presentation on use of force

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Use of Force - Part I

“How will I be judged by a court of law if someone sues me for using excessive force?” That is a fair question from a law enforcement officer. This chapter focuses on the legal aspects for using force in the course of effecting an arrest, investigatory stop, or other seizure of a free citizen.

The leading case on use of force is the 1989 Supreme Court decision in Graham v. Connor.1 The Court held, “…that all claims that law enforcement officers have used excessive force – deadly or not – in the course of an arrest, investigatory stop, or other seizure of a free citizen should be analyzed under the Fourth Amendment and its objective reasonableness standard…

A seizure occurs when a law enforcement officer terminates a free citizen’s movement by a means intentionally applied. Traffic stops, investigative detentions, and arrests are all Fourth Amendment seizures. To seize someone, an officer may yell “Stop!” The officer may use handcuffs, a baton, or firearm to make him stop. A seizure must be objectively reasonable – meaning reasonable in its inception, the degree of force used, and its duration. This chapter focuses on the degree of force an officer may use. The Fourth Amendment chapter discusses when, and for how long someone can be seized; but they all go to the overall question – was the seizure reasonable?

Mr. Graham was a diabetic. He felt the onset of an insulin reaction on day, called his friend Berry, and asked for a ride to a convenience store. Graham hoped to buy some orange juice. He thought that the sugar in the juice would counteract the reaction.

After the two men arrived at the store, Graham got out of the car and hastily went inside. Unfortunately, the check-out line was too long. Graham “hastily” returned to the car, got in, and told his friend to drive to another friend’s house. Maybe this friend would have some juice.

Officer Connor had watched Graham hastily enter and leave the store and suspected something was amiss. Connor activated his overhead lights and pulled them over. Berry tried to explain that his friend was just having a “sugar reaction” but Connor was not convinced. Connor told the two men to wait at their car while another officer returned to the store to determine what happened. Things got worse from that point. Graham got out of the car. He ran around the car two times, sat down on the curb, and momentarily passed out. Back-up officers arrived. According to Mr. Graham, he was violently placed into the backseat of a cruiser. All this time, Berry, and Graham after he regained consciousness, tried to explain that Graham was just having an insulin reaction. But their pleas had no effect. One officer commented that he thought Graham was drunk.

Connor finally received the report from the officer who returned to the store. Nothing was amiss. Graham sued the police officers. On appeal, the Supreme Court stated that the officers should be judged based on the Fourth Amendment’s objective reasonableness test.

The Objective Test and the Reasonable Officer The Court stated, “The reasonableness of a particular use of force must be judged from the perspective of a reasonable officer on the scene, rather than with the 20/20 vision of hindsight.” The objective test requires the court to envision a reasonable officer and ask: Based on the totality of the facts and circumstances, could such an officer believe that the force was reasonable?

Since the objective test judges the officer through the lens of a reasonable officer, the subjective beliefs of the actual officer, whether they are good or bad, are not relevant. For instance, Officer Connor may have honestly believed that Graham was a shoplifter; however, the objective test asks what a reasonable officer could believe based on the facts. Facts make force reasonable. The objective test requires officers to rely on their senses (… or what they saw, heard, smelled, tasted, or touched) and then articulate a factual basis for what they did.

Was it reasonable to stop and use force on Mr. Graham? The Supreme Court said this was the relevant question. What follows are some facts and circumstances that could cause a court to find that the force was reasonable. Some of these facts are for illustrative purposes, only, and are not in the Graham decision.

For example, Officer Connor might write in his use of force report:

“I saw Mr. Graham run into the store. Less than 10-seconds later, I saw him run back out and get into Berry’s car. I heard the tires screech as the car drove away at a high rate of speed.”2

Based on those facts, what could a reasonable officer say? The Supreme Court’s decision in Terry v. Ohio states that an officer may conduct an temporary investigative detention based on reasonable suspicion that criminal activity is afoot.3

An officer’s training and experience is also relevant. Connor might add:

“Based on what I saw, and my department having received no less than four complaints of shoplifting from this store within the past two weeks, I activated my overhead lights and stopped the car.”

Connor would be admitting to effecting a Fourth Amendment seizure; but a seizure is reasonable if he can point to specific, articulable facts indicating that criminal activity is afoot.

It should be obvious by now that the officer must help the court visualize what happened. Using good action verbs in a written report makes that visualization possible. Connor might write:

After Berry stopped, I walked to his car. I told both of the men to wait there. I ordered another officer to go back to the convenience store and find out what happened. Then Graham got out of the car. Graham opened the passenger door. He ran around the car two times, sat down on the curb, and fell over as if he had passed out.

Objective opinions or conclusions are appropriate; they are supported by facts. Connor might state:

I believed that Graham was under the influence of alcohol, based on my experience with intoxicated people. They are generally irrational. Graham was irrational; he ran around the car two times after I (a police officer) told him to wait at the car. Then he sat on the curb and fell over - as if he passed out.

Connor might add:

“Graham’s eyes were glassy. His speech was slurred. His breath smelled sweet, as it may after drinking alcoholic beverages.” Referring back to his training and experience, Connor could explain why intoxication is relevant. “I know that many assaults on police officers are committed by people under the influence of alcohol or narcotics.”4

Good fact articulation helps the court make an objective decision. With facts, the court can visualize what happened. Facts “paint the picture.”

But the court cannot make an objective decision based on mere conclusions. If a statement makes someone ask “how?” or “why?” it is probably a mere conclusion. Note the differences:  

These are facts: “I ordered the suspect to stay in the car. Instead, he got out.” The reader can visualize that.

•  Now consider a mere conclusion: “He was non-compliant.” How?

With facts, the reader can visualize what happened. The mere conclusion makes the reader asked, “How?” “Cop talk” creates the same confusion as a mere conclusion. “Fuzzy words” like “indicated, suggested, or implied” do the same thing. They make the reader ask how. How did he indicate? Note the differences:

• Facts: “I ordered the suspect to keep his hands on the steering wheel of the car. Instead, he reached under the seat with his right hand.
• Cop talk: “The suspect made a furtive movement.”
• Fuzzy word: “He indicated that he might be going for a gun.”

Officers may experience tunnel vision, auditory exclusion, and memory loss in stressful situations where they have to use force. But they must paint the picture with the sights and sounds they remember. While it may be impossible to recall exactly what the suspect said, the officer may still remember “He screamed at me and clenched his fists, like a boxer.”

References:

• Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386 (1989); See the Legal Division Reference Book.
• This is a hypothetical use of force report that is intended for instructional purposes only. It is not Officer Connor’s report.
• Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968); See the Legal Division Reference Book.
• Darrell L. Ross, “Assessing Patterns of Citizen Resistance During Arrest,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 1999.
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Lesson Plan: Use of Force

Description.

This lesson will help students understand when to use force and how much force to use. Police work is a profession where the use of force, sometimes deadly force, can be an everyday element of the job. An officer needs to understand his or her limits in order to effectively make arrests and do the job without getting into legal trouble.

Download the lesson plan

Scroll to the related items section at the bottom of this page for additional resources.

• Preferences

USE OF FORCE For The Security Officer - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

USE OF FORCE For The Security Officer

Use of force for the security officer instructor: dale m. reiger-butler ... you are told to use deadly physical force by a police officer in an arrest-escape situation. – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• Instructor Dale M. Reiger-Butler
• Co-Instructor Carl Jenkins
• Rockland Community College Security Dept.
• 845-574-4217
• dbutler_at_sunyrockland.edu
• What do you hope to gain from this course?
• Officer Survival
• Efficiency of Service
• Criminal/Civil Protection
• Psychological Survival
• Vocational Survival
• Protection of Life and Property
• Overcoming Attack, Resistance, Escape
• Control, Arrest
• Self Defense, Defense of Others
• Any other use, i.e. punishment or revenge is UNREASONABLE
• Article 10 of the Penal Law
• 1. Offense- conduct for which a sentence to a term of imprisonment or a fine is provided by any law of this state or by any law, local law or ordinance of a political subdivision of this state, or by any order or regulation of any governmental instrumentality authorized by law to adopt the same.
• 2. Traffic infraction- any offense defined as traffic infraction by section one hundred fifty-five of the vehicle and traffic law.
• 3. Violation- an offense, other than a traffic infraction, for which a sentence to a term of imprisonment in excess of fifteen days cannot be imposed.
• 4. Misdemeanor- an offense, other than a traffic infraction, for which a sentence to a term of imprisonment in excess of fifteen days may be imposed, but for which a sentence to a term of imprisonment in excess of one year cannot be imposed.
• 5. Felony- an offense for which a sentence to a term of imprisonment in excess of one year may be imposed.
• 6. Crime- a misdemeanor or a felony.
• 7. Person- a human being, and where appropriate, a public or private corporation, an unincorporated association, a partnership, a government or a governmental instrumentality.
• 8. Possess- to have physical possession or otherwise to exercise dominion or control over tangible property.
• 9. Physical Injury- impairment of physical condition or substantial pain.
• 10. Serious Physical Pain- physical injury which creates a substantial risk of death, or which causes death or serious and protracted disfigurement, protracted impairment of health or protracted loss or impairment of the function of any bodily organ.
• 11. Deadly Physical Force- physical force which, under the circumstances in which it is used, is readily capable of causing death or other serious physical injury.
• 12. Deadly Weapon- any loaded weapon from which a shot, readily capable of producing death or other serious physical injury, may be discharged, or a switchblade knife, dagger, billy, blackjack or metal knuckles.
• 13. Dangerous Instrument- any instrument, article or substance, including a vehicle as that term is defined in this section, which under the circumstances in which it is used, attempted to be used or threatened to be used, is readily capable of causing death or other serious physical injury.
• 14. Vehicle- a motor vehicle, trailer or semi-trailer, as defined in the vehicle and traffic law, and any snowmobile as defined in the parks and recreation law, any aircraft or any vessel equipped for propulsion by mechanical means or by sail.
• 15. Public Servant- a) any public officer or employee of the state or of any political subdivision thereof or of any governmental instrumentality within the state, or
• b) any person exercising the functions of any such public officer or employee. The term public servant includes a person who has been elected or designated to become a public servant.
• 16. Benefit- any gain or advantage to the beneficiary and includes any gain or advantage to a third person pursuant to the desire or consent of the beneficiary.
• Know the four important questions before considering an arrest
• What is an arrest?
• Did an offense in fact occur?
• Did that person in fact commit the offense?
• Must the offense occur in the security officers presence for him to be justified in making an arrest?
• Arrest- the taking of a person into custody that he be held to answer for(an offense) (United States v. Viale, 1963).
• Custody- the power to control movements of someone being arrested and seeing that the person is brought to the proper authorities.
• Detention- synonymous with arrest.
• LAWS OF ARREST
• Refer to handout Article 140, SECTIONS 140.30 140.35 140.40. Of the CPL
• Felony- serious crime against public order. Punishable of imprisonment in excess of one year.
• In His Presence- he or she must have actually observed acts which were in themselves (enough to show that an offense was) in the course of commission (United States v. Viale, 1963).
• In Fact- the felony was in fact committed and the person arrested in fact committed the felony.
• NO MISTAKE ON EITHER POINT!
• The security officer can arrest on a felony whether or not he witnessed it, however, it must have been committed by the person under arrest!
• The security officer can arrest on a felony anywhere in NYS.
• Other Offenses- (other than a felony) there is less authority.
• Person Must have committed the offense
• Must have committed offense in the presence of the security officer
• No mistakes on either point!
• Could the security officer make the arrest in the scenario previously discussed?
• Who could have made the arrest?
• Civil actions for false arrest are based on section 140.30 of CPL.
• Probable Cause- a conclusion that an average person would make after examining all of the related facts.
• Section 140.35 deals with the when and how of arrests.
• Security officers can make an arrest any time of the day
• Must inform the person of the charge to which he is being arrested for
• Justifiable use of force in making the arrest
• Procedure after arrest
• Turn over to appropriate police officer without unnecessary delay
• Police are not obligated to take custody of person
• Can the security officer arrest the 15 year old for harassment (intent to annoy a person by striking that person)?
• Refer to handout Section 305.1 of the Family Court Act
• Constitutional limits
• Federal Statutes and Case Law
• State Statutes and Case Law
• Administrative Rule
• Department Policy, Procedures, Rules and Guidelines
• Officer training, experience, equipment and available backup
• Public injury, fine and/or imprisonment
• Standard of Proof Proof beyond a reasonable doubt
• Civil Torts
• Private injury, monetary award and injunction or declaratory
• Standard of Proof Preponderance of the evidence
• Types of Torts
• Foreseeable risk of harm including
• existence of a duty
• breach of that duty
• proximate cause, foreseeable
• loss/damage
• b) Lack of due care in using department equipment or performing security procedures.
• c) Examples
• high-speed chases
• traffic direction
• flashlights
• duties at accidents
• inadequate medical care
• negligent supervision and training
• 2. Intentional Torts
• Legal wrong with substantial certainty of harm
• wrongful death
• false arrest
• malicious prosecution
• invasion of privacy
• intentional infliction of emotional distress
• 3. Constitutional Torts
• a) History- enacted post-civil war to provide private individuals access to federal courts when their rights under the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendment rights were infringed upon.
• b) Actions most commonly based on alleged violations of the First, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Fourteenth Amendments i.e. Racial discrimination, deprive person of constitutionally protected right, conspiracy, failure to act.
• Damage Awards
• Compensatory Damages
• Awarded to make the injured party whole
• General Damages
• pain and suffering
• emotional distress
• c) Special Damages
• loss of earnings
• medical expenses
• loss of property
• 2. Punitive Damages
• Intended to punish
• Individuals not municipalities
• 3. Injunctive Relief
• 4. Assessment of Costs
• Graham vs. Connor
• The Reasonableness Test
• Facts of the case
• The Supreme Courts Ruling
• 2. Reasonableness Standard
• 3. Assessing Reasonableness of force under the Fourth Amendment
• 4. The Objective Reasonableness Test
• facts and circumstances
• immediate threat
• actively resisting arrest
• time available
• perspective of a reasonable officer
• 6. Does the end justify the means?
• 7. Ninth Circuit Decision Least Intrusive Measures
• Covered under the 4th amendment
• What would an objectively reasonable officer do
• Totality of known circumstances
• Not 20/20 hindsight
• No injury, can still be excessive
• Cant assume the negative if time permits
• Not the least intrusive option
• Judged at moment used
• Outcome of force used is irrelevant
• Imminent threat to officer/others
• Intentionally resisting seizure
• Circumstances are tense, uncertain and rapidly evolving
• Severity of the crime at issue
• Attempting to evade seizure by flight
• Verbal control
• Handcuffing
• Spatial positioning
• Body language
• Mental preparation
• Risk assessment
• Resistant Passive
• Verbal manipulation techniques
• Arrest tactics
• Contact control (put arms behind back)
• Enforcement electives I
• Resistant Active
• Neuro-muscular controls (pressure points)
• OC Spray (WARN FIRST)
• Enforcement electives I II
• Assault Bodily Harm
• Blocking techniques (hands, feet)
• Escape techniques
• Enforcement electives I, II, III
• Assault Serious Bodily Harm/Death
• Enforcement electives I., II, III, IV
• USE OF FORCE The amount of force required by police to compel compliance by an unwilling subject (International Association of Chiefs of Police).
• NON-LETHAL FORCE A non-lethal force option which is highly unlikely to cause death or serious injury to a suspect when properly applied by a law enforcement officer.
• DEADLY FORCE The only thing that justifies a peace officer to shoot another human being is the overwhelming need to cause that person to cease what they are doing. The need must be so great that it does not matter if the person dies as a result of being stopped.
• Ability to cause death or great bodily harm
• Opportunity to cause death or great bodily harm
• Imminent Jeopardy of death or great bodily harm
• DO NOT NEED INTENT
• Serious Physical Injury- physical injury which creates a substantial risk of death, or which causes death or serious and protracted disfigurement, protracted impairment of health or protracted loss or impairment of the function of any bodily organ (10.00-10 P.L.)
• Reasonably Believes and Probable Cause
• There was no other choice
• The amount of force used does not exceed what would be required to achieve the goal.
• Justification (People v. Goetz, 1986)
• CASE LAW No authority requires officers to use a minimum of force to apprehend a violent, dangerous suspect who is threatening their lives (ONeal v. Dekalb County, GA, 1988)
• Premises- includes the term building as defined herein, and any real property (140.00-1 P.L.).
• Building- in addition to its ordinary meaning, includes any structure, vehicle or watercraft used for overnight lodging of persons, or used by persons for carrying on business therein, or used as an elementary or secondary school, or an enclosed motor truck, or an enclosed motor truck trailer. Where a building consists of two or more units separately secured or occupied, each unit shall be deemed both a separate building in itself and a part of the main building (140.00-2 P.L.).
• Dwelling- a building which is usually occupied by a person lodging therein at night (140.00-3 P.L.).
• Night- the period between thirty minutes after sunset and thirty minutes before sunrise (140.00-4 P.L.)
• Attempt To Commit A Crime- a person is guilty of an attempt to commit a crime when, with intent to commit a crime, he engages in conduct which tends to effect the commission of such crime (110.00 P.L.).
• Prevention or Termination
• Arrest and Escape
• Prevention or Termination- physical force, other than deadly physical force, may be used when and to the extent that a person reasonably believes such to be necessary to, defend people from the use of unlawful force, to protect a premise from crimes involving damage or theft. With the exception of self-defense or defense of a third person, all of the illegal activity is criminal, meaning that the conduct constitutes a crime (misdemeanor or felony) ( Hoffman, 1995).
• Prevention or Termination- Situations involving defense of self or others
• Intent to cause physical injury to another person, a person provokes someone into using physical force.
• No defense if one is the aggressor
• Legally allowed by law (professional boxing)
• Criminal Trespass on a premise
• Person using force must be in possession or control of the premises.
• Criminal Trespass
• Make an Arrest or to Stop an Escape
• Direction from a police or peace officer
• Acting within the scope of employment or as a Private Person
• Retreat A person must do all in his power to retreat (People v. Reyes) SCENARIO
• ARREST ESCAPE SITUATION
• Deadly force does not have to be deliberate, can be accidental (People v. Magliato, 1986).
• If you have serious reservations on the use of force, especially deadly force, then dont use it!
• Deadly physical force is a LAST resort, the option left in the officers mind! MUST also meet the objective reasonableness test set forth in Graham v. Connor.
• Article 35 of the NYS Penal Law
• Refer to handout Article 35, sections 35.15 35.20 35.25 35.30
• Retrograde movement-fall back to a different position.
• Officer always has the option to escalate or disengage.
• No need to use a lower level of force IF the subject is using a higher level of force or resistance
• Once control is achieved, MUST de-escalate to a level necessary to maintain control!
• The application of force may not always meet the classroom model in a dynamic situation
• Force is reasonably necessary if, when using a lesser alternative would not lead to achieving safe control
• If you observe another officer using excessive force you have a duty to intervene
• The department policy and procedure is as important when following use of force guidelines as the Penal Law
• A deliberate indifference could expose the college to liability
• To Persuade- through a show of authority by the officer in uniform and/or by communicating verbally/non-verbally.
• Seek Compliance- through unarmed tactics.
• 3. Impede Subjects Action- with the use of an impact weapon or other intermediate weapons or technique.
• 4. Stop Subjects Action- with the use of lethal force.
• Age- An older officer may have to use more force on a younger more agile person who may be stronger. A younger, quicker and stronger officer would use less force on a person who is older.
• Relative Strength- Difference between males and females, may have an effect on handling members of the opposite strength.
• Size- A larger officer may be able to control a person smaller by using less force, whereas, a smaller person would intensify the amount of force to accomplish the same control.
• 4. Skill Level- An officer who is highly trained in unarmed tactics may only need to use little force to detain a person, however, an officer with less training may need to use more force.
• 5. Multiple Subjects- Even the most skilled officer in unarmed tactics is at a disadvantage when several people are attacking with the intent to harm the officer.
• 1. Special Knowledge
• 2. Injury or Exhaustion
• 3. Proximity to the Officers Firearm (OC Spray)
• 4. Ground Fighting
• 5. Disability
• Early Behavior Signals (assault possible)
• Exaggerated movements- pacing, turning, pointing, fist threatening with arm bent and held sideways, hands on hips
• Head back- shoulders back
• Face is red- twitching, jerking
• Lips pushed forward bearing teeth
• Breathing is fast and shallow
• Looking through you, eyes glazed, empty stare
• Belligerent, challenging, yelling, cursing
• Early Behavior Signals (assault possible) cont.
• Subject ignores you- John/Sir, could I talk to you?
• Subject gives you excessive attention during normal conversation, such as direct uninterrupted eye contact.
• Suddenly goes from an uncooperative person to a cooperated person
• Acts drunk- gives false sense of security
• Re-directs activity because the aggressor stimulating the attack is too frightened to directly assault you. Aggression is released on less intimidating objects, such as bystanders or objects (kick a chair)
• Assault is Imminent (Signals)
• Face goes from red to white
• Lips tighten over the teeth
• Breathing is rapid and deep
• Change of stance- bladed position, shifts forward or back
• Hand set, shoulder shift/drop
• Hands closed
• Bobbing up and down on toes
• Rocking back and forth
• Assault is Imminent (Signals) cont.
• Target glance (looking at jaw, groin, etc.)
• Putting the head down- breaking eye contact (protecting neck, instinct)
• Eyebrows are brought forward in a frown
• Stops all movement
• Dropping their center or lowering the body- have to take slack out of skeletal mast to connective tissues in order to go forward
• Reduce The Threat Verbally
• John/Mary! Sir/Maam! Stand still!
• John/Mary! Sir/Maam! Look at me!
• John/Mary! Sir/Maam! Open your hands!
• John/Mary! Sir/Maam! Dont make me spray you!
• Signals Of Submission
• Pulling hands up in front of body, palms out
• Saying I give up. This must accompany other signals.
• Turning their back with the hands covering the head
• Reduction in violent movement, backing downward
• Bowing head, lowering eyes, looking downward
• Verbally- tone and volume goes down, rate slows down
• Total inactivity
• Signals Of Submission Cont.
• Falling to the ground, cornering, crouching, reducing body size
• Rubbing hands, wiping off the sweat
• Pacing- moves to another territory
• Grooming gestures
• Face may be pale which is a sign of fear
• Eyebrows lift and forehead wrinkles showing fear or anxiety
• Eyebrows lower showing fear of imminent attack
• 1. Arrive at scene
• 2. Evaluate
• 3. Call for assistance
• 4. Enter into Use Of Force
• 5. Stabilize using reasonable force
• 6. Initial medical assessment
• 7. Provide long term monitoring
• 8. Communicate to those taking over
• Turnover for release
• Use professional language
• Language can color the perception of the use of force
• Avoid unnecessary roughness
• Videotape from Road House
• Reporting Subjects Action
• The officers arrival Uniform? Marked car?
• Identify the acknowledgement by subject of the officers authority.
• What did the officer observe?
• What directions were given and if they were followed?
• Reporting Officers Physical Control
• What type of control was used?
• Was it used in response to subjects action?
• Was control used in good faith?
• How long did the resistance last?
• What type of de-escalation techniques were used?
• Reporting Transportation
• Handcuffs double locked and checked for tightness
• Additional hostility while in custody
• Verbal threats
• Type of resistance used
• Destruction of property
• Reporting Medical Assessment Treatment
• Prior condition
• Initial assessment
• Reported injury
• Professional assessment (EMT, Paramedic)
• Turnover (70)
• Documentation
• How did the subject respond to your verbal commands?
• What kind of body language and verbal language did the subject exhibit to indicate hostility?
• How did the subject respond to your physical control technique?
• What type of de-escalation technique was used once the subject submitted?
• If OC Spray was used, what was the follow-up treatment?
• Checking for tightness and double locking handcuffs indicates good control technique.
• Increased resistance during transportation/escort.
• Refer to handout Coping with Vulnerability The Dynamics of Fear in Critical Incidents and Training, Implications (Roger M. Solomon, Ph.D., Department Psychologist, Washington State Patrol).
• Refer to handout Space Chart
• REFER TO HANDOUT Use of Force Proficiencies

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Documenting Police Use of Force

April 30, 2024 / 54m

Season 2024: Episode 10

FRONTLINE and The Associated Press, in collaboration with the Howard Centers for Investigative Journalism, investigate deaths that occurred after police used tactics like prone restraint and other “less-lethal force.” The documentary and accompanying reporting draw on police records, autopsy reports and body cam footage, offering the most expansive tally of such deaths nationwide.

The investigation includes the  Lethal Restraint   interactive story and database .

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This Is How Reporters Documented 1,000 Deaths After Police Force That Isn’t Supposed To Be Fatal

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The Use-of-Force Continuum

Archival notice.

This is an archive page that is no longer being updated. It may contain outdated information and links may no longer function as originally intended.

Most law enforcement agencies have policies that guide their use of force. These policies describe a escalating series of actions an officer may take to resolve a situation. This continuum generally has many levels, and officers are instructed to respond with a level of force appropriate to the situation at hand, acknowledging that the officer may move from one part of the continuum to another in a matter of seconds.

An example of a use-of-force continuum follows:

• The mere presence of a law enforcement officer works to deter crime or diffuse a situation.
• Officers' attitudes are professional and nonthreatening.
• Officers issue calm, nonthreatening commands, such as "Let me see your identification and registration."
• Officers may increase their volume and shorten commands in an attempt to gain compliance. Short commands might include "Stop," or "Don't move."
• Soft technique. Officers use grabs, holds and joint locks to restrain an individual.
• Hard technique. Officers use punches and kicks to restrain an individual.
• Blunt impact. Officers may use a baton or projectile to immobilize a combative person.
• Chemical. Officers may use chemical sprays or projectiles embedded with chemicals to restrain an individual (e.g., pepper spray).
• Conducted Energy Devices (CEDs). Officers may use CEDs to immobilize an individual. CEDs discharge a high-voltage, low-amperage jolt of electricity at a distance.
• Officers use deadly weapons such as firearms to stop an individual's actions.

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Use of Force

Dec 31, 2012

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Use of Force. Use of force. Physical force used infrequently Actual prevalence is uncertain as much policing is done in private Officers may downplay or not report Citizens may not report or might exaggerate Most use of force is at lower end of scale Most use of force occurs during arrests

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Presentation Transcript

Use of force • Physical force used infrequently • Actual prevalence is uncertain asmuch policing is done in private • Officers may downplay or notreport • Citizens may not report or might exaggerate • Most use of force is at lower end of scale • Most use of force occurs during arrests • “Split-second syndrome” • An explanation or an excuse? • Police Issues post “Making Time”

Police culture andofficer characteristics • Police culture • “Whatever it takes”, “Don’t back down” • Losing face • Many excessive force complaints involvepersons already in custody • Officers can fail to restrain or complain about colleagues • Race and ethnicity • Historical abuses of minorities and the poor • But -- research suggests that race and ethnicity of officers and suspects do not influence use of force • Belief that relatively few officers account for most of the use of force • “Violence-prone” officers: myth or reality? • Gender • Use of force more likely when officer and suspect are both males • Is social class important? • Nature of officers, antagonists and encounters in lower class areas

Law on use of force • Must act reasonably - actions cannot violate lawor “clearly established” legal precedent • Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386(US Supreme Court, 1989) • Claims of excessive force are evaluated by the Fourth Amendment's "reasonableness" standard: were the officers' actions "objectively reasonable" in light of the facts and circumstances at the time? • The "reasonableness" must be judged from the perspective of a reasonable officer on the scene • There must be an allowance for the fact that police officers are often forced to make split-second decisions

LAPD use of force policy • LAPD use of force policy • Force may be used to... • Defend officer or others • Make an arrest or detention • Prevent escape • Overcome resistance • Force used must be “objectively reasonable” per Graham • Some factors to consider • Seriousness of crime • Level of resistance • Threat of suspect to officers and public • Potential of injury to officers, suspect & public • Presence of weapons • Relative physical attributes & level of exhaustion of officer and suspect

Use of force continuum LOW • Verbal commands • Use of hands, chemical agents INTERMEDIATE • Punching • Canine • Baton, impact weapons, less-than-lethal projectiles(i.e., rubber bullets, bean-bags) • Taser LETHAL • Any object or projectile of significant mass that forcefully strikes the head • Firearms

Less than lethal force

Kicking and punching • Are kicking and punching legitimate tactics? • Should they be? • If so, under what circumstances? • Were they necessary in these cases? • Do the videos provide sufficient info? • What other tools and techniques are available? • Keeping these issues in mind, let’s look at the next slide...

Seattle officer punches girl On June 14, 2010 a Seattle PD officer working near a school tried to cite a 19-year old female for jaywalking but she refused to cooperate and walked away. As he grabbed her arm the woman’s 17-year old friend stepped in and pushed the officer away. He punched her in the face and a struggle began. What do you think?

Here’s the “rest of the story” • News article • The 19-year old alleged jaywalker has been arrested for pushing a deputy to the ground when he was called to a group home where she was supposedly being abusive to staff members. She received a deferred disposition. • Her 17-year old friend has been arrested for robbery. A boy complained that she punched him in the face and that she and he friends robbed him and his friend of money and a cell phone. They refused to testify and charges were dropped. She was also recently arrested for stealing a minivan by breaking the ignition with a screwdriver. She received a deferred disposition. • Police Issues post: “Dancing With Hooligans”

Inglewood incident • In July 2002 an Inglewood police officer wascaught on an amateur video slamming ahandcuffed black youth against a patrol carand punching him. • The youth had been arrested for allegedlyinterfering during a traffic stop of the car hisfather was driving. • Two white officers were tried. • One officer was acquitted of falsifying a police report and was reinstated. • Charges of assault against a second officer were dismissed after juries deadlocked twice (7-5 for conviction, then 6-6). The officer was fired. • A black officer was also disciplined. • Both white officers later won a lawsuit against the city for reverse discrimination and were awarded a total of more than $1.5 million. The city then sued the law firm it had retained to handle the case for incompetence. • In January 2010 DOJ demanded use of force reforms by Inglewood PD, calling its rules outdated and internal investigations deeply flawed

Videotaped Officer Won't Be ChargedThe decision was denounced by minority leaders and L.A. Mayor Hahn After a five-month review, the LA District Attorney concludedthat there wasn't enough evidence to charge OfficerJohn Hatfield, who struck suspect Stanley Miller 11 times witha 2-pound steel flashlight after a June 23, 2004 car-and-footchase in South L.A."In light of the totality of the circumstances facing OfficerHatfield, we cannot establish beyond a reasonable doubt that[his] actions were without legal necessity," said Deputy D.A.Margo Baxter.Miller, who is black, was beaten after appearing to surrender.The arrest, which was videotaped by television newshelicopters, was compared to the 1991 beating of Rodney King.Hatfield, who is Hispanic, ran up and joined other officers whohad pushed Miller to the ground at the end of a foot chase. Officer Hatfield was fired by LAPD Chief Bratton after athree-officer police board of rights found that the one kick,11 flashlight blows and five knee blows demonstrated that the officer was “at best, out of control.” Chief Bratton said this type of flashlight would be “phased out. In November 2006 Miller’s civil rights lawsuit was settled by Los Angeles for $450,000.

Officers often respondemotionally • Appearances are important • What we can realistically expect? • From officers? • From citizens? • Are there limits to training and rulemaking? • Uncertain and threatening environment • Impact of chases and critical incidents • Dispassionate oversight is often required • Supervisors can’t do their jobs if they’re (a) unavailable or (b) always want to be liked • Command staff must be present whenever there is the possibility of a confrontation between officers and multiple citizens • Police Issues: “Good Cop/Bad Cop”

Birminghamincident • On 1/23/08 a man being questioned about drugdealing by Birmingham (Alabama) police took off,leading officers on a long chase. One cop wasstruck and injured by the vehicle. • After 22 minutes the suspect’s vehicle rolled.The man was ejected and knocked unconscious. Five officers pounced on him, kicking and beating him with a club and fists. • The suspect pled guilty to felony assault and is serving a ten-year term. The beating was covered up for over a year. On May 19, 2009 five officers were fired for unnecessary and excessive force and face prosecution. Other officers who helped in the cover-up also face discipline.

El Monte incident • On 5/13/09 El Monte PD pursued a vehiclethat did not yield for a traffic stop. It wasoccupied by three gang members. • During a slow-speed part of the chase oneof the gang members exited the vehicle and gave himself up. The others remained in the car until it crashed some time later into a parked car. The passenger surrendered; the driver, Richard Rodriguez, a parolee at large, ran off. • Rodriguez was eventually cornered and lay down. Newscopter video depicts an El Monte police officer, gun drawn, approaching Rodriguez. The officer kicks Rodriguez for no obvious reason, striking him in the head. Other officers then arrive and Rodriguez is handcuffed. • Police Issues “Kicking a Suspect When He’s Down”

Houston incident In March 2010 Houston police officerschased down Chad Holley, a 15-year old youth who had just burglarized a self-storagefacility. A video of the incident was recorded by a camera on the site. It depicts a police car bumping Holley. Officers then swarmed the youth and pummeling him with their feet and fists. The youth had locked his hands behind his head and was otherwise not resisting . Disciplinary actions were initiated after the department received the unsolicited videotape in the mail. Four officers were indicted on misdemeanor assault charges and fired. Two of these were also charged with violating the civil rights of a prisoner, also a misdemeanor. Three other officers including a sergeant were fired. The youth was convicted of burglary and placed on probation. He filed a Federal civil rights lawsuit against two of the officers.

Taser spurs two opinions --are they contradictory? • Mattos v. Agarano (9th. Circuit, no. 08-15567, 1/12/10) • Officers responded to a family fight. They encountered adrunk husband and a sober wife. When they stepped in toarrest the husband, the wife wound up in the middle. • The arresting officer bumped against the wife. She raised her palms to keep the officer away, touching him in the process. The officer stepped back and tased her. • The man and wife sued under 42 USC 1983. The District judge denied qualified immunity and let the case to go forward. The Ninth Circuit overruled, saying that under the circumstances and close quarters the use of force was reasonable. • Bryan v. McPherson & Coronado P.D. (9th. Circuit, no. 08-55622, 12/28/09, 11/30/10) • Shortly after getting a speeding ticket a young man was pulled over for not wearing a seat belt. He was wearing nothing other than boxer shorts. • He stepped outside his car. He was clearly agitated but not threatening anyone. From about 20 feet away a police officer ordered him back into the car. When he didn’t the officer fired a Taser without warning. The man fell and was injured. • In an amended ruling, the Ninth Circuit held that the force used was excessive but that the officer was entitled to qualified immunity because the law on using the Taser was not clearly settled when the incident occurred.

Deadly force

Justifiable homicide generally • California Penal Code, sec. 196, homicide by public officers • When necessarily committed in overcoming actual resistance to execution of legal process, or in the discharge of a legal duty • When necessarily committed in retaking felons who have escaped, or when necessarily committed to arrest persons charged with felony, and who are fleeing or resisting • California Penal Code, sec. 197, homicide by any person • When resisting any attempt to murder any person, or to commit a felony, or to do some great bodily injury upon any person • When necessary to arrest for a felony, or in lawfully suppressing any riot, or in lawfully keeping and preserving the peace • BUT: Tennessee v. Garner, 471 U.S. 1 (US Supreme Court, 1985) • Cannot use deadly force to apprehend escaping suspects unless they pose a threat of serious injury to the officer or other persons

LAPD policy on using deadly force • LAPD policy • Protect officers or others from imminent threat ofdeath or serious bodily injury; or, • Prevent a crime that poses imminent jeopardy ofdeath or serious bodily injury; or,  • Prevent the escape of a violent fleeing felon if there isprobable cause to believe the escape will pose a significantthreat of death or serious bodily injury to the officer or others • Attempt must be made to avoid injuring or killing innocent persons • Warning shots require exceptional justification • No shooting from or at moving vehicles except in immediate defense of life • Getting out of the way is the best response

US DOJ policy on use of deadly force:Fleeing suspects “Deadly force may be used to prevent the escape of a fleeing subject if there is probable cause to believe:(1) the subject has committed a felony involving the infliction or threatened infliction of serious physical injury or death, and(2) the escape of the subject would pose an imminent danger of death or serious physical injury to the officer or to another person.” Armed carjacker pursued by several agencies. He bails out, runs away, is pursued by a police officer on foot. Officer shoots and kills the suspect, whom he said turned at him a pointed the pistol. The weapon is recovered at the scene.

Some situations are ambiguous Parolee suspected in jewelry thefts drives off with associate as plainclothes deputies prepare to serve a search warrant at his residence. Deputies chase parolee, shoot and kill him when he bangs up police cars and refuses to surrender. Passenger is arrested. He allegedly tells police that he and the driver knew it was the cops. Passenger later became a suspect in the thefts and a fugitive. L.A. Times, 12/9/05

Information processing inrapidly shifting situations Constraints on decision-making -- Confusion and uncertainty -- Fear and excitement -- Limited information -- Lack of time to gather and analyze information, review options and make an informed decision -- Police Issues: “Making Time” Could deadly force have been used? Should it have been used? If so, at what point(s)? What would be the justification?

Three NYPDdetectives indicted • NY Times articlepodcast • On 11/25/06 five NYPD detectives, two white andthree black, fired 50 rounds at a vehicle occupied bythree unarmed black men, killing Sean Bell, 23, and wounding Joseph Guzman and Trent Benefield. • One detective fired 31 shots, reloading once. Thedetectives, members of a club squad, thought that the men were armed and that a shot had been fired. • Officers approached the car and ordered the men to exit. Instead the driver, Sean Bell, gunned it forward, striking an officer in the leg and a police van. Bell was legally drunk. • Two officers were indicted for manslaughter, one for reckless endangerment. • In April 2008 the officers were tried by a judge and acquitted. The judge said that he did not believe the victim’s witnesses, in part because they had records and had changed their stories. • In July 2010 New York settled: $3.25M to Bell’s survivors, $3M to Guzman and $900K to Benefield

LAPD Shooting ofDevin Brown • On 2/6/05 an LAPD officer shot and killedDevin Brown at the end of an early-morningpursuit. The 13-year old was driving a stolencar while under the influence of alcohol or drugs. • After stopping Brown jammed his car in reverse and backed up, striking the police car. • The officer said he fired because he thought that Brown was trying to crush him. A late-coming witness said that the officer, who had exited his car, was nearly “sandwiched”, leapt out of the way at the last moment and instantly began firing. • On 12/5/05 the L.A. County DA issued a detailed report on the incident. The DA refused to charge the officer, concluding that his use of force was not unreasonable under the circumstances. • The shooting was later determined to be “in policy” by Chief Bratton, who said the officer was defending himself. But Chief Bratton was overruled by the L.A. Police Commission, which determined the shooting was unnecessary.  

Chief Bratton and the PoliceCommission disagree • Chief Bratton ruled that the shooting was consistent with department policy, which allows officers to shoot at a vehicle if it presents an immediate danger. The D.A. declined to file charges against the officer. • Later, on 1/31/06, the LA Police Commission voted 4-1 that the officer who shot Devin Brown violated departmental policy. It based its decision on a reconstruction showing that the rounds entered the car at an angle, placing the officer to its side. • John Mack was appointed Chairperson of the Commission after the shooting. A “civil rights activist and long-time LAPD critic,” he had already criticized the officer’s actions.

Airman shot by San Bernardino deputy On January 29, 2005 a 21-year old passenger wasshot by a SBSO deputy after the vehicle he wasin crashed during a pursuit. Witnesses say that a deputy ordered Elio Carrion,21, an Air Force security officer, to the groundand that Carrion complied. There is confusionabout what happened later, but a grainy videotapemade by an onlooker suggests that Carrion wastold to get up. When he did so, the deputy fired,striking Carrion three times. Carrion will recover. The videotape recorded Carrion’s pre-shooting comments that he was “on the deputy’s side”, expletives shouted by the deputy, and Carrion’s protests after he was shot that he was complying with the deputies. Deputies were trying to stop the Corvette for speeding. Its driver has an extensive driving record. Neither he nor Carrion were armed or wanted. The officer, Deputy Ivory Webb, was tried for attempted voluntary manslaughter. He was acquitted. During trial an expert defense witness gave examples of officers behaving oddly during a crisis: “Their analytical process began to collapse. They had so much to do that, literally, they were overloaded.”

Persons with knives

Westlake Districtshooting (LAPD) • LA Times article • On September 5, 2010 a pedestrian alerted threeLAPD bicycle cops that a man was threatening passers-by with a knife. • Cops quickly found Manuel Jamines, 37, a Guatemalan national, and approached him on foot. Police say Jamines was waving a knife. Officers ordered him in English and Spanish to drop the weapon. Instead, Jamines allegedly held the knife high and advanced on officer Frank Hernandez, a 13-year veteran. • Hernandez did not have a Taser. He fired twice, striking Jamines in the head and killing him. • Jamines, a day laborer, was drunk. A folding knife with a six-inch blade was recovered. • Relatives said that Jamines had an alcohol problem and had been drinking since that morning.  A cousin told Jamines to go home but the man didn’t listen. • Days of demonstrations followed. The officer involved had two previous shootings. In 2008 he shot and wounded a man who turned out to be unarmed and was not the suspect police were seeking. A lawsuit is pending. • Police Issues: Every Cop Needs a Taser

Seattle PD shooting • Seattle Times article • On August 30, 2010 John Williams, 50, an Indian woodcarver was walking in downtown Seattle, carrying a 3-inch folding knife and whittling on a board. • Williams was a homeless alcoholic. He had misdemeanor arrests and a conviction for felony indecent exposure.  A staff member at the shelter where he lived said he was deeply troubled and could be explosively aggressive when drunk. • A Seattle cop with two years on the job caught sight of Williams. He exited his vehicle and approached Williams, whom he didn’t know. From about ten feet away he repeatedly ordered him to drop the knife. The officer did not have a Taser. • Williams is hard of hearing.  He turned towards the officer but held on to the knife. Whether he then advanced on the cop, as the officer claims, hasn’t been confirmed • The officer fired four times, striking Williams in the chest and killing him. A police inquiry board has since ruled that the shooting was improper. A final determination awaits a coroner’s inquest. • Seattle PD says it will start equipping more cops with Tasers. • Police Issues : Sometimes a Drunk

“Contagion” shootings

Riverside PD shootingof Tyisha Miller • In December 1998 four Riverside PD officersresponded to a citizen in distress call. Theyfound a black 19-year old woman in the driver’sseat of a parked car, foaming at the mouth andapparently unconscious. A handgun was in her lap. • The car was locked and the officers couldn’t get the woman to respond so they decided to break in. As they tried the woman suddenly woke up. One or more officers thought that she went for her gun and fired. So did the others. In all they fired 24 rounds. Half struck the woman, instantly killing her. • The shooting provoked great anger. The four officers were fired along with their Sergeant, who made inappropriate comments about black persons. • The D.A. refused to prosecute. The California Atty. General had Riverside PD placed under court supervision to improve training, tactics and equipment. Steps were taken to improve community relations. A new chief was hired. • Each officer sued. Three were reinstated and given disability retirements. The other two, both probationers, were not reinstated.

L.A. County Sheriff’sDept., Compton • On May 9, 2005 LASD deputiesapproached the victim’s vehicle whileinvestigating a shots fired call. • The victim, a multi-convicted felon who was unarmed but on drugs, panicked and led officers on a slow-speed chase through a residential area of Compton. • His path blocked, the victim tried to drive around a police car while a dozen deputies approach on foot. They opened fire -- each deputy said he was protecting another from being potentially run down. • Ten deputies fired a total of one-hundred twenty shots were fired by ten deputies. Nine struck the victim. Sixty-six struck his vehicle. Eleven hit other deputies’ vehicles. Eleven struck residences. • Sheriff Baca disciplined the deputies for their uncontrolled fire. • A civil jury awarded the victim $1,326,468 for excessive force.

LAPD chases, kills19-year old • Early morning, April 12, 2012 LAPD tried to pullover Abdul Arian, 19 for reckless driving. Arianthen led police on a wild freeway chase. • During the chase Arian warned 911 that he was armed and ready to shoot it out.  “I have been arrested before for possession of destructive devices, I’m not afraid of the cops. If they pull their guns, I'm going to have to pull my gun out on them.” • Arian finally stopped his vehicle, exited and assumed what looked like a shooting stance. It turns out he was holding a cell phone. LAPD officers fired as many as 90 rounds, killing him. • Arian was a one-time police Explorer scout who was dropped for “disciplinary reasons.” Relatives described him as a law-abiding youth who wasn’t into guns or drugs.  Yet his Facebook page mentioned a trip to a shooting range. • Arian had also been expressing strong fears of the LAPD.  One of his Facebook postings, captioned “just always after me,” depicts a police car in his rear view-mirror, its red lights on. Another post reads “done crying...tired of trying...yeah im smiling...but inside im dying.” • Police Issues post

Police Pursuit

Lake View Terracepursuit (LAPD) • FOX News coverage • On June 10, 2010 LAPD officers responded to reports of a drug transaction involving armed men. When cops arrived a vehicle with three suspects took off. • As the pursuit entered a residential area the car’s occupants tossed two handguns. Seconds later the suspect vehicle went out of control while negotiating a sharp turn. It went onto the sidewalk and crushed a six-year old girl against a wall, instantly killing her. • The vehicle’s two passengers, JuanquinHiriarte, 34 and Manuel Ydiarte, 49 were immediately arrested.  The driver, Aaron Rojas, 32, was taken into custody two hours later when a police dog found him hiding in the trash. • All were charged with murder, felony evading and being ex-cons with guns.  Ydiarte was also charged with possessing heroin for sale. • Local residents wondered why police would chase in a residential area.  LAPD Chief Charlie Beck said officers were dealing with armed criminals and that the pursuit was “very brief.”  He also said that deciding to chase was a “tough call” and had he known what would happen he would have told officers not to come to work. • Police Issues: Is it When to Chase, or If?

Eight dead in Dinuba • On 8/8/09 Dinuba police tried to pull overa Dodge Neon with three occupants for atraffic infraction. • The vehicle sped away, with police in pursuit. The chase left the city and entered rural roads. The truck blew two stop signs. At the second it collided with a pickup truck carrying a family of two adults and four children ages 1 - 7. None of the children were secured and all were ejected. • All three occupants of the Dodge Neon were killed, along with the four children. One adult occupant of the truck was killed and the other was left in critical condition. • It turns out that the Dodge Neon had been carjacked the previous evening.

Pursuit policies • USA Today (4/23/10) In 2008, 334 persons, including94 bystanders, were killed in police pursuits accordingto the NHTSA. • No systematic nationwide tally; crashes after police stop aren’t counted • Pursuit policies around the country vary greatly • LAPD (relatively permissive policy) • Nature of crime • Can pursue misdemeanor and felony suspects trying to avoid arrest • Cannot pursue solely for an infraction or misdemeanor evading or reckless driving • Other considerations • Seriousness of offense in terms of community safety • Risk to public by pursuing • Traffic, weather • Can violator be apprehended later? • Field units must assume secondary role when air unit arrives  

Pursuit policies (cont’d) • New Jersey (relatively restrictive policy) • Nature of crime • Serious crimes punishable by at leastfive years in prison, OR • Person poses an immediate threat tothe safety of police or the public • No pursuit for traffic violations unless meets the “threat” requirement • Other considerations • Road and weather conditions • Likelihood of capture without pursuing • Degree of risk to the public by pursuing • Must terminate pursuit if... • Ordered by a supervisor • Unreasonable danger to police or public • Violator has been identified and can arrest later

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• Elizabeth Irvine Librarian, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Franzello Aeromedical Library, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH
• Cathy Stahl Library Technician, United States School of Aerospace Medicine Franzello Aeromedical Library, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, O
• Kristen Young Branch Chief, Franzello Aeromedical Library, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

Background : Academic libraries play a significant role in the student learning process. However, student needs and preferences as well as new paradigms of learning are driving libraries to transition from quiet book repositories to places of collaboration and open information. This descriptive, mixed methods case presentation explores the transition of one library, the United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine Franzello Aeromedical Library, in three key areas: collection, capability, and facility. Due to the niche subject matter and audience the library serves, this case also describes how the Franzello Aeromedical Library’s distinct collection and capability remained intact throughout modernization.

Case Presentation : The Franzello Aeromedical Library’s modernization project aimed to augment the library as a cutting-edge resource supporting USAFSAM's education, consultation, and research mission to equip Aerospace Medicine Airmen with the skills and knowledge for healthcare delivery in austere environments. This project was approached using five phases: 1) best practices baseline, 2) baseline evaluation of library visitor needs, 3) collection weeding, 4) capability, and 5) space design and construction.

Conclusion : As a result of this complex two-year project, several recommendations were gleaned. Use the effort as an opportunity to market library services to new audiences. Ensure all stakeholders are at the table from day one and in perpetuity to save time, and consider using purposeful decision-making models, such as Courses of Action, to make tough calls. Be prepared for delays by padding your timeline and compromise where necessary to keep the project alive. Finally, the authors recommend using in-project discovery and findings to plan for future need justification.

Author Biographies

Melanie lazarus, dean and professor of medical education, united states school of aerospace medicine, air force research laboratory, wright-patterson air force base, oh.

Dean and Professor of Medical Education, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

Theresa Bedford, Assistant Dean of Operations Research & Evidence Based Medicine United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

Assistant Dean of Operations Research & Evidence Based Medicine United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

Sara Craycraft, Librarian, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Franzello Aeromedical Library, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

Librarian, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Franzello Aeromedical Library, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

Elizabeth Irvine, Librarian, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Franzello Aeromedical Library, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

Cathy stahl, library technician, united states school of aerospace medicine franzello aeromedical library, united states school of aerospace medicine, wright-patterson air force base, o.

Library Technician, United States School of Aerospace Medicine Franzello Aeromedical Library, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, O

Kristen Young, Branch Chief, Franzello Aeromedical Library, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

Branch Chief, Franzello Aeromedical Library, United States School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

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Copyright (c) 2024 Melanie Lazarus, Theresa Bedford, Sara Craycraft, Elizabeth Irvine, Cathy Stahl, Kristen Young

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

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