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Transforming Agricultural Education for a Sustainable Future

• First Online: 01 February 2024

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• R. C. Agrawal 4 &
• Seema Jaggi 4  

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The transformation of agricultural education is very much essential in navigating the complex landscape of climate change, food & nutritional security and rural development. With a focus on sustainability, innovation and empowerment, ICAR’s initiatives pave the way for a skilled, adaptable and future-ready workforce that can tackle the challenges of a rapidly changing world. By nurturing the seeds of change in agricultural education, we sow the potential for a more resilient, productive, and sustainable agricultural sector. These educated individuals will be the driving force behind innovations that ensure food for all, protect our environment and forge a path toward a brighter and more sustainable future. As ICAR continues to nurture the seeds of change, it contributes significantly to a sustainable and prosperous future for agriculture and beyond. By expanding reach beyond public institutions, it can be ensured that the transformative influence extends across the educational landscape. Through digital transformation, curriculum revamp and collaborations, it is being ensured that agricultural education remains enriching, aspirational, and empowering for students. ICAR envisions aligning its efforts with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by pioneering research, education and innovation in agriculture, fostering sustainable practices and empowering communities for resilient, inclusive and environmentally-conscious agricultural advancement. Also, the National Agricultural Higher Education Project (NAHEP) has contributed to SDG by providing quality education. Its primary objective is to provide support and strengthen the Agricultural Universities and ICAR in offering more pertinent and superior education to students. By striving to elevate education quality, a highly skilled workforce capable of perpetually enhancing the productivity of vital sectors, including agriculture can be cultivated.

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Agrawal RC, Jain V (2022) History of agricultural education in India. Agri Rise Agric Educ Dig 1(1):9–15

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Pathak H, Agrawal RC, Tripathi H (2022) Role of National Agricultural Higher Education Project in achieving sustainable development goals. Agri Rise Agric Educ Dig 1(1):22–29

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Tamboli PM, Nene YL (2013) Modernizing higher agricultural education system in India to meet the challenges of 21st century. Asian Agri History 17(3):251–264

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Agrawal, R.C., Jaggi, S. (2023). Transforming Agricultural Education for a Sustainable Future. In: Bansal, K.C., Lakra, W.S., Pathak, H. (eds) Transformation of Agri-Food Systems . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8014-7_25

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Analysis Of Modern Trends In Agricultural Education

The paper addresses the issue of transformation of agricultural education under the impact of the main trends caused by digitalization, such as Lifelong Learning, lifelong education based on a practice-oriented approach, organically related to online education. Rapid modernization of agro-industrial technologies requires flexibility, multifunctionality and continuity, freedom of choice of “learning path”, a combination of formal and non-formal education. The authors conducted a comparative analysis of the experience of various agricultural universities in Russia in terms of these trends and explored the prospects for implementation of foreign experience. It was reported that the experience of foreign countries helps Russian universities implement the main approaches. Based on the analysis of the results of monitoring indicators and sociological surveys conducted by different universities and organizations, the authors considered the problems of training digital personnel at agricultural universities. Development of new digital areas of training at agricultural universities is underway, which will require further transformation of formal education in different areas. Online education in various forms plays a crucial role in this process, one of which is online courses. The paper presents the results of the analysis of online courses, which revealed their deficiency in agriculture related disciplines. This is not only a challenge, but also an opportunity for regional experts, teachers and practitioners, to create their own courses. The competent integration of online courses into the educational process at different levels of training will allow, together with the development of professional competencies, mastering of digital competencies.

Keywords: agricultural education , Lifelong Learning , lifelong education , online education , digital competencies , open online courses

Introduction

Digitalization determines trends in the labor market, sets new trends, and triggers the emergence of creative professions. ( Skosyreva, Zinich, Pomogaev, Revyakina, Vasyukova, Avlasovich, 2020 ) The transition to mass transformation is hindered not only by the digital gap, but to a greater extent by the lack of qualified personnel capable of forming the architecture of the digital ecosystem of the agro-industrial complex. ( Shumakova, Pomogaev, Skosyreva, Vasyukova, 2021 )

Rapid development and renewal of technologies, digital transformation, transition to APK 4.0, uncontrolled flows of new information impose flexibility and continuity of the education system and require lifelong professional development and retraining of the graduate, as well as extended education and interdisciplinary knowledge throughout his life.

According to the Moscow School of Management Skolkovo and the Agency for Strategic Initiatives, six new professions related to agricultural production are expected to appear by 2030: agronomist-economist; agricultural ecologist; operator of automated agricultural systems, machines, mechanisms and devices; city farmer; GMO agronomist; agriculture computer specialist/cybernetic specialist (Atlas of new professions. Agriculture).

However, according to the Institute of Agrarian Research of the Higher School of Economics ( Orlova, 2021 ), agricultural universities are less prepared for new realities of the modern economy due to the most conservative and inflexible educational systems. Graduates from Russian agricultural universities are multi-skilled, while those from the world agricultural universities are narrowly focused specialties. The results of this study indicate the lack of qualified narrow specialists in the Russian agro-industrial complex, a low prestige of agricultural education, the lack of applicants, and a low level of graduates working in this industry.

Problem Statement

Digitalization in such a traditional industry as the agro-industrial complex primarily depends on workers who apply new technologies. Thus, it is human capital that is the main factor affecting digitalization. At present, this is the key and most basic factor inhibiting innovation in agriculture in our country. ( Levina, 2019 ) Moreover, the lack of qualified personnel is observed not in new specialties, for which not all employers are ready, but in quite traditional ones. In addition, large companies need highly qualified specialists with a wider range of competencies, including digital ones. To date, the lack of personnel is evident in the agro-industrial complex, especially of those with digital competencies. Thus, training of specialists requires new approaches in education, with regard to modern trends and requirements imposed by employers. ( Kosenchuk, Diner, Zinich, Revyakina, Kulapov, Adelfinskiy, 2021 )

Research Questions

The object of the study is the impact of the main trends on agricultural education in general, their manifestations in the practice of universities, both Russian and foreign, as well as in expanding opportunities for young people in the agricultural sector.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to analyze the impact of the main trends caused by digitalization on the structure, technologies, and formats of agricultural education, which in turn contribute to self-determination of young people and increase their motivation to work in the agricultural sector.

Research Methods

A systematic and interdisciplinary approach was employed in the study. The empirical study was carried out through the content analysis, analysis of monitoring indicators, as well as the results of questionnaires conducted by different universities and organizations.

Main modern trends in agricultural education

Among the current trends in education, Lifelong Learning is the main one, which is due to the need to follow rapid changes in the economy of the whole world and in the agricultural sector.

Lifelong Learning is primarily associated with digitalization of the economy, formation of a new stage of agricultural technologies called AgroTech 4.0, which dictates the need to acquire and constantly update digital competencies as the main factor in the competitiveness of a young specialist in the future labor market. Agriculture should become more attractive for highly qualified specialists with digital skills that occupy new professions and gain new knowledge in the field of robotics, bioinformatics, bio- and nanotechnology, “smart” solutions. A new flexible model of agricultural education should ensure the continuous formation of digital competencies and provide an opportunity for not only acquiring new professions, but also professional retraining and additional education throughout life.

Young people, as the most mobile part of the population, accept everything new. According to the survey conducted by the Department of Political Science and Mass Communications at the Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation ( Professionalization of Youth in Digital Environment, 2018 ), the majority of respondents, 87% out of 1,500 respondents (aged 15 to 24), agree that a person should have many professions; 89% of those surveyed report the ability and desire to learn throughout life as necessary in modern conditions; 68% of respondents believe that a profession should be chosen once and for all.

Lifelong Learning is identified by many authors with lifelong or additional education, including that obtained as a result of retraining. At present, the understanding of lifelong education is expanded due to the increased value of equal opportunities for adaptation to modern challenges, rapid changes in the economy, agro-industrial complex technologies, the surrounding reality of both future applicants and students of higher and secondary vocational educational institutions, as well as those who have already received a profession and have work experience.

Modern lifelong learning implies a broader, customer and digitalization oriented spectrum of opportunities and time boundaries. A free “learning path” allows combination of self-development and self-study in independently chosen areas (non-formal education) with training according to the developed standards under the guidance of teachers (formal education), which sets a multifunctional vector for development of the lifelong education model. In addition, the time frame for lifelong learning encompasses a wider period from the first understanding of the profession in elementary secondary school and professional self-determination to the completion of labor self-realization.

In America, the concept of agricultural lifelong education is referred to as “educational conveyor” and includes a whole range of programs. SPECA (for high schools and colleges) and HEC (for universities), which cover all levels of education from elementary school to master’s degree. In addition, there are programs aimed at the development of agricultural education in secondary schools to identify and support gifted and talented youth, and create conditions for cooperation between private business and educational organizations.

Russian agricultural education is actively adopting foreign experience. In works published in the first decade of the 2000s, successful introduction of multilevel integrated education have been discussed. For example, since 2002 at Belgorod State Agrarian University ( Dorofeev, 2007 ), since 2010 at Orenburg State Agrarian University, later at Omsk State Agrarian University, at Izhevsk State Agrarian University and other agricultural universities, a unique project aimed at developing agricultural classes is being implemented on the basis of universities and their experimental farms. The Ministry of agriculture and the most important agro-industrial enterprises of the region support the project. Classes are conducted for students of grades 10 and 11 from different parts of the region by university teachers and provide in-depth training in subjects significant for the future profession, namely, the basics of robotics, business planning, Internet entrepreneurship ( Shumakova, Mozzherina, 2018 ). Under the scientific guidance of teachers, students take part in conferences, competitions, projects, career guidance tests, attend master classes, get acquainted with agricultural enterprises, laboratories and basic farms of the university, where practical classes are conducted in agricultural classes and even free internships are possible. In some regions of Russia, for example, in Nizhny Novgorod and Omsk regions, the cooperation between agricultural colleges and rural schools and agricultural universities is being implemented. In this case, students have the opportunity to acquire working professions at school, which implies acquisition of in-depth theoretical knowledge and practical skills, and then they can continue training at the agricultural college and university.

A practice-oriented approach is an integral part of the system of lifelong agricultural education ( Ob’edkova, Opeykina, 2018 ). Unfortunately, in agricultural education, the material and technical base does not always respond to the demands of the market and employers, thus not allowing sufficient preparation of students for practical activities. The need to modernize the material and technical base and replace obsolete technologies is indicated in the Strategy for Development of Agrarian Education until 2030, the main role is assigned to the creation of technopolises and innovation centers that expand the infrastructure of universities. (Strategies for development of agrarian education until 2030, 2020) Underdeveloped and systematic contractual relations of universities with enterprises and organizations, in which students can have industrial and pre-diploma practice, gain invaluable practical experience. The system of grants to bring virtual projects to life is not debugged.

In this case, foreign experience cannot be neglected. In the United States, private universities have no government support and receive funding from specific enterprises. Such universities fully adjust to the needs of enterprises and implement their practice-oriented programs on the basis of these enterprises. State universities in America have a useful and long-term experience of the most active interaction of theoretical, research activities, experimental and design developments of students and teachers with the real sector of the economy through grant implementation. The experience of leading universities in France, England and the United States proves the importance of project-based learning. To create and implement projects, there are special organizations that train how to start business, take the first steps, and test projects created during studies at universities.

In Russian universities, the emphasis is on the formation of predominantly applied educational programs, project training, project competitions, and cooperation between enterprises in the agricultural sector of the region. Omsk GAU has 54 farms, laboratories and departments in the production sector. Since 2021, a unique all-Russian project “Carbon polygon of Omsk State Agrarian University” has been implemented, which includes a system of agroecological monitoring that implement measures to develop and test methods for controlling the ratio of climatically active gases released during agro-industrial production. As part of the project, partnership is being established between Omsk State Agrarian University and two large agricultural enterprises, which aims to create carbon farms on their balance sheet to implement the methods developed at the test site.

The experience of creating an educational cluster or an agrarian-university complex and a system of additional education for agricultural enterprises in Vologda region is valuable. This is the integration of educational institutions of different levels headed by the university with the business structures of the industry according to the “science–technology–business” scheme. ( Obedkova, Opeikina, 2018 )

Experience of Belgorod State Agrarian University in successful cooperation between agricultural enterprises and educational institutions is of interest. The number of basic farms is 68 and it is increasing annually. The electronic atlas of dual (practice-oriented) education developed by the university ( Yakhtanigova, 2019 ) includes basic agricultural enterprises ready to cooperate with the university on the basis of an agreement, located both in Belgorod region and throughout Russia. In addition, the atlas comprises information on the resources of the Agrotekhnopark innovation center, which is part of the university and allows implementation of scientific and practical activities on the basis of its material and technical base. The interactive map of the atlas provides students with the opportunity to independently analyze and choose the place of practice, the topic of the thesis or course project, and receive information about the thesis and course projects defended on the basis of this enterprise.

Thus, modern trends are perceived by the university community and implemented by different universities to a greater or lesser extent despite a large number of constraining factors.

Training of the staff for digital agriculture

Modern trends in agricultural education require specialists with sufficiently developed digital competencies. In turn, these competencies can be developed in young specialists by means of appropriate departments of agricultural universities, educational technologies and qualified teachers, cooperation with developers of information systems and professional suppliers, such as Analytical Technologies LLC, Loginom Company, 1C, and SAS. Digital areas and training profiles appear in many agricultural universities, and digital competencies and new disciplines appear in educational programs. At the initial stage of the formation of digital competencies in the conditions of the electronic information educational environment of the university, services provided by cloud technologies were widely used. Cloud services allow formation of ICT competency, which is the basis for formation of digital competencies ( Stepanova, Vasyukova, 2019 ).

According to the results of the survey at agricultural enterprises and the expert analysis conducted by Kuban State Agrarian University, 95% of respondents believe that digitalization of agriculture is appropriate for the attraction of new qualified specialists into the industry. At the same time, more than 70% of respondents note the absence of educational technologies and highly qualified teachers in agricultural universities for training these specialist ( Digital Transformation of Agriculture in Russia, 2019 ). According to the results of the survey at Omsk State Agrarian University, many students realize that their competencies are insufficient to work in high-tech companies and are inclined to continue their education. They do not yet have a sufficient understanding of professions associated with digitalization of the agro-industrial complex. ( Avlasovich, Vasyukova, 2021 )

Non-agricultural technical universities are training IT and other in-demand specialists with digital competencies, such as Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Moscow State Technical University named after N. Bauman, Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics, Novosibirsk State University, Research University 'Higher School of Economics', Kazan Federal University, Mytishchi Branch of Moscow State Technical University named after N.E. Bauman, Omsk State Technical University, SibADI, Omsk State University, and many others.

The list of agricultural universities that offer training programs for digital agriculture is much shorter. The leader is Russian State Agrarian University of Moscow Agricultural Academy named after K.A. Timiryazev, who has several graduate and bachelor's degree programs, which provide training for specialists in the field of information and digital technologies of the agricultural sector, data analysis, applied mathematics, computer systems and networks, education informatization, business analytics, logistics, etc. Perm State Agrarian and Technological University offers programs in the field of software and information systems, applied mathematics in economics, information systems and technologies. Digital profiles have appeared in Omsk State Agrarian University, a new program “Information systems and technologies” is offered for the bachelor's and master's degrees. In addition, formation of digital competencies is introduced into various agricultural programs.

Analysis of the employment of graduates revealed a high demand on the labor market for agricultural specialists with digital skills and high-level competencies. With regard to the above difficulties faced by agricultural universities in the formation of digital competencies in graduates from 2020, the federal project “Personnel for Digital Economy” is being implemented within the framework of the national program “Digital Economy of the Russian Federation”, which provides an opportunity for educational organizations to provide training of highly qualified specialists capable of working in the conditions of production digitalization.

Graduates in agricultural specialties/areas can be involved in the following projects: Digital Professions, Ready for Digital, CDO. The “Digital Professions” project implies professional retraining using 24 educational programs. Students can get additional IT education for half the cost. Training is implemented by educational organizations and IT companies. The “Ready for Digital” project is an aggregator of services for testing the level of digital literacy and training safe and effective work with digital technologies. The project aims to assess the level of digital literacy, learn about the possibilities of the online environment, and form the necessary IT skills. The “CDO” project is an educational program that allows acquiring new digital competencies.

The leader of the project is the Innopolis University, which is a support platform for several large-scale federal projects and trains specialists for the digital economy. The most popular programs are those for training management personnel for digital transformation of the economy, date analysts and architects of digital solutions. For the program implementation, the Institute of Lifelong Education of the Innopolis University established the Supporting Educational Center. Training is carried out in different forms: review sessions (2–3 days), adaptation of courses to company requests, online and mixed format. The programs are divided into three blocks: Management, Technology, Development. The main goal of the federal project is to provide training of highly qualified specialists for the digital economy. The target audience is not only graduates, but also representatives of federal and regional authorities responsible for the implementation of the national program “Digital Economy”, heads and managers of Russian companies, industry and scientific organizations interested in digital development, as well as representatives of higher educational institutions. More than 50% of teachers from Omsk GAU have already completed training at the Innopolis University under the program “Digital technologies in teaching specialized disciplines”. In order to preserve and increase the gained experience, the results of the individual and collective work of students of advanced training courses in digital technologies conducted by the Supporting Educational Center of the Innopolis University were combined into the book “Digital technologies in teaching specialized disciplines”. The authors of the book are teachers from universities and organizations of secondary vocational education. Cases and assignments with practical recommendations for the development of digital competencies, assessment tools and examples of students' works provide an opportunity for teachers of specialized disciplines of secondary vocational and higher education organizations to develop digital skills and competencies in students.

Formation of digital competencies in future agricultural specialists requires careful consideration of the specifics of agricultural production. In the context of the development of digital agriculture, special requirements are imposed on workers in the agricultural sector. When training personnel for the agro-industrial complex, it is necessary to use the scientific potential of educational organizations, to introduce courses and programs into the educational process in order to study innovative technologies of digital agricultural production. As a result of implementation of the above measures, the modern industry of the agro-industrial complex will have specialists for successful implementation of the digital transformation of agriculture.

Development of agricultural online education

A large-scale systemic transformation of traditional educational systems is impossible without an online format, which is widely used in professional activities. Some professions have fully or partially moved online. Thus, regular management practice will include: remote work, on-line recruitment and on-line training ( Podcerob, 2020 ). Over the years of the COVID-19 pandemic, most people have discovered the possibilities of online education as an effective alternative to offline education. ( Govorova, Suslova, Shchelokova, 2021 ) In this regard, the demand for online education through online courses has increased sharply. According to the Passport of the priority project “Modern digital educational environment in the Russian Federation”, online courses created in the formal education system should be used to implement basic professional educational programs and additional professional education. Online courses created in the non-formal system provide an opportunity for lifelong learning, self-determination and vocational guidance, and identifying talented children. (Passport of the priority project “Modern digital educational environment in the Russian Federation”, 2017)

The integration of web-based online courses into the educational process is expanding. The beginning of integration of online courses into the educational process is associated with the launch of the national platform “Open Education” created by the joint efforts of eight leading Russian universities in 2015. The platform currently hosts 762 online courses. The courses are developed by the largest universities, comply with the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Education, are certified, and therefore, by the decision of the university, can be used as full-time courses.

Agricultural universities, Omsk State Agrarian University in particular, have started using this platform since 2017. Of the three main teaching models that employ network open online courses, agricultural universities prefer using online courses as additional teaching materials to study individual disciplines, which is due to their specificity. This model uses the online course mostly for additional study and consolidation of the material. Independent study of courses requires a high level of self-organization, motivation and a sufficient level of digital literacy, therefore, it can be more effectively implemented at the level of additional professional training. However, despite the large number of courses on the platform, all of them cover basic disciplines, but there are practically no agricultural courses.

In this regard, a digital educational platform “Open agricultural education” was developed on the basis of public-private cooperation. Its main principle is lifelong learning. The platform is a roadmap for digital transformation of the Russian agro-industrial complex in terms of improving additional professional education for the agrarian business.

A systematic study of the needs for additional vocational education services conducted by the All-Russian Institute of Agrarian Problems and Informatics named after V.I. A.A. Nikonov revealed directions for the development of online courses for more frequent business requests and certain issues requiring professional advice from experts. ( Ganieva, Koteev, Bobrov, 2020 )

Thus, the content of the leading teachers of regional agricultural universities who implement additional vocational education programs and experts – practitioners working in the field of agro-industrial complex – has been developed. The platform will provide a wide range of distance educational services in the agricultural sector for specialists from Russia and Russian-speaking countries.

Online agricultural courses can be found on other non-formal education platforms, for example, “Agricultural Academy. Online education” created on the basis of a social and public project aimed at improving the training of young professionals. It contains 172 free courses in four agricultural areas: rabbit farming, poultry farming, plant growing, beekeeping. They can be used for training in agricultural classes and for secondary vocational education. In addition, for secondary vocational education, a number of courses in agricultural disciplines are offered by the online platform “Yurayt”.

The integration of online courses into the educational process enables mastering digital competencies while studying different disciplines. The level of mastering digital competencies can be gradually increased via the competent integration of online courses through the entire chain of lifelong learning.

Online learning is designed not only to complement learning, but also for students to learn how to use and integrate them. ( Kydyrbaeva, Rakhimzhanova, 2021 )

Analysis of modern trends in agricultural education revealed the most significant trends for digital transformation of the agro-industrial complex, one of which is the formation of a new model of agricultural education. Lifelong multilevel education integrated with the real sector of the economy should be focused on practice and requests of the employer, who is the customer of personnel for the agricultural sector of the economy. It should correspond to the realities of the modern economy and the concept of digitalization and sustainable development of the agro-industrial complex. Thus, the active phase of digitalization of the agricultural sector set new trends in the system of agricultural education. On the one hand, digitalization exacerbates the problems associated with its low rate, on the other hand, it opens up new great opportunities for a single digital contour for universities, employers and students, for cooperation within a single digital educational environment, and for professional self-identification of students. A number of problems can be solved by the competent use of online courses in the educational process at different levels in order to overcome the limitations existing in the traditional education system, to increase the level of formation of the competencies necessary in the digital economy and to promote motivation for further education among students. The increased level of digital literacy of graduates is an urgent task of any educational institution, one of the main requirements of employers, and an important condition for successful digital transformation of agriculture.

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31 March 2022

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https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2022.03.146

978-1-80296-124-9

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Freedom, philosophy, civilization, media, communication, information age, globalization

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Vasyukova, M. V., Skosyreva, N. D., Avlasovich, E. M., Gefner, O. V., & Stepanova, T. Y. (2022). Analysis Of Modern Trends In Agricultural Education. In I. Savchenko (Ed.), Freedom and Responsibility in Pivotal Times, vol 125. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 1232-1241). European Publisher. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2022.03.146

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Thesis Helpers

Find the best tips and advice to improve your writing. Or, have a top expert write your paper.

156 Hot Agriculture Research Topics For High Scoring Thesis

Are you preparing an agriculture research paper or dissertation on agriculture but stuck trying to pick the right topic? The title is very important because it determines how easy or otherwise the process of writing the thesis will be. However, this is never easy for many students, but you should not give up because we are here to offer some assistance. This post is a comprehensive list of the best 156 topics for agriculture projects for students. We will also outline what every part of a thesis should include. Keep reading and identify an interesting agriculture topic to use for your thesis paper. You can use the topics on agriculture as they are or change them a bit to suit your project preference.

What Is Agriculture?

Also referred to as farming, agriculture is the practice of growing crops and raising livestock. Agriculture extends to processing plants and animal products, their distribution and use. It is an essential part of local and global economies because it helps to feed people and supply raw materials for different industries.

The concept of agriculture is evolving pretty fast, with modern agronomy extending to complex technology. For example, plant breeding, agrochemicals, genetics, and relationship to emerging disasters, such as global warming, are also part of agriculture. For students studying agriculture, the diversity of the subject is a good thing, but it can also make selecting the right research paper, thesis, or dissertation topics a big challenge.

How To Write A Great Thesis: What Should You Include In Each Section?

If you are working on a thesis, it is prudent to start by understanding the main structure. In some cases, your college/ university professor or the department might provide a structure for it, but if it doesn’t, here is an outline:

• Thesis Topic This is the title of your paper, and it is important to pick something that is interesting. It should also have ample material for research.
• Introduction This takes the first chapter of a thesis paper, and you should use it to set the stage for the rest of the paper. This is the place to bring out the objective of the study, justification, and research problem. You also have to bring out your thesis statement.
• Literature Review This is the second chapter of a thesis statement and is used to demonstrate that you have comprehensively looked at what other scholars have done. You have to survey different resources, from books to journals and policy papers, on the topic under consideration.
• Methodology This chapter requires you to explain the methodology that was used for the study. It is crucial because the reader wants to know how you arrived at the results. You can opt to use qualitative, quantitative, or both methods.
• Results This chapter presents the results that you got after doing your study. Make sure to use different strategies, such as tables and graphs, to make it easy for readers to understand.
• Discussion This chapter evaluates the results gathered from the study. It helps the researcher to answer the main questions that he/she outlined in the first chapter. In some cases, the discussion can be merged with the results chapter.
• Conclusion This is the summary of the research paper. It demonstrates what the thesis contributed to the field of study. It also helps to approve or nullify the thesis adopted at the start of the paper.

Interesting Agriculture Related Topics

This list includes all the interesting topics in agriculture. You can take any topic and get it free:

• Food safety: Why is it a major policy issue for agriculture on the planet today?
• European agriculture in the period 1800-1900.
• What are the main food safety issues in modern agriculture? A case study of Asia.
• Comparing agri-related problems between Latin America and the United States.
• A closer look at the freedom in the countryside and impact on agriculture: A case study of Texas, United States.
• What are the impacts of globalisation on sustainable agriculture on the planet?
• European colonisation and impact on agriculture in Asia and Africa.
• A review of the top five agriculture technologies used in Israel to increase production.
• Water saving strategies and their impacts on agriculture.
• Homeland security: How is it related to agriculture in the United States?
• The impact of good agricultural practices on the health of a community.
• What are the main benefits of biotechnology?
• The Mayan society resilience: what was the role of agriculture?

Sustainable Agricultural Research Topics For Research

The list of topics for sustainable agriculture essays has been compiled by our editors and writers. This will impress any professor. Start writing now by choosing one of these topics:

• Cover cropping and its impact on agriculture.
• Agritourism in modern agriculture.
• review of the application of agroforestry in Europe.
• Comparing the impact of traditional agricultural practices on human health.
• Comparing equity in agriculture: A case study of Asia and Africa.
• What are the humane methods employed in pest management in Europe?
• A review of water management methods used in sustainable agriculture.
• Are the current methods used in agricultural production sufficient to feed the rapidly growing population?
• A review of crop rotation and its effects in countering pests in farming.
• Using sustainable agriculture to reduce soil erosion in agricultural fields.
• Comparing the use of organic and biological pesticides in increasing agricultural productivity.
• Transforming deserts into agricultural lands: A case study of Israel.
• The importance of maintaining healthy ecosystems in raising crop productivity.
• The role of agriculture in countering the problem of climate change.

Unique Agriculture Research Topics For Students

If students want to receive a high grade, they should choose topics with a more complicated nature.This list contains a variety of unique topics that can be used. You can choose from one of these options right now:

• Why large-scale farming is shifting to organic agriculture.
• What are the implications of groundwater pollution on agriculture?
• What are the pros and cons of raising factory farm chickens?
• Is it possible to optimise food production without using organic fertilisers?
• A review of the causes of declining agricultural productivity in African fields.
• The role of small-scale farming in promoting food sufficiency.
• The best eco-strategies for improving the productivity of land in Asia.
• Emerging concerns about agricultural production.
• The importance of insurance in countering crop failure in modern agriculture.
• Comparing agricultural policies for sustainable agriculture in China and India.
• Is agricultural technology advancing rapidly enough to feed the rapidly growing population?
• Reviewing the impact of culture on agricultural production: A case study of rice farming in Bangladesh.

Fun Agricultural Topics For Your Essay

This list has all the agricultural topics you won’t find anywhere else. It contains fun ideas for essay topics on agriculture that professors may find fascinating:

• Managing farm dams to support modern agriculture: What are the best practices?
• Native Americans’ history and agriculture.
• Agricultural methods used in Abu Dhabi.
• The history of agriculture: A closer look at the American West.
• What impacts do antibiotics have on farm animals?
• Should we promote organic food to increase food production?
• Analysing the impact of fish farming on agriculture: A case study of Japan.
• Smart farming in Germany: The impact of using drones in crop management.
• Comparing the farming regulations in California and Texas.
• Economics of pig farming for country farmers in the United States.
• Using solar energy in farming to reduce carbon footprint.
• Analysing the effectiveness of standards used to confine farm animals.

Technology And Agricultural Related Topics

As you can see, technology plays a significant role in agriculture today.You can now write about any of these technology-related topics in agriculture:

• A review of technology transformation in modern agriculture.
• Why digital technology is a game changer in agriculture.
• The impact of automation in modern agriculture.
• Data analysis and biology application in modern agriculture.
• Opportunities and challenges in food processing.
• Should artificial intelligence be made mandatory in all farms?
• Advanced food processing technologies in agriculture.
• What is the future of genetic engineering of agricultural crops?
• Is fertiliser a must-have for success in farming?
• Agricultural robots offer new hope for enhanced productivity.
• Gene editing in agriculture: Is it a benefit or harmful?
• Identify and trace the history of a specific technology and its application in agriculture today.
• What transformations were prompted by COVID-19 in the agricultural sector?
• Reviewing the best practices for pest management in agriculture.
• Analysing the impacts of different standards and policies for pest management in two countries of your choice on the globe.

Easy Agriculture Research Paper Topics

You may not want to spend too much time writing the paper. You have other things to accomplish. Look at this list of topics that are easy to write about in agriculture:

• Agricultural modernization and its impacts in third world countries.
• The role of human development in agriculture today.
• The use of foreign aid and its impacts on agriculture in Mozambique.
• The effect of hydroponics in agriculture.
• Comparing agriculture in the 20th and 21st centuries.
• Is it possible to engage in farming without water?
• Livestock owners should use farming methods that will not destroy forests.
• Subsistence farming versus commercial farming.
• Comparing the pros and cons of sustainable and organic agriculture.
• Is intensive farming the same as sustainable agriculture?
• A review of the leading agricultural practices in Latin America.
• Mechanisation of agriculture in Eastern Europe: A case study of Ukraine.
• Challenges facing livestock farming in Australia.
• Looking ahead: What is the future of livestock production for protein supply?

Emerging Agriculture Essay Topics

Emerging agriculture is an important part of modern life. Why not write an essay or research paper about one of these emerging agriculture topics?

• Does agriculture help in addressing inequality in society?
• Agricultural electric tractors: Is this a good idea?
• What ways can be employed to help Africa improve its agricultural productivity?
• Is education related to productivity in small-scale farming?
• Genome editing in agriculture: Discuss the pros and cons.
• Is group affiliation important in raising productivity in Centre Europe? A case study of Ukraine.
• The use of Agri-Nutrition programs to change gender norms.
• Mega-Farms: Are they the future of agriculture?
• Changes in agriculture in the next ten years: What should we anticipate?
• A review of the application of DNA fingerprinting in agriculture.
• Global market of agricultural products: Are non-exporters locked out of foreign markets for low productivity?
• Are production technologies related to agri-environmental programs more eco-efficient?
• Can agriculture support greenhouse mitigation?

Controversial Agricultural Project For Students

Our team of experts has searched for the most controversial topics in agriculture to write a thesis on. These topics are all original, so you’re already on your way towards getting bonus points from professors. However, the process of writing is sometimes not as easy as it seems, so dissertation writers for hire will help you to solve all the problems.

• Comparing the mechanisms of US and China agricultural markets: Which is better?
• Should we ban GMO in agriculture?
• Is vivisection a good application or a necessary evil?
• Agriculture is the backbone of modern Egypt.
• Should the use of harmful chemicals in agriculture be considered biological terror?
• How the health of our planet impacts the food supply networks.
• People should buy food that is only produced using sustainable methods.
• What are the benefits of using subsidies in agriculture? A case study of the United States.
• The agrarian protests: What were the main causes and impacts?
• What impact would a policy requiring 2/3 of a country to invest in agriculture have?
• Analysing the changes in agriculture over time: Why is feeding the world population today a challenge?

Persuasive Agriculture Project Topics

If you have difficulty writing a persuasive agricultural project and don’t know where to start, we can help. Here are some topics that will convince you to do a persuasive project on agriculture:

• What is the extent of the problem of soil degradation in the US?
• Comparing the rates of soil degradation in the United States and Africa.
• Employment in the agricultural sector: Can it be a major employer as the population grows?
• The process of genetic improvement for seeds: A case study of agriculture in Germany.
• The importance of potatoes in people’s diet today.
• Comparing sweet potato production in the US to China.
• What is the impact of corn production for ethanol production on food supply chains?
• A review of sustainable grazing methods used in the United States.
• Does urban proximity help improve efficiency in agriculture?
• Does agriculture create economic spillovers for local economies?
• Analysing the use of sprinkle drones in agriculture.
• The impact of e-commerce development on agriculture.
• Reviewing the agricultural policy in Italy.
• Climate change: What does it mean for agriculture in developed nations?

Advanced Agriculture Project Topics

A more difficult topic can help you impress your professor. It can earn you bonus points. Check out the latest list of advanced agricultural project topics:

• Analysing agricultural exposure to toxic metals: The case study of arsenic.
• Identifying the main areas for reforms in agriculture in the United States.
• Are developed countries obligated to help starving countries with food?
• World trade adjustments to emerging agricultural dynamics and climate change.
• Weather tracking and impacts on agriculture.
• Pesticides ban by EU and its impacts on agriculture in Asia and Africa.
• Traditional farming methods used to feed communities in winter: A case study of Mongolia.
• Comparing the agricultural policy of the EU to that of China.
• China grew faster after shifting from an agro to an industrial-based economy: Should more countries move away from agriculture to grow?
• What methods can be used to make agriculture more profitable in Africa?
• A comprehensive comparison of migratory and non-migratory crops.
• What are the impacts of mechanical weeding on soil structure and fertility?
• A review of the best strategies for restoring lost soil fertility in agricultural farmlands: A case study of Germany.

Engaging Agriculture Related Research Topics

When it comes to agriculture’s importance, there is so much to discuss. These engaging topics can help you get started in your research on agriculture:

• Agronomy versus horticultural crops: What are the main differences?
• Analysing the impact of climate change on the food supply networks.
• Meat processing laws in Germany.
• Plant parasites and their impacts in agri-production: A case study of India.
• Milk processing laws in Brazil.
• What is the extent of post-harvest losses on farming profits?
• Agri-supply chains and local food production: What is the relationship?
• Can insects help improve agriculture instead of harming it?
• The application of terraculture in agriculture: What are the main benefits?
• Vertical indoor farms.
• Should we be worried about the declining population of bees?
• Is organic food better than standard food?
• What are the benefits of taking fresh fruits and veggies?
• The impacts of over-farming on sustainability and soil quality.

Persuasive Research Topics in Agriculture

Do you need to write a paper on agriculture? Perfect! Here are the absolute best persuasive research topics in agriculture:

• Buying coffee produced by poor farmers to support them.
• The latest advances in drip irrigation application.
• GMO corn in North America.
• Global economic crises and impact on agriculture.
• Analysis of controversies on the use of chemical fertilisers.
• What challenges are facing modern agriculture in France?
• What are the negative impacts of cattle farms?
• A closer look at the economics behind sheep farming in New Zealand.
• The changing price of energy: How important is it for the local farms in the UK?
• A review of the changing demand for quality food in Europe.
• Wages for people working in agriculture.

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Teaching Agriculture-specific Controversial Issues Through Guided Group Discussion

Chaney Mosley, Middle Tennessee State University, [email protected]

Thomas Broyles, Tennessee State University, [email protected]

James Scott, Middle Tennessee State University, [email protected]

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The effect of participating in and observing a guided group discussion on attitude toward agriculture-specific controversial issues was investigated. Fifty-five undergraduate students over two semesters completed a pretest to measure attitudes toward two controversial topics: sustainable agriculture and animal welfare. After the pretest, students were randomly assigned to one of four roles. Each role was assigned one of the two topics and given neutral questions to research in preparation for a group discussion that were related to the characteristics of controversy. Two roles, each with a different topic, met for the purpose of having neutral discussions on the topic. While one group discussed, the other group observed. A posttest was administered to measure the change in attitudes toward the controversial topics. Students also provided written responses to open-ended questions regarding their experience with the group discussion activity. No significant differences between pretest and posttest scores were observed. Based on the qualitative data, students preferred teacher centered methods of teaching controversial issues and appreciated that the guided group discussion approach allowed controversial topics to be considered and delivered objectively.

Keywords: controversial issues, group discussion, animal welfare, sustainable agriculture

Introduction

Many controversial issues are closely related to agriculture, such as genetically modified organisms, food product labeling, or animal identification systems. Consequently, much of these issues become infused into agricultural education curricula, often presenting ideas that conflict with the values of students (Cotton, 2006b). Though controversial topics in agricultural science classrooms have become a larger issue in recent years given that political parties have become enamored with debating climate change and other agricultural related topics (Owens et al., 2017), the research on teaching agriculture-specific controversial issues is severely limited (Agbaje et al., 2001; Bennett-Wimbush et al., 2015; Fiske, 1991; Goodwin, 1993; Nordstrom et al., 2000; Poole et al., 2016; Terry & Lawver, 1995). Whether educators can maintain neutrality when teaching controversial issues is questionable, as the rhetorical nature of controversial issues suggests that teacher neutrality may be impractical and “the idea of maintaining a neutral position is portrayed as an illusion” (Cotton, 2006a, p. 77). The inability to maintain neutrality begs the question, why teach controversial issues?

Teaching about issues that are controversial, while requiring a lot of time and preparation, has been viewed as a useful tool for preparing students to become effective citizens (Soley, 1995). A healthy democracy is based on the nature of open discussion about issues of public concern. Therefore, young citizens should be trained in the discussion of social, political, and economic policies that are controversial (Harwood & Hahn, 1990). Additionally, introducing controversial issues serves as an appropriate way for students to learn about values and value conflicts. Another advantage of instruction on controversial issues is the encouragement of thinking. Assessment that measures students’ ability to regurgitate facts requires low levels of thinking; however, learning about controversial issues requires in-depth study, consideration of facts versus opinions, and critical examination of the issues. Learning how to approach, investigate, and form an opinion on controversial issues may present cognitive conflict, but can also serve as a bridge for assisting students in dealing with their own personal conflicts (Soley, 1995). Though the benefits of teaching controversial issues present a strong argument in support of the notion, teacher attitudes and perceptions should be considered.

While many educators believe that teaching controversial issues is important, this belief system is only in place so long as the teaching of these issues does not endanger their careers (Byford, Lennon, & Russel, 2009). Support from educators exists because teaching controversial topics exposes issues of personal and societal interest that students can often relate to, but some teachers are unsure of their ability to teach controversial content (Byford et al., 2009; Zimmerman & Roberston, 2017). Asimeng-Boahene (2007) asserted that “conducting beneficial discussions on controversial issues is an art that requires skills and practice” (p. 235). To increase teacher efficacy for presenting controversial issues, training is needed that focuses on the nature of controversial issues, principles for teaching controversial issues, and effective teaching strategies (Robertson, 2018), especially when topics are polarizing.

Zimmerman and Robertson (2017) explain that controversial issues fall into three categories: expert-expert disagreement, expert-public disagreement, and maximally controversial issues. Expert-expert disagreement is characterized by experts disagreeing on topics not of widespread public concern (such as interpretations of literary works or visual art), whereas expert-public disagreement is described as experts agreeing, but members of the general public contesting the stance of experts (such as climate change being caused by human behavior). Maximally controversial issues are those where experts disagree with each other and members of the general public disagree with each other, the topic is of public concern, and discussions generate an emotional response (such as abortion, voting rights, or same-sex marriage). In agricultural education, animal rights (Nordstrom et al., 2000) and sustainable agriculture (Agbaje et al., 2001) are examples of maximally controversial issues that can be so dividing, teachers must exercise caution when teaching them, but how?  

When introducing controversial issues, adopting a stance that is non-committal and neutral is critical (Asimeng-Boahene, 2004; Zimmerman & Robertson, 2017) because “everything the teacher does, as well as the manner in which he does it, incites the child to respond in some way or another, and each response tends to get the child’s attitude in some way or the other” (Dewey, 1933, p. 59). Teachers should not be afraid to share their opinions with a class; however, they need to be able to defend their opinions with logical explanations and should emphasize that their position is one of many and that it may be challenged. Still, agriculture, as a content area, is unique in that student attitudes may be strongly rooted and influenced by personal background. For example, Terry and Lawver (1995) discovered that male students had more positive perceptions about using medications on animals that females and that hometown background such as growing up on a farm or living in a town of less than 5,000, for example, explained large amounts of variance in student perceptions of issues related to agriculture. Further, Poole et al. (2016) discovered academic major influenced student concerns about agricultural issues, and Bennett-Wimbush et al. (2015) reported female students were better able to distinguish between animal rights and animal welfare than male students. Therefore, agricultural educators may be more inclined to employ a strategy that affords ambiguity of personal stance when teaching. One method of introducing controversial issues into the classroom, alleviating the teacher from committing to one side or the other, is group discussion (Ho et al., 2017).

Through group discussion, students can expand their clarity of controversial issues. In addition to serving as a bias free approach, group discussions on topics that are controversial in nature are stimulating and “can be an excellent way of expanding the knowledge students have about the changing world in which we live” (Asimeng-Boahene, 2004, p. 233). According to Hess (2009), discussion is a valued form of learning for students. After selecting an issue to be discussed, teachers must prepare students for the discussion, provide an adequate amount of information resources, ensure an intellectual balance, and encourage equal participation. Because there are typically not right or wrong answers with controversial issues, performance-based activities, such as group discussions, are often better suited for assessment than traditional paper-based tests. Performance based activities allow educators to assess a student’s ability to evaluate competing arguments, use evidence to defend a position, and draw well thought out conclusions (Asimeng-Boahene, 2004). Furthermore, participation in group discussion demonstrates performance at higher levels of learning (Anderson et al., 2001), but not all educators agree with discussion as the best technique. Proponents of teacher centered classrooms argue that teaching only the facts or concepts is easier and more straightforward than helping students examine attitudes, values, and beliefs associated with controversial issues; however, if students do not learn to address moral dilemmas and argue social issues when in school, when will they? Teachers have the responsibility of supplying a format for learning how to identify controversy and labor through it (Asimeng-Boahene, 2004; Zimmerman & Robertson, 2017).

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The framework for this study was built on Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory and the cognitive reconstruction of knowledge model (CRKM) (Figure 1) presented by Dole and Sinatra (1998). According to Festinger (1957), people desire consistency among individual concepts including attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, values, and opinions. Cognitive dissonance theory purports dissonance occurs when information is presented that contradicts with one’s held concepts. The strength of dissonance is impacted by two things – the amount of discordant beliefs and the degree of importance attached to each belief. When contradiction is present, something must adjust to eliminate the dissonance. Festinger’s theory provides three methods by which dissonance can be removed. One possibility for eliminating dissonance is the reduction of importance of the inharmonious thought. A second option for removal involves attaching more harmonious beliefs that compensate for the dissonant beliefs. The third method for removing dissonance is to change the cacophonous beliefs so that they are no longer inconsistent (Festinger, 1957). When beliefs are altered to rid inconsistency, conceptual change occurs. Conceptual change refers to “revisions in personal mental representations; revisions that are often precipitated by purposeful educational experiences” (Murphy & Mason, 2006, p. 307). Because group discussions about controversial topics will facilitate cognitive dissonance, conceptual change may occur.

In comparison to cognitive dissonance theory, the CRKM considers cognitive psychological research, science education research, and social psychology (Dole & Sinatra, 1998). This model provides a description of the interactions between learner and message characteristics, which lead to various degrees of engagement with a new concept. The likelihood that conceptual change will occur depends on the depth of engagement – significant conceptual change is more likely when learners present high engagement on the engagement continuum.

The visual model (Figure 2) developed by the researchers provides the conceptual framework for the present study. In the model, engagement levels of two groups, participant and observer, are depicted by shaded areas at each phase of a group discussion guided by research questions. Participants are those who are involved with researching a topic, discussing the topic from a neutral stance, and formulating a position on the topic after the discussion. Observers are those who watch and listen, but have no formal responsibilities before, during, or after the discussion. Being active in each phase, the researchers assume participant group engagement will start low during the research phase, reach a crescendo during the group discussion, and decrease again in the final phase when participants are formulating a final position. With a passive role, the researchers assume the observer group will not be engaged during the research or formulating position phases and experience limited engagement during the group discussion. Each engagement continuum is bookended by held attitudes about topics being discussed, as students will hold a perspective before and after the discussion.

Purpose and Research Questions

The purpose of this study was to investigate the utility of guided group discussion (Lewin, 1952; Werner et al., 2008; Werner & Stanley, 2011) as a method for providing instruction on controversial issues. When a teacher presents information on topics that are controversial in nature, there may be students who disagree with the content, resulting in cognitive dissonance. With continued instruction, conceptual change could occur; however, if the teacher is unable to instruct in a neutral manner, he or she may unintentionally cause conceptual change from a bias standpoint. The study was steered by the overarching question of whether guided group discussion was an effective approach to teaching controversial issues. Specific questions were:

• What is the effect of participating in a group discussion on attitudes toward controversial issues?
• What is the effect of observing a group discussion on attitudes toward controversial issues?
• How do students prefer to learn about controversial issues?
• How do students perceive the strategy of guided group discussion for learning about controversial issues?

The participants in this study were undergraduate students enrolled in a fall semester and spring semester agricultural oral communications course at a four-year university in the southeastern region of the United States. The course was a required course for all students pursuing an undergraduate degree in an agricultural field. Data were collected over two semesters resulting in a total of 55 students divided across five laboratory sections over the two semesters. Institutional Review Board procedures were followed by university guidelines. Consent was obtained from all participants. Table 1 provides a description of the participants.

Instruments were used in a pretest and posttest to assess the attitudes of students toward two specific controversial issues – sustainable agriculture and animal welfare. Sustainable agriculture is the production of plant and animal products for human consumption through methods that are ecologically sound and socially responsible as well as economically viable (Ikerd, 2008, p. 11). As this method of production contradicts modern industrial agriculture techniques, agricultural education teachers are unsure about the potential for sustainable agriculture to enhance the quality of life for famers and society, thus making this topic controversial in the agriculture industry (Agbaje et al., 2001). According to Broom (1991), animal welfare refers to the state of an animal in relation to its environment, with welfare being a characteristic of an animal, not something given to it; indicators of poor welfare may include reduced life expectancy, impaired growth, body damage, and adrenal activity, among others. Attitudes regarding appropriate treatment of animals differ greatly with polarized opinions related to hunting, production and consumption of animals for food, and using animals in biomedical and psychological research (Herzog & Mathews, 1997); therefore, this topic is also controversial in the agriculture industry.

The Sustainable Agriculture Attitude Test was an adapted version of a test, developed by Allahyari et al. (2008), comprised of twelve self-report items on a five-point Likert-type scale. A response of “1” to each item indicated strong disagreement and a response of “5” indicated strong agreement. Sample items included “The primary goal of farmers should be to maximize the productivity, efficiency, and profitability of their farms” and “The key to agriculture’s future success lies in learning to imitate natural ecosystems and farm in harmony with nature”. Total scores on this instrument can range from 12 to 60; higher scores suggested positive perceptions toward sustainable agriculture. The calculated Chronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the pretest and posttest was 0.69 and 0.60, respectively, demonstrating low, but acceptable levels for this type of exploratory research (Murphy & Davidshofer, 1988).

The Animal Attitude Scale, developed by Herzog et al. (1991), measured attitude towards animal welfare and was comprised of 20 self-report items on a five-point Likert-type scale. A response of “1” to each item indicated strong disagreement and a response of “5” indicated strong agreement. Sample items included “I think it is perfectly acceptable for cattle and hogs to be raised for human consumption” and “Much of the scientific research done with animals is unnecessary and cruel”. Total scores on this instrument can range from 20 to 100; higher scores suggested greater levels of concern for animals. The calculated Chronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the pretest was 0.90 and the Chronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the posttest was 0.90 as well.

One month after completing both pretests, students within laboratory sections were randomly assigned to two groups for the purpose of participating in a group discussion. Each role was then randomly assigned a controversial topic for the group discussion – sustainable agriculture or animal welfare. Students in each group received a set of neutral, topic specific guiding questions that focused on the characteristics of the controversy and were instructed to answer these questions, individually, in preparation for a group discussion. Two weeks after receiving the research questions, students participated in a 20-minute group discussion guided by the questions researched. Prior to the discussion, students were instructed to maintain a neutral position and present evidence gathered during individual research, while addressing both sides of the controversy. As the discussion took place, participating students took notes on various points that were made. At the conclusion of the discussion, each student formulated a position on the topic and articulated this position in a closing statement. While one group in each laboratory section participated in the discussion, the other group observed. Two weeks after the group discussion, the same instruments were used in a posttest. Additionally, students in the spring semester provided written responses to eight open-ended questions regarding their experience with the group discussion activity. According to Bogdan and Biklen (2003), participants will express opinions more freely with open-ended questions.

This mixed methods study was designed as an embedded sequential explanatory case study with a quantitativequalitative two-strand design of inquiry (Creswell et al., 2003). The first strand of inquiry used a quantitative approach to explore student attitudes toward agriculture-specific controversial issues. The second strand of inquiry qualitatively investigated how students experienced the group discussion.

To answer research questions one and two, attitude pretest and posttest scores of the two roles (participant or observer) by topic and semester were analyzed using a paired samples t- test. This is an appropriate analysis to compare the difference between the means in cases where the same participants respond on two separate incidents (Howell, 2007).

Research questions three and four, which were qualitative in nature, were answered using a constant comparative analysis approach to interpret responses to the open-ended questions. According to Glauser and Strauss (1967), this approach requires identifying similarities and differences in content through a systematic review of data. As the researchers coded the responses separately, inter-rater reliability was established, which increased the confidence in emergent patterns (Bernard & Ryan, 2010). Participant quotes were used to support research findings. Because critics may be reluctant to accept the findings from qualitative research, the researchers applied Guba’s (1981) framework for assessing the trustworthiness of qualitative inquiries. In the present study, the researcher ensured credibility by developing a familiarity with the culture being investigated, using a mixed methods approach for triangulation of data, and conducting member checks by sharing selected quotes associated with conclusions drawn with students who provided the quotes. Transferability was ensured as the researchers described the context of the study and described the phenomenon under investigation. Finally, confirmability was achieved by admitting researcher beliefs and assumptions in regard to the study and identifying limitations of the study.

The researchers were concerned with looking at data collected from each of the roles for the two topics. Each discussion group was comprised of undergraduate agricultural majors, but heterogeneous in gender, age, and ethnicity. For each topic, there were five groups who participated in a guided group discussion and five groups who observed (Tables 2 and 3).

The mean score on the pretest for those who participated in a discussion about sustainable agriculture was 39.07 ( SD = 4.27). For those who observed a discussion about sustainable agriculture, the mean score on the pretest was 41.64 ( SD = 4.48). On the posttest, for those who participated in the discussion, the mean score was 38.29 ( SD = 4.14), while the mean score for those who observed was 40.44 ( SD = 4.03).

The mean score on the pretest for those who participated in a discussion about animal welfare was 64.54 ( SD = 14.08). For those who observed a discussion about animal welfare, the mean score on the pretest was 65.00 ( SD = 10.45). On the posttest, for those who participated in the discussion, the mean score was 64.27 ( SD = 13.73), while the mean score for those who observed was 65.64 ( SD = 9.68).

Research question one inquired about the effect of participating in a group discussion on attitudes toward controversial issues. The results of a paired samples t -test indicated that the effect of participating in a group discussion was not statistically significant.

Research question two asked about the effect of observing a group discussion on attitude toward controversial issues. The results of a paired samples t -test indicated that the effect of observing a group discussion was not statistically significant.

Research question three explored how students preferred to learn about controversial issues. The open-ended questions prompted students to reflect on prior experiences with controversial issues in a classroom setting and explain how they preferred teachers to present topics that are controversial in nature. Student responses indicated a variety of experience with methods that encouraged active learning such as debates, research papers, and general classroom discussions. Passive learning experiences were described as lecture or illustrated lecture (where a PowerPoint presentation was used). Students were not favorable of methods that only presented one side of an issue, evidenced by comments such as “I have had teachers only present their biased opinions and I didn’t like that at all. Teaching that way doesn’t give the student the opportunity to see both sides and make a decision on where the student stands.” and “Just listening to a lecturer can cause the audience to take on the lecturer’s opinion.” Interestingly, when asked about how the students enjoyed learning about controversial topics, the students indicated a preference toward passive learning experiences. Students commented, “I prefer teachers present controversial topics by providing an objective lecture supported with a PowerPoint. I think it is important to introduce the controversial topic and let the audience form their own opinion of the subject.” and “I would prefer a completely unbiased presentation of both sides, probably in a list of facts such as on a PowerPoint or in a lecture; but as long as neither view point is pushed on me.”  The preference for an objective, teacher centered approach is consistent with cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957), which asserts people crave information to be presented in a way that does not conflict with personal convictions. A non-persuasive lecture void of discussion allows students to diminish the importance of dissonant information.

Research question four addressed how students perceived the strategy of guided group discussion for learning about controversial issues. The general impression was that students enjoyed the learning environment created by the requirement of maintaining neutrality. Most enjoyable was the objectivity and evidence-based component of the discussion:

The thing I enjoyed most was being able to have a comfortable conversation with classmates without being at each other’s throats over some controversial issues. I didn’t grow up on a farm, nor do I have strong opinions on sustainable agriculture, but I could tell some people in the class did, so if we had more of a debate, I would expect there to have been much more conflict.

Another participant responded:

I liked the fact that it was objective and not just people spewing out their opinions. Everything had to be backed up with evidence, which should always be the case, but often times aren’t in debate or other opinionated discussion.

While students appreciated the nonthreatening environment, maintaining a neutral position proved to be a challenging aspect of the guided group discussion. Students reported that the inability to state their own opinions, and the domination of conversation by other students was frustrating:

It was difficult to stay neutral and it was hard to verbalize negative aspects of sustainable agriculture because there were not many negatives found during researching the topic. I found it frustrating to not be able to clearly state your side.

One participant commented, “It was difficult to be neutral on the topic of animal welfare. I also didn’t like how I had a hard time butting in to talk when three people in my group dominated the conversation.” In spite of these frustrations, students agreed that the teaching strategy was beneficial. Requiring students to research the topic before the discussion and providing questions to guide their research efforts helped engage students in the learning process. One participant wrote, “I still feel the same way about the topic, however I have gained a greater appreciation for sustainable agriculture. I feel quite strongly against sustainable agriculture, however after learning more, I did appreciate it more.” Another participant commented:

I certainly felt that the research was the most informative part of this assignment. I put a lot of time into the research so that I could fully understand both sides of each of the questions posed. The guiding questions were very good because they covered a wide range of animal welfare issues and required that we explore each of the aspects, including those that we may not have considered on our own.

A student concluded, “It really made me see both sides and look at the topic open minded.” From an observation standpoint, students commented that watching their classmates engage in the discussion was educational, exposing different viewpoints. The role of observer also made students aware of how telling facial expressions and body language can be in a group discussion. While they enjoyed observing, students often found this role difficult, expressing a desire to join the conversation. According to one student, “I really wanted to jump in to the discussion when we listened to the other group.” Interestingly, observing students noticed when those discussing the topic held a certain opinion based on their nonverbal communication – “It was very clear when some people disagreed with what was said because of their facial expression and body language.” Observing the participation also had the benefit of exposing students to unknown knowledge: “When observing the other group’s discussion, I was surprised at the facts and figures the group gave. I had no idea about the topic and the concrete evidence was very clarifying.” Students valued the factual evidence that was presented during the discussion. One observing participant reported, “I thought that observing another group was very beneficial to me because I was able to gather a lot of unbiased information on the topic and was able to create my own unbiased view on their topic.”

Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations

Guided group discussion is characterized by an instructor identifying a controversial topic, creating questions to guide students through investigating all aspects of the topic before a discussion, and designing a structure for group discussion that requires participants to speak from the supporting and opposing side of a topic while asking questions of other participants. The guided group discussion technique may help teachers feel comfortable facilitating the learning about controversial topics, as this approach removes instructors from the possibility of impacting conceptual change due to not maintaining a neutral position. Participating in a guided group discussion about controversial issues has many implications in support of this instructional method as an approach to cognitive dissonance and conceptual change. First, participating in and observing a guided group discussion encourages students to consider both sides of an issue which might not occur in a lecture format. The action of researching both sides of an issue encourages student learning at higher levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001), where examining data, organizing ideas, and preparing for a discussion require analyzing ideas and evaluating positions. The highest level of Bloom’s Taxonomy, creation, is reached when students compare the different points of discussion, evaluate the information, and then construct their own position when presenting a closing statement where an argument toward the controversy is presented and supported by garnered knowledge. Secondly, guided group discussion allows the teacher to maintain neutrality and avoid bias when providing instruction on controversial issues, which Cotton (2006a) explained is unfeasible. This frees the teacher from struggling to not employ a personal agenda and creates an autonomous learning environment for the students, which gives way to a third advantage of guided group discussion – teacher protection from responsibility of conceptual change. The CRKM (Dole & Sinatra, 1998) suggests that conceptual change is unlikely with low engagement; however, the possibility of conceptual change increases when engagement is high. As the guided group discussion technique accelerates high engagement for students participating in the discussion, conceptual change is possible. In the present study, if conceptual change had occurred, students would have been responsible for their individual conceptual change, not the instructor, concluding that guided group discussion as an instructional approach to controversial issues relieves the teacher from responsibility of conceptual change that may occur amongst students.

While the data did not show a significant difference between the effects of participating in or observing a group discussion on attitude toward controversial issues, further research with additional groups of varying sizes, populations, and topics is recommended. In addition, we recommend that modifications be made in future studies to provide for the collection of evidence that each student conducted background research prior to the discussion. Evidence could be in the form of written responses to the guiding questions, an outline that explains key findings during research, or a conceptual model designed by students that highlights information discovered, for example. Another recommendation is the provision of equitable talk time amongst participants. During the group discussions, some students dominated the conversation while others were more passive in their participation. Brookfield and Preskill (1999) posit that participation in discussion will help students develop a more critical understanding of and appreciation for diverse viewpoints; therefore, ensuring equal participation by each student in the discussion is critical for maximum benefit of the small group discussion. Additionally, equitable treatment, regarding amount of time spent discussing the various characteristics of controversy, is encouraged. Early in the discussions, students spent much of the allotted time focusing on a few specific areas of controversy, resulting in less time for discussing additional aspects. Not providing time for discussing the topics from multiple angles and viewpoints may limit students in their ability to form an opinion on the issue. Students who participated in the discussion recommended more preparation before the activity occurs. One student remarked, “I really don’t have any more recommendations, other then maybe explaining how it’s done a little more in depth then what we covered in class.” Another student indicated:

Since this was our first discussion I would have liked to do a dry run and gone over what things were going to be said and get a feel on what things impacted the memebers the most. I am not quick at thinking off the top of my head and I felt like that was a huge drawback for me with this exercise and I feel like I really didn’t do a good job on the task at all.

We acknowledge limitations of this study related to the population and sampling. Findings are limited to the case site under investigation and cannot, therefore, be generalized to a larger population. This limitation could not be overcome using the chosen method because data collection required adapting course syllabi and curricula, and therefore, other case sites willing to accommodate such required adaptations were not identified. Also, the student sample for the qualitative data collection only represented perspectives from students in the spring semester. It is possible that perspectives of students from the fall semester could differ; however, because the course is required for all students pursuing an undergraduate degree in an agricultural field at the university where the research took place, we determined the sample was representative of the total population under investigation.

In future studies, we recommend that discussions be recorded, transcribed, and analyzed for the frequency of statements in support of or opposition to a topic, as this might have an impact on posttest scores. This type of analysis would identify possible inequity in treatment to the topic being discussed if significantly more comments were in favor or spoke against the issue. Future research should include both quantitative and qualitative measurements of cognitive dissonance, student engagement, and student value of the learning experience. Finally, future investigations should occur at multiple case sites to allow for enhanced generalizability.

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Economics of Small-Scale Oil Palm Production in Kogi State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT The study was conducted to examine the Economics of Small-scale Oil Palm Production in Kogi State of Nigeria. The objectives of the study are to: determine the factors affecting resource use efficiency by Oil Palm Producers in the study area and determine the optimum replacement age of oil palm. The tools of analysis used are:- simple descriptive statistics, multiple regression analysis, optimum replacement model and gross margin analysis. From the estimate of oil palm in the state,4...

Effect of Frequency of Ejaculation on Semen Characteristics of Heavy Ecotype Chicken Raised in Derived Savannah Region of Nigeria

ABSTRACT Effect of frequency of ejaculation on semen characteristics of heavy ecotype chicken raised in the derived savannah region of Nigeria was studied using twelve heavy ecotype cocks. The cocks were randomly assigned to three treatments with four cocks in each treatment. Ejaculation frequencies once, twice and thrice per week, with T1 representing once, T2, twice and T3, thrice were imposed on the birds. The experiment lasted for a period of eight weeks with a two-week pre-experimental p...

Factor's Influencing Farmers Willingness to Engage in Agro Forestry Practice

Abstract This study examined the factors influencing farmers’ willingness to engage in agroforestry practice in Ekiti State, Nigeria using cross-section data. Multi-stage and random sampling techniques were used to select 180 respondents. The analytical techniques involved descriptive and inferential statistics. It was shown that majority (50.60%) of the respondents were within 26-50 years age bracket while the average age of the farmers was 51 years. Majority of the sampled farmers (92.20%...

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