesis statement, and leave the audience with a memorable closing thought or call to action.
• Closing statement: This is the final statement that leaves a lasting impression and reinforces the main message of your speech. It can be a call to action, a thought-provoking question, a powerful quote, or a memorable anecdote.
• Delivery and presentation: How you deliver your speech is also an essential element to consider. Pay attention to your tone, body language, eye contact , voice modulation, and timing. Practice and rehearse your speech, and try using the 7-38-55 rule to ensure confident and effective delivery.

While the order and emphasis of these elements may vary depending on the type of speech and audience, these elements provide a framework for organizing and delivering a successful speech.

How to structure a good speech

You know what message you want to transmit, who you’re delivering it to, and even how you want to say it. But you need to know how to start, develop, and close a speech before writing it. 

Think of a speech like an essay. It should have an introduction, conclusion, and body sections in between. This places ideas in a logical order that the audience can better understand and follow them. Learning how to make a speech with an outline gives your storytelling the scaffolding it needs to get its point across.

Here’s a general speech structure to guide your writing process:

• Explanation 1
• Explanation 2
• Explanation 3

How to write a compelling speech opener

Some research shows that engaged audiences pay attention for only 15 to 20 minutes at a time. Other estimates are even lower, citing that people stop listening intently in fewer than 10 minutes . If you make a good first impression at the beginning of your speech, you have a better chance of interesting your audience through the middle when attention spans fade. 

Implementing the INTRO model can help grab and keep your audience’s attention as soon as you start speaking. This acronym stands for interest, need, timing, roadmap, and objectives, and it represents the key points you should hit in an opening. 

Here’s what to include for each of these points: 

• Interest : Introduce yourself or your topic concisely and speak with confidence . Write a compelling opening statement using relevant data or an anecdote that the audience can relate to.
• Needs : The audience is listening to you because they have something to learn. If you’re pitching a new app idea to a panel of investors, those potential partners want to discover more about your product and what they can earn from it. Read the room and gently remind them of the purpose of your speech. 
• Timing : When appropriate, let your audience know how long you’ll speak. This lets listeners set expectations and keep tabs on their own attention span. If a weary audience member knows you’ll talk for 40 minutes, they can better manage their energy as that time goes on. 
• Routemap : Give a brief overview of the three main points you’ll cover in your speech. If an audience member’s attention starts to drop off and they miss a few sentences, they can more easily get their bearings if they know the general outline of the presentation.
• Objectives : Tell the audience what you hope to achieve, encouraging them to listen to the end for the payout. 

Writing the middle of a speech

The body of your speech is the most information-dense section. Facts, visual aids, PowerPoints — all this information meets an audience with a waning attention span. Sticking to the speech structure gives your message focus and keeps you from going off track, making everything you say as useful as possible.

Limit the middle of your speech to three points, and support them with no more than three explanations. Following this model organizes your thoughts and prevents you from offering more information than the audience can retain. 

Using this section of the speech to make your presentation interactive can add interest and engage your audience. Try including a video or demonstration to break the monotony. A quick poll or survey also keeps the audience on their toes. 

Wrapping the speech up

To you, restating your points at the end can feel repetitive and dull. You’ve practiced countless times and heard it all before. But repetition aids memory and learning , helping your audience retain what you’ve told them. Use your speech’s conclusion to summarize the main points with a few short sentences.

Try to end on a memorable note, like posing a motivational quote or a thoughtful question the audience can contemplate once they leave. In proposal or pitch-style speeches, consider landing on a call to action (CTA) that invites your audience to take the next step.

How to write a good speech

If public speaking gives you the jitters, you’re not alone. Roughly 80% of the population feels nervous before giving a speech, and another 10% percent experiences intense anxiety and sometimes even panic. 

The fear of failure can cause procrastination and can cause you to put off your speechwriting process until the last minute. Finding the right words takes time and preparation, and if you’re already feeling nervous, starting from a blank page might seem even harder.

But putting in the effort despite your stress is worth it. Presenting a speech you worked hard on fosters authenticity and connects you to the subject matter, which can help your audience understand your points better. Human connection is all about honesty and vulnerability, and if you want to connect to the people you’re speaking to, they should see that in you.

1. Identify your objectives and target audience

Before diving into the writing process, find healthy coping strategies to help you stop worrying . Then you can define your speech’s purpose, think about your target audience, and start identifying your objectives. Here are some questions to ask yourself and ground your thinking : 

• What purpose do I want my speech to achieve? 
• What would it mean to me if I achieved the speech’s purpose?
• What audience am I writing for? 
• What do I know about my audience? 
• What values do I want to transmit? 
• If the audience remembers one take-home message, what should it be? 
• What do I want my audience to feel, think, or do after I finish speaking? 
• What parts of my message could be confusing and require further explanation?

2. Know your audience

Understanding your audience is crucial for tailoring your speech effectively. Consider the demographics of your audience, their interests, and their expectations. For instance, if you're addressing a group of healthcare professionals, you'll want to use medical terminology and data that resonate with them. Conversely, if your audience is a group of young students, you'd adjust your content to be more relatable to their experiences and interests. 

3. Choose a clear message

Your message should be the central idea that you want your audience to take away from your speech. Let's say you're giving a speech on climate change. Your clear message might be something like, "Individual actions can make a significant impact on mitigating climate change." Throughout your speech, all your points and examples should support this central message, reinforcing it for your audience.

4. Structure your speech

Organizing your speech properly keeps your audience engaged and helps them follow your ideas. The introduction should grab your audience's attention and introduce the topic. For example, if you're discussing space exploration, you could start with a fascinating fact about a recent space mission. In the body, you'd present your main points logically, such as the history of space exploration, its scientific significance, and future prospects. Finally, in the conclusion, you'd summarize your key points and reiterate the importance of space exploration in advancing human knowledge.

5. Use engaging content for clarity

Engaging content includes stories, anecdotes, statistics, and examples that illustrate your main points. For instance, if you're giving a speech about the importance of reading, you might share a personal story about how a particular book changed your perspective. You could also include statistics on the benefits of reading, such as improved cognitive abilities and empathy.

6. Maintain clarity and simplicity

It's essential to communicate your ideas clearly. Avoid using overly technical jargon or complex language that might confuse your audience. For example, if you're discussing a medical breakthrough with a non-medical audience, explain complex terms in simple, understandable language.

7. Practice and rehearse

Practice is key to delivering a great speech. Rehearse multiple times to refine your delivery, timing, and tone. Consider using a mirror or recording yourself to observe your body language and gestures. For instance, if you're giving a motivational speech, practice your gestures and expressions to convey enthusiasm and confidence.

8. Consider nonverbal communication

Your body language, tone of voice, and gestures should align with your message . If you're delivering a speech on leadership, maintain strong eye contact to convey authority and connection with your audience. A steady pace and varied tone can also enhance your speech's impact.

9. Engage your audience

Engaging your audience keeps them interested and attentive. Encourage interaction by asking thought-provoking questions or sharing relatable anecdotes. If you're giving a speech on teamwork, ask the audience to recall a time when teamwork led to a successful outcome, fostering engagement and connection.

10. Prepare for Q&A

Anticipate potential questions or objections your audience might have and prepare concise, well-informed responses. If you're delivering a speech on a controversial topic, such as healthcare reform, be ready to address common concerns, like the impact on healthcare costs or access to services, during the Q&A session.

By following these steps and incorporating examples that align with your specific speech topic and purpose, you can craft and deliver a compelling and impactful speech that resonates with your audience.

Tools for writing a great speech

There are several helpful tools available for speechwriting, both technological and communication-related. Here are a few examples:

• Word processing software: Tools like Microsoft Word, Google Docs, or other word processors provide a user-friendly environment for writing and editing speeches. They offer features like spell-checking, grammar correction, formatting options, and easy revision tracking.
• Presentation software: Software such as Microsoft PowerPoint or Google Slides is useful when creating visual aids to accompany your speech. These tools allow you to create engaging slideshows with text, images, charts, and videos to enhance your presentation.
• Speechwriting Templates: Online platforms or software offer pre-designed templates specifically for speechwriting. These templates provide guidance on structuring your speech and may include prompts for different sections like introductions, main points, and conclusions.
• Rhetorical devices and figures of speech: Rhetorical tools such as metaphors, similes, alliteration, and parallelism can add impact and persuasion to your speech. Resources like books, websites, or academic papers detailing various rhetorical devices can help you incorporate them effectively.
• Speechwriting apps: Mobile apps designed specifically for speechwriting can be helpful in organizing your thoughts, creating outlines, and composing a speech. These apps often provide features like voice recording, note-taking, and virtual prompts to keep you on track.
• Grammar and style checkers: Online tools or plugins like Grammarly or Hemingway Editor help improve the clarity and readability of your speech by checking for grammar, spelling, and style errors. They provide suggestions for sentence structure, word choice, and overall tone.
• Thesaurus and dictionary: Online or offline resources such as thesauruses and dictionaries help expand your vocabulary and find alternative words or phrases to express your ideas more effectively. They can also clarify meanings or provide context for unfamiliar terms.
• Online speechwriting communities: Joining online forums or communities focused on speechwriting can be beneficial for getting feedback, sharing ideas, and learning from experienced speechwriters. It's an opportunity to connect with like-minded individuals and improve your public speaking skills through collaboration.

Remember, while these tools can assist in the speechwriting process, it's essential to use them thoughtfully and adapt them to your specific needs and style. The most important aspect of speechwriting remains the creativity, authenticity, and connection with your audience that you bring to your speech.

5 tips for writing a speech

Behind every great speech is an excellent idea and a speaker who refined it. But a successful speech is about more than the initial words on the page, and there are a few more things you can do to help it land.

Here are five more tips for writing and practicing your speech:

1. Structure first, write second

If you start the writing process before organizing your thoughts, you may have to re-order, cut, and scrap the sentences you worked hard on. Save yourself some time by using a speech structure, like the one above, to order your talking points first. This can also help you identify unclear points or moments that disrupt your flow.

2. Do your homework

Data strengthens your argument with a scientific edge. Research your topic with an eye for attention-grabbing statistics, or look for findings you can use to support each point. If you’re pitching a product or service, pull information from company metrics that demonstrate past or potential successes. 

Audience members will likely have questions, so learn all talking points inside and out. If you tell investors that your product will provide 12% returns, for example, come prepared with projections that support that statement.

3. Sound like yourself

Memorable speakers have distinct voices. Think of Martin Luther King Jr’s urgent, inspiring timbre or Oprah’s empathetic, personal tone . Establish your voice — one that aligns with your personality and values — and stick with it. If you’re a motivational speaker, keep your tone upbeat to inspire your audience . If you’re the CEO of a startup, try sounding assured but approachable. 

4. Practice

As you practice a speech, you become more confident , gain a better handle on the material, and learn the outline so well that unexpected questions are less likely to trip you up. Practice in front of a colleague or friend for honest feedback about what you could change, and speak in front of the mirror to tweak your nonverbal communication and body language .

5. Remember to breathe

When you’re stressed, you breathe more rapidly . It can be challenging to talk normally when you can’t regulate your breath. Before your presentation, try some mindful breathing exercises so that when the day comes, you already have strategies that will calm you down and remain present . This can also help you control your voice and avoid speaking too quickly.

How to ghostwrite a great speech for someone else

Ghostwriting a speech requires a unique set of skills, as you're essentially writing a piece that will be delivered by someone else. Here are some tips on how to effectively ghostwrite a speech:

• Understand the speaker's voice and style : Begin by thoroughly understanding the speaker's personality, speaking style, and preferences. This includes their tone, humor, and any personal anecdotes they may want to include.
• Interview the speaker : Have a detailed conversation with the speaker to gather information about their speech's purpose, target audience, key messages, and any specific points they want to emphasize. Ask for personal stories or examples they may want to include.
• Research thoroughly : Research the topic to ensure you have a strong foundation of knowledge. This helps you craft a well-informed and credible speech.
• Create an outline : Develop a clear outline that includes the introduction, main points, supporting evidence, and a conclusion. Share this outline with the speaker for their input and approval.
• Write in the speaker's voice : While crafting the speech, maintain the speaker's voice and style. Use language and phrasing that feel natural to them. If they have a particular way of expressing ideas, incorporate that into the speech.
• Craft a captivating opening : Begin the speech with a compelling opening that grabs the audience's attention. This could be a relevant quote, an interesting fact, a personal anecdote, or a thought-provoking question.
• Organize content logically : Ensure the speech flows logically, with each point building on the previous one. Use transitions to guide the audience from one idea to the next smoothly.
• Incorporate engaging stories and examples : Include anecdotes, stories, and real-life examples that illustrate key points and make the speech relatable and memorable.
• Edit and revise : Edit the speech carefully for clarity, grammar, and coherence. Ensure the speech is the right length and aligns with the speaker's time constraints.
• Seek feedback : Share drafts of the speech with the speaker for their feedback and revisions. They may have specific changes or additions they'd like to make.
• Practice delivery : If possible, work with the speaker on their delivery. Practice the speech together, allowing the speaker to become familiar with the content and your writing style.
• Maintain confidentiality : As a ghostwriter, it's essential to respect the confidentiality and anonymity of the work. Do not disclose that you wrote the speech unless you have the speaker's permission to do so.
• Be flexible : Be open to making changes and revisions as per the speaker's preferences. Your goal is to make them look good and effectively convey their message.
• Meet deadlines : Stick to agreed-upon deadlines for drafts and revisions. Punctuality and reliability are essential in ghostwriting.
• Provide support : Support the speaker during their preparation and rehearsal process. This can include helping with cue cards, speech notes, or any other materials they need.

Remember that successful ghostwriting is about capturing the essence of the speaker while delivering a well-structured and engaging speech. Collaboration, communication, and adaptability are key to achieving this.

Give your best speech yet

Learn how to make a speech that’ll hold an audience’s attention by structuring your thoughts and practicing frequently. Put the effort into writing and preparing your content, and aim to improve your breathing, eye contact , and body language as you practice. The more you work on your speech, the more confident you’ll become.

The energy you invest in writing an effective speech will help your audience remember and connect to every concept. Remember: some life-changing philosophies have come from good speeches, so give your words a chance to resonate with others. You might even change their thinking.

Boost your speech skills

Enhance your public speaking with personalized coaching tailored to your needs

Elizabeth Perry, ACC

Elizabeth Perry is a Coach Community Manager at BetterUp. She uses strategic engagement strategies to cultivate a learning community across a global network of Coaches through in-person and virtual experiences, technology-enabled platforms, and strategic coaching industry partnerships. With over 3 years of coaching experience and a certification in transformative leadership and life coaching from Sofia University, Elizabeth leverages transpersonal psychology expertise to help coaches and clients gain awareness of their behavioral and thought patterns, discover their purpose and passions, and elevate their potential. She is a lifelong student of psychology, personal growth, and human potential as well as an ICF-certified ACC transpersonal life and leadership Coach.

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Parts of Speech

What are the parts of speech, a formal definition.

Table of Contents

The Part of Speech Is Determined by the Word's Function

Are there 8 or 9 parts of speech, the nine parts of speech, (1) adjective, (3) conjunction, (4) determiner, (5) interjection, (7) preposition, (8) pronoun, why the parts of speech are important, video lesson.

• You need to dig a well . (noun)
• You look well . (adjective)
• You dance well . (adverb)
• Well , I agree. (interjection)
• My eyes will well up. (verb)
• red, happy, enormous
• Ask the boy in the red jumper.
• I live in a happy place.
• I caught a fish this morning! I mean an enormous one.
• happily, loosely, often
• They skipped happily to the counter.
• Tie the knot loosely so they can escape.
• I often walk to work.
• It is an intriguingly magic setting.
• He plays the piano extremely well.
• and, or, but
• it is a large and important city.
• Shall we run to the hills or hide in the bushes?
• I know you are lying, but I cannot prove it.
• my, those, two, many
• My dog is fine with those cats.
• There are two dogs but many cats.
• ouch, oops, eek
• Ouch , that hurt.
• Oops , it's broken.
• Eek! A mouse just ran past my foot!
• leader, town, apple
• Take me to your leader .
• I will see you in town later.
• An apple fell on his head .
• in, near, on, with
• Sarah is hiding in the box.
• I live near the train station.
• Put your hands on your head.
• She yelled with enthusiasm.
• she, we, they, that
• Joanne is smart. She is also funny.
• Our team has studied the evidence. We know the truth.
• Jack and Jill went up the hill, but they never returned.
• That is clever!
• work, be, write, exist
• Tony works down the pit now. He was unemployed.
• I will write a song for you.
• I think aliens exist .

Are you a visual learner? Do you prefer video to text? Here is a list of all our grammar videos .

Video for Each Part of Speech

The Most Important Writing Issues

The top issue related to adjectives, the top issue related to adverbs.

• Extremely annoyed, she stared menacingly at her rival.
• Infuriated, she glared at her rival.

The Top Issue Related to Conjunctions

• Burger, Fries, and a shake
• Fish, chips and peas

The Top Issue Related to Determiners

The Top Issue Related to Interjections

The top issue related to nouns, the top issue related to prepositions, the top issue related to pronouns, the top issue related to verbs.

• Crack the parts of speech to help with learning a foreign language or to take your writing to the next level.

This page was written by Craig Shrives .

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English lessons and resources

Direct speech writing rules in English

7th January 2019 by Andrew 14 Comments

In the above picture, Mark is talking to Jane. The words inside the blue box are the exact words that he speaks.

Here is how we express this:

This is direct speech. Direct speech is when we report the exact words that somebody says.

In this English lesson, you will learn:

• The rules for writing direct speech.
• The correct punctuation.
• Vocabulary to report direct speech.

Reporting clause before the direct speech

The reporting clause of direct speech is the short clause that indicates who is talking. It is the clause that is outside of the inverted commas. It is therefore not the words being spoken.

We can write the reporting clause either before or after the direct speech. If the reporting clause is before the direct speech, we write it as follows:

Grammar rules – If the reporting clause is before the direct speech:

We write a comma (,) before the direct speech. We write the exact words inside the inverted commas. The first letter is a capital letter. We write a full stop (.) before the closing inverted commas.

Reporting clause before a question or exclamation

If the reporting clause is before a question or exclamation:

We write a comma (,) before the direct speech. We write the exact words inside the inverted commas. The first letter is a capital letter. We write a question mark (?) before the closing inverted commas. or We write an exclamation mark (!) before the closing inverted commas.

Reporting clause after the direct speech

If the reporting clause is after the direct speech:

We write the exact words inside the inverted commas. The first letter is a capital letter. We write a comma (,) before the closing inverted commas. We write a full stop (.) at the end of the reporting clause.

Reporting clause after a question or exclamation

If the reporting clause is after a question or exclamation:

We write the exact words inside the inverted commas. The first letter is a capital letter. We write a question mark (?) before the closing inverted commas. or We write an exclamation mark (!) before the closing inverted commas. We write a full stop (.) at the end of the reporting clause.

Advanced rules for direct speech

Sometimes we break up the direct speech into 2 parts:

The second part of the direct speech starts with a small letter if it is the same sentence as the first part of the direct speech.

The second part of the direct speech starts with a capital letter if it is a new sentence.

Vocabulary of direct speech

We have several names for the above punctuation marks:

Inverted commas Speech marks Quotation marks Quotes

Other reporting verbs

Here are some other useful reporting verbs:

reply (replied) ask (asked) shout (shouted) agree (agreed) comment (commented) admit (admitted)

They are often used for writing direct speech in books, newspapers and reports. It is more common to use them in reporting clauses after the direct speech.

“I really don’t like her dress,” she commented . “I don’t love you anymore,” he admitted .

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Reader Interactions

Matěj Formánek says

3rd November 2019 at 5:54 pm

How about this sentence: I know the satnav is wrong!” exclaimed Zena. – Why the subject and predicate are swapped? It’s sentence from textbook so I’m confused.

17th June 2020 at 4:07 pm

Can we write multiple sentences in direct speech that comes before reporting clause? In case if this is allowed, what punctuation mark should be used after the last sentence?

Example: “I entered the class room. As I did not find anybody there, I left the class room and went to buy a coffee.” explained the student to the teacher for his delay to come to the class.

Should the punctuation mark after the word coffee be comma instead of full stop?

Joaquim Barretto says

14th September 2020 at 1:25 pm

No full stop, but comma after the word coffee.

19th January 2021 at 2:34 pm

HI IM DAISY

courtney says

27th January 2021 at 12:07 pm

Clare Hatcher says

12th March 2021 at 9:55 am

Hello I like the layout of this – very clear. Just wondering if it is correct to use a comma in between two separate sentences in direct speech. I think that now in published material you find this instead. ‘I’m tired,’ she said. ‘Let’s stay at home.’ Would appreciate your thoughts Thanks

27th March 2021 at 8:54 am

If I wrote something with a comma at the end to continue speech like this:

“Hello,” he waved to the new student, “what’s you’re name?”

Do I have to use a capital letter even if I’m continuing with a comma or is it lowercase?

Sylvia Edouard says

30th September 2023 at 9:17 am

Yes, you need to use a capital letter as speech from someone has to start with a capital letter. Always.

15th April 2022 at 12:12 pm

which of the following is correct?

1. Should the status go missing when the metadata states, “Sign & return document?”

2. Should the status go missing when the metadata states, “Sign & return document,”? (comma inside)

3. Should the status go missing when the metadata states, “Sign & return document.”? (full stop inside)

Jan Švanda says

7th September 2023 at 1:31 pm

I presume the quotation is there to specify the exact phrase (for the metadata entry). I also encounter this from time to time, when writing technical documentation. I believe in that case you should write the phrase as it is, proper grammar be damned; beautifully looking documentation is useless if it leads to incorrect results.

In this case, I don’t even think this is “direct speech”, the metadata entry isn’t walking around and saying things, the quotation mark is there to indicate precise phrase – similar to marking strings in programming languages. Because of this, I don’t think direct speech rules apply, or at least, they should take back seat. If the expected status includes full stop at the end, the sentence would be:

4. Should the status go missing when the metadata states “Sign & return document.”? (no comma before, since it is not a direct speech; full stop inside, as it is part of the quoted status)

From grammatical perspective the end looks a bit ugly, but again, if this should be technical documentation, that is less important than precision.

A person says

15th August 2022 at 7:16 pm

One extra thing: YOU MUST NOT USE THE WORD SAID IN A REPORTING CLAUSE. EVER. IT’S UNIMAGINATIVE.

no joke, it’s actually discouraged and even close to banned at my school

7th September 2023 at 1:49 pm

This is stupid. You shouldn’t use it in _every_ sentence, there should be variety, but outright banning it doesn’t make sense.

Case in point:

Book: ‘Pride and Prejudice’. Phrase to search: ‘,” said’ (comma, followed by quotation mark, followed by space, followed by word ‘said’). Number of occurrences: 211. Total number of ‘,”‘ (comma, followed by quotation mark) strings is 436, so “said” is used in almost 50% cases of direct speech of this type.

I don’t think it would be right for your school to ban Jane Austin, do you?

blaire says

30th March 2024 at 5:36 pm

How do you use names in direct speech?

Is it: “I really don’t like her dress,” Ashley said. or “I really don’t like her dress,” said Ashley.

I’ve seen both and I’m so confused which one is correct, please help me.

Andrew says

3rd April 2024 at 11:31 am

Hello and thanks for your comment and question.

After the direct speech, both are correct.

Before the direct speech, only the first one is correct:

Ashley said, “I really don’t like her dress.” (correct) Said Ashley, “I really don’t like her dress.” (wrong)

I hope that helps you. Andrew https://www.youtube.com/@CrownAcademyEnglish/

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Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular font = prepositional phrase

Independent clause : An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a subject and a verb and is a complete idea.

• I like spaghetti .
• He reads many books .

Dependent clause : A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to an independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a subordinate clause.

• Although I like spaghetti,…
• Because he reads many books,…

Subject : A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action. Determine the subject in a sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”

• I like spaghetti.
• He reads many books.

Verb : Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. Determine the verb in a sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”

• The movie is good. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a linking verb. It links the subject, in this case "the movie," to the complement or the predicate of the sentence, in this case, "good.")

Object : A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine the object in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom?/For whom?”

Prepositional Phrase : A phrase that begins with a preposition (i.e., in, at for, behind, until, after, of, during) and modifies a word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase answers one of many questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When? In what way?”

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English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

• H e obtained his degree.
• He obtained his degree .
• Smith he obtained his degree.
• He obtained his degree.
• He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause.

Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular font =prepositional phrase

Here are a few examples:

• She wrote .
• She completed her literature review .
• He organized his sources by theme .
• They studied APA rules for many hours .

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses.  These two independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon .

Key: independent clause = yellow, bold ; comma  or semicolon = pink, regular font ; coordinating conjunction = green, underlined

• She completed her literature review , and she created her reference list .
• He organized his sources by theme ; then, he updated his reference list .
• They studied APA rules for many hours , but they realized there was still much to learn .

Using some compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety .

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.

If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two clauses.

Key: independent clause = yellow, bold ; comma = pink, regular font ; dependent clause = blue, italics

• Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
• Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an independent clause.
• Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety .

Compound-Complex Sentences

Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Key: independent clause = yellow, bold ; comma  or semicolon = pink, regular font ; coordinating conjunction = green, underlined ; dependent clause = blue, italics

• She completed her literature review , but she still needs to work on her methods section even though she finished her methods course last semester .
• Although he organized his sources by theme , he decided to arrange them chronologically , and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization . 
• T hey studied APA rules for many hours , and they decided that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and objective .
• Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety .
• Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so that the reader is easily able to follow the intended meaning.

Sentence Structure Video Playlist

Note that these videos were created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Structuring Sentences: Types of Sentences (video transcript)
• Structuring Sentences: Simple Sentences (video transcript)
• Structuring Sentences: Compound Sentences (video transcript)
• Structuring Sentences: Complex Sentences (video transcript)
• Structuring Sentences: Combining Sentences (video transcript)
• Common Error: Unclear Subjects (video transcript)
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• Grammar: Topic Page Description of the structure of a language, consisting of the sounds (see phonology); the meaningful combinations of these sounds into words or parts of words, called morphemes; and the arrangement of the morphemes into phrases and sentences, called syntax.
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• Syntax From Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics A traditional term for the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language. In this use, syntax is opposed to morphology, the study of word structure.
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Parts of Speech

• Parts of speech From Good Word Guide Words can be grouped into classes, commonly called parts of speech, which share the same grammatical function within sentences.
• Nouns From Good Word Guide Nouns are the names of things, places, or people. The main division of nouns is into ‘countable’ and ‘uncountable’: countable nouns are those which can be preceded by a or the, or by a number or word denoting number . . . Uncountable nouns are nouns of mass.
• Adjective: Topic Page Grammatical part of speech for words that describe noun (for example, new, as in ‘a new hat’, and beautiful, as in ‘a beautiful day’).
• Adverb From Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics A term used in the grammatical classification of words to refer to a heterogeneous group of items whose most frequent function is to specify the mode of action of the verb.

Related Terms

• Allusion From The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics A poet’s deliberate incorporation of identifiable elements from other sources, preceding or contemporaneous, textual or extratextual. A. may be used merely to display knowledge, as in some Alexandrian poems; to appeal to those sharing experience or knowledge with the poet; or to enrich a poem by incorporating further meaning.
• Onomatopoeia From The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics The traditional term for words which seem to imitate the things they refer to, as in this line from Collins’ “Ode to Evening”: “Now the air is hushed, somewhere the weak-eyed bat / With short shrill shriek flits by on leathern wing.”
• Hyperbole From The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics A figure or trope, common to all lits., consisting of bold exaggeration, apparently first discussed by Isocrates and Aristotle (Rhetoric 1413a28).

Representation

• Symbolism: Topic Page In the arts, the use of symbols to concentrate or intensify meaning, making the work more subjective than objective. In the visual arts, symbols have been used in works throughout the ages to transmit a message or idea, for example, the religious symbolism of ancient Egyptian art, Gothic art, and Renaissance art.
• Simile From The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics A figure of speech most conservatively defined as an explicit comparison using “like” or “as”—e.g. “black, naked women with necks / wound round and round with wire / like the necks of light bulbs” (Elizabeth Bishop).
• Trope From Encyclopedia of Postmodernism A trope is a figure of speech that denotes or connotes meaning through a chain of associations. It employs a word or phrase out of its ordinary usage in order to further demonstrate or illustrate a particular idea.
• Synecdoche From Encyclopedia of Postmodernism Synecdoche means literally understanding one thing with another; as a rhetorical trope, the substitution of part for whole or vice versa. When defined as the use of an attribute or adjunct as a substitution for that of the thing meant, synecdoche is directly related to metonymy.
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The slippery grammar of spoken vs written English

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My grammar checker and I are on a break. Due to irreconcilable differences, we are no longer on speaking terms.

It all started when it became dead set on putting commas before every single “which”. Despite all the angry underlining, “this is a habit which seems prevalent” does not need a comma before “which”. Take it from me, I am a linguist.

This is just one of many challenging cases where grammar is slippery and hard to pin down. To make matters worse, it appears that the grammar we use while speaking is slightly different to the grammar we use while writing. Speech and writing seem similar enough – so much so that for centuries, people (linguists included) were blind to the differences.

Read more: How students from non-English-speaking backgrounds learn to read and write in different ways

There’s issues to consider

Let me give you an example. Take sentences like “there is X” and “there are X”. You may have been taught that “there is” occurs with singular entities because “is” is the present singular form of “to be” – as in “there is milk in the fridge” or “there is a storm coming”.

Conversely, “there are” is used with plural entities: “there are twelve months in a year” or “there are lots of idiots on the road”.

What about “there’s X”? Well, “there’s” is the abbreviated version of “there is”. That makes it the verb form of choice when followed by singular entities.

Nice theory. It works for standard, written language, formal academic writing, and legal documents. But in speech, things are very different .

It turns out that spoken English favours “there is” and “there’s” over “there are”, regardless of what follows the verb: “there is five bucks on the counter” or “ there’s five cars all fighting for that Number 10 spot ”.

A question of planning

This is not because English is going to hell in a hand basket, nor because young people can’t speak “proper” English anymore.

Linguists Jen Hay and Daniel Schreier scrutinised examples of old recordings of New Zealand English to see what happens in cases where you might expect “there” followed by plural, (or “there are” or “there were” for past events) but where you find “there” followed by singular (“there is”, “there’s”, “there was”).

They found that the contracted form “there’s” is a go-to form which seems prevalent with both singular and plural entities. But there’s more. The greater the distance between “be” and the entity following it, the more likely speakers are to ignore the plural rule.

“There is great vast fields of corn” is likely to be produced because the plural entity “fields” comes so far down the expression, that speakers do not plan for it in advance with a plural form “are”.

Even more surprisingly, the use of the singular may not always necessarily have much to do with what follows “there is/are”. It can simply be about the timing of the event described. With past events, the singular form is even more acceptable. “There was dogs in the yard” seems to raise fewer eyebrows than “there is dogs in the yard”.

Nothing new here

The disregard for the plural form is not a new thing (darn, we can’t even blame it on texting). According to an article published last year by Norwegian linguist Dania Bonneess , the change towards the singular form “there is” has been with us in New Zealand English ever since the 19th century. Its history can be traced at least as far back as the second generation of the Ulster family of Irish emigrants .

Editors, language commissions and prescriptivists aside, everyday New Zealand speech has a life of its own, governed not so much by style guides and grammar rules, but by living and breathing individuals.

It should be no surprise that spoken language is different to written language. The most spoken-like form of speech (conversation) is very unlike the most written-like version of language (academic or other formal or technical writing) for good reason.

Speech and writing

In conversation, there is no time for planning. Expressions come out more or less off the cuff (depending on the individual), with no ability to edit, and with immediate need for processing. We hear a chunk of language and at the same time as parsing it, we are already putting together a response to it – in real time.

This speed has consequences for the kind of language we use and hear. When speaking, we rely on recycled expressions, formulae we use over and over again, and less complex structures.

For example, we are happy enough writing and reading a sentence like:

That the human brain can use language is amazing.

But in speech, we prefer:

It is amazing that the human brain can use language.

Both are grammatical, yet one is simpler and quicker for the brain to decode.

And sometimes, in speech we use grammatical crutches to help the brain get the message quicker. A phrase like “the boxes I put the files into” is readily encountered in writing, but in speech we often say and hear “the boxes I put the files into them”.

We call these seemingly unnecessary pronouns (“them” in the previous example) “shadow pronouns”. Even linguistics professors use these latter expressions no matter how much they might deny it.

Speech: a faster ride

There is another interesting difference between speech and writing: speech is not held up on the same rigid prescriptive pedestal as writing, nor is it as heavily regulated in the same way that writing is scrutinised by editors, critics, examiners and teachers.

This allows room in speech for more creativity and more language play, and with it, faster change. Speech is known to evolve faster than writing, even though writing will eventually catch up (at least for some changes).

I would guess that by now, most editors are happy enough to let the old “whom” form rest and “who” take over (“who did you give that book to?”).

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He Said, She Said: How to Use Speech Tags & Dialogue Tags Effectively

by Fija Callaghan

What is dialogue?

Dialogue is the spoken interaction between two or more characters. Usually, dialogue is spoken out loud, but it can also be things like sign language or telekinesis — it’s any form of expression, as long as the characters can understand each other. Dialogue can be used to develop characters, convey exposition about your story’s world, or move the plot forward.

Ultimately, learning how to write dialogue in a story is one of the most important skills in a writer’s toolbox.

In order to write clear, concise dialogue that will elevate your story and engage your readers, you’ll need to understand how to use dialogue tags. Also called speech tags, these unassuming words can make or break an otherwise well-written scene. But what is a dialogue tag, exactly, and how do we use it to take our story to the next level? By following a few basic principles, you’ll be writing compelling dialogue in no time. Let’s dive in.

What are dialogue tags?

Dialogue tags (or speech tags) are short phrases that identify the speaker of a line of dialogue. They can occur before, during, or after a character’s spoken dialogue. They’re used to make it clear who’s speaking and help the reader follow the conversation. The most common dialogue tag in writing is “he said” or “she said.”

There are a few different ways to write dialogue tags, and we’ll look at them all in more detail below. Here’s a quick example:

“I made some coffee,” said Julie.

Here, “‘I made some coffee’” is the dialogue, and “said Julie” is the dialogue tag. They both appear on the same line in the story.

Why do we use dialogue tags in fiction writing?

We use dialogue tags and speech tags in a story to clarify who’s talking so that the reader doesn’t get confused, as well as to give more depth and context to the words that are being said. If your on-page conversation goes too long without a dialogue tag, your reader can lose track of who’s saying what. When this happens, they need to stop reading, go back to the top of the conversation, and count each line to try and remember whose turn it is to talk. At this point, you’ve broken their connection to the story.

However, be mindful of using repetitive dialogue tags. Punctuating dialogue with too many tags is one of the common mistakes new writers often make. Using too many can weigh down the actual dialogue and distract from the story. Instead, use tags only when needed or when they add another layer to the characters speaking.

Dialogue tags also give us a way to break up long stretches of story dialogue, to add movement to the scene, and to reveal something new about the character. Here are a few examples of effective dialogue tags:

“So you’re finally done with that jerk?” he said, leaning forward.

She took a sip of her drink. “Looks that way.”

The first speaker has an action attached to his speech tag that gives us a hint about how he’s feeling. The second speaker has an action preceding her dialogue that also gives a hint about how she’s feeling. With just these two simple lines, we can already imagine the story building up around them.

Sometimes, a speech tag can change the inflection of a line of story dialogue. For example,

“Look at that!” he said, spreading his cards out on the table. “A full house.”

“You’ve had a lot of luck this evening,” said John irritably.

What if we changed the dialogue tag?

“You’ve had a lot of luck this evening,” said John, grinning.

The dialogue stays exactly the same, but the context and the relationship between the two characters shifts because we’ve used a different dialogue tag. If you were to just use “said John” as your dialogue tag, the reader could imagine several different scenarios. You’d have to find other places to sneak in the background information they needed to understand the dialogue’s subtext.

Used in this way, a well-placed dialogue tag can communicate something a lot bigger about your story. We’ll look at different ways to say “said” in writing and other words for “said” when writing story dialogue later on in this article.

You may also notice that the capitalization changes when the line ends in an exclamation mark. We’ll take a closer look at placing dialogue tags and the rules of appropriate punctuation below.

When to use speech tags in writing

You’ll notice from the examples above that the placement of the dialogue tags can shift from one line to another; they don’t always stay in the same place. Let’s look at how to format dialogue when using dialogue tags before, during, and after a line of speech.

How to use speech tags before dialogue

In some older novels, you’ll see speech tags being used before the dialogue:

Shane said, “I didn’t think you’d mind.”

This sentence structure has generally fallen out of favor in contemporary writing. The exception? If your character is quoting someone else:

“And then what happened?”

“Well, then Shane said, ‘I didn’t think you’d mind.’”

Usually, the best way to use a dialogue tag before a line of speech is to choose an action for your character:

Sheila gasped. “He really said that?”

Here, the action tag identifies Sheila as the speaker. We’ll look closer at using action tags further below.

How to use speech tags in the middle of dialogue

Using dialogue tags can be a good way to break up long lines of dialogue, to imply a natural pause in the line, or to convey a shift in tone. For example:

“I just feel so tired all the time,” she said. “Like nothing matters anymore.”

Compare with the dialogue tag used at the end:

“I just feel so tired all the time. Like nothing matters anymore,” she said.

In the latter, the line of dialogue feels faster, like a singular thought. In the former, we feel like the speaker has paused for breath, or paused to add a new idea. Neither one of these is right or wrong; it’s up to you to decide which one is the best fit for that particular moment of your story.

Here’s another example:

“I just feel so tired all the time. Like nothing matters anymore,” she said. “But after tomorrow, things will be different.”

Here, the dialogue tag serves as an axis between one tone and another. The line begins feeling despondent, hinges on the dialogue tag, and ends feeling hopeful.

How to use tags at the end of the dialogue

Many contemporary writers favor placing speech tags after a line of dialogue. For example:

“It smells wonderful in here,” said Kate.

This structure puts the emphasis on the dialogue, rather than the dialogue tag. The reader’s attention focuses on what the character is saying, and the speech tag works on a near-subconscious level to make sure they don’t get confused about who’s saying what.

You can also give the character an action after their dialogue:

“It smells wonderful in here.” Kate opened the oven and peeked inside.

This gives the reader a bit more context about what’s happening and makes the scene come alive.

How to punctuate dialogue tags

You may have noticed in some of these examples that the punctuation in a dialogue tag can change. Let’s take a closer look at how to format dialogue tags, as well as some alternative speech tag formats you might come across in literature.

Using double and single quotation marks

In North American literature, lines of dialogue are enclosed in double quotation marks, like this:

“I love this song.”

In European English, however, you’ll often see single quotation marks used instead, like this:

‘I love this song.’

For this article we’ll be focusing on using standard North American grammar.

If your dialogue stands alone without any speech tag (like just above), you’ll end the line in a period. If you’re adding a speech tag in the form of a verb that describes the dialogue—said, whispered, shouted, etc—you’ll end the line of dialogue in a comma just before the closing quotation mark, and start the dialogue tag with a lowercase letter:

“I love this song,” she said.

(Unless your dialogue tag begins with a proper noun, such as “Charlotte said”—always capitalize these!)

However , if you follow the line of dialogue with an action that is separate from the speech, you’ll end the dialogue with a period and begin the next bit with a capital letter, the same as if you didn’t use any tag at all:

“I love this song.” She reached over and turned up the volume.

Always include your dialogue’s punctuation inside quotation marks.

So far so good? Now things are about to get a little weird. What happens if your dialogue ends in a question mark or an exclamation point? Strangely enough, the rules for capitalization actually stay the same:

“I love this song!” she said.

“I love this song!” She reached over and turned up the volume.

North American English does use single quotation marks too. As we saw in one of our earlier examples, single quotes are used for dialogue within dialogue. This is called “nested dialogue.”

“In the words of Shakespeare, ‘To thine self be true.’”

“I was on my way out when I overheard him say, ‘I’ll meet you at our old spot.’ What old spot was he talking about?”

In European English, the rules for nested dialogue is reversed, like this:

‘I was on my way out when I overheard him say, “I’ll meet you at our old spot.” What old spot was he talking about?’

Sometimes you’ll see dialogue being set off from the rest of the text with em-dashes. This can create a vivid, cinematic effect in your writing; however, you’ll have to be very careful that your dialogue doesn’t blur into your narrative. Here’s an example from Roddy Doyle’s Oh, Play That Thing :

—I want an American suit, I told him.

—Suit? I had the rest of the anarchist’s cash burning a hole in the pocket of my old one.

—American, I told him.—A good one.

You can see how the dialogue tags—“I told him”—are kept deliberately simple, and the longer action is set apart on its own line. The em-dashes show us when the speech starts up again. However, this type of dialogue punctuation is very rare and experimental; the safest option is always to use standard quotation marks, like we looked at above.

No punctuation

Sometimes authors will experiment with using no distinguishing punctuation at all. This makes the story read very smoothly and intimately, like the reader is really there in person. However, just like using em-dashes, care must be taken to keep the dialogue and the narrative very distinct from each other so that the reader understands what’s being said and what’s being thought or described.

Here’s an example from The Houseboat , by Dane Bahr:

This have something to do with that grave robbery?

No sir, Clinton said. I don’t believe so. That was down in Cedar Rapids.

I see. Well. Ness leaned back and closed his eyes again. What can I do for you, Deputy?

Yeh get the mornin paper up there? The Tribune I think it is?

Looking at it right now, Ness said. He leaned forward in his chair and looked at the picture on the front page.

Even though this is written in third person narrative, you can see how each dialogue tag begins with a name—“Clinton said,” rather than “said Clinton.” This gives the reader a subconscious cue that the words are shifting from dialogue to description. Stripping away the punctuation of your dialogue like this gives the reader a feeling like they’re listening in on a private conversation in the next room.

Experimenting with alternative dialogue tag punctuation can be a great way to stretch your comfort zone as a writer. However, clarity for the reader should always be at the forefront of your mind.

These two alternative punctuation methods are fun to work with, but they are very experimental and an unusual choice in modern literature. In professional writing, both fiction and non-fiction, quotation marks are the universal standard.

Other words for “said” when writing dialogue

Writers are big fans of using “said” for their dialogue tags, because it doesn’t draw attention away from what really matters: your story. But sometimes you might want to enhance your dialogue tag with another word to give it some more emphasis. Let’s look at different ways to say “said” in writing.

How to use verbs as dialogue tags

You may remember your primary school teacher telling you to look for other words for “said” in dialogue: whispered, shouted, chastised, sulked, muttered, screeched, sobbed… you can have a lot of fun digging up synonyms for “said” in story dialogue, but most of the time, less is more. You want your reader’s attention to be on the words that your characters are saying and the story surrounding them, rather than the mechanics of your dialogue tags.

However, there are times when using a different verb for your speech tag can enhance the narrative or convey new information. For example, compare the following:

“I hate you,” she said.

“I hate you!” she shouted.

“I hate you,” she whispered.

Each dialogue tag gives the line a slightly different feel. Because the words are so simple, “said” feels a bit empty and non-committal; using a different word gives the reader context for the words that are being spoken.

Now compare these two lines:

“Look at the state of your clothes! People are going to think you’ve been sleeping in a barn,” she chastised.

“Look at the state of your clothes! People are going to think you’ve been sleeping in a barn,” she said.

In this instance, the verb “chastised” is redundant because we can already tell that she’s chastising from what she’s saying. It doesn’t give the reader any new information. In this case, it’s better to fall back on “said” and allow the dialogue to do the (literal and figurative) talking.

When you’re considering using other verbs for your speech tag, ask yourself if it reveals something new about what the person is saying. If not, simpler is always better.

How to use dialogue tags with adverbs

Adverbial dialogue tags are where you use a modifying word to enhance your dialogue tag, such as “said angrily,” or “whispered venomously.” As with using other verbs instead of “said,” most of the time, less is more. However, sometimes using adverbial tags can contribute surprising new information about the scene.

Consider these examples:

“I hate you,” she said scathingly.

“I hate you,” she said gleefully.

“I hate you,” she said nervously.

Each adverb tells us something different about what’s being said. But do you need them?

Telling someone you hate them is already pretty scathing, so you probably don’t need to show it a second time with your dialogue tag. Saying it gleefully is very different in tone, and makes us wonder: what’s this person so happy about? What makes this moment special to her? Saying it nervously is different again, and raises questions about the scene—is this the first time it’s been said? What are the consequences for saying it?

“Gleefully” is probably the strongest adverb choice in these examples, because it’s at odds with what’s being spoken; it gives the line a whole new context. “Nervously” is nicely specific too, but you can also find other ways to show nervousness in the character’s actions, which might feel more natural and organic to the reader. “Scathingly” doesn’t really tell us anything new about what’s being said.

When considering adverbs for your dialogue tag, again ask yourself if they communicate something new to the reader that the dialogue doesn’t show on its own. If it does, then ask yourself if it communicates that something in the most natural, efficient way possible. You can explore different ways of conveying these emotions or details in your scene to find which one works best for your dialogue.

Dialogue tags vs. actions tags

Dialogue tags, as we’ve seen, begin with a speech verb—usually “said,” but sometimes other words like “whispered,” “yelled,” or “mumbled.” They work to identify the person who is speaking.

Action tags, on the other hand, work like a dialogue tag but aren’t directly connected to the line of dialogue. They can be related, but they stand independently. Just like dialogue tags, action tags work to identify the person speaking. These are especially helpful if you’re writing a scene with three or more people, where things can get confusing pretty quickly.

Additional speech tags examples

Here’s an example of action tags and dialogue tags working together:

“So here’s how it’s going to go down,” said Donny. “We’ll meet at midnight, after the cinema closes.”

Mark took a sip of his drink. “What about the night patrol?”

“The night patrol is a sixteen-year-old kid on minimum wage.” Roger leaned back in his chair. “You worry too much.”

“I’m not getting rough with a kid, Donny.”

“Then let’s hope he’s smart enough to stay out of the way.” He took a sip of his drink too, then stood up. “I’ll see you both tonight. Get the car ready.”

Let’s break down what we’ve done here. We have dialogue with a few variations: one dialogue tag, three action tags, and one freestanding line with no tag at all. The first dialogue tag, “said Donny,” establishes who the first speaker is. Then a new action tag introduces a second speaker, Mark. This works well because then we don’t have two “saids” in a row and it flows naturally for the reader. In the next line, a third speaker comes in, so we give him an action to make sure the reader knows who’s speaking.

As we get to the fourth line, the reader already understands enough about the scene to know who is speaking, so we can leave this one on its own. The next line doesn’t identify the speaker by name—we use “he”—but it’s a direct response to the line before it, so we know who it is. The action tag breaks up an otherwise long and unwieldy line of dialogue, and turns the scene in a new direction: the group is breaking up until later. Each speech tag gives the reader little clues that make the dialogue and the scene come alive.

“Said she” vs. “she said”—what’s the difference?

When you’re writing a dialogue tag, is it better to write “Jane said,” or “said Jane?” This is something that a lot of new writers get caught up on, and technically, either one can be correct. Most contemporary literature favors the subject followed by the verb—that is, “Jane” (the subject) “said” (the verb). If you’re using a pronoun—he, she, they—this is the only way it works grammatically. However, using a proper noun after the verb—“said Jane”—is more common in older literature and is still in use.

In general, “she said” is a better fit for modern stories. If you’re writing historical fiction or something influenced by archaic myth and fantasy, either one is acceptable. You can play around with both in your writing to see which one feels more natural in that moment of your scene.

When to use he said/she said vs. he says/she says

The distinction between when to use he said/she said vs. he says/she says often confuses newer writers. The answer to when to use one or the other goes back to the tense your story is written in.

Stories written in the present tense will use present tense speech tags like “he says” and “she says,” while stories written in the past tense will use past tense speech tags like “he said” and “she said.” You might use other tenses throughout your story, so always keep an eye out for the tense you’re currently using and adapt your speech tags accordingly.

Dialogue tags: Examples

Here are a few more examples of ways to use a descriptive dialogue tag to inspire your writing.

1. Hotel Magnifique , by Emily J. Taylor

One of the older girls shoved a lock of greasy blonde hair behind her pink ear. “That advertisement is a tease. It would be a miracle if any of us got a job.”

I straightened. “That’s not true.”

She shrugged as she turned away. “Do what you want. I wouldn’t waste my time.”

“Think she’s right?” Zosa asked, her delicate mouth turning down.

“Absolutely not,” I said, perhaps too quickly. When Zosa’s frown deepened, I cursed silently.

In this example, three girls are talking about a job advertisement. In the first three lines, action tags are used rather than dialogue tags, showing not only the action but the personality and feelings of the people speaking. After the first three lines, which all begin with action tags, the next two lines lead with the dialogue instead and use simple dialogue tags to identify who’s talking.

2. The Paris Library , by Janet Skeslien Charles

“A fourth of the Library’s subscribers are Parisian,” I countered. “They need French-speaking staff.”

“What will people think?” Maman fretted. “They’ll say Papa isn’t providing for you.”

“Many girls have jobs these days,” Remy said.

“Odile doesn’t need to work,” Papa said.

“But she wants to,” I said softly.

“Let’s not argue.” Maman scooped the mousse au chocolat into small crystal bowls.

Here, a family argues about a young woman’s desire to work at the library. The first two lines use descriptive tags in place of “said.” These enhance our understanding of the particular character, but because this can get cumbersome quickly if overused, the next three lines use “said” to let the spoken words shine through. Finally, the writer drops the dialogue tags in favor of an action tag which turns the scene in a new direction.

3. The League of Gentlewomen Witches , by India Holton

“Several people have been killed,” Mrs. Pettifer reported. “It’s quite shocking.”

Miss Plim pecked irritably at her tea. “Something more shocking happened yesterday.”

“Indeed?” Mrs. Pettifer flicked over another page. “You smiled at someone?”

“No. I was in Twinings and that Darlington woman walked in. She acknowledged me politely with a nod.”

At this, Mrs. Pettifer finally looked up, her velvety eyes growing wide. “Not Miss Darlington, the pirate?”

Here, two women gossip over a newspaper. The first line uses a speech tag, then two lines use action tags to identify the speaker before the next line stands alone; the reader has grown comfortable enough with the back-and-forth dialogue to recognize the speaker of the next line. Then, the following line begins with an action tag that marks a turning point in their conversation.

You’ll notice in all of these dialogue tag examples above that writers favor patterns of three. Three uses of “said” in a row, three action tags, three similar speech tags before shifting into another method of identifying the speaker. Three is a comfortable number for a reader, but if you go on using the same devices for more than that the reader will begin to notice how repetitive they are, which will pull them away from your story. This is a good trick to keep in mind when formatting your dialogue.

5 rules for using dialogue tags

To wrap up, let’s review some dialogue rules and best practices for use of dialogue tags in your story.

1. Limit overuse of dialogue tags

How often should dialogue tags be used? As with many aspects of the writer’s craft, when working with dialogue tags in your story, less is more. See how often you can get away with not using any dialogue tags at all (keep in mind sets of three, as we looked at above). Space out your dialogue tags so that they don’t take up too much real estate on your page. Your reader should be focusing on your story, not your story mechanics.

2. Use a dialogue tag when it’s unclear who’s speaking

Dialogue tags are used first and foremost for clarity. Use them when you need to remind the reader of who’s saying which line. You won’t need to use them as often when your dialogue is only happening between two people; if you have a group of people all talking together, you’ll need to use them a bit more to keep everybody straight.

3. Vary the positioning of dialogue tags

In our examples above, you’ll see that sometimes the dialogue tag comes at the beginning of a line of dialogue, sometimes in the middle, and sometimes at the end. If you always put your dialogue tag in the same place, it can get monotonous for the reader. Experiment with different placements for your speech tags to keep the dialogue fluid and fresh.

4. Vary the type of dialogue tags

Although we love the classic “she said” and “said she” dialogue tags, relying on these all the time can start to weigh down your story. Try alternating between dialogue tags, descriptive action tags, and a few alternate verb dialogue tags here and there to keep your story from feeling too routine. These can illustrate your characters’ body language and help reveal their underlying motivations. It will make your story feel more present and immersive than if you used “said” in every single line.

5. Avoid using adverbs too frequently in dialogue tags

That being said, using adverbs as part of your dialogue tag should be done with a very light hand. Used sparingly, they can give dimension to many characters and their experiences; however, too many can make your story feel overburdened and sluggish. Use adverbs and alternative verbs for your dialogue tags only when they enhance the dialogue. Wherever possible, allow the words of the dialogue to speak for themselves.

One last question—is there a difference between “dialog” vs. “dialogue”?

It’s common to be confused when it comes to the differences between dialog vs. dialogue. The two are homonyms, and they’re interchangeable depending on which country you’re in! In the United States, the word “dialogue” is the preferred word for referencing a conversation or exchange of communication like what you’d find in a story, while the word “dialog,” at least in American English, is used more specifically when referring to computing—like a “dialog box” that appears on your computer to communicate something to you. So remember to use “dialogue tags” rather than “dialog tags”!

Hopefully that clears up any dialog vs. dialogue confusion!

Effective dialogue tags will elevate your story

So small and easily overlooked, yet such an essential part of any story, dialogue tags and speech tags are one of the most basic tools a writer has at their disposal. By mastering the use of dialogue tags and the rules of dialogue in a story, your story will take on new dimension and feel that much more real to your readers.

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Definitions

MERRIAM-WEBSTER SIMPLE DEFINITIONS

What is a NOUN ?

a word that is the name of something (such as a person, animal, place, thing, quality, idea, or action) and is typically used in a sentence as subject or object of a verb or as object of a preposition

What is a VERB ?

a word (such as jump, think, happen, or exist ) that is usually one of the main parts of a sentence and that expresses an action, an occurrence, or a state of being

What is a PRONOUN ?

a word (such as I, he, she, you, it, we, or they ) that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase

What is a PROPER NOUN ?

a word or group of words (such as “Noah Webster,” “Kentucky,” or “U.S. Congress”) that is the name of a particular person, place, or thing and that usually begins with a capital letter

What is an  ADJECTIVE ?

a word that describes a noun or a pronoun

What is an ADVERB ?

a word that describes a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence and that is often used to show time, manner, place, or degree

Subject-Noun

The Subject Noun

The SUBJECT NOUN is the primary element (or elements if plural) that performs the action in a sentence.

Example:      The rattlesnake slithered in the grass.

• There are two nouns in this simple sentence: "rattlesnake" and "grass." However, there is only one subject noun. "Rattlesnake" is the subject noun because the rattlesnake is the noun doing the action. "The grass" isn't doing any action.

Example:       Billy loves rattlesnakes.

• In this simple sentence, "Billy" is the subject noun because he is the one doing the loving, so to speak. The "rattlesnake" is simply the object of Billy’s love.

Example:      Love is awesome.

• In this example, "Love" is the subject noun. Not all nouns are concrete, tangible things such as people, places, and objects. Concepts and actions can also function as nouns and as subject nouns. It depends on the construction of the sentence. As we've just seen, love can function as either a verb or a noun.

Example:      Believing he was invincible, Billy caught the rattlesnake with his bare hands.

• In this example, Billy is the subject noun. The main clause is "Billy caught the rattlesnake with his bare hands." The introductory element ("Believing he was invincible") functions to set up that main clause with more meaning and context. When the subject noun doesn't start a sentence, it's often because there's an introductory element like this (often with a comma separating the introductory element from the main clause).

Example:      Not surprisingly, the rattlesnake bit Billy’s hand and slithered away.

• Again, this sentence begins with an introductory element. The core sentence really begins after the comma. The subject noun is "rattlesnake" because the rattlesnake is the noun doing the action (it bit Billy and slithered away).

Example:       Becky and Roger then took Billy to the hospital.

• In this example, "Becky and Roger" serve as the subject noun. More than one individual noun can serve as a subject noun. “They” is a pronoun that can be used to replace Becky and Roger as the subject noun.

Predicate Verb

The Predicate Verb

The  PREDICATE  is everything else in a sentence that’s not technically the subject or a part of a subject phrase. This includes the  PREDICATE VERB  and any other  OBJECTS  (such as the direct object receiving the action of the predicate verb). Of particular importance is the predicate verb. For a sentence to be complete, there  must  be both a subject noun and a predicate verb. Everything else is technically optional. Let’s focus on the predicate verb.

The  PREDICATE VERB  signifies what the  SUBJECT  is actually doing.

Example :      The rattlesnake slithered in the grass.

• Because "rattlesnake" is the subject noun, "slithered" is the predicate verb. Slithered is what the rattlesnake did.

Example:       Billy loves rattlesnakes.

• In this example, "loves" is clearly the predicate verb; that’s what Billy is doing.

Example:       Love is awesome.

• Finally, because "love" is the subject noun, is is the predicate verb. Is, was, and have (and all their possible variations) are common predicate verbs.

For now, let’s focus again on our other three examples:

Example:       Believing he was invincible, Billy caught the rattlesnake with his bare hands.

• As "Billy" is the subject noun, "caught" is the predicate verb because that’s what Billy did. Everything else is simply providing context and more information.

Example:      Not surprisingly, the rattlesnake bit Billy’s hand and slithered away.

• What did the rattlesnake physically do? In this example, it actually did two things: bit Billy’s hand and slithered away. Thus, in this sentence, we actually have two predicate verbs following the single subject noun: "bit" and "slithered." This is, of course, totally permissible. Later, we’ll check out what happens when you have more than one subject noun and each subject noun has its own predicate verb (which makes a “compound sentence” possible).

Example:       Becky and Roger then took Billy to the hospital.

• We already know that the subject noun is "Becky and Roger." In this example, however, the predicate verb is not the next word. The predicate verb is actually "took," not "then." In this example, then functions simply as an adverb giving more detail to the predicate verb, took.

Combinative Examples

COMBINATIVE EXAMPLES: As we’ve already seen, sentences can contain more than one subject noun and/or more than one predicate verb in a number of combinations. Let’s check out a number of examples. Subject nouns are in bold font, and predicate verbs are italicized:

• Billy   catches  rattlesnakes with his hands.
• He   loves  to catch venomous snakes.
• Becky and Roger   think  Billy is insane.
• They  believe  he’s going to get bit one day.
• Becky   thinks  Billy is an idiot and  believes  he’ll get what he deserves some day.
• One day,  Billy  caught  a large rattlesnake.
• It   bit  him.
• Beck and Roger   were  not surprised.
• Billy   died  and  was  buried in his snakeskin boots.
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Speech into writing

Both speech and writing can be formal or informal. Whether language is formal or informal depends on who our readers and listeners are, for what purpose we use the language and the situation in which we use it. For example, an official notice would be written in formal English, whereas the same information would be more commonly written informally by an individual in a less public situation:

Customers are reminded that parking is not permitted in front of this entrance. Thank you.

Please don’t park in front of this gate. Thanks.

A lot of writing these days is informal. Common examples of such writing are emails, text messages, advertisements, postcards, notes and a lot of the language used in internet discourse. Informal writing creates a direct dialogue with the reader.

Some magazines and newspapers also include a lot of informal writing. Informal writing contains forms which are more commonly found in speaking, such as contractions, personal pronouns, ellipsis, spoken discourse markers and question tags:

[article in a magazine about an interview with a pop star who is marketing a new perfume]

Well, how long was it, do you think, before we talked about it? Exactly. You’ve got it. Over two minutes.

Formal and informal language

Contractions

Discourse markers ( so, right, okay )

Question tags

Word of the Day

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the ability to move freely or be easily moved

Keeping up appearances (Talking about how things seem)

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We use words in writing. Shocking, I know! Do you know what else we use in writing? Here is a hint: they have already appeared in this paragraph. In addition to words, we use many different symbols and characters to organize our thoughts and make text easier to read. All of these symbols come in two major categories: punctuation marks and typographical symbols . These symbols have many different uses and include everything from the humble period ( . ) to the rarely used caret symbol ( ^ ). There may even be a few symbols out there that you’ve never even heard of before that leave you scratching your head when you see them on your keyboard!

What is punctuation ?

Punctuation is the act or system of using specific marks or symbols in writing to separate different elements from each other or to make writing more clear. Punctuation is used in English and the other languages that use the Latin alphabet. Many other writing systems also use punctuation, too. Thanks to punctuation, we don’t have to suffer through a block of text that looks like this:

• My favorite color is red do you like red red is great my sister likes green she always says green is the color of champions regardless of which color is better we both agree that no one likes salmon which is a fish and not a color seriously

Punctuation examples

The following sentences give examples of the many different punctuation marks that we use:

• My dog , Bark Scruffalo , was featured in a superhero movie . 
• If there ’ s something strange in your neighborhood , who are you going to call ?
• A wise man once said , “ Within the body of every person lies a skeleton .”
• Hooray ! I found everything on the map : the lake , the mountain , and the forest . 
• I told Ashley ( if that was her real name ) that I needed the copy lickety-split .

What is a typographical symbol ?

The term typographical symbol , or any other number of phrases, refers to a character or symbol that isn’t considered to be a punctuation mark but may still be used in writing for various purposes. Typographical symbols are generally avoided in formal writing under most circumstances. However, you may see typographic symbols used quite a bit in informal writing.

Typographical symbol examples

The following examples show some ways that a writer might use typographical symbols. Keep in mind that some of these sentences may not be considered appropriate in formal writing.

• The frustrated actor said she was tired of her co-star’s “annoying bull **** .”
• For questions, email us at anascabana @ bananacabanas.fake!
• The band had five # 1 singles on the American music charts during the 1990s.
• My internet provider is AT & T.

⚡️ Punctuation vs. typographical symbols

Punctuation marks are considered part of grammar and often have well-established rules for how to use them properly. For example, the rules of proper grammar state that a letter after a period should be capitalized and that a comma must be used before a coordinating conjunction.

Typographical symbols, on the other hand, may not have widely accepted rules for how, or even when, they should be used. Generally speaking, most grammar resources will only allow the use of typographical symbols under very specific circumstances and will otherwise advise a writer to avoid using them.

Types of punctuation and symbols

There are many different types of punctuation marks and typographical symbols. We’ll briefly touch on them now, but you can learn more about these characters by checking out the links in this list and also each section below:

• Question mark
• Exclamation point
• Parentheses
• Square brackets
• Curly brackets
• Angle brackets
• Quotation marks
• Bullet point
• Pound symbol
• Caret symbol
• Pipe symbol

Period, question mark, and exclamation point

These three commonly used punctuation marks are used for the same reason: to end an independent thought.

A period is used to end a declarative sentence . A period indicates that a sentence is finished.

• Today is Friday .

Unique to them, periods are also often used in abbreviations.

• Prof . Dumbledore once again awarded a ludicrous amount of points to Gryffindor.

Question mark (?)

The question mark is used to end a question, also known as an interrogative sentence .

• Do you feel lucky ?

Exclamation point (!)

The exclamation point is used at the end of exclamations and interjections .

• Our house is haunted ! 

Comma, colon, and semicolon

Commas, colons, and semicolons can all be used to connect sentences together.

The comma is often the punctuation mark that gives writers the most problems. It has many different uses and often requires good knowledge of grammar to avoid making mistakes when using it. Some common uses of the comma include:

• Joining clauses: Mario loves Peach , and she loves him . 
• Nonrestrictive elements: My favorite team , the Fighting Mongooses , won the championship this year.
• Lists: The flag was red , white , and blue.
• Coordinate adjectives: The cute , happy puppy licked my hand.

Try out this quiz on the Oxford comma!

The colon is typically used to introduce additional information.

• The detective had three suspects : the salesman, the gardener, and the lawyer.

Like commas, colons can also connect clauses together.

• We forgot to ask the most important question : who was buying lunch?

Colons have a few other uses, too.

• The meeting starts at 8:15 p.m.
• The priest started reading from Mark 3:6 .

Semicolon (;)

Like the comma and the colon, the semicolon is used to connect sentences together. The semicolon typically indicates that the second sentence is closely related to the one before it.

• I can’t eat peanuts ; I am highly allergic to them.
• Lucy loves to eat all kinds of sweets ; lollipops are her favorite.

Hyphen and dashes (en dash and em dash)

All three of these punctuation marks are often referred to as “dashes.” However, they are all used for entirely different reasons.

The hyphen is used to form compound words.

• I went to lunch with my father-in-law .
• She was playing with a jack-in-the-box .
• He was accused of having pro-British sympathies.

En dash (–)

The en dash is used to express ranges or is sometimes used in more complex compound words.

• The homework exercises are on pages 20–27 .
• The songwriter had worked on many Tony Award–winning productions.

Em dash (—)

The em dash is used to indicate a pause or interrupted speech.

• The thief was someone nobody expected —me !
• “Those kids will— ” was all he managed to say before he was hit by a water balloon.

Test your knowledge on the different dashes here.

Parentheses, brackets, and braces

These pairs of punctuation marks look similar, but they all have different uses. In general, the parentheses are much more commonly used than the others.

Parentheses ()

Typically, parentheses are used to add additional information.

• I thought (for a very long time) if I should actually give an honest answer.
• Tomorrow is Christmas (my favorite holiday) !

Parentheses have a variety of other uses, too.

• Pollution increased significantly. (See Chart 14B)
• He was at an Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meeting.
• Richard I of England (1157–1199) had the heart of a lion.

Square brackets []

Typically, square brackets  are used to clarify or add information to quotations.

• According to an eyewitness, the chimpanzees “climbed on the roof and juggled [bananas] .”
• The judge said that “the defense attorney [Mr. Wright] had made it clear that the case was far from closed.”

Curly brackets {}

Curly brackets , also known as braces , are rarely used punctuation marks that are used to group a set.

• I was impressed by the many different colors {red, green, yellow, blue, purple, black, white} they selected for the flag’s design.

Angle brackets <>

Angle brackets have no usage in formal writing and are rarely ever used even in informal writing. These characters have more uses in other fields, such as math or computing.

Quotation marks and apostrophe

You’ll find these punctuation marks hanging out at the top of a line of text.

Quotation marks (“”)

The most common use of quotation marks is to contain quotations.

• She said, “ Don’t let the dog out of the house. ”
• Bob Ross liked to put “ happy little trees ” in many of his paintings.

Apostrophe (‘)

The apostrophe is most often used to form possessives and contractions.

• The house ’ s back door is open.
• My cousin ’ s birthday is next week.
• It isn ’ t ready yet.
• We should ’ ve stayed outside.

Slash and ellipses

These are two punctuation marks you may not see too often, but they are still useful.

The slash has several different uses. Here are some examples:

• Relationships: The existence of boxer briefs somehow hasn’t ended the boxers/briefs debate.
• Alternatives: They accept cash and/or credit.
• Fractions: After an hour, 2/3 of the audience had already left.

Ellipses (…)

In formal writing, ellipses are used to indicate that words were removed from a quote.

• The mayor said, “The damages will be … paid for by the city … as soon as possible.”

In informal writing, ellipses are often used to indicate pauses or speech that trails off.

• He nervously stammered and said, “Look, I … You see … I wasn’t … Forget it, okay.”

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Typographical symbols

Typographical symbols rarely appear in formal writing. You are much more likely to see them used for a variety of reasons in informal writing.

Asterisk (*)

In formal writing, especially academic and scientific writing, the asterisk is used to indicate a footnote.

• Chocolate is the preferred flavor of ice cream.* * According to survey data from the Ice Cream Data Center.

The asterisk may also be used to direct a reader toward a clarification or may be used to censor inappropriate words or phrases.

Ampersand (&)

The ampersand substitutes for the word and . Besides its use in the official names of things, the ampersand is typically avoided in formal writing.

•  The band gave a speech at the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame .

Bullet Point (•)

Bullet points are used to create lists. For example,

For this recipe you will need:

• baking powder

Pound symbol (#)

Informally, the pound symbol is typically used to mean number or is used in social media hashtags.

• The catchy pop song reached #1 on the charts.
• Ready 4 Halloween 2morrow!!! #spooky #TrickorTreat

Besides being used as an accent mark in Spanish and Portuguese words, the tilde is rarely used. Informally, a person may use it to mean “about” or “approximately.”

• We visited São Paulo during our vacation.
• I think my dog weighs ~20 pounds.

Backslash (\)

The backslash is primarily used in computer programming and coding. It might be used online and in texting to draw emoticons , but it has no other common uses in writing. Be careful not to mix it up with the similar forward slash (/), which is a punctuation mark.

At symbol (@)

The at symbol substitutes for the word at in informal writing. In formal writing, it is used when writing email addresses.

• His email address is [email protected] .

Caret symbol (^)

The caret symbol is used in proofreading, but may be used to indicate an exponent if a writer is unable to use superscript .

• Do you know what 3 ^ 4 (3 to the power of 4) is equal to?

Pipe symbol (|)

The pipe symbol is not used in writing. Instead, it has a variety of functions in the fields of math, physics, or computing.

How much do you know about verbs? Learn about them here.

Ways To Say

Synonym of the day

Online Writing Resources For Students

Table of Contents

Online writing resources.

Welcome to our Online Writing Resources Hub, a curated collection designed to empower students, writers, and enthusiasts alike on their literary journey. This page serves as a comprehensive guide, offering a wealth of writing resources ranging from basic writing tips to advanced tools, with the aim of fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation for the art of expression.

Basics of Writing

• 12 Essential Writing Tips for Beginners
• Capitalization Rules In English
• Cohesion And Coherence In Essay Writing
• Linking Words (Transitional Expressions)
• Punctuation Rules
• What is a Topic Sentence in A Paragraph?

Genres of Writing

• 200 Argumentative Topics for High School Students
• An email to a hotel manager to make a reservation
• Argumentative Essays
• Cause and Effect Paragraph
• Expository Writing (Exposition)
• Film Or Book Review
• How To Write A Descriptive Essay?
• How To Write A Business Letter
• How To Write A Resignation Letter (3 Samples)
• Narrative Essay

Figures of Speech

Ready to enhance your writing skills and delve into the nuances of literature?

Explore our comprehensive resource page packed with figures of speech. From metaphors to personification, unlock the secrets of language mastery. Click below to embark on your journey to linguistic excellence. 🔗 🔗

Explore Now! ↗

What you Need to Know?

To excel in writing, it’s essential to understand both the fundamental principles and the nuances of different writing styles. Here’s a breakdown of the basics :

• Grammar and Syntax : Understanding language rules ensures clear and coherent writing.
• Punctuation : Proper punctuation enhances flow and accuracy in conveying meaning.
• Vocabulary : A rich vocabulary adds depth and precision to writing.
• Sentence Structure : Crafting varied and well-structured sentences keeps writing engaging.
• Clarity and Conciseness : Clear and concise writing maintains the reader’s focus.
• Editing and Revision : Critical steps to refine and improve writing quality.

Mastering these basics forms a solid foundation for effective communication through writing.

How To Become a Skilled Writer?

Becoming a skilled writer is a fulfilling journey that requires dedication and continuous improvement. Here’s a summary of key steps to enhance your writing abilities:

• Read Widely : Explore diverse literature to understand different writing styles and perspectives.
• Write Regularly : Practice consistently to refine your skills and boost creativity.
• Study Grammar and Style : Develop a strong foundation in language rules for clear expression.
• Expand Your Vocabulary : Incorporate new words to enrich your writing.
• Seek Constructive Feedback : Welcome feedback to identify areas for improvement.
• Edit and Revise : Refine your work for clarity and coherence.
• Explore Different Genres : Experiment with various writing forms to discover your strengths.
• Stay Inspired : Stay curious and draw inspiration from your surroundings.
• Join Writing Communities : Connect with other writers for support and insights.
• Read Writing Guides : Learn about storytelling techniques and plot structure.
• Stay Disciplined : Set goals and adhere to writing schedules.
• Embrace Rejection : Use rejections as opportunities for growth and improvement.

To become a skilled writer, you should excel in writing subskills such as sentence structure and punctuation. Additionally, you should have a solid foundation in vocabulary knowledge and an understanding of various genres of writing. Moreover, cultivating the ability to convey ideas clearly and concisely is essential. Embracing the iterative process of editing and revising your work further refines your writing proficiency. By honing these aspects of the craft, you pave the way for effective communication and captivating storytelling.

ENGL 1301 - Bosché - Summer 2024: Writing & Grammar

• Search Techniques
• Choosing the Best Sources
• Writing & Grammar

Writer's Reference Center

From the mechanics of writing and grammar to style and research, this database covers the fundamentals of writing a good essay.

Helpful websites on writing and grammar

• Common Errors in English Extensive collection of words that are often misused or are confusing.
• The Elements of Style A classic book of simple advice on writing by William Strunk. Even though this is the 1918 edition, it's still good.
• Guide to Grammar and Style Information on very specific aspects of grammar. From Rutgers University professor Jack Lynch.
• MLA Documentation Guide How to handle quotes, paraphrases, and creating the Works Cited list. MLA is the most commonly used format for papers in literature and the humanities.
• Nuts and Bolts of College Writing Although designed to accompany a specific textbook, this site has lots of info anyone can use on all aspects of writing, including MLA documentation.
• Paradigm Online Writing Assistant Nicely designed guide to writing various types of essays and documenting them.
• Purdue On-line Writing Lab The most extensive, oldest, and best-known virtual writing center on the Web. This site offers resources for writers, links to other on-line writing centers.
• Quoting & Paraphrasing When and how to use information from research sources. From the University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center.
• Webgrammar Basics on spelling, punctuation, grammar, usage, etc. There's also a Writing Resources area with links to many other web resources.
• Writer's Workshop Many areas of writing help, such as a grammar handbook, how to get friendly critiques of your writing, tips and techniques, and more. From the University of Illinois.

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Commencement 2024

Honorary degree recipient Ken Burns delivers the Undergraduate Commencement speech at Brandeis University's 73rd Commencement Exercises on May 19, 2024.

Brandeisian, love it.

President Liebowitz, Ron, Chair Lisa Kranc, and other members of the board of trustees, Provost Carol Fierke, fellow honorees, distinguished faculty and staff, proud and relieved parents, calm and serene grandparents, distracted but secretly pleased siblings, ladies and gentlemen, graduating students of the class of 2024, good morning.

I am deeply honored and privileged that you have asked me here to say a few words at such a momentous occasion that you might find what I have to say worthy of your attention on so important a day in all of your lives. Thank you for this honor.

Listen, I am in the business of history. It is not always a happy subject on college campuses these days, particularly when forces seem determined to eliminate or water down difficult parts of our past, particularly when the subject may seem to sum an anachronistic and irrelevant pursuit, and particularly with the ferocious urgency this moment seems to exert on us. It is my job, however, to remind people of the power our past also exerts, to help us better understand what's going on now with compelling story, memory, and anecdote. It is my job to try to discern patterns and themes from history to enable us to interpret our dizzying and sometimes dismaying present.

For nearly 50 years now, I have diligently practiced and rigorously tried to maintain a conscious neutrality in my work, avoiding advocacy if I could, trying to speak to all of my fellow citizens. Over those many decades I've come to understand a significant fact, that we are not condemned to repeat, as the saying goes, what we don't remember. That is a beautiful, even poetic phrase, but not true. Nor are there cycles of history as the academic community periodically promotes. The Old Testament, Ecclesiastes to be specific, got it right, I think. What has been will be again, what has been done will be done again. There is nothing new under the sun. What those lines suggest is that human nature never changes or almost never changes. We continually superimpose that complex and contradictory human nature over the seemingly random chaos of events, all of our inherent strengths and weaknesses, our greed and generosity, our puritanism and our prurience, our virtue, and our venality parade before our eyes, generation after generation after generation. This often gives us the impression that history repeats itself. It does not. "No event has ever happened twice, it just rhymes," Mark Twain is supposed to have said. I have spent all of my professional life on the lookout for those rhymes, drawn inexorably to that power of history. I am interested in listening to the many varied voices of a true, honest, complicated past that is unafraid of controversy and tragedy, but equally drawn to those stories and moments that suggest an abiding faith in the human spirit, and particularly the unique role this remarkable and sometimes also dysfunctional republic seems to play in the positive progress of mankind.

During the course of my work, I have become acquainted with hundreds if not thousands of those voices. They have inspired, haunted, and followed me over the years. Some of them may be helpful to you as you try to imagine and make sense of the trajectory of your lives today.

Listen, listen. In January of 1838, shortly before his 29th birthday, a tall, thin lawyer prone to bouts of debilitating depression addressed the young men's lyceum in Springfield, Illinois. "At what point shall we expect the approach of danger?" He asked his audience, "Shall we expect some trans-Atlantic military giant to step the earth and crush us at a blow?" Then he answered his own question. "Never. All the armies of Europe, Asia, and Africa could not by force take a drink from the Ohio River or make a track on the Blue Ridge in a trial of a thousand years. If destruction be our lot, we must ourselves be its author and finisher. As a nation of free men, we must live through all time or die by suicide." It is a stunning, remarkable statement, one that has animated my own understanding of the American experience since I first read it more than 40 years ago. That young man was of course Abraham Lincoln, and he would go on to preside over the closest this country has ever come to near national suicide, our civil war, and yet embedded in his extraordinary, disturbing, and prescient words is also a fundamental optimism that implicitly acknowledges the geographical forcefield two mighty oceans east and west and two relatively benign neighbors north and south have provided for us since the British burned the White House in the War of 1812 and inspired Francis Scott Key.

Lincoln's words that day suggest what is so great and so good about the people who happen to inhabit this lucky and exquisite country of ours. That's the world you now inherit: our work ethic and our restlessness, our innovation and our improvisation, our communities and our institutions of higher learning, our suspicion of power. The fact that we seem resolutely dedicated to parsing the meaning between individual and collective freedom; What I want versus what we need. That we are all so dedicated to understanding what Thomas Jefferson really meant when he wrote that mysterious phrase, "The pursuit of happiness". Hint, it happens right here in the lifelong learning and perpetual improvement this university is committed to.

But the isolation of those two oceans has also helped to incubate habits and patterns less beneficial to us: our devotion to money and guns and conspiracies, our certainty about everything, our stubborn insistence on our own exceptionalism blinding us to that which needs repair, especially with regard to race and ethnicity. Our preoccupation with always making the other wrong at an individual as well as a global level. I am reminded of what the journalist I.F. Stone once said to a young acolyte who was profoundly disappointed in his mentor's admiration for Thomas Jefferson. "It's because history is tragedy," Stone admonished him, "Not melodrama." It's the perfect response. In melodrama all villains are perfectly villainous and all heroes are perfectly virtuous, but life is not like that. You know that in your guts and nor is our history like that. The novelist, Richard Powers recently wrote that, "The best arguments in the world," — and ladies and gentlemen, that's all we do is argue — "the best arguments in the world," he said, "Won't change a single person's point of view. The only thing that can do that is a good story." I've been struggling for most of my life to do that, to try to tell good, complex, sometimes contradictory stories, appreciating nuance and subtlety and undertow, sharing the confusion and consternation of unreconciled opposites.

But it's clear as individuals and as a nation we are dialectically preoccupied. Everything is either right or wrong, red state or blue state, young or old, gay or straight, rich or poor, Palestinian or Israeli, my way or the highway. Everywhere we are trapped by these old, tired, binary reactions, assumptions, and certainties. For filmmakers and faculty, students and citizens, that preoccupation is imprisoning. Still, we know and we hear and we express only arguments, and by so doing, we forget the inconvenient complexities of history and of human nature. That, for example, three great religions, their believers, all children of Abraham, each professing at the heart of their teaching, a respect for all human life, each with a central connection to and legitimate claim to the same holy ground, violate their own dictates of conduct and make this perpetually contested land a shameful graveyard. God does not distinguish between the dead. "Could you?"

[Audience applauding]

"Could you?" A very wise person I know with years of experience with the Middle East recently challenged me, "Could you hold the idea that there could be two wrongs and two rights?"

Listen, listen. In a filmed interview I conducted with the writer James Baldwin, more than 40 years ago, he said, "No one was ever born who agreed to be a slave, who accepted it. That is, slavery is a condition imposed from without. Of course, the moment I say that," Baldwin continued, "I realize that multitudes and multitudes of people for various reasons of their own enslave themselves every hour of every day to this or that doctrine, this or that delusion of safety, this or that lie. Anti-Semites, for example," he went on, "are slaves to a delusion. People who hate Negroes are slaves. People who love money are slaves. We are living in a universe really of willing slaves, which makes the concept of liberty and the concept of freedom so dangerous," he finished. Baldwin is making a profoundly psychological and even spiritual statement, not just a political or racial or social one. He knew, just as Lincoln knew, that the enemy is often us. We continue to shackle ourselves with chains we mistakenly think is freedom.

Another voice, Mercy Otis Warren, a philosopher and historian during our revolution put it this way, "The study of the human character at once opens a beautiful and a deformed picture of the soul. We there find a noble principle implanted in the nature of people, but when the checks of conscience are thrown aside, humanity is obscured." I have had the privilege for nearly half a century of making films about the US, but I have also made films about us. That is to say the two letter, lowercase, plural pronoun. All of the intimacy of "us" and also "we" and "our" and all of the majesty, complexity, contradiction, and even controversy of the US. And if I have learned anything over those years, it's that there's only us. There is no them. And whenever someone suggests to you, whomever it may be in your life that there's a them, run away. Othering is the simplistic binary way to make and identify enemies, but it is also the surest way to your own self imprisonment, which brings me to a moment I've dreaded and forces me to suspend my longstanding attempt at neutrality.

There is no real choice this November. There is only the perpetuation, however flawed and feeble you might perceive it, of our fragile 249-year-old experiment or the entropy that will engulf and destroy us if we take the other route. When, as Mercy Otis Warren would say, "The checks of conscience are thrown aside and a deformed picture of the soul is revealed." The presumptive Republican nominee is the opioid of all opioids, an easy cure for what some believe is the solution to our myriad pains and problems. When in fact with him, you end up re-enslaved with an even bigger problem, a worse affliction and addiction, "a bigger delusion", James Baldwin would say, the author and finisher of our national existence, our national suicide as Mr. Lincoln prophesies. Do not be seduced by easy equalization. There is nothing equal about this equation. We are at an existential crossroads in our political and civic lives. This is a choice that could not be clearer.

Listen, listen. 33 years ago, the world lost a towering literary figure. The novelist and storyteller, not arguer, Isaac Bashevis Singer. For decades he wrote about God and myth and punishment, fate and sexuality, family and history. He wrote in Yiddish a marvelously expressive language, sad and happy all at the same time. Sometimes maddeningly all knowing, yet resigned to God's seemingly capricious will. It is also a language without a country, a dying language in a world more interested in the extermination or isolation of its long suffering speakers. Singer, writing in the pages of the Jewish Daily Forward help to keep Yiddish alive. Now our own wonderfully mongrel American language is punctuated with dozens of Yiddish words and phrases, parables and wise sayings, and so many of those words are perfect onomatopoeias of disgust and despair, hubris and humor. If you've ever met a schmuck, you know what I'm talking about. [audience laughs] Toward the end of his long and prolific life, Singer expressed wonder at why so many of his books written in this obscure and some said useless language would be so widely translated, something like 56 countries all around the world. "Why," he would wonder with his characteristic playfulness, "Why would the Japanese care about his simple stories of life in the shtetls of Eastern Europe 1,000 years ago?" "Unless," Singer paused, twinkle in his eye, "Unless the story spoke of the kinship of the soul." I think what Singer was talking about was that indefinable something that connects all of us together, that which we all share as part of organic life on this planet, the kinship of the soul. I love that.

Okay, let me speak directly to the graduating class. Watch out, here comes the advice. Listen. Be curious, not cool. Insecurity makes liars of us all. Remember, none of us get out of here alive. The inevitable vicissitudes of life, no matter how well gated our communities, will visit us all. Grief is a part of life, and if you explore its painful precincts, it will make you stronger. Do good things, help others. Leadership is humility and generosity squared. Remember the opposite of faith is not doubt. Doubt is central to faith. The opposite of faith is certainty. The kinship of the soul begins with your own at times withering self-examination. Try to change that unchangeable human nature of Ecclesiastes, but start with you. "Nothing so needs reforming," Mark Twain once chided us, "As other people's habits." [audience laughs]

Don't confuse success with excellence. Do not descend too deeply into specialism. Educate all of your parts, you will be healthier. Do not get stuck in one place. "Travel is fatal to prejudice," Twain also said. Be in nature, which is always perfect and where nothing is binary. Its sheer majesty may remind you of your own atomic insignificance, as one observer put it, but in the inscrutable and paradoxical ways of wild places, you will feel larger, inspirited, just as the egotist in our midst is diminished by his or her self regard.

At some point, make babies, one of the greatest things that will happen to you, I mean it, one of the greatest things that will happen to you is that you will have to worry, I mean really worry, about someone other than yourself. It is liberating and exhilarating, I promise. Ask your parents.

[Audience laughs]

Choose honor over hypocrisy, virtue over vulgarity, discipline over dissipation, character over cleverness, sacrifice over self-indulgence. Do not lose your enthusiasm, in its Greek etymology the word enthusiasm means simply, "god in us". Serve your country. Insist that we fight the right wars. Denounce oppression everywhere.

Convince your government, as Lincoln understood that the real threat always and still comes from within this favored land. Insist that we support science and the arts, especially the arts.

[Audience cheering]

They have nothing to do with the actual defense of our country; They just make our country worth defending.

Remember what Louis Brandeis said, "The most important political office is that of the private citizen." Vote. You indelibly... [audience applauding] Please, vote. You indelibly underscore your citizenship, and most important, our kinship with each other when you do. Good luck and godspeed.

• Honorary Degree Recipients

Grammar, Speech, Rhetoric, & the Fate of Humanity

Could a fifty-year-old, small book on grammar, speech, and rhetoric by a nearly-forgotten thinker have the power to revolutionize and re-awaken our decadent intellectual life?

Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy

Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy (1888-1973) might not recognize, in 2018, the America to which he came in 1933, seeking refuge from a Germany that had just elected Hitler. A Christian convert from Judaism, a professor of law and a brilliant student of languages, Rosenstock first alighted at Harvard, where he taught for a year or two. Harvard didn’t quite know what to do with him, because Rosenstock had a way of talking about God’s influence in history—and Harvard was already by then parading its secular credentials. Rosenstock was offered a professorship at Dartmouth, where he taught until his retirement in 1957. He brought forth an understanding of speech and language based upon social realities. It is a view sorely needed for a humanity whose thinking has been corrupted by abstractions of scientism.

But speech is crucial. Rosenstock often reminded us of this, and he even came up with a sociological paradigm. The word “paradigm” is actually appropriate, for it is a term from grammar, and Rosenstock’s great gift was the “grammatical method.” It doesn’t sound like much until you investigate it; but when  you investigate and live with it, it becomes, like all things, simple, commonsensical, and true—indeed, indispensable.

Rosenstock believed that grammar was the key to a new sociology, and ultimately the key to a more humane society. We have for the past couple of centuries believed that truth is confined to the “Indicative,” whose model is the mathematical statement: 2+2 = 4. Indicatives are statements of fact. They are “Objective statements.” Our new atheists are masters of pretending that only the objective statements, the indicatives, can be taken seriously, and they parade their antics of the Indicative Mode ad infinitum ad nauseam. But they might be surprised and chagrined to learn that the indicative is only the end of a grammatical process that begins with the Imperative “You,” migrates to the Subjective “I,” and finds its historical and institutional common ground in the “We.”

Indicatives have gone through the process of “happening,” and what has happened has not sprung, like Athena, from the head of Zeus. What has happened has antecedents, and these antecedents are reflected in our grammar, which in turn reflects social encounters, public events, political choices and collective decisions. And amidst these encounters, religion and rituals have played a decisive part. The mere indicative, one wants to tell those New Atheists, is a withered branch that cannot root and cannot grow.

It is for this reason that Rosenstock calls our human life, and the speech that frames it, crucial , and he illustrates this with a diagram, the Cross of Reality:

What is unique about the Cross of Reality is not that it is in the shape of a Cross—Rosenstock often said it was not intended to be a religious image. What is significant is that the vertical subject-object pole, so familiar to our philosophical heritage, is bisected by the horizontal temporal pole: future and past.

Our life, on the Cross of Reality, always demands continual adjustment and fine-tuning. It begins with the call—in older grammar, the Vocative—the Imperative. The “You” calls the “I” into life and into the process of finding our task. In reaching this state we are then in a position to seek alliances and community with others, to bond in common projects and contribute to historical narratives. We have become “We.”  Only at the end of this process do we get objective facts and situations, the things that have actually happened, that can be measured and evaluated.  Thus he comments, in his book Speech and Reality , “It is the pressure and seriousness of the imperative form on which depend the fruitfulness of all our indicatives.”

If this small book—originally published in 1970 by Argo Books, an imprint established by one of Rosenstock’s devoted students—could be more widely known, especially among students of language, history, literature and all forms of what used to be called “rhetoric”—it would have the power to revolutionize and re-awaken our decadent intellectual life. Containing essays on “Articulated Speech,” “In Defense of the Grammatical Method,” “Grammar as Social Science,” “How Language Establishes Relations,” “The Individual’s Right to Speak,” among others, the book goes to the root of our toxic and debased notion of “individualism”—a notion which has been so destructive of social bonds, culture, and shared history. How does he do this? By making the statement that “an individual becomes a person by being able to represent speaker and listener both within one person.” To be able to listen is to become a “You”—to wait, to become receptive, and yes, perhaps, even a bit humble. The “You,” that is, the grammatical second person,  Rosenstock remarks elsewhere,  is the principle of mental health—“Life in the second grammatical person is the basis for renewal of both men and peoples, and it will remain so.”

It is refreshing to hear these words. For American life is one long indoctrination into “self-esteem” and aggressive individualism. We have become sick with ourselves and of ourselves. It is toward an overcoming of this sickness that Rosenstock believed that “A higher grammar must reinstate the reality of speaking and listening people in the place of the nightmare of a speechless thinker who computes a speechless universe.” Need one add that this temptation toward speechlessness seems very prevalent today?

Modern philosophy has often slighted the factor of time—an omission which has had enormous and fatal consequences for our economic thinking. Time has been absorbed into space, and as “consumers” we give no thought for future generations nor of the time it took to form the fossil fuels we so insouciantly extract from the earth. Our technological devices have speeded up time to an unimaginable degree. It may be that the recovery or reclamation of time is has become our spiritual need of first order.  By becoming aware of our speaking—of the grammatical “tenses”—we can begin to reclaim this essential part of our humanity. We cannot always afford to await the leisured overview of events, as M.E. Bradford once reminded us. Sometimes we have to act.  And it is this moral duty, this leap from perception to action, which Rosenstock’s Cross of Reality highlights so clearly. As he writes in his book In the Cross of Reality : “ Reality yields only to him who enters real time and real space, and makes his own participation an express presupposition of his thinking.”

Only at the end of the eras of speaking and listening, grammatical exchanges, decisions and delegations, lyrics, epics, histories, and liturgies are we finally confronted with “facts.” And the art of historical life is learning to read those “facts”—not in order to be cowed by them, not as permission to remain passive and uninvolved, but as our calling to new imperatives and battles of the soul. To become aware of our grammatical responsibility, so to speak, is a turn of the road we very much need to make in this era of looming robotics and deterministic genetics. Saving our humanity may depend upon it.

This essay was first published here in October 2018.

The Imaginative Conservative  applies the principle of appreciation to the discussion of culture and politics—we approach dialogue with magnanimity rather than with mere civility. Will you help us remain a refreshing oasis in the increasingly contentious arena of modern discourse? Please consider  donating now .

The featured image is a photo courtesy of Mariot Huessy, Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy Fund. This file is licensed under the  Creative Commons   Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons .

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