socio political essay example

How to Write a Sociological Essay: Explained with Examples

This article will discuss “How to Write a Sociological Essay” with insider pro tips and give you a map that is tried and tested. An essay writing is done in three phases: a) preparing for the essay, b) writing the essay, and c) editing the essay. We will take it step-by-step so that nothing is left behind because the devil, as well as good grades and presentation, lies in the details.

Writing is a skill that we learn throughout the courses of our lives. Learning how to write is a process that we begin as soon as we turn 4, and the learning process never stops. But the question is, “is all writing the same?”. The answer is NO. Do you remember your initial lessons of English when you were in school, and how the teacher taught various formats of writing such as formal, informal, essay, letter, and much more? Therefore, writing is never that simple. Different occasions demand different styles and commands over the writing style. Thus, the art of writing improves with time and experience. 

Those who belong to the world of academia know that writing is something that they cannot escape. No writing is the same when it comes to different disciplines of academia. Similarly, the discipline of sociology demands a particular style of formal academic writing. If you’re a new student of sociology, it can be an overwhelming subject, and writing assignments don’t make the course easier. Having some tips handy can surely help you write and articulate your thoughts better. 

[Let us take a running example throughout the article so that every point becomes crystal clear. Let us assume that the topic we have with us is to “Explore Culinary Discourse among the Indian Diasporic Communities” .]

Phase I: Preparing for the Essay  

Step 1: make an outline.

So you have to write a sociological essay, which means that you already either received or have a topic in mind. The first thing for you to do is PLAN how you will attempt to write this essay. To plan, the best way is to make an outline. The topic you have, certainly string some thread in your mind. They can be instances you heard or read, some assumptions you hold, something you studied in the past, or based on your own experience, etc. Make a rough outline where you note down all the themes you would like to talk about in your essay. The easiest way to make an outline is to make bullet points. List all the thoughts and examples that you have in find and create a flow for your essay. Remember that this is only a rough outline so you can always make changes and reshuffle your points. 

[Explanation through example, assumed topic: “Explore Culinary Discourse among the Indian Diasporic Communities” . Your outline will look something like this:

• Importance of food
• Definition of Diaspora 
• Relationship between food and culture
• Relationship between food and nation
• Relationship between food and media 
• Relationship between food and nostalgia 
• How food travels with people 
• Is food practices different for different sections of society, such as caste, class, gender ]

Step 2: Start Reading 

Once you have prepared an outline for your essay, the next step is to start your RESEARCH . You cannot write a sociological essay out of thin air. The essay needs to be thoroughly researched and based on facts. Sociology is the subject of social science that is based on facts and evidence. Therefore, start reading as soon as you have your outline determined. The more you read, the more factual data you will collect. But the question which now emerges is “what to read” . You cannot do a basic Google search to write an academic essay. Your research has to be narrow and concept-based. For writing a sociological essay, make sure that the sources from where you read are academically acclaimed and accepted.  

Some of the websites that you can use for academic research are: 

• Google Scholar
• Shodhganga 

[Explanation through example, assumed topic: “Explore Culinary Discourse among the Indian Diasporic Communities” . 

For best search, search for your articles by typing “Food+Diaspora”, “Food+Nostalgia”, adding a plus sign (+) improves the search result.]

Step 3: Make Notes 

This is a step that a lot of people miss when they are preparing to write their essays. It is important to read, but how you read is also a very vital part. When you are reading from multiple sources then all that you read becomes a big jumble of information in your mind. It is not possible to remember who said what at all times. Therefore, what you need to do while reading is to maintain an ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY . Whenever you’re reading for writing an academic essay then have a notebook handy, or if you prefer electronic notes then prepare a Word Document, Google Docs, Notes, or any tool of your choice to make notes. 

As you begin reading, note down the title of the article, its author, and the year of publication. As you read, keep writing down all the significant points that you find. You can either copy whole sentences or make shorthand notes, whatever suits you best. Once you’ve read the article and made your notes, write a summary of what you just read in 8 to 10 lines. Also, write keywords, these are the words that are most used in the article and reflect its essence. Having keywords and a summary makes it easier for you to revisit the article. A sociological essay needs a good amount of research, which means that you have to read plenty, thus maintaining an annotated bibliography helps you in the greater picture.  

Annotate and divide your notes based on the outline you made. Having organized notes will help you directly apply the concepts where they are needed rather than you going and searching for them again.] 

Phase II: Write a Sociological Essay

A basic essay includes a title, an introduction, the main body, and a conclusion. A sociological essay is not that different as far as the body of contents goes, but it does include some additional categories. When you write a sociological essay, it should have the following contents and chronology: 

• Subtitle (optional)
• Introduction

Conclusion 

• References/ Bibliography 

Now let us get into the details which go into the writing of a sociological essay.  

Step 4: Writing a Title, Subtitle, Abstract, and Keywords 

The title of any document is the first thing that a reader comes across. Therefore, the title should be provocative, specific, and the most well-thought part of any essay. Your title should reflect what your essay will discuss further. There has to be a sync between the title and the rest of your content. The title should be the biggest font size you use in your essay. 

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: A title preferably should not exceed 5 to 7 words.  

This is an optional component of any essay. If you think that your title cannot justify the rest of the contents of your essay, then you opt for a subtitle. The subtitle is the secondary part of the title which is used to further elucidate the title. A subtitle should be smaller in font than the Title but bigger than the rest of the essay body.  

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: Make the font color of your subtitle Gray instead of Black for it to stand out. 

The abstract is a 6 to 10 line description of what you will talk about in your essay. An abstract is a very substantial component of a sociological essay. Most of the essays written in academia exceed the word limit of 2000 words. Therefore, a writer, i.e., you, provides the reader with a short abstract at the beginning of your essay so that they can know what you are going to discuss. From the point of view of the reader, a good abstract can save time and help determine if the piece is worth reading or not. Thus, make sure to make your abstract as reflective to your essay as possible using the least amount of words.  

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: If you are not sure about your abstract at first, it is always great to write the abstract in the end after you are done with your essay. 

Your abstract should highlight all the points that you will further discuss. Therefore your abstract should mention how diasporic communities are formed and how they are not homogeneous communities. There are differences within this large population. In your essay, you will talk in detail about all the various aspects that affect food and diasporic relationships. ]

Keywords are an extension of your abstract. Whereas in your abstract you will use a paragraph to tell the reader what to expect ahead, by stating keywords, you point out the essence of your essay by using only individual words. These words are mostly concepts of social sciences. At first, glance, looking at your keywords, the reader should get informed about all the concepts and themes you will explain in detail later. 

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: Bold your Keywords so that they get highlighted.

Your keywords could be: Food, Diaspora, Migration, and so on. Build on these as you continue to write your essay.]   

Step 5: Writing the Introduction, Main Body, and Conclusion 

Introduction 

Your introduction should talk about the subject on which you are writing at the broadest level. In an introduction, you make your readers aware of what you are going to argue later in the essay. An introduction can discuss a little about the history of the topic, how it was understood till now, and a framework of what you are going to talk about ahead. You can think of your introduction as an extended form of the abstract. Since it is the first portion of your essay, it should paint a picture where the readers know exactly what’s ahead of them. 

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: An apt introduction can be covered in 2 to 3 paragraphs (Look at the introduction on this article if you need proof). 

Since your focus is on “food” and “diaspora”, your introductory paragraph can dwell into a little history of the relationship between the two and the importance of food in community building.] 

This is the most extensive part of any essay. It is also the one that takes up the most number of words. All the research and note-making which you did was for this part. The main body of your essay is where you put all the knowledge you gathered into words. When you are writing the body, your aim should be to make it flow, which means that all paragraphs should have a connection between them. When read in its entirety, the paragraphs should sing together rather than float all around. 

The main body is mostly around 4 to 6 paragraphs long. A sociological essay is filled with debates, theories, theorists, and examples. When writing the main body it is best to target making one or two paragraphs about the same revolving theme. When you shift to the other theme, it is best to connect it with the theme you discussed in the paragraph right above it to form a connection between the two. If you are dividing your essay into various sub-themes then the best way to correlate them is starting each new subtheme by reflecting on the last main arguments presented in the theme before it. To make a sociological essay even more enriching, include examples that exemplify the theoretical concepts better. 

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: Though there is no word limit to the length of the paragraphs, if you keep one paragraph between 100 to 200 words, it makes the essay look more organized. 

The main body can here be divided into the categories which you formed during the first step of making the rough outline. Therefore, your essay could have 3 to 4 sub-sections discussing different themes such as: Food and Media, Caste and Class influence food practices, Politics of Food, Gendered Lens, etc.] 

This is the section where you end your essay. But ending the essay does not mean that you lose your flair in conclusion. A conclusion is an essential part of any essay because it sums up everything you just wrote. Your conclusion should be similar to a summary of your essay. You can include shortened versions of the various arguments you have referred to above in the main body, or it can raise questions for further research, and it can also provide solutions if your topic seeks one. Hence, a conclusion is a part where you get the last chance to tell your reader what you are saying through your article. 

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: As the introduction, the conclusion is smaller compared to the main body. Keep your conclusion within the range of 1 to 2 paragraphs. 

Your conclusion should again reiterate all the main arguments provided by you throughout the essay. Therefore it should bind together everything you have written starting from your introduction to all the debates and examples you have cited.]

Step 6: Citation and Referencing 

This is the most academic part of your sociological essay. Any academic essay should be free of plagiarism. But how can one avoid plagiarism when their essay is based on research which was originally done by others. The solution for this is to give credit to the original author for their work. In the world of academia, this is done through the processes of Citation and Referencing (sometimes also called Bibliography). Citation is done within/in-between the text, where you directly or indirectly quote the original text. Whereas, Referencing or Bibliography is done at the end of an essay where you give resources of the books or articles which you have quoted in your essay at various points. Both these processes are done so that the reader can search beyond your essay to get a better grasp of the topic. 

There are many different styles of citations and you can determine which you want to follow. Some of the most common styles of citation and referencing are MLA, APA, and Chicago style. If you are working on Google Docs or Word then the application makes your work easier because they help you curate your citations. There are also various online tools that can make citing references far easier, faster, and adhering to citation guidelines, such as an APA generator. This can save you a lot of time when it comes to referencing, and makes the task far more manageable. 

How to add citations in Google Doc: Tools → Citation

How to add citations in Word Document: References → Insert Citations 

But for those who want to cite manually, this is the basic format to follow:

• Author’s Name with Surname mentioned first, then initials 
• Article’s Title in single or double quotes
• Journal Title in Italics 
• Volume, issue number 
• Year of Publication

Example: Syrkin, A. 1984. “Notes on the Buddha’s Threats in the Dīgha Nikāya ”, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies , vol. 7(1), pp.147-58.

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: Always make sure that your Bibliography/References are alphabetically ordered based on the first alphabet of the surname of the author and NOT numbered or bulleted. 

Phase III: Editing 

Step 7: edit/review your essay.

The truth of academic writing is that it can never be written in one go. You need to write, rewrite, and revisit your material more than once. Once you have written the first draft of your essay, do not revise it immediately. Leave it for some time, at least for four hours. Then revisit your essay and edit it based on 3 criteria. The first criteria you need to recheck for is any grammatical and/or spelling mistakes. The second criteria are to check the arguments you have posed and if the examples you have cited correlate or not. The final criteria are to read the essay as a reader and read it objectively. 

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: The more you edit the better results you get. But we think that your 3rd draft is the magic draft. Draft 1: rough essay, Draft 2: edited essay, Draft 3: final essay.

Hello! Eiti is a budding sociologist whose passion lies in reading, researching, and writing. She thrives on coffee, to-do lists, deadlines, and organization. Eiti's primary interest areas encompass food, gender, and academia.

What is Socio Political : The Impact on Society and Governance

• Political Theory

Socio-political refers to the relationship between social and political factors in a society. It examines how political decisions impact social issues and how social dynamics influence political processes.

Socio-political analysis is crucial for understanding the interplay between societal structures and political systems. It delves into how power, policies, and governance intersect with social institutions, cultural norms, and economic structures. By examining these connections, socio-political studies shed light on the complexities of social change, inequality, and justice within a given community.

Understanding the socio-political landscape enables policymakers, researchers, and activists to develop informed strategies for addressing pressing societal challenges and fostering inclusive, equitable societies. Through this lens, socio-political analysis plays a vital role in shaping public discourse, policy formulation, and grassroots movements aimed at advancing social progress and political transformation.

Understanding Socio-political Factors

Socio-political factors refer to the interconnected dynamics of society and politics, where social and political forces influence and shape each other. The complex relationship between these forces plays a crucial role in shaping public policies, societal norms, and governance structures. Understanding these dynamics is essential for addressing issues related to social justice, human rights, and public welfare.

Definition Of Socio-political Dynamics

The term “socio-political dynamics” encompasses the interactions and interdependencies between societal and political elements. It involves the examination of how social conditions, cultural values, and economic factors intersect with political institutions, policies, and power dynamics. These dynamics influence the distribution of resources, the formulation of laws, and the allocation of rights within a society.

The Interconnectedness Of Social And Political Forces

The interconnected nature of social and political forces highlights how societal structures and power relations impact political decision-making processes and vice versa. Social movements, public opinion, and cultural developments exert influence on political agendas, while governmental policies and legislative actions can significantly shape social behaviors and structures. Recognizing this interconnectedness is vital for creating inclusive and equitable policies that address the diverse needs and concerns of a society.

Credit: www.fordfoundation.org

Socio-political Impact On Governance

In today’s complex world, the intertwining of social and political factors wields a substantial influence on the governance of nations. Understanding the socio-political impact on governance is essential for policymakers, as it is a pivotal aspect of shaping the direction of a society and its institutions. This influence can be seen through the shaping of power structures, the management of social tensions, and the formation of policies that directly impact the lives of citizens.

Influencing Policy Formation

The socio-political environment significantly influences the formulation and implementation of policies within a country. Public opinion , interest group pressure , and political ideologies play a pivotal role in the decision-making process. These factors have the potential to shape the direction of policies in areas such as education, healthcare, and economic development.

Shaping Power Structures

The socio-political landscape shapes power structures within a society. The distribution of power, influence, and resources is influenced by a myriad of socio-political forces. This can lead to the concentration of power in the hands of a few or the decentralization of power across various institutions and individuals, impacting the stability and equity of governance.

Managing Social Tensions

Socio-political dynamics often play a crucial role in managing and addressing social tensions within a nation. Political movements , social unrest , and ethnic conflicts are frequently influenced by socio-political factors. Governance must navigate these pressures adeptly to maintain social cohesion and stability.

Social Implications Of Political Decisions

When it comes to socio-political decisions, the social implications of political choices have a profound impact on society. These decisions influence how resources are distributed, whether certain groups are marginalized, and the overall welfare of communities. Understanding these social implications is crucial for creating a more equitable and just society.

Redistribution Of Resources

The redistribution of resources is a key social implication of political decisions. Political choices regarding taxation, social programs, and budget allocations directly affect the distribution of wealth and opportunities within a society. For example, policies that favor the wealthy may exacerbate income inequality, while policies that prioritize social welfare programs can help mitigate economic disparities.

Marginalization And Inequality

Political decisions can also contribute to the marginalization of certain groups and perpetuate inequalities . Discriminatory policies or the lack of representation in decision-making processes can lead to the marginalization of marginalized communities. This can further entrench existing inequalities based on race, gender, ethnicity, or socio-economic status.

Impact On Community Welfare

The overall welfare of a community is deeply impacted by political decisions. Policy choices related to healthcare, education, and social services directly influence the well-being of individuals and families. For instance, inadequate funding for public education can limit opportunities for children, while insufficient healthcare resources can harm the health and prosperity of communities.

Political Movements And Societal Change

The interplay between politics and society is a crucial factor in driving societal change. Political movements have, over time, played a pivotal role in influencing public opinion, shaping civil rights and liberties, and fostering activism and advocacy. Understanding the evolution of political movements and their impact is integral to comprehending the dynamics of socio-political change.

Activism And Advocacy

Activism and advocacy are powerful tools in effecting social and political transformation. These movements typically aim to raise awareness, influence policy, and drive change on various societal issues. From environmental conservation to gender equality, activism, and advocacy have been instrumental in challenging the status quo and championing causes that resonate with a broad spectrum of society.

Civil Rights And Liberties

The quest for civil rights and liberties has been a cornerstone of many political movements. These movements strive to secure equal rights and protections for marginalized groups, combat discrimination, and promote inclusivity. Through impactful advocacy and legislative action, these movements have been pivotal in reshaping the legal and social landscape to foster greater equality and justice.

Evolution Of Public Opinion

The evolution of public opinion is closely intertwined with political movements. As movements gain momentum, they can sway public attitudes, leading to shifts in societal perspectives and priorities. The evolution of public opinion is a dynamic process that reflects the effectiveness of political movements in shaping collective consciousness and fostering social change.

Strategies For Managing Socio-political Challenges

In today’s interconnected world, socio-political challenges are increasingly complex and multifaceted. As communities and nations grapple with issues such as inequality, social justice, and political tension, it is imperative to develop effective strategies for addressing these challenges. By implementing collaborative governance approaches, fostering civic engagement initiatives, and mitigating conflicts and unrest, societies can navigate and overcome socio-political challenges with resilience and unity.

Collaborative Governance Approaches

Collaborative governance involves the inclusive participation of diverse stakeholders in decision-making processes and policy development. By promoting transparency, inclusivity, and partnership, this approach enhances trust and cooperation within communities. Establishing collaborative platforms for dialogue and decision-making can lead to more effective and sustainable solutions to socio-political issues.

Civic Engagement Initiatives

Civic engagement initiatives empower individuals to actively participate in shaping their communities and influencing political processes. Through outreach programs, educational campaigns, and community forums, organizations can encourage citizens to voice their concerns, contribute to social change, and hold leaders accountable. By cultivating a culture of active citizenship, societies can foster a sense of responsibility and collective ownership over socio-political issues.

Mitigating Conflicts And Unrest

Addressing conflicts and unrest requires a comprehensive approach that encompasses conflict resolution, mediation, and peacebuilding efforts. By promoting dialogue, understanding, and reconciliation, communities can de-escalate tensions and prevent the escalation of conflict. Investing in conflict prevention and resolution mechanisms can help to create a more stable and harmonious socio-political environment.

Frequently Asked Questions Of What Is Socio-Political

What is the definition of socio-political.

Socio-political refers to the relationship between social and political factors shaping society. It encompasses issues such as governance, power dynamics, social justice, and public policy, highlighting the intersection of both social and political systems.

Why Is Understanding Socio-political Important?

Understanding socio-political dynamics is crucial for analyzing societal issues, advocating for change, and fostering inclusive governance. It empowers individuals to comprehend disparities, influence policymaking, and participate in creating positive societal transformations.

How Does Socio-political Impact Communities?

Socio-political factors significantly influence community dynamics, shaping access to resources, power structures, and social inclusion. Understanding these impacts is essential for addressing disparities, promoting equity, and strengthening community engagement for a more cohesive society.

Understanding socio-political issues is crucial for creating a better society. By examining the intersection of social and political factors, we gain insight into complex challenges and potential solutions. As we navigate these interconnections, it is essential to remain informed and engaged in shaping a more equitable and just world for all.

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1.2: Sociopolitical Contexts of Education

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 91097

• Deanna Cozart, Brian Dotts, James Gurney, Tanya Walker, Amy Ingalls, & James Castle
• University of Georgia via GALILEO Open Learning Materials

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Although educational policies and practices are sometimes viewed as if they existed in a vacuum, separate from the larger social, political, and cultural contexts, one of the central tenets of multiculturalism asserts that educational decision-making is heavily influenced by each of these contexts. In particular, many scholars of multicultural education point to the importance of the sociopolitical context of education in the modern era as educational policies and practices are increasingly becoming politicized. Given the political nature of educational decision making, the educational policies and practices implemented at national, state, and local levels reflect the values, traditions, and worldviews of the individuals and groups responsible for their design and implementation, which inherently makes education a non-neutral process, though it is often seen as such. Understanding the sociopolitical context of education allows for a critical analysis of educational policies and practices in an effort to reduce educational inequalities, improve the achievement of all students, and prepare students to participate in democratic society.

In the field of multicultural education– and across the social sciences– the sociopolitical context refers to the laws, regulations, mandates, policies, practices, traditions, values, and beliefs that exist at the intersection of social life and political life. For example, freedom of religion is one of the fundamental principles of life in American society, and therefore there are laws in place that protect every individual’s right to worship as they choose. In this instance, the social practices (ideologies, beliefs, traditions) and political process (laws, regulations, policies) reflect each other and combine to create a sociopolitical context that is, in principle, welcoming to all religious practices. There are similar connections between the social and the political in the field of education. Given that one of the main purposes of schooling is to prepare students to become productive members of society, classroom practices must reflect– to some extent– the characteristics of the larger social and political community. For example, in the United States, many schools use student governments to expose students to the principles of democratic society. By organizing debates, holding elections, and giving student representatives a voice in educational decision making, schools hope to impart upon students the importance of engaging in the political process. The policies and practices that support the operation of student government directly reflect the larger sociopolitical context of the United States. Internationally, the use of student government often reflect the political systems used in that country, if a student government organization exists at all. However, sociopolitical contexts influence educational experiences in subtler ways as well.

Throughout the history of American education, school policies and practices have reflected the ideological perspectives and worldviews of the underlying sociopolitical context. As stated above, schools in democratic societies often have democratic student government organizations that reflect the political organization of the larger society, while similar organizations cannot be found in schools in countries that do not practice democracy. Similarly, if a society shares a widespread belief that some groups (based on race, class, language, or any other identifier) are inherently more intelligent than another, educational policies and practices will reflect that belief. For example, as the United States expanded westward into Native American lands during the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries, many Americans shared the widespread belief that Native Americans were inherently less intelligent and less civilized than white Americans. This belief system served as a justification for the “Manifest Destiny” ideology that encouraged further westward expansion. Not surprisingly, the larger sociopolitical context of the time influences educational policies and practices. In large numbers, young Native Americans were torn from their families and forced into boarding schools where they were stripped of their traditions and customs before being involuntarily assimilated into “American culture”. These Native American boarding schools outlawed indigenous languages and religions. They required students to adopt western names, wear western clothes, and learn western customs. While from a contemporary perspective these schools were clearly inhumane, racist, and discriminatory, they illustrate how powerful the sociopolitical climate of the era can be in the implementation of educational policies and practices. Educational policies today continue to reflect the larger social and political ideologies, worldviews, and belief systems of American society, and although instances of blatant discrimination based on race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexual orientation, language, or any other identifier have been dramatically reduced in recent decades, a critical investigation into contemporary schooling reveals that individuals and groups are systematically advantaged and disadvantaged based on their identities and backgrounds, which will be explored in more depth in subsequent sections of this (book/class).

The role of social institutions in educational experiences are another key consideration in developing an understanding of the sociopolitical contexts of education. The term social institutions refer to the establish, standardized patterns of rule governed behavior within a community, group, or other social system. Generally, the term social institutions includes a consideration of the socially accepted patterns of behavior set by the family, schools, religion, and economic and political systems. Each social institution contributes to the efficiency and sustained functionality of the larger society by ensuring that individuals behave in a manner that consistent with the larger structure, which allows them to contribute to the society. Traffic regulations offer an example of how social institutions work together to create and ensure safety and efficiency in society. In order to reduce chaos, danger, and inefficiency along roadways in the United States, political institutions have created laws and regulations that govern behavior along public roads. Drivers found in violation of these regulations face punishment or fines that are determined by the judicial system. Furthermore, families and schools– and to some extent religions organizations– are responsible for teaching young people the rules and regulations that govern transportation in their society. The streamlined and regulated transportation system produced by the aforementioned social institutions allows economic institutions to function more efficiently. Functionalist Theory is a term used to refer to the perspective that institutions fill functional prerequisites in society and are necessary for social efficiency as seen in the previous example.

However, Conflict Theory refers to the idea that social institutions work to reinforce inequalities and uphold dominant group power. Using the same transportation example, a conflict theorist might argue that the regulations that require licensing fees before being able to legally operate a vehicle disproportionately impact poor people, which would limit their ability to move freely and thereby make it more difficult for them to hold and maintain a job that would allow them to move into a higher socioeconomic class. Another argument from the conflict theorist perspective might challenge institutionalized policies that require drivers to present proof of citizenship or immigration papers before being allowed to legally operate a vehicle. These policies systematically deny the right of freedom of movement to immigrants who entered the United States illegally, thereby limiting their civil rights as well as their ability to contribute to the American economy. Both the Functionalist Theory and Conflict Theory perspectives can contribute to a nuanced understanding of contemporary educational policies and practices by providing contrasting viewpoints on the same issue. Throughout these modules these perspectives will inform the discussion of educational institutions and how they influence– and are influenced by– other social institutions.

Much like educational policies and practices, the rules and regulations set by social institutions do not exist within a vacuum, nor are they neutral in regard to the way they impact individuals and groups. Institutional discrimination refers to “the adverse treatment of and impact on members of minority groups due to the explicit and implicit rules that regulate behavior (including rules set by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or ‘non-conscious understanding of appropriate conduct’ systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups” (Bayer, 2011). Historical examples of institutional discrimination in abound in American history. In the field of education, perhaps the most well known example of institutionalized discrimination is the existence of segregated schools prior to the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954. During this era, students of color were institutionally and systematically prevented from attending white schools, and instead were forced to attend schools that lacked sufficient financial, material, and human resources. Institutional discrimination in contemporary society, however, is often subtler given that there are a plethora of laws that explicitly prevent discrimination based on race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or any other identifier. Regardless of those laws, social institutions and institutionalized discrimination continue to disadvantage non-dominant groups, thereby advantaging members of the dominant group. Use housing as an example, homeowner’s associations are local organizations that regulate the rules and behaviors within a particular housing community. If a homeowner’s association decides that only nuclear families can live within their community and create a bylaw that stipulates such, the practice of allowing nuclear families and denying non-nuclear families becomes codified as an institutionalized policy. While the policy does not directly state that it intends to be discriminatory, it would disproportionately affect families from cultures that traditionally have households that include aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents, and other extended family members, a practice that is common in many Asian, African, and South American communities. Although hypothetical, this example represents an example of the subtle ways in which institutional discrimination surfaces in contemporary society.

A more concrete example of institutionalized discrimination can be drawn from the housing market in New Orleans as homes were being rebuilt in the aftermath Hurricane Katrina. While the Lower Ninth Ward– a mostly black neighborhood– was among the most damaged neighborhood in New Orleans, just down river the St. Bernard Parish neighborhood– which was mostly white– was also heavily damaged. By 2009, most of St. Bernard Parish had been rebuilt, while the Lower Ninth Ward remained unfit for living. As families began moving back into the neighborhood, elected officials in St. Bernard Parish passed a piece of legislation that required property owners to rent only to ‘blood relatives’. In effect, the policy barred potential black residents from moving into the area and served to maintain the racial makeup of the neighborhood prior to Katrina. After several months of implementation, the policy was legally challenged and was found to be in violation of the Fair Housing Act in Louisiana courts. In 2014, the Parish agreed to pay approximately $1.8 million in settlements to families negatively affected by the policy. This example illustrates how institutionalized discrimination surfaces in contemporary society. Throughout the modules, instances of institutional discrimination in schools, as well as in American society as a whole, will be critically analyzed in order to develop an understanding of how educators can work to reduce inequality and promote academic achievement for all students.

A basic understanding of social institutions and institutional discrimination helps inform this course’s approach to key educational issues in the field of multicultural education. As the student body in American schools becomes increasingly diverse, it becomes increasingly important for future teachers to know and understand how students’ identities might impact their educational experiences as well as their experiences their larger social and political settings. While there are many issues facing education today, Nieto and Bode (2012) identified four key terms that are central to understanding sociopolitical context surrounding multicultural education. These terms include: equal and equitable education, the ‘achievement gap’, deficit theories, and social justice.

The terms equal and equitable are often used synonymously, though they have vastly different meanings. While most educators would agree that providing an equal education to all students is an important part of their mission, it is sometimes more important to focus on creating equitable educational experiences. At its core, an equal education means providing exactly the same resources and opportunities for all students, regardless of their background. An equal education, however, does not ensure that all students will achieve equally. Take English Language Learners (ELLs) as an example. A group of ELL students sitting in the same classroom as native English speakers, listening to the same lecture, reading the same books, and taking the same assessments could be considered an equal education given that all students are receiving equal access to all of the educational experiences and materials. The outcome of this ostensibly equal education, however, would not be equitable. The ELL students would not be able to comprehend the lecture, books, or assessments and would therefore not be given the real possibility of achieving at an equal level, which is the aim of an equitable education. Equity refers to the educational process that “provides students with what they need to achieve equality” (Nieto & Bode, 2012, p.9). In the case of the ELL example, an equitable education would provide additional resources– perhaps including ESL specialists, bilingual activities and materials, and/or programs that foster native language literacy– to the ELL students to ensure that they are welcomed into the classroom community and are given the opportunity to learn and succeed equally. Working towards educational equality by providing equitable educational experiences is one of the central tenets of multicultural education and will be a recurring topic throughout these modules.

A second key term that is crucial in understanding multicultural education is the ‘achievement gap’. A large body of research has documented that students from racially and linguistically marginalized groups as well as students from low-income families generally achieve less than other students in educational settings. Large scale studies of standardized assessments revealed that white students outperformed black, Hispanic, and Native American students in reading, writing, and mathematics by at least 26 points on a scale from 0 to 500 (Nieto and Bode, 2012; National Center for Educational Statistics, 2009). Though usage of the term has changed over time, it often focuses on the role that students themselves play in the underachievement, which has drawn criticism from advocates of multicultural education because it places too much responsibility on the individual rather than considering the larger sociopolitical and sociocultural contexts surrounding education. While gaps in educational performance no doubt exist, Nieto and Bode (2012) suggest that using terms such as “resource gap”, “opportunity gap”, or “expectations gap” may be more accurate in describing the realities faced by marginalized students who often attend schools with limited resources, limited opportunities for educational advancement or employment in their communities, and face lowered expectations from their teachers and school personnel (p.13). Throughout this (book/course) issues related to the achievement gap’ and educational inequalities based on race, class, gender, and other identifiers will be viewed within the larger social, cultural, economic, and political contexts in order to create a more holistic and systematic understanding of student experiences, rather than focusing purely on the individual.

Historically in educational research, deficit theories have been used to explain how and why the achievement gap exists, but since the 1970s, scholars of multicultural education have been working to dismantle the lasting influence of deficit theory perspectives in contemporary education. The term ‘deficit theories’ refer to the assumption that some students perform worse than others in educational settings due to genetic, cultural, linguistic, or experiential differences that prevent them from learning. The roots of deficit theories can be found in 19 th century pseudo-scientific studies that purported to show ‘scientific evidence’ that classified the intelligence and behavior characteristics of various racial groups. The vast majority of these studies were conducted by white men, who unsurprisingly, found white men to be the most intelligent group of human beings, with other groups falling in behind in ways that mirrored the accepted social standings of the era (Gould, 1981). Though many have been disproved, deficit theories continue to surface in educational research and discourse. Reports suggesting that academic underachievement is a product of cultural deprivation or a dysfunctional relationship with school harken back to deficit theory perspectives. Much like the ‘achievement gap’, deficit theories place the burden of academic underachievement on students and their families, rather than considering how the social and institutional contexts might impact student learning. Deficit theories also create a culture of despondency among educators and administrators since they support the idea that students’ ability to achieve is predetermined by factors outside of the teacher’s control. Multicultural education aims to disrupt the prevalence of deficit theory perspectives by encouraging a more nuanced analysis of student achievement that considers the structural and cultural contexts surrounding American schooling.

The fourth and final term that is central to understanding the sociopolitical context of multicultural education is social justice. Throughout these modules, the term social justice will be employed to describe efforts to reduce educational inequalities, promote academic achievement, and engage students in their local, state, and national communities. Social justice is multifaceted in that it embodies the ideologies, philosophies, approaches, and actions that work towards improving the quality of life for all individuals and communities. Not only does social justice aim to improve access to material and human resources for students in underserved communities, it also exposes inequalities by challenging and confronting misconceptions and stereotypes through the use of critical thinking and activism. Finally, in order for social justice initiatives to be successful, they must “draw on the talents and strengths that students bring to their education” (Nieto and Bode, 2012, p.12). This allows students to see their experiences represented in curriculum content, which can empower and inspire students– not only to excel academically– but also engage in activities that strengthen and build the community around them. These key components of social justice permeate throughout the field of multicultural education.

In order to develop a holistic understanding of educational experiences, these modules will interpret and analyze educational policies and practices through a lens that considers the sociopolitical contexts of education. By recognizing the role that social and political ideologies have over educational decision making, multicultural approaches to education aim to reduce educational inequalities, improve the achievement of all students, and prepare students to participate in democratic society.

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Socio-Political and Economic Environment Essay

1. introduction.

The development of the economy is influenced by socio-political circumstances at an international, regional, and national level. In this assignment, I will examine those specific elements of the socio-political environment that have most influenced the development of the economy in a country and have been responsible for the huge variations in growth and development in nations. It is relatively easy to point out situations where the economy has been the dominant influence on socio-political factors, such as in a revolution, war, and most instances of political upheaval. Although economics is a major factor in shaping the socio-political environment, the reverse is not so true because politics can greatly influence the economy through legislation, policy, and the effects of political stability on factors for production. For the purpose of this assignment, I will consider the term "socio-political" as a collective term to include anything to do with the politics of a nation and events in the nation that have had an effect on the economy and the prosperity and welfare of the people.

2. Socio-Political Factors

Government policy is the first of the three socio-political factors. It is a broad concept that can cover anything from reductions in corporation tax to changes in health policy, from the local council to the European Union. The political ideology of the party in power is the key driving force behind policy and the extent of change. For example, the recent Labour government were advocates of public spending and active intervention to reduce inequality in health. As a result, they made little headway in reducing the health divide relative to the rest of Europe. At present, the Conservative-Lib Dem coalition is seeking to restructure the public sector to lessen the budget deficit. The implications of this could be substantial at both regional and national levels, depending on the extent and type of change. Social movements, such as feminist movements, class movements, or movements based on ethnicity, can influence socio-political factors both directly and indirectly. The civil rights movement in America directly led to changes in policy by causing the introduction of anti-discrimination legislation and affirmative action in employment and education. Such changes have been used as a way to increase the sense of belonging as an indicator of social inclusion for black and Hispanic people in America. However, the effectiveness is questionable as socio-economic factors are strong indicators of health and inclusion in these ethnic minorities.

2.1. Government Policies

The government of any given country will implement a range of policies in order to strive to improve the quality of life in which the citizens have become accustomed to. These policies may be for introducing new laws, improving education, ensuring the general safety of the population, or even to heighten the status of health development. What all government policies strive for, essentially, is to direct growth and change in the desired direction. A crucial part of understanding government policies in relation to sociology is to establish what kind of effects these policies have or intended to generate in the future. Policies are rarely implored to generate change in the 'here and now', and are more to provide foundation for future change. Government policies will generally have a massive effect on any aspect of society. Policies come with money and how that money is spent can reflect in major ways on the dynamics of society. For example, the privatization of any previously public sector industry can have widespread effects throughout society, most notably perhaps in the privatization of the British railways which caused public outcry due to the increase in rail fares and tales of corporate greed as standards of service did not seem to improve. This could not only affect those who are then priced out of using the rail service but also generate an "us and them" ideology if a superior service is provided for those who can afford it. This existing class division in society is intensified through many policies, with the national minimum wage and income support having effects on the income divide and the standard of public services available to the social classes.

2.2. Social Movements

Social movement, loosely organized but sustained campaign in support of a social goal, typically either progressive or conservative in purpose. Although social movements differ in size and scale, they are all essentially attempts to create or resist changes in society. Characteristics of Social Movements The nature of social movements is that they are instigators or agents for change. They fight for specific changes rather than serving specific interests. Some social movements are resistance movements and some are revolutionary movements. Resistance movements try to prevent or reverse changes sought or being implemented by an outside and often illegal force. Revolutionary movements actively seek a new ideal and aim to modify existing institutions to conform to it. Social movements also aim to unify people and change attitudes towards problems. Some movements may fail because they cannot gather enough support. Social movements normally start with individuals or small groups in society and then spread to the society itself. The following are characteristics of the social movement in Malaysia III between the ruling United Malays National Organization (UMNO) and opposition political parties, according to Muhammad Agus' concept of social movement. This conflict is between the ruling United Malays National Organization (UMNO) and opposition parties. This conflict started when the prime minister decided to implement the new judiciary bill. This bill was seen as a bargaining act to weaken the courts, and Agus believes that this change would have an effect on the race because the court would not be an independent body. The movement against the bill was started by the lawyer's forum, followed by Parti Islam SeMalaysia (PAS), the opposition party, to abort the bill in the Parliament house.

2.3. Political Stability

Political stability is derived from the absence of regime behavior to seek political power through unconstitutional means to settle disputes with participation and/or support of state institutions. Political stability is best gauged by the control of grievances without resorting to law enforcement, judicial or other administrative measures outside the state-prescribed process. A stable political process is one in which political competition is non-violent and no individual or group feels compelled to resort to political violence to further its political goals. This is reinforced by the statement that political stability is a situation where the government is stable and the chances of overthrow by a broad-based revolution from either the left or the right are remote. An illustration of a stable political process would be Malaysia during the Asian economic crisis. This was due to the ability of the political parties to resolve leadership disputes and internal conflict without resorting to political violence or unconstitutional means to remove or challenge leadership, as seen in Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. Malaysia had maintained control over the grievances by invoking a number of national security laws to control dissent and preserve the status quo of the political process. Though this was not necessarily politically healthy, it did support the claim that a stable political process finds no individual or group compelled to resort to political violence to further its political goals. Another sign of a politically stable process would be seen in the policies created by the government and opposition. During the crisis, the Malaysian government took the policy of selective repression and appeasement on the opposition to maintain the current status quo of both the ruling and opposition parties. An example of selective repression would be the arrest and charge of former deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim on charges of sodomy and corruption, which was seen as selective to prevent a feasible challenge towards government leadership. Anwar's subsequent formation of the reformasi movement posed a threat to the current status quo and was met with a large clampdown of opposition members, further arrests, and sodomy charges. This was clearly an attempt to maintain the current political process. That said, no groups had felt compelled to resort to revolutionary action to overthrow the government, and the judiciary had been used within the prescribed process to resolve disputes, as seen in the recent acquittal of Anwar's sodomy charge.

3. Economic Factors

Economic structures manifest themselves essentially in sociopolitical and economic life of any country. Economic systems are unique and give special characteristics about them. They fundamentally depend on how the ownership of the resources is with the state authority or with the private market. In case of the former, they might be communism and socialism, and in case of the latter, it is capitalism. Similarly, there are other systems to define the economic structure like feudalism and fascism. The allocation decisions are more of command in communism where the production and distribution is done according to what the government decides. In capitalist economies, the resource allocation is done through the price mechanism. The decision making about the organization and coordination of the production and distribution is done in what are the industry types and what technology is being used in that, as said earlier this decision is not to be taken in the former system and it is more towards the kind of what is being done in the latter case. Gross domestic product is the preparation of each of the country's production in the borders and it is a better indicator of the economic growth of the country. It can be known as the total market value of goods and services produced and it is the biggest indicator for the economic activity of the nation. Comparisons can be done to other countries' economic growth and standard of living as given by the nominal GDP. One disadvantage of this measure is that it does not have the currency rate and purchasing power of the country and this can be resolved by using the real GDP which abolishes the exchange rate and only uses the price of goods in the cost year and a base year.

3.1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

It is a measurement of aggregate economic activity. It is a measure of the economic condition of a country, as a measurement of the productive capacity. It is however not a measure of the general welfare of the nation because it does not take into account leisure time, level of activity in the informal economy, changes in income distribution, and the environmental and social costs. It is a flow concept which measures the value of goods and services which are newly produced within the domestic borders over a specific period of time, usually a year. GDP measures income by the value of output or total expenditures on newly produced goods and services. There are three approaches: the value of output is the total production of the economy and it's a simplified measure. So we might take an example of a car. It isn't produced to sit in a warehouse, it was produced to be sold and used. So to find the value of what the car was produced to do, we would find how much the car sells for. The second approach is to take the total expenditure of domestic production as a using the expenditure method would measure the value of production is the same as the value of total expenditure and therefore total income because every penny spent is a penny earned. So income can be measured as the value of production that is sold or consumed in the economy. The third approach is the value of income and the value of output and total expenditure are the same as there for; since the value of income and output can be derived from the value of expenditure on GDP using the data on the value of consumption, investment, and government expenditure and since there are national statistics on the value of output for the increase in stock of goods. GDP may be approached in per capita terms which is the GDP per head of the population is simply the GDP divided by the country mid-year populations, so GDP per capita measures the average output per person and is used by economists to compare the living standard or welfare of the nation. An increase in GDP doesn't always mean an increase in living standard and though it is widely accepted that GDP is a reasonably good measure of living standards and changes over time in the GDP per capita may not fully represent proper changes in the material welfare of the nation and it also does not consider the distribution effects. This can be proven using a comparison between countries considering the GDP of LEDC and MEDCs and LEDCs have very low GDP yet LEDCs don't feel that they have a lower living standard to MEDCs because they have their own culture and there is also income inequality in a country so the average income may not be representative of the entire population and distribution income doesn't qualify the even the uneven of wealth between different groups of people in a country. Also different growth rates between countries and income differences in the country can mean that one country's GDP per capita is equal to another yet the country with the higher growth rate will have people with lower living standards than the country with a lower growth rate and countries going through rapid economic growth often experience unemployment and a rise in social problems. In short, it is a basic measure of national economic activity and a very useful tool for comparing the standard of living in different countries and measuring the economic performance of a country over time.

3.2. Inflation Rate

Inflation rate is the rate at which the general (national) level of prices for goods and services is rising, and subsequently falling purchasing power of money cause it costs to maintain the same standard of living. When price levels rise, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services. A chief measure of price inflation is the inflation rate, which is the percentage change in price index over a period of time. Normally, inflation or deflation is a positive or negative percentage change in the inflation rate from one period to the corresponding previous period. To calculate inflation between the years, several steps need to be taken: 1. Determine the price index for consumers in the year for which the rate of inflation is to be measured (quantities of different goods can be fixed or changed). 2. The percentage change in the price index is calculated between the two years with the formula: (Price index in the second year - Price index in the first year) / Price index in the first year * 100 = 20% This calculation would yield a 20%, which means the cost of the bundle of commodities had risen by 20% between the two years.

3.3. Unemployment Rate

The rate of unemployment is an important indicator of understanding the economic situation. The main reasons for unemployment are the increase in population. Once people are born, the population increases. If the rate of job availability does not match the rate of unemployed, it will increase. It says that the number of jobs does not increase sufficiently to provide jobs for everyone as the population grows. Another issue is the size of the business. When businesses lower their production, this will lead to a demand for fewer workers, which will in turn lead to unemployment. This links into the current situation with industry moving to LEDCs as they have cheaper costs of production, resulting in unemployment in the host MEDC. This issue of structural unemployment is linked to the global movement of industries. There are many types of unemployment, including frictional, hidden, and long-term unemployment. They are characterized by different states of unemployment or different reasons for unemployment. The rate of unemployment can be affected by government policies. A reduction of government spending as an economic policy means that the government will buy fewer goods and services, and so there will be less demand for workers, resulting in fewer hires. This leads to unemployment.

3.4. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

The foreign direct investment (FDI) refers to long-term participation by country A into country B. It usually involves participation in management, joint venture, transfer of technology and expertise. There are two types of FDI, one is inward FDI and another is outward FDI. Inward FDI consists of direct investment into country B whereas outward FDI consists of direct investment of country A in an enterprise operating in country B. It is a major catalyst for economic development in the host country. Nowadays, it is a well-accepted principle that no country can develop its economy in isolation. It needs inflow of capital along with technology and expertise to improve the quality and standard of its industrial and business sector. As far as the developed countries are concerned, FDI is an easy and way to gain access to cheap labor to produce goods at low cost and thereby enhance the quality and standard of its people. The reason for developing foreign direct investment in a certain country is very much similar to the reason for the investment in a colonial territory and hence it is referred to as an economic neo-colonialism. The International Monetary Fund has defined it as an investment, which adds or deducts an enduring involvement in an enterprise operating outside of the economy of the investor. FDI has increased dramatically since the Second World War.

4. Conclusion

Given the current U.S. socio-political and economic environment for the formation and success of a new small business, now is an excellent time for me to go into business. The current political climate in the U.S. downplays the importance of big business and instead lends support to small business. America has various subsidies, financial aid, and credit available to entrepreneurs. There is a new vision in the minds of Americans about their future. They have a growing dissatisfaction with seedy products that fail to work and big institutions that fail to deliver responsive customer service. There is a strong national will to return to a simpler, more rewarding lifestyle, free from excessive material emphasis. It is a return to the days when people were not ashamed to personally know and assist in the advancement of their local merchants. This sort of environment is ideal for the success of my business. The fact that America is now engaged in a war on multiple fronts may seem to be a negative for the economy. However, war has always been a time of great innovation and small businesses have historically flourished in the build up to war and during times of war. The new internet and communications revolution has made the world a global market. People can now work from home and do business with clients in other countries. The steadily increasing cost of living for families and individuals in the U.S. has created a need to work longer hours and spend less time with family, as households require two incomes. This trend is igniting a counter-revolution where people are looking for new ways to make money and improve their quality of life. My Spanish heritage can be traced through many generations of merchants who would often make clothes and sell them from home. Not once throughout my rather long lineage was anyone employed by someone else. We have a proud tradition of being our own bosses and doing for ourselves. This tradition has largely died as globalization has placed most small firms and mom and pop stores in a losing battle against large corporations. Step one to getting the family business back to where we were is starting my own business as it is cost prohibitive for me to make and sell clothes on a small scale, but I can research business ideas and create written content in my free time. With the world as a global market, my goal is eventually to create an international business that can provide a comfortable living for my future family. With America being the land of opportunity and small business, now is the time for me to take the first step in that journey.

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7.1: Social and Political Philosophy – Overview and Coursework

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Social and Political Philosophy is a normative pursuit, related to Ethics. Where Ethics focuses on moral value of an individual’s actions, Social and Political Philosophy is interested in values related to groups of individuals,— a community, society, or nation. This branch of philosophy asks questions such as: “What makes a good society?” and “What makes a government legitimate?” The theories of social and political philosophers provide understanding and justification for considerations such as: the relationship between an individual and the government; the just distribution of resources among individuals; the merit of various forms of political structure and government. Issues such as fairness, justice, human rights, and the responsibilities of government arise in the theories advocated by social and political philosophers.

Successful completion of our study of this unit will enable you to:

• Recognize the impact of the philosopher’s view of human nature on proposals made about social order.
• Understand and explain the concept of “social contract theory” from diverging points of view, including those of Thomas Hobbes and John Rawls.
• Explain and contrast the values underlying Liberalism and Socialism.
• Describe the impact of theories put forth by John Locke and John Stuart Mill on present-day democracy.

The Course Content for this unit provides the primary reading material, links to any additional assigned reading or viewing resources, and assigned coursework. The unit concludes with a test. Material is presented in these subsections:

6.1 The Individual and Society 6.2 Philosophical Roots of Modern Government

Dates for completing all assigned work are in the Schedule of Work.

Philosophers We Will Meet

In our investigation and readings for Social and Political Philosophy, we will encounter the work of these philosophers. You may select a name here to link to a short biography, or you may link to the same information at your first encounter the philosopher’s name in the Course Content sections

Aristotle Thomas Hobbes  John Locke  Jean-Jacques Rousseau John Rawls John Stuart Mill Karl Marx

It is important to understand the meaning and use of these terms.

Absolutism:  The political doctrine and practice of unlimited, centralized authority with absolute sovereignty vested in a monarch or dictator. Anarchism:  The belief that an ideal human society should have no organized government and entails no regard for the authority of existing governments. Capitalism:  Both an ideology and politico-economic system where production is controlled privately and for profit. Communism:  An expression of socialism where capitalism is replaced with publicly owned means of production and communal control of the society’s natural resources. Democracy:  The form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation, usually involving periodically held free elections. Fascism:  An authoritarian system of government and social organization characterized by belief in the supremacy of one national or ethnic group, dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and control of industry and commerce. Liberalism:  A political philosophy based on ideas of personal liberty, rights and responsibilities of individuals, equality of individuals, and the obligations of the state to protect freedom and rights. Libertarianism (political):  A political theory that takes individual liberty as the primary political value. Original Position:  John Rawls’ conception of a hypothetical position, or standpoint, in which the nature of justice can be discovered from behind s “veil of ignorance,” where rational persons have no knowledge of their particular circumstances and are disinterested in one another’s well-being. Social Contract Theory:  The view that political structure and legitimacy of the state stem from explicit or implicit agreement by individuals to surrender specified rights in exchange for the stability of social order and protection by the government. Socialism:  A sociopolitical theory which values the welfare of the community and advocates that a society’s resources belong to all of its members and should be shared with everyone. Theocracy:  A form of government in which God or a deity is recognized as the source of control, as interpreted by the divine authorities.

• 6. Social and Political Philosophy - Overview and Coursework. Authored by : Kathy Eldred. Provided by : Pima Community College. License : CC BY: Attribution

Influence of Political, Social, and Cultural Issues Analytical Essay

Political, social, and cultural factors in the world have significant influence on the economic and security status of a society. The political, social, and cultural factors are parameters that reflect the stability of the local states, nations or the entire world. All countries are striving to shape their economic and security aspects by ensuring stability of political, social, and cultural factors.

Steinlin argues that, “the idea of development is the most recent stage of the enlightenment notion of human progress as a continual process of internal and external expansion based on values of rationality, secularity, and efficiency” (9).

Internal expansion involves local and national industrialization strategies geared towards economic growth while external expansion entails being in tandem with the globalization development.

The objective of achieving economic growth and stability is to eliminate poverty, which is a perpetual issue in the world full of inequalities and competition. Therefore, poverty is an issue that transcends political, social, and cultural dimensions and it affects individual members in the society at all levels, be it at local, national, or international levels.

People are unable satisfy basic human basic needs due to poverty. In the society, there are two types of poverty viz. the absolute poverty, and the relative poverty.

Absolute poverty is complete inability to satisfy the basic human needs while relative poverty is the inability to afford quality and standard human needs. Steinlin defines poverty “as a human condition characterized by the sustained or chronic deprivation of the resources, capabilities, choices, security and power necessary for the enjoyment of an adequate standard of living and other civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights” (9).

Poverty dictates the kind of lifestyles that people live and that explain why there are various socioeconomic classes of people in the society.

Human health and education depends on the economic status of the individual, family, the society. Compliant political, social, and cultural aspects in a society that seeks to keep abreast with economic development due to the globalization provide an environment where economy thrives.

Poor economic strategies by the government adversely affect the health and educational status of its citizens. Deprivation of the resources severely affects the living standards of the people for they will not afford quality and standard healthcare and education.

Poverty directly reflects poor health and low educational status of individual members in the society. Since poverty has social, political, and cultural dimensions, it affects everybody in the society. Therefore, so long as poverty still looms in the society, there would be hardly any achievements towards improving the health and educational standards of the people.

Poverty due to deprivation of basic human needs or inequality encourages the emergence of criminal activities in the society. The criminal activities in the society are proportional to the level of poverty.

Steinlin argues that, “poverty deprives individuals of privileges such as choices, security, and power needed for the enjoyment of an adequate standard of living and other fundamental civil, cultural, economic, political, and social rights” (13). This means that poverty discriminates against the poor in the society leaving them to resort to criminal activities as means of survival.

Eventually, the society becomes an unsafe place to both the poor and the rich due to poverty and crimes respectively. Therefore, the solutions to poverty lie in the government efforts that shape political, cultural, and social parameters, which determine poverty levels in a country.

Works Cited

Steinlin, Marc. “Basics on the Human Rights Based Approach to Development.” Helvetas Swiss Association for International Cooperation 6.2 (2004): 1-12.

• Chicago (A-D)
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IvyPanda. (2018, May 27). Influence of Political, Social, and Cultural Issues. https://ivypanda.com/essays/influence-of-political-social-and-cultural-issues/

"Influence of Political, Social, and Cultural Issues." IvyPanda , 27 May 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/influence-of-political-social-and-cultural-issues/.

IvyPanda . (2018) 'Influence of Political, Social, and Cultural Issues'. 27 May.

IvyPanda . 2018. "Influence of Political, Social, and Cultural Issues." May 27, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/influence-of-political-social-and-cultural-issues/.

1. IvyPanda . "Influence of Political, Social, and Cultural Issues." May 27, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/influence-of-political-social-and-cultural-issues/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Influence of Political, Social, and Cultural Issues." May 27, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/influence-of-political-social-and-cultural-issues/.

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The Catalysts Behind the French Revolution: a Detailed Analysis of Socio-Political and Economic Factors

This essay about the French Revolution explores its origins, key events, and enduring impact on modern society. It examines the socio-political and economic conditions in 18th-century France that led to the uprising, highlights the influence of Enlightenment thinkers, and details the pivotal moments such as the storming of the Bastille. The piece reflects on the revolution’s dual nature—its promotion of noble ideals and the violent upheaval it triggered—emphasizing its role in shaping democratic principles and modern governance.

How it works

In the grand tapestry of historical narratives, few epochs boast the transformative vigor and far-reaching consequences as the French Revolution. Arising from the crucible of late 18th-century France, this seismic event reshaped not only the contours of French society but also reverberated across the globe, leaving an indelible mark on the course of human history. Within its tumultuous currents lie a myriad of catalysts, each weaving a unique thread of socio-political upheaval and economic strife, culminating in an eruption of revolutionary fervor that shattered the ancien régime.

To comprehend the genesis of the French Revolution is to navigate a labyrinth of socio-political complexities. France, a nation starkly stratified along class lines, found itself ensnared in a web of privilege and oppression. At the zenith of the social hierarchy, the aristocracy and clergy luxuriated in wealth and privilege, while the burgeoning bourgeoisie, shackled by feudal constraints and bereft of political agency, simmered with discontent. Meanwhile, the masses, comprising the peasantry and urban proletariat, labored under the yoke of oppressive taxation and feudal obligations, their grievances festering beneath the veneer of societal order.

The intellectual ferment of the Enlightenment served as a potent catalyst, igniting the flames of revolution with its radical ideals of individual liberty, equality, and the rights of man. The luminaries of the Enlightenment—Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu—championed these ideals, their pens alight with the fervor of dissent. Their writings, disseminated across salons and pamphlets, served as intellectual tinder, inflaming the hearts and minds of the disenfranchised and dispossessed.

Economic woes added fuel to the revolutionary conflagration, as France grappled with fiscal crisis and economic disparity. Decades of costly wars, lavish court spending, and regressive taxation had plunged the monarchy into a quagmire of debt, prompting desperate measures such as currency debasement and punitive taxation. Meanwhile, the winds of change ushered in by a burgeoning capitalist economy unleashed forces of disruption and dislocation, further destabilizing traditional power structures and fueling demands for political reform.

Yet, it was the realm of politics and governance that provided the spark that ignited the powder keg of revolution. The absolutist monarchy of Louis XVI, characterized by its arbitrary exercise of power and resistance to reform, became increasingly untenable in the face of mounting opposition. The convocation of the Estates-General in 1789, intended as a palliative measure, instead became a catalyst for revolutionary fervor, as disenfranchised commoners seized the opportunity to challenge the entrenched order and assert their rights.

The zenith of revolutionary fervor arrived on July 14, 1789, with the storming of the Bastille—an event that would serve as a clarion call for freedom and fraternity. The fall of the Bastille unleashed a tidal wave of popular uprisings and insurrections, as the oppressed masses rose up against their oppressors and demanded an end to feudal tyranny. The Revolution unfolded in fits and starts, marked by moments of radicalization and retrenchment, ultimately culminating in the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte and the dawn of a new era in European history.

In retrospect, the French Revolution stands as a testament to the indomitable spirit of human resilience and the power of collective action to effect change. It laid bare the inherent contradictions of the old order and laid the groundwork for the emergence of modernity, with its emphasis on individual rights, democratic governance, and social justice. Yet, it also served as a cautionary tale, reminding us of the fragility of social cohesion and the dangers of unchecked inequality and authoritarianism.

As we reflect on the legacy of the French Revolution, we are confronted with a paradox—a revolution born of noble ideals and righteous aspirations, yet stained by the bloodshed and violence that accompanied its tumultuous passage. It is a reminder that the arc of history is shaped not only by the lofty ideals of philosophers and statesmen but also by the actions of ordinary men and women, whose struggles and sacrifices pave the way for a more just and equitable world.

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The Catalysts Behind the French Revolution: A Detailed Analysis of Socio-Political and Economic Factors. (2024, May 12). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/the-catalysts-behind-the-french-revolution-a-detailed-analysis-of-socio-political-and-economic-factors/

"The Catalysts Behind the French Revolution: A Detailed Analysis of Socio-Political and Economic Factors." PapersOwl.com , 12 May 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/the-catalysts-behind-the-french-revolution-a-detailed-analysis-of-socio-political-and-economic-factors/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Catalysts Behind the French Revolution: A Detailed Analysis of Socio-Political and Economic Factors . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-catalysts-behind-the-french-revolution-a-detailed-analysis-of-socio-political-and-economic-factors/ [Accessed: 16 May. 2024]

"The Catalysts Behind the French Revolution: A Detailed Analysis of Socio-Political and Economic Factors." PapersOwl.com, May 12, 2024. Accessed May 16, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/the-catalysts-behind-the-french-revolution-a-detailed-analysis-of-socio-political-and-economic-factors/

"The Catalysts Behind the French Revolution: A Detailed Analysis of Socio-Political and Economic Factors," PapersOwl.com , 12-May-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-catalysts-behind-the-french-revolution-a-detailed-analysis-of-socio-political-and-economic-factors/. [Accessed: 16-May-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Catalysts Behind the French Revolution: A Detailed Analysis of Socio-Political and Economic Factors . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-catalysts-behind-the-french-revolution-a-detailed-analysis-of-socio-political-and-economic-factors/ [Accessed: 16-May-2024]

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Socio-Political Issues Essays

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Home — Essay Samples — Government & Politics — Political Participation — Socio-political issues presented in filmaking

Socio-political Issues Presented in Filmaking

• Categories: Political Participation

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Published: Dec 12, 2018

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Essays About Politics: Top 5 Examples and 7 Writing Prompts

Essays about politics address delicate and intriguing matters. See our top essay examples and prompts you can incorporate into your writing.

Politics encompasses movements and ideas that aim to control and encourage progress. It attempts to run a country through relevant developments and efficient governance. Though it started in the 19th century , it’s also the root of many disputes. Because of its complexity, politics is a famous essay topic coaxing writers to be open-minded and wise. It’s also an extensive subject to tackle.

5 Best Essay Examples

1. the impact of media on teens’ views on politics by anonymous on gradesfixer.com, 2. the problem of gun politics in the united states by anonymous on papersowl.com, 3. education: controversial issue in florida politics by anonymous on ivypanda.com, 4. the politics of modern day abortion in jamaica by anonymous on ivypanda.com, 5. the importance of public awareness in politics by anonymous on gradesfixer.com, 1. the role of a politician, 2. why do we need political parties, 3. qualifications of a good politician, 4. the effect of having uneducated politicians , 5. social media and political campaigns, 6. politics and corruption, 7. if i were a politician….

“With the spike in internet usage and the rapid spread of thoughts and ideas, the effect on the human psyche comes into question. Applications like Instagram and Twitter have a “Like-Button” that acts as a representation for interest and has created an uproar on the need for attention amongst teens.”

The author examines the different media released online that are easily accessible to young people and how these contents receive engagement through likes and comments. The essay talks about government officials with social media accounts and how their simple posts can instantly change a teen’s view about politics. The piece also includes statistics on teens’ participation in these networking sites, the elections, and the effects of teens on politics.

“Every day 39 children and teens are shot and survive, 31 injured in an attack, 1 survives a suicide attempt and 7 shot unintentionally. Not only is the 2nd amendment giving access to guns to protect ourselves, it is giving others access to commit violent crimes that involve a firearm. Guns are not just used to have protection against harm, but it is also used to create dangerous scenarios out in the public.”

The essay delves into gun politics problems for US citizens. It mentions how bearing guns give people easy access to heinous acts such as mass shootings and suicides. The writer offers relevant statistics to demonstrate how severe the situation is, citing people who die or get injured from gun violence. At the end of the piece, the author says that they believe the 2nd amendment isn’t for protection but for crimes and violence.

“Some schools are already implementing full-time education, while others are not ready to accept students in person. Undoubtedly, this can still be dangerous for all stakeholders, but the state does not have a definite policy in this regard. Nevertheless, online education also comes with some challenges. It is difficult for teachers to maintain the required level of quality of distance learning.”

The essay focuses on Florida’s politics and how it affects the state’s educational system. Even after the pandemic’s peak, some Florida schools still struggle to implement policies that may help their schooling structure. The author also mentions that these institutions do not prioritize students’ mental health and don’t take racism seriously, which leads to high suicide rates and violence.

“Currently Jamaica maintains one of the most unique positions, with abortion being illegal officially, but still performed as part of the status quo in particular situations. The discussion around abortion in Jamaica is inherently complex, stemming from colonial influences on modern sociopolitical and religious perspectives.

The author shares their opinion about Jamaica’s political view on abortion and the protection of women. Abortion is illegal in Jamaica. However, some still do it by paying medical professionals handsomely. Abortion is a complex issue in Jamaica, as there are many things politicians need to consider before coming up with a solution. Although this topic still needs a lengthy discussion, the author believes there is a massive opportunity for change as people gradually forget the traditional beliefs about abortion.

“It’s imperative to get involved with politics so people can get educated and grasp their own opinion instead of listening to others. These aspects are vital to the understanding of how the government works and how a citizen of America will shape the country.”

The writer explains that being aware of politics is key to voting correctly during elections. Moreover, they say that involving young people in politics will help with the structure of the laws in the country. This is because understanding politics and governance yourself is better than believing others’ opinions, mainly when the country’s future depends on this framework.

Tip: If writing an essay sounds like a lot of work, simplify it. Write a simple 5 paragraph essay instead. 

7 Prompts on Essays About Politics

List the duties and responsibilities of a politician running the country. Then, add your opinion on whether your country’s politicians are successfully fulfilling their duties. You can also discuss whether politicians are necessary for a country to thrive.

Political parties are groups of people sharing the same political ideas. They usually band together and support each other in hopes of earning the public’s trust. They also help shape the opinions and decision-making of the citizens on who to vote for. Use this prompt to discuss why political parties are essential in a government, give examples, and add some of their principles. You might also be interested in our guide on the best books about American politics .

Everyone can be a politician. But to be good at their job, they must have an excellent educational background and character to manage the country’s issues and its citizens. Identify and explain each qualification. You can also add events or names of politicians considered good at their jobs. 

Education is a right for everyone in most countries, and so does having educated politicians. An uneducated politician can’t successfully run a nation because they lack the knowledge to discern what’s best for different segments of the economy, etc. As a result, they tend to make wrong decisions and affect citizens’ political behavior. Discuss the risks of giving uneducated politicians government positions and add previous incidents to support your claims.

Social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram are utilized to spread information, including political campaigns. A single post from a knowledgeable person across these three platforms can change a silent reader’s mindset about a particular political party. This prompt explains how politicians use social media in today’s political campaigning. You can also add the dangers of immediately believing viral posts online. 

Politics is also concerned with managing budgets to improve infrastructures and institutions. However, because it involves large sums of money, corruption is also rampant. Use this prompt to explain how corruption happens within the government, including the measures used to stop it. You can add statistics about the most and least corrupt countries. Then, add examples or scenarios to make your essay more interesting.

Being a politician is not easy because you’ll have to consider not only yourself and your family but the welfare of many in every decision you make. Use this prompt to share what you want to focus on if you are a politician. For example, you’ll pay more attention to education so the youth can have a better future.

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How to Write Political Essay

A political essay deals with political or governmental issues. It is a piece of writing made as a way to practice in interpreting specific political theories. It is usually composed of historical information and statistics and is somewhat similar to  writing a rhetorical analysis essay . The purpose of which is for students to demonstrate their ability to argue effectively and logically within defined theoretical frameworks. We've got some tips for you in order to make your writing easier.

Guidelines to Write a Political Essay

Create an argument. Political essays often deal with normative issues. The goal of the student is to give a concrete treatment of the basic interpretative facts and give his thoughts on the theoretical problem. As it is an opinion, there is no correct or wrong answer. The student just simply has to persuade his readers by developing a compelling argument which is well substantiated by a comprehensive and insightful interpretative work.

Develop a thesis. The goal of the student is to develop a thesis which he should sustain during whole paper. A political essay should be organized in such a way that it will be a thesis emphasizing a conceptual argument. That is, the student should choose a position which is clearly stated, and assemble references to offer the readers some sense of credibility. The textual references will ensure the readers that the student has observed the question in a thoughtful manner.

Apply theories learned in the course. Political essays and essays, in general, are technically the application of all the lectures and seminars attended by the student, all the discussions, and all the of the assigned readings. The student then should be able to apply all these theories and lessons learned in school.

Define your terms. Political essays are scholarly written documents that give a new perspective on the conceptual sides of main political theories and problems this is why a student who is writing a political essay should define terms used in the document with great precision.

Cite sources. When making an argument, the student has to ensure that he substantiates it with facts that are properly cited in the footnotes. The reason for this, aside from not plagiarizing these authors, is to refer the readers to a particular factual claim to its proper reference should they want to read about it further. It also helps to write an essay  that is more interesting and informative.

Write an outline and several drafts. A good political essay is not crafted overnight. It takes a great amount of critical revisions. The outline should also have a timeline to ensure that you have ample time to make revisions and finalize it accordingly before the due date. Editing and proofreading eliminate weak paragraphs and illogical transitions, and ultimately makes the political essay a well-research and well-written one. 

Other Reminders on Writing a Political Essay

Be analytical. A political essay is not just a simple collation of all data and information related to political theories. The student must emphasize an informed argument and ensure that he has made a thorough research so he has enough tools to use for independent and creative thinking. As an example, you can include obvious meanings to arguments, as well as the subtle and even contradictory dimensions of it.

Keep it scholarly. The student author must avoid casual language and sloppy argumentations. He has to remember that political essays are an academic type of discourse. A scholarly tone will give the readers the impression that the essay is going to be informative and interesting, without compromising the kind of words and arguments to be included in the essay.

Comment on quotes. At some point, the student will have to quote sources and references to build an argument. But after providing the direct quotation, he must ensure to make a commentary on it. After all, the paper has to be an analysis of your research, not a simple compilation of it.

Be concise. For a student to avoid filling the political essay with too many quotes, he can paraphrase passages, using paraphrase tool . Although, he has to remember that plagiarism is no way acceptable in the academe and must still cite the original source. The rule still applies that the student has to include a commentary of the paraphrased passage. This is to avoid making your paper strike a reader as a plain summary as it is not supposed to.

Explore texts carefully. While the student may oppose arguments, he must avoid bias and recognize both its strengths and weaknesses to engage in advanced forms of interpretative work.

Assume non-experts as readers. In writing political essays, make sure to limit the use of jargons and complicated terminologies. And when the student does use it, he must define the terms thoroughly. A good political essay must not only present a well-researched and well-written paper but should be able to educate the reader about political theories. To do so, the student then should craft in a way that is easy to understand by the common mind.

Embrace objections. Not everyone will agree with your thesis or arguments. When a reader raises an issue, accept it and rebut accordingly. This process should be able to develop your political essay in a way that you can spot weaknesses and instead make it richer and more penetrating.

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Technical Requirements of a Political Essay

Ultimately, the requirements will be coming from the professor or instructor assigning the political essay. General rules, however, apply starting from presenting the different parts of your argument in a logical order, footnoting original sources used or writing a bibliography for references not included in the footnotes, avoiding plagiarism at all cost and practicing proper citation, meeting the deadline set by the professor or instructor, and following the format prescribed.

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Social Movements in India, 1800 to the Present

• First Online: 14 January 2017

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• Arvind Elangovan 5  

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in the History of Social Movements ((PSHSM))

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In this essay, I present a schematic survey of social movements in India from around 1800 to the present. While recognizing the inherent limits of such an exercise, given the vast and diverse array of social movements, I suggest that perhaps one could discern three broad phases within which these movements have occurred. These are: the early colonial period, which broadly witnessed a separation of state and society leading to several socio-religious reform movements; the colonial period, which saw the emergence of nationalist movements that simultaneously also imbued calls for social reform and finally, movements in the postcolonial period, which ushered in the era of the fusion of the social and the political. Here, even as social movements proliferated, the sheer diversity and conflict of interests involved in negotiating with the democratic state both defined and circumscribed these movements. In suggesting this outline, this essay seeks to join scholarly efforts to redirect our attention from primarily viewing social movements as a postcolonial phenomenon towards understanding them as having had a longer history in the subcontinent.

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For a good account of the emergence of the Congress, see Sriram Mehrotra, A History of the Indian National Congress , Vol. I (New Delhi: Vikas Publication House, 1995). For a history of the BJP, see Yogendra K. Malik and Vijay B. Singh, Hindu Nationalists in India: The Rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994).

The following brief description of Kejriwal’s career follows the profile written by Mehboob Jelani, ‘The Insurgent’, The Caravan. A Journal of Politics and Culture 1 September (2011).

Aam Aadmi Party, ‘Why are we entering Politics? Aam Aadmi Party, India’, http://aamaadmiparty.org/page/why-are-we-entering-politics (accessed June 22, 2013).

Uday Mehta, ‘Indian Constitutionalism: Articulation of a Political Vision’, in Dipesh Chakrabarty, Rochona Majumdar and Andrew Sartori (eds), From the Colonial to the Postcolonial: India and Pakistan in Transition (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 13–30.

Ghanshyam Shah, Social Movements in India: A Review of Literature (New Delhi: Sage, 2004), p. 16.

For instance see R C Majumdar, An Advanced History of India (Delhi: Macmillan, 1973).

Sumit Sarkar and Tanika Sarkar, ‘Introduction’, in Sumit Sarkar and Tanika Sarkar (eds), Women and Social Reform in Modern India: A Reader (Ranikhet: Permanent Black, 2007), pp. 1–7.

Anil Seal, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968).

See John Gallagher, Gordon Johnson and Anil Seal (ed.), Locality, Province and Nation: Essays on Indian Politics, 1870 – 1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973).

Bipan Chandra, Mridula Mukherjee, Aditya Mukherjee, Sucheta Mahajan and Kavalam M. Panikkar, India’s Struggle for Independence, 1857 – 1947 (New Delhi: Viking, 1987).

For a good overview of subaltern studies, see Vinayak Chaturvedi, Mapping Subaltern Studies and the Postcolonial (London: Verso, 2000). Also see the contribution by Rochona Majumdar in this volume.

Ghanshyam Shah, ‘Introduction’, in idem (ed.), Social Movements and the State (New Delhi: Sage, 2002), pp. 13–31, p. 20.

Shah, Social Movements , p. 21.

Shah, Social Movements.

Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf, A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 83.

Kenneth W. Jones, Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 83.

Jones, Socio-Religious Reform Movements , p. 183.

Jones, Socio-Religious Reform Movements , p. 19.

Cited in Jamuna Nag, India’s Great Social Reformer: Raja Ram Mohan Roy (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1972), p. 74.

Christopher Bayly, ‘Rammohan Roy and the Advent of Constitutional Liberalism in India’, Modern Intellectual History 1 (2007), pp. 25–41, p. 29.

Andrew Sartori, Bengal in Global Concept History: Culturalism in the Age of Capital (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), p. 82.

Sartori, Bengal in Global Concept History , pp. 77–89.

Lynn Zastoupil, ‘Defining Christians, Making Britons: Ram Mohun Roy and the Unitarians’, Victorian Studies 2 (2002), pp. 215–243, p. 224.

Zastoupil, ‘Defining Christians, Making Britons’, p. 220.

Anthony D. Low, Britain and Indian Nationalism: The Imprint of Ambiguity , 1929 – 1942 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

For an early statement on this impact of British constitutional reforms in India, see Robin J. Moore, The Crisis of Indian Unity, 1917 – 1940 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974).

Chandra et al., India’s Struggle for Independence , pp. 126–127.

Rajnarayan Chandavarkar, The Origins of Industrial Capitalism in India: Business Strategies and the Working Classes in Bombay, 1900–1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 2.

Shah, Social Movements in India , pp. 184–185.

Chandra et al., India’s Struggle for Independence, pp. 222–223.

On the political importance of this figure of a renouncer and the idea of freedom, see Mithi Mukherjee, ‘Transcending Identity: Gandhi, Nonviolence, and the Pursuit of a “Different” Freedom in Modern India’, American Historical Review 2 (2010), pp. 453–473.

On this question of means and ends of politics in Gandhi, see Karuna Mantena, ‘Another Realism: The Politics of Gandhian Non-Violence’, American Political Science Review 2 (2012), pp. 455–470.

Anthony J. Parel (ed.), Gandhi: Hind Swaraj and Other Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

Parel, Gandhi: Hind Swaraj , p. 28.

Parel, Gandhi: Hind Swaraj , especially Chaps. 6, 9, 11, 12 and 13.

Parel, Gandhi: Hind Swaraj , pp. 72–73.

Shiri R. Bakshi, Gandhi and Non-Cooperation Movement , 1920–22 (New Delhi: Capital Publishers, 1983), p. 68.

Bakshi, Gandhi , p. 75.

Bakshi, Gandhi , p. 117.

Bakshi, Gandhi , pp. 114–115.

Bakshi, Gandhi , p. 118.

Bakshi, Gandhi , p. 124.

For a subaltern historians’ view of the events and significance of Chauri Chaura, see Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922–1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).

For a good contemporary account of practices of untouchability, see the documentary India Untouched , directed by Stalin K., and the documentary Jai Bhim Comrade , directed by Anand Patwardhan.

Gail Omvedt, ‘Ambedkar and After: The Dalit Movement in India’, in Shah (ed.), Social Movements , pp. 283–309, p. 296.

Omvedt, ‘Ambedkar and After’, p. 296.

Omvedt, ‘Ambedkar and After’, p. 298.

Cited in Karuna Mantena, ‘On Gandhi’s Critique of the State: Sources, Contexts, Conjunctures’, Modern Intellectual History 3 (2012), pp. 535–563, p. 535.

Ramachandra Guha, India After Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy (New York: Harper Collins, 2007), pp. 8–9.

Salim Lakha, ‘Organized Labour and Militant Unionism: The Bombay Textile Workers’ Strike of 1982’, in Shah (ed.), Social Movements , p. 230.

Asia Monitor Resource Centre, http://www.amrc.org.hk/node/1080 (accessed June 22, 2013).

Tom Brass (ed.), New Farmers’ Movements in India (London: Frank Cass, 1995).

See Amita Baviskar, In the Belly of the River: Tribal Conflicts Over Development in the Narmada Valley (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995); John R. Wood, The Politics of Water Resource Development in India: The Narmada Dams Controversy (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2007).

See Raka Ray and Mary Fainsod Katzenstein (eds), Social Movements in India: Poverty, Power, and Politics (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005).

For a statement on the problem of democracy in India, see Pratap Bhanu Mehta, Burden of Democracy (New Delhi: Penguin, 2003).

For a good account of the history of the region see Thomas Weber, Hugging the Trees: The Story of the Chipko Movement (New Delhi: Viking, 1988), pp. 17–23.

Weber, Hugging the Trees , p. 40.

Weber, Hugging the Trees , p. 34.

Weber, Hugging the Trees , pp. 37–38.

Weber, Hugging the Trees , p. 67.

Weber, Hugging the Trees , pp. 70–71.

Amita Baviskar, ‘Red in Tooth and Claw? Looking for Class in Struggles over Nature’, in Ray and Katzenstein (eds), Social Movements in India , p. 166.

Uday Mehta, ‘Indian Constitutionalism: Articulation of a Political Vision’, pp. 13–30.

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History Department, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, USA

Arvind Elangovan

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Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany

Stefan Berger

University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom

Holger Nehring

Further Readings

The literature on social movements in India is diverse, interdisciplinary and exegetical.

The subject of social movements have for long been of interest to historians, sociologists and political scientists, among other disciplinarians. As mentioned in the chapter, a number of historians have addressed the issue of social reform in India, particularly in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (though they were not strictly labelled as social movements). Some of these works are extremely valuable and are a rich resource for a historical understanding of social movements in India. For a bibliographical survey of social reform movements in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, see Sumit Sarkar, Bibliographical Survey of Social Reforms Movements in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi: 1975). Rosalind O’Hanlon’s Caste, Conflict, and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth-Century Western India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985) was a systematic attempt to foreground the movement of the ‘lower castes’ in Maharashtra, which provided an alternative perspective to the elite character of the Indian national movement. In 1989, Kenneth Jones published Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), an excellent analytical survey of the major socio-religious reform movements in nineteenth and twentieth centuries in India. For a different emphasis of the same time period, one has to look at Sumit and Tanika Sarkar’s brilliant edited collection, Women and Social Reform in Modern India (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008). Amiya P. Sen’s edited collection, Social and Religious Reform: The Hindus of British India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003) contains excerpts of writings by some of the major social reformers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries along with a fine introduction on some of the conceptual challenges of writing about social movements during that period.

For historical works that links issues of social reform in late colonial and early post-colonial India with nationalism, see Charles Heimsath, Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social Reform (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964). Works by Bipan Chandra such as Nationalism and Colonialism in Modern India (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1979), Indian National Movement: The Long-term Dynamics (New Delhi: Vikas Pub. House, 1988), In the Name of Democracy: JP Movement and the Emergency (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2003) are useful. Since much of the nationalist movement was simultaneously a social movement, books on Indian nationalism would be good a reference as well. Since there are so many books around the theme of nationalism, I will limit myself to more recent works: Partha Sarathi Gupta, Power, Politics and the people: Studies in British Imperialism and Indian Nationalism (London: Anthem Press, 2002), Visalakshi Menon, Indian Women and Nationalism, the U.P. Story (New Delhi: Shakti Books, 2003), William Gould, Hindu Nationalism and the Language of Politics in Late Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), Shabnum Tejani, Indian Secularism: A Social and Intellectual History, 1890 – 1950 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008).

For social movements in post-colonial and contemporary India, the work of sociologists, political scientists and historians are outstanding. Among many of Ghanshyam Shah’s work on social movements his survey volumes are very useful. These are Social Movements and the State (New Delhi: Sage, 2002) and Social Movements in India: A Review of Literature (New Delhi: Sage 2004). The latter, in particular is the most comprehensive survey of literature on social movements in India. Shah analyses social movements around different social groups, such as peasants, tribals, Dalits and industrial working class to review the literature of social movements around each of these groups. Accompanied with a detailed bibliography on these movements, this is an excellent source for exploring social movements in India. Gail Omvedt’s Reinventing Revolution: New Social Movements and the Socialist Tradition in India (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1993) is one of the finest works on new social movements with acute theoretical insights. Omvedt also discusses the relationship between the Indian left movement and social movements, which is very valuable. The edited collection of Raka Ray and Mary Fainsod Katzenstein (eds), Social Movements in India: Poverty, Power, and Politics (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005) brings together authors, including Omvedt and Shah to discuss why the discourse on social movements has departed from a discourse on poverty, which is a critical point of departure for several scholars. The sociologist, T.K. Oommen’s lifelong work on social change, transformation and movements are very helpful as well. Among his works, see Protest and Changes: Studies in Social Movements (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1990), State and Society in India: Studies in Nation-Building (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1990), and Nation, Civil Society and Social Movements: Essays in Political Sociology (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2004). The edited collection of Manoranjan Mohanty, Class, Caste, Gender (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2004) provides a summary account on these themes. Anupama Rao’s, The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009) is a brilliant conceptual and empirical analysis of caste and caste politics in modern India. Hugo Gorringe’s Untouchable Citizens: Dalit Movements and Democratisation in Tamil Nadu (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2005) provides a critical overview and analysis of caste politics in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Rupa Viswanath’s work on a historical account of caste discrimination is noteworthy as well; see, The Pariah Problem: Caste, Religion and the Social in Modern India (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014). S. M. Michael’s Dalits in Modern India: Vision and Values (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2007) contains historical and analytical accounts of the anti-caste thought and movement in colonial and post-colonial India. For an introduction to women’s movements in India, see Raka Ray, Fields of Protest: Women’s Movements in India (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999). For a conceptual understanding see, Vina Mazumdar, Political Ideology of the Women’s Engagement With Law (New Delhi: Centre for Women’s Development Studies, 2000), Susanne Kranz, Between Rhetoric and Activism: Marxism and Feminism in the Indian Women’s Movement (Zurich: Lit Verlag, 2015), and Nivedita Menon’s, Recovering Subversion: Feminist Politics Beyond the Law (Urbana: Permanent Black/University of Illinois Press, 2004).

More recently, scholars have produced exciting new scholarship on social movements. Rochona Majumdar’s essay, ‘Subaltern Studies as a History of Social Movements in India’, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 1 (2015), pp. 50–68; draws attention to how we might consider the various subaltern movements in the colonial period as a history of social movements. Of course, this also opens us to viewing the entire gamut of subaltern studies literature as a way of thinking about social movements in India. Some of the prominent examples are Ranajit Guha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983), Dipesh Chakrabarty, Rethinking Working Class History: Bengal, 1890 – 1940 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989, 2000), Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922–1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). In the wake of a critical review of Subaltern Studies, Uday Chandra’s recent publications are important to note. See his introduction to a special issue in Journal of Contemporary Asia 4 (2015), pp. 563–573. The articles in this special section rethink resistance, which was a hallmark of Subaltern Studies. Also see Uday Chandra’s ‘Flaming Fields and Forest Fires: Agrarian Transformations and the Making of Birsa Munda’s Rebellion’, Indian Economic Social History Review 1 (2016), pp. 69–98, for an innovative reading of both the concept ‘tribal’ and the meanings of rebellions as movements.

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Elangovan, A. (2017). Social Movements in India, 1800 to the Present. In: Berger, S., Nehring, H. (eds) The History of Social Movements in Global Perspective. Palgrave Studies in the History of Social Movements. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-30427-8_10

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