essay on biological psychology

Biological Psychology: Development and Theories Essay

Introduction.

Biology and psychology help researchers, medical professionals and psychologists to understand the behavior of human beings and animals. Therefore, biological psychology is used to examine the behavior of the humans and animals in order to facilitate in the treatment of the brain. Biological psychology is also referred to as behavioral neural science, biopsychology, clinical neuropsychology, and physiological psychology. Biological psychologists use the knowledge that they acquire from psychology to help them treat mental illness cases efficiently.

They also focus on issues related to mental processes and the manner in which they are initiated in the brain (Chavez, 2009). The goal of this paper therefore is to define biological psychology, discuss the historical development of biological psychology, stipulate important theorists who are associated with biological psychology, show the relationship between biological psychology and other fields of psychology and neuroscience, and discuss the major assumptions of that are associated with bio-psychology.

Biological Psychology

Bio-psychology studies human emotional and affective processes thereby helping biological psychologists to devise ways of assisting people to cope with different mental problems. It focuses on the brain and the manner in which it influences the performance of the entire nervous system. In this case, it focuses on people’s ability to think, feel, learn, perceive and sense. Studies reveal that these characteristics are similar in humans and animals (Hubpages Inc, 2012). It also focuses on the biological processes that influence normal and abnormal behavior in humans and animals.

Historical Development of Biological Psychology

The environment influences the evolution process of human beings and animals. As the state of the environment changes, the behavior of human beings and animals also changes in order to help them adapt to their new surroundings. As a result, it is true that biology and psychology work together to help people understand the relationship between human and animal behavior. Therefore, the idea of bio-psychology was first put into practice during the Greek era. It was adopted between the 18h and 19 th centuries. In this case, Plato proposed that the brain is the vital organ that facilitates reasoning. On the other hand, Descartes stipulated that the mind and body work in a different manner. He argued that the mind is non-physical and that it influences behavior among human beings and animals (Pinel, 2009).

Researchers and theorists who supported biological psychology made it possible for people to understand mental illnesses deeply and how they influence people’s behaviors. However, when the concept of biological phycology was proposed, many people argued that it would not be possible to understand how the brain works without touching and testing it. As a result, animals were dissected and tested in order to help people understand the complexities that are found in the brain. Without testing the brain, it would not be possible for people to understand how the brain works. Today, many psychologists, researchers and doctors are working hard in order to help them treat those people who have mental problems (Lee, 2011). However, they cannot manage to treat people who have mental problems if they do not understand the functions of the brain thoroughly.

Theorists Associated With Biological Psychology

The major theorists associated with biological psychology are Rene Descartes, Thomas Willis and Luigi Galvani. Descartes believed that the flow of animal spirits influences their behavior. He also believed that human beings follow the same trend. On the other hand, Thomas Willis stipulated that the structure of the brain influences the behavior of human beings and animals. He is associated with the discovery of the white and gray matter that is present in the brain. Moreover, Luigi Galvani stipulated that the nervous tissues are powered by electricity (Lee, 2011).

Relationship Between Biopsychology and Other Fields of Psychology and Neuroscience

Biopsychology is a vital area of study because it supplies information to all fields of psychology. This is because all fields of psychology focus on the study of behaviors and the functions of the brain. Moreover, studies show that biological psychologists study cognitive neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, and neuropsychology. For example, biopsychology analyzes behavioral problems and the manner in which they influence the performance of the brain and the nervous system (Hubpages Inc, 2012). Other fields of psychology and neuroscience follow the same trend. Therefore, it is true that biopsychology is related to psychology and neuroscience.

Assumptions Associated With Biopsychology

Studies reveal that social, psychological and biological factors influence the mental and physical wellbeing of a person. As a result, there are various assumptions that support the validity of biopsychology. There are two assumptions which govern biopsychology. The first assumption stipulates that mental processes influence biological processes (Chavez, 2009). On the other hand, biological processes influence mental processes. Therefore, it is true that both mental and biological processes are related to each other.

From the analysis therefore, it is true that biopsychology is a branch of psychology. Biopsychology adopts biological concepts in order to explain animal and human behavior. However, if medical professionals, researchers and psychologists fail to develop a better understanding of the human mind, the term biopsychology will seize to exist. Therefore, it is true that human beings should learn more about the brain so that they can be able to address the complexities of the brain efficiently.

Chavez, C. H. (2009). What is biological psychology? Web.

Hubpages Inc. (2012). Biological Psychology Definition . Web.

Lee, J. (2011). Biopsychology. Web.

Pinel, J. P. (2009). Biopsychology. Boston MA: Allyn and Bacon.

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The Role of the Biological Perspective in Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

Main Topic Areas

Example of the biological perspective, strengths of the biological perspective, weaknesses of the biological perspective.

There are many different ways of thinking about topics in psychology. The biological perspective is a way of looking at psychological issues by studying the physical basis for animal and human behavior. It is one of the major perspectives in psychology and involves such things as studying the brain, immune system , nervous system, and genetics.

One of the major debates in psychology has long centered on the relative contributions of nature versus nurture . Those who take up the nurture side of the debate suggest that it is the environment that plays the greatest role in shaping behavior. The biological perspective tends to stress the importance of nature.

The Biological Perspective

This field of psychology is often referred to as biopsychology or physiological psychology. This branch of psychology has grown tremendously in recent years and is linked to other areas of science including biology, neurology, and genetics.The biological perspective is essentially a way of looking at human problems and actions.

The study of physiology and biological processes has played a significant role in psychology since its earliest beginnings . Charles Darwin first introduced the idea that evolution and genetics play a role in human behavior.

Natural selection, first described by Charles Darwin, influences whether certain behavior patterns are passed down to future generations. Behaviors that aid in survival are more likely to be passed down while those that prove dangerous are less likely to be inherited.

Consider an issue like aggression. The psychoanalytic perspective might view aggression as the result of childhood experiences and unconscious urges. The behavioral perspective considers how the behavior was shaped by association, reinforcement , and punishment . A psychologist with a social perspective might look at the group dynamics and pressures that contribute to such behavior.

The biological viewpoint, on the other hand, would involve looking at the biological roots that lie behind aggressive behaviors. Someone who takes the biological perspective might consider how certain types of brain injury might lead to aggressive actions. Or they might consider genetic factors that can contribute to such displays of behavior.

Biopsychologists study many of the same things that other psychologists do, but they are interested in looking at how biological forces shape human behaviors. Some topics that a psychologist might explore using this perspective include:

• Analyzing how trauma to the brain influences behaviors
• Assessing the differences and similarities in twins to determine which characteristics are tied to genetics and which are linked to environmental influences
• Exploring how genetic factors influence such things as aggression
• Investigating how degenerative brain diseases impact how people act
• Studying how genetics and brain damage are linked to mental disorders

This perspective has grown considerably in recent years as the technology used to study the brain and nervous system has grown increasingly advanced.

Today, scientists use tools such as PET and MRI scans to look at how brain development, drugs, disease, and brain damage impact behavior and cognitive functioning.

An example of the biological perspective in psychology is the study of how brain chemistry may influence depression. Antidepressants affect these neurotransmitter levels, which may help alleviate depression symptoms.

However, research on biological psychology has also disputed the idea that serotonin levels are responsible for depression, so more research is needed in this area to better understand the impact of brain chemicals on depression symptoms.

The use of brain imaging to understand how the brain and nervous system influence human behavior is another example of the biological perspective in psychology.

The Biological Perspective of Personality

The biological perspective of personality is another example of how looking at biological and genetic factors can be used to understand different aspects of psychology. The biological perspective of personality focuses on the biological factors that contribute to personality differences.

This perspective suggests that personality is influenced by genetic and biological factors. Temperament, which is the biologically-influenced pattern that emerges early in life, is one example of how the biological perspective can be used to understand human personality.

One of the strengths of using the biological perspective to analyze psychological problems is that the approach is usually very scientific. Researchers utilize rigorous empirical methods, and their results are often reliable and practical. Biological research has helped yield useful treatments for a variety of psychological disorders .

The weakness of this approach is that it often fails to account for other influences on behavior. Things such as emotions , social pressures, environmental factors, childhood experiences, and cultural variables can also play a role in the formation of psychological problems.

For that reason, it is important to remember that the biological approach is just one of the many different perspectives in psychology. By utilizing a variety of ways of looking a problem, researchers can come up with different solutions that can have helpful real-world applications.

A Word From Verywell

There are many different perspectives from which to view the human mind and behavior and the biological perspective represents just one of these approaches.

By looking at the biological bases of human behavior, psychologists are better able to understand how the brain and physiological processes might influence the way people think, act, and feel. This perspective also allows researchers to come up with new treatments that target the biological influences on psychological well-being.

Beauchaine TP, Neuhaus E, Brenner SL, Gatzke-Kopp L. Ten good reasons to consider biological processes in prevention and intervention research .  Dev Psychopathol . 2008;20(3):745-774. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000369

Moncrieff J, Cooper RE, Stockmann T, Amendola S, Hengartner MP, Horowitz MA.  The serotonin theory of depression: A systematic umbrella review of the evidence .  Mol Psychiatry . 2022. doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01661-0

Hockenbury, DH & Hockenbury SE. Discovering Psychology . New York: Worth Publishers; 2011.

Pastorino, EE, Doyle-Portillo, SM. What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications, and Integration . Boston, MA: Cengage Learning; 2015.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Chapter 2. Introduction to Major Perspectives

2.1 Biological Psychology

Jennifer Walinga

Learning Objectives

• Understand the core premises of biological psychology and the early thinkers.
• Critically evaluate empirical support for various biological psychology theories.
• Explore applications and implications of key concepts from this perspective.

Biological psychologists  are  interested in measuring biological, physiological, or genetic variables in an attempt to relate them to psychological or behavioural variables . Because all behaviour is controlled by the central nervous system, biological psychologists seek to understand how the brain functions in order to understand behaviour. Key areas of focus include sensation and perception; motivated behaviour (such as hunger, thirst, and sex); control of movement; learning and memory; sleep and biological rhythms; and emotion. As technical sophistication leads to advancements in research methods, more advanced topics such as language, reasoning, decision making, and consciousness are now being studied.

Biological psychology has its roots in early structuralist and functionalist psychological studies, and as with all of the major perspectives, it has relevance today. In section 1.2, we discuss the history and development of functionalism and structuralism. In this chapter, we extend this discussion to include the theoretical and methodological aspects of these two approaches within the biological perspective and provide examples of relevant studies.

The early structural and functional psychologists believed that the study of conscious thoughts would be the key to understanding the mind. Their approaches to the study of the mind were based on systematic and rigorous observation, laying the foundation for modern psychological experimentation. In terms of research focus, Wundt and Titchener explored topics such as attention span, reaction time, vision, emotion, and time perception, all of which are still studied today.

Wundt’s primary method of research was introspection , which involves training people to concentrate and report on their conscious experiences as they react to stimuli.  This approach is still used today in modern neuroscience research; however, many scientists criticize the use of introspection for its lack of empirical approach and objectivity. Structuralism was also criticized because its subject of interest – the conscious experience – was not easily studied with controlled experimentation. Structuralism’s reliance on introspection, despite Titchener’s rigid guidelines, was criticized for its lack of reliability. Critics argued that self-analysis is not feasible, and that introspection can yield different results depending on the subject. Critics were also concerned about the possibility of retrospection, or the memory of sensation rather than the sensation itself.

Today, researchers argue for introspective methods as crucial for understanding certain experiences and contexts.Two Minnesota researchers (Jones & Schmid, 2000) used autoethnography, a narrative approach to introspective analysis (Ellis, 1999), to study the phenomenological experience of the prison world and the consequent adaptations and transformations that it evokes. Jones, serving a year-and-a-day sentence in a maximum security prison, relied on his personal documentation of his experience to later study the psychological impacts of his experience.

From Structuralism to Functionalism

As structuralism struggled to survive the scrutiny of the scientific method, new approaches to studying the mind were sought. One important alternative was functionalism, founded by William James in the late 19th century, described and discussed in his two-volume publication The Principles of Psychology (1890) (see Chapter 1.2 for details). Built on structuralism’s concern for the anatomy of the mind, functionalism led to greater concern about the functions of the mind, and later on to behaviourism.

One of James’s students, James Angell, captured the functionalist perspective in relation to a discussion of free will in his 1906 text Psychology: An Introductory Study of the Structure and Function of Human Consciousness :

Inasmuch as consciousness is a systematising, unifying activity, we find that with increasing maturity our impulses are commonly coordinated with one another more and more perfectly. We thus come to acquire definite and reliable habits of action. Our wills become formed. Such fixation of modes of willing constitutes character. The really good man is not obliged to hesitate about stealing. His moral habits all impel him immediately and irrepressibly away from such actions. If he does hesitate, it is in order to be sure that the suggested act is stealing, not because his character is unstable. From one point of view the development of character is never complete, because experience is constantly presenting new aspects of life to us, and in consequence of this fact we are always engaged in slight reconstructions of our modes of conduct and our attitude toward life. But in a practical common-sense way most of our important habits of reaction become fixed at a fairly early and definite time in life.

Functionalism considers mental life and behaviour in terms of active adaptation to the person’s environment. As such, it provides the general basis for developing psychological theories not readily testable by controlled experiments such as applied psychology. William James’s functionalist approach to psychology was less concerned with the composition of the mind than with examining the ways in which the mind adapts to changing situations and environments. In functionalism, the brain is believed to have evolved for the purpose of bettering the survival of its carrier by acting as an information processor . [1] In processing information the brain is considered to execute functions similar to those executed by a computer and much like what is shown in Figure 2.3 below of a complex adaptive system.

The functionalists retained an emphasis on conscious experience. John Dewey, George Herbert Mead, Harvey A. Carr, and especially James Angell were the additional proponents of functionalism at the University of Chicago. Another group at Columbia University, including James McKeen Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth, shared a functionalist perspective.

Biological psychology is also considered reductionist . For the reductionist , the simple is the source of the complex . In other words, to explain a complex phenomenon (like human behaviour) a person needs to reduce it to its elements. In contrast, for the holist , the whole is more than the sum of the parts . Explanations of a behaviour at its simplest level can be deemed reductionist. The experimental and laboratory approach in various areas of psychology (e.g., behaviourist, biological, cognitive) reflects a reductionist position. This approach inevitably must reduce a complex behaviour to a simple set of variables that offer the possibility of identifying a cause and an effect (i.e., the biological approach suggests that psychological problems can be treated like a disease and are therefore often treatable with drugs).

The brain and its functions (Figure 2.4) garnered great interest from the biological psychologists and continue to be a focus for psychologists today.  Cognitive psychologists rely on the functionalist insights in discussing how affect, or emotion , and environment or events interact and result in specific perceptions . Biological psychologists study the human brain in terms of specialized parts, or systems, and their exquisitely complex relationships. Studies have shown neurogenesis [2] in the hippocampus (Gage, 2003). In this respect, the human brain is not a static mass of nervous tissue. As well, it has been found that influential environmental factors operate throughout the life span. Among the most negative factors, traumatic injury and drugs can lead to serious destruction. In contrast, a healthy diet, regular programs of exercise, and challenging mental activities can offer long-term, positive impacts on the brain and psychological development (Kolb, Gibb, & Robinson, 2003).

The brain comprises four lobes:

• Frontal lobe: also known as the motor cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in motor skills, higher level cognition, and expressive language .
• Occipital lobe: also known as the visual cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in interpreting visual stimuli and information .
• Parietal lobe: also known as the somatosensory cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in the processing of other tactile sensory information such as pressure, touch, and pain.
• Temporal lobe: also known as the auditory cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in the interpretation of the sounds and language we hear .

Another important part of the nervous system is the peripheral nervous system , which is divided into two parts:

• The somatic nervous system, which  controls the actions of skeletal muscles .
• The sympathetic nervous system , which   controls the fight-or-flight response , a reflex that prepares the body to respond to danger in the environment .
• The parasympathetic nervous system , which works to bring the body back to its normal state after a fight-or-flight response.

Research Focus: Internal versus External Focus and Performance

Within the realm of sport psychology, Gabrielle Wulf and colleagues from the University of Las Vegas Nevada have studied the role of internal and external focus on physical performance outcomes such as balance, accuracy, speed, and endurance. In one experiment they used a ski-simulator and directed participants’ attention to either the pressure they exerted on the wheels of the platform on which they were standing (external focus), or to their feet that were exerting the force (internal focus). On a retention test, the external focus group demonstrated superior learning (i.e., larger movement amplitudes) compared with both the internal focus group and a control group without focus instructions. The researchers went on to replicate findings in a subsequent experiment that involved balancing on a stabilometer. Again, directing participants’ attention externally, by keeping markers on the balance platform horizontal, led to more effective balance learning than inducing an internal focus, by asking them to try to keep their feet horizontal. The researchers showed that balance performance or learning, as measured by deviations from a balanced position, is enhanced when the performers’ attention is directed to minimizing movements of the platform or disk as compared to those of their feet. Since the initial studies, numerous researchers have replicated the benefits of an external focus for other balance tasks (Wulf, Höß, & Prinz, 1998).

Another balance task, riding a paddle boat, was used by Totsika and Wulf (2003). With instructions to focus on pushing the pedals forward, participants showed more effective learning compared to participants with instructions to focus on pushing their feet forward. This subtle difference in instructions is important for researchers of attentional focus. The first instruction to push the pedal is external, with the participant focusing on the pedal and allowing the body to figure out how to push the pedal. The second instruction to push the feet forward is internal, with the participant concentrating on making his or her feet move.

In further biologically oriented psychological research at the University of Toronto, Schmitz, Cheng, and De Rosa (2010) showed that visual attention — the brain’s ability to selectively filter unattended or unwanted information from reaching awareness — diminishes with age, leaving older adults less capable of filtering out distracting or irrelevant information. This age-related “leaky” attentional filter fundamentally impacts the way visual information is encoded into memory. Older adults with impaired visual attention have better memory for “irrelevant” information. In the study, the research team examined brain images using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) on a group of young (mean age = 22 years) and older adults (mean age = 77 years) while they looked at pictures of overlapping faces and places (houses and buildings). Participants were asked to pay attention only to the faces and to identify the gender of the person. Even though they could see the place in the image, it was not relevant to the task at hand ( Read about the study’s findings at http://www.artsci.utoronto.ca/main/newsitems/brains-ability ).

The authors noted:

In young adults, the brain region for processing faces was active while the brain region for processing places was not. However, both the face and place regions were active in older people. This means that even at early stages of perception, older adults were less capable of filtering out the distracting information. Moreover, on a surprise memory test 10 minutes after the scan, older adults were more likely to recognize what face was originally paired with what house.

The findings suggest that under attentionally demanding conditions, such as a person looking for keys on a cluttered table, age-related problems with “tuning in” to the desired object may be linked to the way in which information is selected and processed in the sensory areas of the brain. Both the relevant sensory information — the keys — and the irrelevant information — the clutter — are perceived and encoded more or less equally. In older adults, these changes in visual attention may broadly influence many of the cognitive deficits typically observed in normal aging, particularly memory.

Key Takeaways

• Biological psychology – also known as biopsychology or psychobiology – is the application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and behaviour.
• Biological psychology as a scientific discipline emerged from a variety of scientific and philosophical traditions in the 18th and 19th centuries.
• In The Principles of Psychology (1890), William James argued that the scientific study of psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biology.
• The fields of behavioural neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology are all subfields of biological psychology.
• Biological psychologists are interested in measuring biological, physiological, or genetic variables in an attempt to relate them to psychological or behavioural variables.

Exercises and Critical Thinking

• Try this exercise with your group: Take a short walk together without talking to or looking at one another. When you return to the classroom, have each group member write down what they saw, felt, heard, tasted, and smelled. Compare and discuss reflecting on some of the assumptions and beliefs of the structuralists. Consider what might be the reasons for the differences and similarities.
• Where can you see evidence of insights from biological psychology in some of the applications of psychology that you commonly experience today (e.g., sport, leadership, marketing, education)?
• Study the functions of the brain and reflect on whether you tend toward left- or right-brain tendencies.

Image Attributions

Figure 2.3: Complex Adaptive System by Acadac (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Complex-adaptive-system.jpg) is in the public domain.

Figure 2.4: Left and Right Brain by Webber (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Left_and_Right_Brain.jpg) is in the public domain.

Angell, James Rowland. (1906).”Character and the Will”, Chapter 22 in Psychology: An Introductory Study of the Structure and Function of Human Consciousness , Third edition, revised. New York: Henry Holt and Company, p. 376-381.

Ellis, Carolyn. (1999). Heartful Autoethnography. Qualitative Health Research , 9 (53), 669-683.

Gage, F. H. (2003, September). Brain, repair yourself. Scientific American, 46–53.

James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology . New York, NY: Henry Holt and Co.

Jones, R.S. & Schmid, T. J. (2000). Doing Time: Prison experience and identity . Stamford, CT: JAI Press.

Kolb, B., Gibb, K., & Robinson, T. E. (2003). Brain plasticity and behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 12 , 1–5.

Schmitz, T.W., Cheng, F.H. & De Rosa, E. (2010). Failing to ignore: paradoxical neural effects of perceptual load on early attentional selection in normal aging. Journal of Neuroscience , 30 (44), 14750 –14758.

Totsika, V., & Wulf, G. (2003). The influence of external and internal foci of attention on transfer to novel situations and skills. Research Quarterly Exercise and Sport , 74 , 220–225.

Wulf, G., Höß, M., & Prinz, W. (1998). Instructions for motor learning: Differential effects of internal versus external focus of attention. Journal of Motor Behavior, 30 , 169–179.

• A system for taking information in one form and transforming it into another. ↵
• The generation or growth of new brain cells, specifically when neurons are created from neural stem cells. ↵

Introduction to Psychology - 1st Canadian Edition Copyright © 2014 by Jennifer Walinga is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Biological Psychology

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Biological psychology applies the principles of biology to investigate the physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms underlying behavior in humans and other animals.

• Front Matter
• 1: Biopsychology as a Course of Study
• 2: Research Methods and Ethical Considerations of Biological Psychology and Neuroscience
• 3: Evolution, Genes, and Behavior
• 4: Nervous System Anatomy
• 5: Communication within the Nervous System
• 6: The Effects of Psychoactive Drugs
• 8: Sensation and Perception
• 9: Movement
• 10: Learning and Memory
• 11: Wakefulness and Sleep
• 12: Ingestive Behaviors - Eating and Drinking
• 13: Sexuality and Sexual Development
• 14: Intelligence and Cognition
• 15: Language and the Brain
• 16: Emotion and Stress
• 17: Biological Bases of Psychological Disorders
• 18: Supplemental Content
• Back Matter

• 1: Background to Biological Psychology
• 2: Organisation of the nervous system
• 3: Neuronal communication
• 4: Sensing the environment and perceiving the world
• 5: Interacting with the world
• 6: Dysfunction of the nervous system

• 1: First Steps
• 2: Processing the Data from One Participant in the ERP CORE N400 Experiment
• 3: Processing Multiple Participants in the ERP CORE N400 Experiment
• 4: Filtering the EEG and ERPs
• 5: Referencing and Other Channel Operations
• 6: Assigning Events to Bins, Averaging, Baseline Correction, and Assessing Data Quality
• 7: Inspecting the EEG and Interpolating Bad Channels
• 8: Artifact Detection and Rejection
• 9: Artifact Correction with Independent Component Analysis
• 10: Scoring and Statistical Analysis of ERP Amplitudes and Latencies
• 11: EEGLAB and ERPLAB Scripting
• 12: Appendix 1: A Very Brief Introduction to EEG and ERPs
• 13: Appendix 2: Troubleshooting Guide
• 14: Appendix 3: Example Processing Pipeline

• Yawning and an Introduction to Sleep
• 1: Sleep Wellness
• 2: The Sleeping Brain - Neuroanatomy, Polysomnography, and Actigraphy
• 3: Circadian Rhythm
• 6: Sleep Disorders
• 7: Politics, Sleep, and You

Psychology as a Biological Science

(11 reviews)

Robert Biswas-Diener, Portland State University

Ed Diener, Universities of Utah

Copyright Year: 2020

Publisher: Noba

Language: English

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Reviewed by Angela Mar, Lecturer, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley on 12/14/21

The text does not provide an index nor references list. Moreover, the text is missing an integral part of biological psychology: the neuron. Students must first understand how the neuron works and the structure of the neuron to better understand... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The text does not provide an index nor references list. Moreover, the text is missing an integral part of biological psychology: the neuron. Students must first understand how the neuron works and the structure of the neuron to better understand complicated functions.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

I found the text unbiased and straightforward. Evolutionary psychology can be a topic in which an author's opinion can come out and stray away from the information that students need. I did not see any errors and accuracy does not seem to be a concern.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

With biological psychology there is always the potential for new groundbreaking information, but the text does a good job at mentioning new research in order to stay relevant.

Clarity rating: 3

There are some modules that are too in depth and thus don't quite fit into a textbook that should be an overview of biological psychology. It is understandable that these topics are interesting, but way outside the scope of a 2nd or 3rd year course.

Consistency rating: 4

I like how the modules fit into a framework that flows well and organized to enhance students success.

Modularity rating: 4

The text is divided into major topics consisting of several modules. I found that there were too many modules for some of the topics in order to cover in a 15 week semester. My understanding is that some of the modules could be removed or added as desired, which is something that traditional textbooks lack.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The textbook is well organized, albeit lengthy. I am not sure if the order of the modules can be changed as per the professor's preferences, but that would be a great functionality.

Interface rating: 4

I did not come across any interface issues, but I only interacted with the onlin version of the textbook.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I did not notice any grammatical errors within the textbook.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

I would like to see more culturally significant examples throughout the modules. Inclusivity is very important for students.

Reviewed by Hilary Stebbins, Associate Professor Psychological Sciences, University of Mary Washington on 7/1/20

This text covered a number of sub-fields of biological psychology that I would want to expose students to. However, despite the fact that there was in an-depth module on hormones and behavior, the text neglected to include a module about neural... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 2 see less

This text covered a number of sub-fields of biological psychology that I would want to expose students to. However, despite the fact that there was in an-depth module on hormones and behavior, the text neglected to include a module about neural communication or the role of glial cells. Some modules (psychophysiological methods in neuroscience, hormones and behavior, psychopharmacology) assume knowledge of neural communication, which is not actually covered in the text. In addition, despite the inclusion of modules on drives and well-being, I was disappointed to note that there was nothing specific in the text regarding sleep-wake regulation or circadian rhythms. I also found some of the specific modules to contain less information than I would expect. For example, there is a module on psychophysiological methods including fMRI, EEG, etc., but not much on more invasive methods involving manipulation of the nervous system. In addition, some modules on cognitive, developmental, and social aspects of psychology fail to take a biological perspective.

The material that is present seems accurate and I appreciate that each module is written by somebody with expertise in that field, helping to ensure a more accurate representation of the material. Many of the authors represent a “who’s who” within their fields. Some modules felt oversimplified, and the missing information might lead to misunderstandings by both the students and professor using the text. It’s possible that any user would need to rely on supplementary material to get a more nuanced understanding of the material.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

Due to the slightly superficial nature of most modules, the information is less likely to become obsolete than many biological psychology texts. In addition, the modular structure makes it easy to update specific sections when needed. There are some recent developments in the field that I feel are not represented, such as the increasing importance of glial cells in cellular communication, some advanced methodology such as diffusion tensor imaging or optogenetics, and the role of drugs such as ketamine for treatment of psychological disorders. I hope that the included video links are routinely monitored so as not to result in dead links for students.

The clarity of the information is dependent on the module that you are using. Some modules do a very good job at defining terminology and writing at a level appropriate for an introductory level student while others assume knowledge about biological mechanisms not detailed earlier in the text. For example, there is a module on epigenetic changes without a lot of background information on basic concepts in genetics. In addition, while there are a number of pictures included in the text to break up the content, there are few diagrams or figures that can help to supplement and clarify the material.

Consistency rating: 3

Despite each module being written by a different author, the overall structure is similar and it is easy to find things like learning objectives and discussion questions for each. For a text that focuses on psychology as a biological science, I would hope that each module would emphasize the topic covered from a biological perspective, and this is not the case. While there is more of an emphasis on biological psychology compared to what you would expect in a typical introductory psychology text, many modules (e.g. memory, attention, cognitive development) fail to take much of a biological perspective at all. Thus, the quality of the module is hit or miss depending on the topic.

Modularity rating: 5

The modular organization of the text is one of its most appealing aspects, as each can easily be assigned as a stand alone component. For the most part, each module feels fairly easy to digest as a reading assignment and I appreciate that some include videos to help to supplement the material and engage the reader.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The organization and flow is much like what you would expect from most texts on biological psychology. What makes this text strong in terms of modularity hurts it a bit in terms of flow since some topics are repeated in a number of modules while others are left out altogether. This results in the awkward placement of some information (like what a synapse is in the psychopharmacology module) in comparison with a more traditional biological psychology text.

Interface rating: 5

I found the interface to be easily navigable and was able to find relevant information quickly. Since some material appeared in unexpected modules, I liked the search feature, which allowed me to quickly identify references to specific topics. I also liked the opportunity to see the definition of vocabulary words when they appeared in the text.

I did not notice any grammatical errors. Overall the writing was strong with good editing.

This text takes a fairly western perspective, although it does attempt to include pictures of a number of cultures and backgrounds to convey its inclusivity. Unfortunately, almost every picture where a “scientist” is portrayed is that of someone who is white. Based on the author descriptions, the authorship is about 60% male and about 85% white. It would be nice if future updates included a bit more diversity in terms of authorship as well as discussion of relevant topics to biological psychology such as gender identity.

I like the format of this text, but it’s not clear who the target audience is. It feels too specific and biology focused for an introductory psychology course, but does not include enough relevant information about biological mechanisms for a course in biological psychology - even an introductory one. I could see myself using specific modules to supplement other material in my courses, but I can’t see adopting this as the primary text.

Reviewed by Melanie Peffer, Research Associate, University of Colorado Boulder on 6/11/20

This text covers a wide range of interesting topics and could be useful in a wide variety of educational contexts. However, I feel that many of the topics are too advanced for an introductory psychology course. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This text covers a wide range of interesting topics and could be useful in a wide variety of educational contexts. However, I feel that many of the topics are too advanced for an introductory psychology course.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

Content was accurate and error-free.

Some topics like epigenetics change rapidly, however necessary updates will be easy to implement.

Clarity varies depending on the section. Some modules are quite technical, whereas others are accessible to an introductory psychology student.

Each module uses a similar framework and identifies key terms which are included in a vocabulary section. I did not that the use of learning objectives varied widely in style and effectiveness across modules.

The course has clearly delineated modules by topic area, and each module is clearly broken up into submodules.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

I found myself questioning the organization of the modules and how topics flowed from one to another. It also seems odd that some modules are the only ones in a particular topic area. If one is using selections from this text it would not be an issue. However, it may be challenging to implement this textbook if it is to be used as a standalone text.

Interface rating: 3

Images and text displayed clearly, but there were navigation problems present on several of the pages. The links were broken and/or did not redirect as they were suppose too.

I did not note any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The images used included a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds. I did not observe any culturally insensitive materials.

Reviewed by Beth Mechlin, Associate Professor of Psychology & Neuroscience, Earlham College on 12/19/19

This textbook has some really interesting modules. There is a decent amount about biological psychology, and it may work well for an Introduction to Psychology course. However, I do not think it has enough detail for a Brain and Behavior (or... read more

This textbook has some really interesting modules. There is a decent amount about biological psychology, and it may work well for an Introduction to Psychology course. However, I do not think it has enough detail for a Brain and Behavior (or similar lower level biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience) course. There are some great modules that go in-depth on specific topics ("Hormones and Behavior" and "Biochemistry of Love" modules are very interesting). Unfortunately, some topics I consider foundational appear to be missing from this text. There is not a section that provides an overview of neurons, action potentials, and neurotransmitters; and I consider these topics to be crucial for an Introduction to Psychology (or Brain and Behavior) course. Thus, supplemental reading would be needed in order to adequately cover these topics.

Content appears to be accurate.

The content in this textbook generally appears to include recent scientific research (although I think the “Healthy Life” module could be updated). It seems that updates based on recent studies will be easy to implement.

Clarity rating: 4

Most of this textbook is clear and easy to understand. However, some modules contain higher level information that may require some background knowledge to fully comprehend. The actual text of the modules is generally strong, but including more images (diagrams, figures, tables, etc.) would strengthen the majority of the modules included in this book.

Consistency rating: 5

Most terms and general organization appear consistent throughout the book. However, each module is written by a different author, so there are some stylistic differences from one module to the next.

This textbook is very modular. Each reading can stand on its own. However, that means that some topics are covered multiple times, while others are left out.

Generally well organized. A professor can easily present the modules in any order s/he chooses. Some specific modules might be better with a few more subheadings in sections.

Easy to navigate to different topics. I like that you can hover over some words to get definitions. Links to videos and additional resources at the end of each module are also helpful.

I did not notice any grammatical errors.

I did not find this textbook to be offensive or insensitive. However, I think that health disparities (based on race and socioeconomic status) are an important topic in the field of Healthy Psychology, and they were barely mentioned in “The Healthy Life” module.

Reviewed by Katherine Hebert, Assistant Professor, Colorado State University on 12/6/19

This book would provide appropriate depth for a 300-level course, but not a 400-level. There is no description of neurons, synaptic communication, long-term potentiation, etc. So essentially the book gives a good overview of the important topics,... read more

This book would provide appropriate depth for a 300-level course, but not a 400-level. There is no description of neurons, synaptic communication, long-term potentiation, etc. So essentially the book gives a good overview of the important topics, but does not actually delve very deeply into the biology behind them.

The content seems accurate and sources are cited well.

Since the book doesn't delve too deeply into the physiology of behavior, and tends towards overviews of the behavior, it won't need too much updating.

Clarity rating: 5

The book is generally consistently clear throughout; I think an undergraduate would be able to follow along successfully, and the embedded videos and links would be a helpful resource.

There are certainly some inconsistencies from chapter to chapter, and this could potentially be jarring for students. Overall, the inconsistencies are more in terms of style and organization.

This varies from chapter to chapter. Many of the chapters could benefit from additional headings / more explicit organization, but overall there are no major issues.

The topics feel as though any chapter relating to cognitive science or neuroscience was grabbed and put into the book. There are many chapters that would not typically be covered in a biological psychology course, and they do not feel as if they've been written explicitly with a biological perspective, so it feels a bit muddy and jumps around quite a bit.

Interface was pretty clean.

Hardly any typos.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

I did not come across anything that could be construed as offensive. That being said, the book does not necessarily target inclusivity explicitly within its contents.

These chapters would be a great addition to a 200-level course, and maybe a 300-level course, but would not be sufficient for a 400-level course. There was hardly any content at all on cellular/molecular biological psychology.

Reviewed by Casey Henley, Assistant Professor, Michigan State University on 11/18/19

This text covers a broad range of psychology topics and provides a biological aspect to each. The detail and depth provided for each topic, though, ranges considerably throughout the book. Additionally, the addition of some topics, specifically... read more

This text covers a broad range of psychology topics and provides a biological aspect to each. The detail and depth provided for each topic, though, ranges considerably throughout the book. Additionally, the addition of some topics, specifically function of the neuron, would strengthen the text. The structure of the glossary may be frustrating to some. Since a glossary exists for each chapter, when these individual glossaries are combined into the Vocabulary section at the end of the text, it can lead to repeated information.

The material in this text was accurate, but the level of detail of each chapter varies quite a bit.

The text will need to be updated as new research becomes available. The structure of the book will allow for additional material to be added easily.

The text is well written, but the variation in level of detail throughout the chapters may lead to confusion at times. Some chapters assume a prior knowledge that may not have been explicitly covered previously in the text.

There is variation in the level of consistency among chapters. Some give a very cursory overview of their topic whereas others dive in with more depth and detail. Some chapters can stand on their own; some need background information to be fully understood.

The text lends itself well to modular use. However, this benefit can disrupt the ability to read straight through. Topics are repeated, sometimes without much additional information, so the reader is seeing the same information.

The topics are organized in a logical way, but content is sometimes repeated, and sometimes not enough background information is given. There is some consistency issues among chapters.

I had no issues related to the interface.

I found no grammatical errors.

The text did not appear to be culturally insensitive or offensive. Examples were inclusive of different races, ethnicities, and backgrounds.

Reviewed by Chris Linn, Associate Professor, SUNO on 4/4/19

For a special topics course, this book is appropriately comprehensive. It covers everything I would expect from a course on the biological underpinnings of human behavior and is not limited to a physiological perspective. As an introductory... read more

For a special topics course, this book is appropriately comprehensive. It covers everything I would expect from a course on the biological underpinnings of human behavior and is not limited to a physiological perspective. As an introductory psychology course, some of the modules are too specialized (e.g. module on autism). I would like to see more diagrams in some modules, but the embedded videos are a terrific addition.

I thought this book was highly accurate, although this varied according to the module author. Some of the modules seemed oversimplified, but it was fine as an introduction, overall.

I think this book is highly relevant for any psychology student interested in behavior from a biological perspective. I would have enjoyed this book myself as an undergraduate. Biology students with an interest in behavior would also find the book useful. As biological issues are some of the fasted advancing in psychology, the longevity of some modules might be limited. I would hope to see new additions in the future to keep pace.

Most, but not all, authors were extremely clear. This is as would be expected because modules were written by some of the top authors in their field.

Within modules, I do not see any issues with consistency. The flow of the book has its limits, as each module was written by a different author. I think this is a minor issue, and it did not distract from my overall enjoyment of the book.

Each module can largely stand alone. For the most part, modules could be assigned in any order and can even be assigned as readings for different classes. For example, it would be appropriate to assign the chapter on the history of mental illness to an abnormal psychology class or a class on the history of psychology.

Within modules, the topics are generally organized well.

The interface is fine and easy to use on a computer screen. I do not know if this would carry over to other devices, such as tablets or cellular phones. Some students might prefer a hard copy of the book. While I love the embedded video clips, they would not be available to students that with to print the pdf.

I did not notice any grammatical issues.

The text did not contain a section on cultural psychology, as I recall. Give the subject matter, I would not necessarily expect it to. However, David Buss does make mention of culture in his module on evolutionary psychology.

This text is a wonderful read, but I don't think this book is a good fit for a general, introductory psychology course. There are a few subject areas that are missing. For example, it does not attempt to address some of the more applied fields in psychology such as clinical or industrial/organizational. However I would highly recommend it for a "special topics" course in biological topics in psychology. I would personally consider using this book myself for such a course, but I might omit some of the modules that are less biological in nature. I might also select certain modules as readings for other courses.

Reviewed by Scott Bowen, Professor, Wayne State University on 12/7/18

This somewhat comprehensive textbook would be appropriate for an introduction to psychology as a biological science. While it covers a number of major areas of basic biological psychology with some in-depth discussion, there are some are some... read more

This somewhat comprehensive textbook would be appropriate for an introduction to psychology as a biological science. While it covers a number of major areas of basic biological psychology with some in-depth discussion, there are some are some missing topics that are very necessary. For example, there is no real discussion, nor are there pictures or diagrams about the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. It seems that another chapter is needed to discuss the neuron, how it functions, and how it communicates with other neurons. This omission could lead the reader to struggle with later chapters that discussion sensation and perception as well as psychopharmacology. The inclusion of a vocabulary section, discussion questions, and citations at the end of each chapter is a nice feature that would be beneficial to the student.

From what I reviewed, the material within this textbook was generally accurate. Some of the text was oversimplified at times, but I don’t think that detracts from the text.

The content appears to be up-to-date, so it should not become obsolete. I checked several of the modules and found that they had 2018 dates so the content is current. I think that the chapters are organized in such a way that new sections can be added as needed.

I found the text to be written clearly and at a level that most undergraduates could follow for a basic introduction to Biological Psychology. The lack of coverage of the neuron in the early chapters could create confusion in later chapters where neurotransmitters and signaling is discussed.

The text appears to be consistent across chapters although some chapters don’t seem to go into the depth that other chapters do.

I found the book to be clearly organized and readily divisible into smaller independent modules.

I found the book to be clearly and logically organized.

I had no problems with navigating through the chapters. The images/charts were all clear and there was no distortion.

I didn’t find any grammatical errors.

I didn’t find any of the text to be culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. There are several examples of inclusivity of race diversity, ethnicities, and backgrounds.

I completed a training webinar on open source textbooks and was asked to review a textbook as part of that experience. Generally, I think this text is a good source for an undergraduate beginning to learn the basics of biological psychology. However, I couldn’t find discussion or diagrams on neurons and how they function, so the text will have to be supplemented for this information (or a module needs to be written to cover this gap). This open textbook will have to be supplemented with recent published articles but is definitely a viable option when compared to high cost textbooks.

Reviewed by Chelsea McCoy Asadorian, Instructor, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University on 2/1/18

This textbook is very comprehensive in my opinion. It covers all the major areas of basic psychology and includes some in-depth discussion of examples within these. For example, within biological basis on behavior, there are discussions on both... read more

This textbook is very comprehensive in my opinion. It covers all the major areas of basic psychology and includes some in-depth discussion of examples within these. For example, within biological basis on behavior, there are discussions on both the macro level (brain and hormonal regulation) as well as molecular (epigenetics in psychology). There is a vocabulary section at the end of each chapter as well as discussion questions and citations. From Noba, there are many instructor's resources available as well. Still, there are gaps, which is expected when covering such a large field. This text does give students the basics so with light supplement it would seem appropriate for a introductory course or with supplement could aid in upper level courses.

From what I was able to review, this text is accurate and thorough. While details can be a little oversimplified at times, I think these are necessary in the scope of an overview of an entire field.

The author attempts to keep the content as current as possible by including details on areas that are "hot" in research right now. I don't believe that this will make this text obsolete quickly. It does at least bring in newer concepts rather than sticking to the traditional. I think that it allows is organized in such a manner that new sections could be easily added to existing as needed. Even for an individual instructor it would be easy to select the overview chapters within an unit and then simply use review articles if they should want to drive deeper into a different topic that what the author choose to use.

I think this text is written at a level that is easy to follow for an undergraduate student. In additional, the vocabulary section are the end of the chapter are useful aides as well.

I think this text is consistent across chapters.

Yes, this text is broken into sections that are mostly able to stand alone.

Overall, I think it's well done.

I didn't find any issues with the interface.

I found no issues worth mentioning.

I didn't find any material that seemed to be offensive. It might benefit from a little more discussion on cultural impacts on psychology.

Overall, I found this text to be a good source for basics within each area. I think this text as one of the few open access in this area could be used in addition to recently published reviews to give the students both the basics and detailed information without the high cost of commercial textbooks. This may not be the best option if you want one source to support a course.

Reviewed by Patti Harrison, Lecturer, Virginia Tech on 6/20/17

I found this textbook to be quite comprehensive, including the "traditional" topics usually covered in a biopsychology text , but also adding fascinating chapters on topics such as epigenetics and aging. The coverage of the material seemed... read more

I found this textbook to be quite comprehensive, including the "traditional" topics usually covered in a biopsychology text , but also adding fascinating chapters on topics such as epigenetics and aging. The coverage of the material seemed ideally appropriate for a 3000 or 4000 level course for psychology and biology majors, including higher level concepts that required understanding from other areas of science, not just biology and chemistry. Although the throughness of the content did vary by chapter/topic, overall I was impressed with the material that was presented and would certainly have no problem augmenting any area in which I considered the text to be deficient. I did notice one glaring absence - a chapter covering the neuron and how it fires, as well as the function of glial cells - also something I could easily provdie myself, but unusual to be missing from a biopsychology text. While many higher-order concepts were covered, it is highly unusual to find any physiological psychology text that does not discuss the neuron because it is the basic unit of the nervous system and understadning its physiology is essential to such areas as sensroy function and psychopharmacology.

The index at the end of the book was quite thorough. However the glossaries were placed at the end of each chapter, and, as with the content of the chapters, varied in thoroughness - also a very easily corrected problem for any adaptations of the text.

Given the rate at which information changes in the field of neuroscience, I was impressed with its accuracy and inclusiveness. In this field accuracy often is not the issue, but new structures/concepts are being found every day, so they are more frequently the material that is easy to leave out. I found this book to contain coverage of topics that are currently on the front line of investigation, such as entrainment and the psychophysiology of emotion, with a high degree of accuracy.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

As I previously mentioned, the very basic concepts of cell firing and maintaining the resting potential of the neuron were completely absent from discussion anywhere int his text. Therefore by the time the student hits the chapter on psychopharmacology, he/she will be unprepared to understand the basic mechanisms of how different drugs work. I found the chapter on psychopharmacology to be particularly short, offering only the most simplistic introduction to the topic, whereas it is central to the field of psychology, particularly clinical psychology. Almost all clients are on psychoactive medications and the therapist should have a slightly better than average understanding of how these drugs work. This text will provide only an introductory psychology level perspective on that area.

The writing was very engaging, something to be treasured in the STEM fields, where emphasis is usually more on the information being presented than on the style in which it is being presented. Since each chapter had a different author(s), this varied, but only slightly across chapters.

The consistency across chapters is poor. Some writers are clearly masters of their fields and provide extremely well-written and detailed accounts of their field, while others write short, concise introductions to their area, but leave the reader with little "meat to chew on." The internal consistency within the chapters was high and I did not always feel as if I were being introduced to another voice as I moved from chapter to chapter.

The book's modularity is what contributes to the ease of which one could address its omissions. Modules were complete and did not rely on other modules in order to fit well into the scheme of things. I would find this book easy to adapt to my own purposes, supplementing when I thought necessary and omitting topics that I did not consider particularly relevant to the course, without taking away from the "book" quality of the text.

The overall flow of the book was good. Chapters were organized in such a way that the topics seemed to flow logically from one to the next. There was some duplication in coverage, but this makes omitting certain chapters easier if the instructor wants to include other material without losing all of the material from any particular chapter.

I accessed the book as a pdf requiring Adobe Acrobat and printed selected topics for closer inspection. Both methods permitted me to find exactly what I wanted when I wanted it. It ws very easy to move throughout the book by just sliding my mouse. Between the table of contents and the index, I had no trouble locating particular terms or concepts.

The grammar was excellent - and I am a grammar gestapo, according to my students. These folks do not only write well, but they write in grammatically correct English - a rare finding in my opinion.

Given the biological nature of the book, I did not find it to be biased toward any particular culture. There were some discussions of social functioning and interpersonal relationships that were geared more toward Western European values than toward Easter/Mideastern values, but not offensively so.

I very much enjoyed reading this text and will probably adopt it for my physiological psychology text the next time I teach the course.

Reviewed by Richard Deyo, Professor, Winona State University on 8/21/16

If a comprehensive introduction to psychology as a biological science is expected from this 40-module open textbook, the reader will be disappointed. This is because each topic has been given unexpectedly cursory coverage. For example, recalling... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 1 see less

If a comprehensive introduction to psychology as a biological science is expected from this 40-module open textbook, the reader will be disappointed. This is because each topic has been given unexpectedly cursory coverage. For example, recalling that the title of the book promises to inform students about psychology as a biological science, the glossary contains no definitions for the terms neuron, nerve cell, or glial cell. Unfortunately, there really is very little about this book that would appeal to a professor wishing to take the neuroscience approach to the teaching of an Introductory Psychology course. The lack of depth extends to most topics. For example, the discussion of research methods fails to include a discussion of the different types of research designs or their interpretation, nor is there even a discussion of independent or dependent variables despite the reference to those undefined terms in a later chapter. The figures and graphics in this text are largely ineffective as tools for clarifying concepts. For example, there is no detailed diagram of how a neuron works, or even an image of how one looks, but there are two different photographs of a finger with a string tied around it (page 321 and page 342). The student is not provided with adequate information to understand difficult concepts such as neurotransmission, but is treated to numerous appealing images of babies, families, and puppies.

The material that was included was generally accurate. However there were a few minor inaccuracies in the discussion of the brain that were mainly due to oversimplification.

This book is no more vulnerable to longevity issues than any other. It will need to be updated annually. I did use the search feature on the PDF reader to check out the age of the sources and it appears that the chapters are largely updated thru the end of 2014 with three sources from 2015. So a revision will be needed at the end of 2016 to keep current.

Clarity rating: 1

The lack of depth in many of the early chapters creates serious issues with clarity in later chapters. For example, the failure to define and discuss research designs creates a problem in later chapters that refer to experimental designs (e.g. page 172) or correctly refer to the problems of interpreting correlational research (e.g., page 189). The authors of later chapters appear to assume that the students have a working knowledge that is probably not there unless it has been covered in supplemental materials outside of this book. An old idiom came to mind by the time I reached the fifth chapter: “Too many cooks spoil the broth.” This work has by my count 61 authors. To be fair, it is hard to write a book with more than two or three authors (Kandel’s Principles of Neural Science being one of the few successful examples). This work needed a strong editor.

Consistency rating: 1

Some chapters were very shallow and other chapters were assuming a depth of knowledge that was at a much higher level. The book reads as if it were aimed at two different groups of students.

Modularity rating: 1

The book is clearly organized into independent modules. The problem, however, is that the content in any one module is inadequate to cover that topic without extensive use of outside materials. Said another way the modules themselves fail to give the students adequate content to come prepared to discuss in lecture. In short, this book has many modules but not enough content within each module to support a lecture that would enrich a student’s knowledge.

There is a clear organization that is easy to follow (just not enough content).

Interface rating: 2

The free PDF version was cumbersome to navigate. The images and figures that are included (with one or two exceptions) are clear and can be enlarged without too much distortion.

No problems here.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. It is inclusive of diverse races, ethnicities, and backgrounds.

I read this text after completing a training webinar that had me fired up to try an open textbook. I was further encouraged by the fact that one of the contributors has written a textbook I had previously used and valued. Maybe my expectations were too high. I came in with over 25 years of experience teaching with high quality commercially edited and reviewed textbooks. This open textbook is not in any way comparable in quality to any text I have used previously. I now have a renewed appreciation for the editorial process and I guess it is true that you get what you pay for. Respectfully, I just cannot recommend adopting this book, especially if you are a professor at a MNSCU institution and need to be in compliance with the “Common Course Outcomes.”

Table of Contents

• Psychology as Science
• Biological Basis of Behavior
• Sensation and Perception
• Learning and Memory
• Cognition and Language
• Development
• Personality
• Emotions and Motivation
• Psychological Disorders

Ancillary Material

About the book.

This textbook provides standard introduction to psychology course content with a specific emphasis on biological aspects of psychology. This includes more content related to neuroscience methods, the brain and the nervous system. This book can be modified: feel free to add or remove modules to better suit your specific needs. Please note that the publisher requires you to login to access and download the PDF.

About the Contributors

Robert Biswas-Diener has written a number of books including Happiness: Unlocking the mysteries of psychological wealth and The Courage Quotient . He is senior editor for the free-textbook platform, Noba.

Ed Diener is a psychologist, professor, and author. Diener is a professor of psychology at the Universities of Utah and Virginia, and Joseph R. Smiley Distinguished Professor Emeritus from the University of Illinois as well as a senior scientist for the Gallup Organization. 

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Where Biology Meets Psychology : Philosophical Essays

Valerie Gray Hardcastle is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Virginia Polytechnic Institute.

A great deal of interest and excitement surround the interface between the philosophy of biology and the philosophy of psychology, yet the area is neither well defined nor well represented in mainstream philosophical publications. This book is perhaps the first to open a dialogue between the two disciplines. Its aim is to broaden the traditional subject matter of the philosophy of biology while informing the philosophy of psychology of relevant biological constraints and insights.The book is organized around six themes: functions and teleology, evolutionary psychology, innateness, philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, and parallels between philosophy of biology and philosophy of mind. Throughout, one finds overlapping areas of study, larger philosophical implications, and even larger conceptual ties. Woven through these connections are shared concerns about the status of semantics, scientific law, evolution and adaptation, and cognition in general.

Contributors

André Ariew, Mark A. Bedau, David J. Buller, Paul Sheldon Davies, Stephen M. Downes, Charbel Niño El-Hani, Owen Flanagan, Peter Godfrey-Smith, Todd Grantham, Valerie Gray Hardcastle, Gary Hatfield, Daniel W. McShea, Karen Neander, Shaun Nichols, Antonio Marcos Pereira, Tom Polger, Lawrence A. Shapiro, Kim Sterelny, Robert A. Wilson, William C. Wimsatt

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Where Biology Meets Psychology : Philosophical Essays Edited by: Valerie Gray Hardcastle https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.001.0001 ISBN (electronic): 9780262274944 Publisher: The MIT Press Published: 1999

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Table of Contents

• [ Front Matter ] Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0021 Open the PDF Link PDF for [ Front Matter ] in another window
• Contributors Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0001 Open the PDF Link PDF for Contributors in another window
• Introduction By Valerie Gray Hardcastle Valerie Gray Hardcastle Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0002 Open the PDF Link PDF for Introduction in another window
• 1: Fitness and the Fate of Unicorns By Karen Neander Karen Neander Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0003 Open the PDF Link PDF for 1: Fitness and the Fate of Unicorns in another window
• 2: Understanding Functions: A Pragmatic Approach By Valerie Gray Hardcastle Valerie Gray Hardcastle Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0004 Open the PDF Link PDF for 2: Understanding Functions: A Pragmatic Approach in another window
• 3: Evolutionary Psychology: Ultimate Explanations and Panglossian Predictions By Todd Grantham , Todd Grantham Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Shaun Nichols Shaun Nichols Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0005 Open the PDF Link PDF for 3: Evolutionary Psychology: Ultimate Explanations and Panglossian Predictions in another window
• 4: The Conflict of Evolutionary Psychology By Paul Sheldon Davies Paul Sheldon Davies Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0006 Open the PDF Link PDF for 4: The Conflict of Evolutionary Psychology in another window
• 5: Presence of Mind By Lawrence A. Shapiro Lawrence A. Shapiro Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0007 Open the PDF Link PDF for 5: Presence of Mind in another window
• 6: DeFreuding Evolutionary Psychology: Adaptation and Human Motivation By David J. Buller David J. Buller Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0008 Open the PDF Link PDF for 6: DeFreuding Evolutionary Psychology: Adaptation and Human Motivation in another window
• 7: Innateness Is Canalization: In Defense of a Developmental Account of Innateness By André Ariew André Ariew Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0009 Open the PDF Link PDF for 7: Innateness Is Canalization: In Defense of a Developmental Account of Innateness in another window
• 8: Generativity, Entrenchment, Evolution, and Innateness: Philosophy, Evolutionary Biology, and Conceptual Foundations of Science By William C. Wimsatt William C. Wimsatt Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0010 Open the PDF Link PDF for 8: Generativity, Entrenchment, Evolution, and Innateness: Philosophy, Evolutionary Biology, and Conceptual Foundations of Science in another window
• 9: Feelings as the Proximate Cause of Behavior By Daniel W. McShea Daniel W. McShea Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0011 Open the PDF Link PDF for 9: Feelings as the Proximate Cause of Behavior in another window
• 10: Situated Agency and the Descent of Desire By Kim Sterelny Kim Sterelny Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0012 Open the PDF Link PDF for 10: Situated Agency and the Descent of Desire in another window
• 11: Natural Answers to Natural Questions By Thomas Polger , Thomas Polger Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Owen Flanagan Owen Flanagan Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0013 Open the PDF Link PDF for 11: Natural Answers to Natural Questions in another window
• 12: Mental Functions as Constraints on Neurophysiology: Biology and Psychology of Vision By Gary Hatfield Gary Hatfield Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0014 Open the PDF Link PDF for 12: Mental Functions as Constraints on Neurophysiology: Biology and Psychology of Vision in another window
• 13: Ontogeny, Phylogeny, and Scientific Development By Stephen M. Downes Stephen M. Downes Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0015 Open the PDF Link PDF for 13: Ontogeny, Phylogeny, and Scientific Development in another window
• 14: Supple Laws in Psychology and Biology By Mark A. Bedau Mark A. Bedau Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0016 Open the PDF Link PDF for 14: Supple Laws in Psychology and Biology in another window
• 15: Genes and Codes: Lessons from the Philosophy of Mind? By Peter Godfrey-Smith Peter Godfrey-Smith Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0017 Open the PDF Link PDF for 15: Genes and Codes: Lessons from the Philosophy of Mind? in another window
• 16: Understanding Biological Causation By Charbel Niño El-Hani , Charbel Niño El-Hani Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Antonio Marcos Pereira Antonio Marcos Pereira Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0018 Open the PDF Link PDF for 16: Understanding Biological Causation in another window
• 17: The Individual in Biology and Psychology By Robert A. Wilson Robert A. Wilson Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0019 Open the PDF Link PDF for 17: The Individual in Biology and Psychology in another window
• Index Doi: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7220.003.0020 Open the PDF Link PDF for Index in another window
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Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature

Olivia remes.

1 Institute for Manufacturing, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK

João Francisco Mendes

2 NOVA Medical School, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1099-085 Lisbon, Portugal; ku.ca.mac@94cfj

Peter Templeton

3 IfM Engage Limited, Institute for Manufacturing, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK; ku.ca.mac@32twp

4 The William Templeton Foundation for Young People’s Mental Health (YPMH), Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK

Associated Data

Depression is one of the leading causes of disability, and, if left unmanaged, it can increase the risk for suicide. The evidence base on the determinants of depression is fragmented, which makes the interpretation of the results across studies difficult. The objective of this study is to conduct a thorough synthesis of the literature assessing the biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression in order to piece together the puzzle of the key factors that are related to this condition. Titles and abstracts published between 2017 and 2020 were identified in PubMed, as well as Medline, Scopus, and PsycInfo. Key words relating to biological, social, and psychological determinants as well as depression were applied to the databases, and the screening and data charting of the documents took place. We included 470 documents in this literature review. The findings showed that there are a plethora of risk and protective factors (relating to biological, psychological, and social determinants) that are related to depression; these determinants are interlinked and influence depression outcomes through a web of causation. In this paper, we describe and present the vast, fragmented, and complex literature related to this topic. This review may be used to guide practice, public health efforts, policy, and research related to mental health and, specifically, depression.

1. Introduction

Depression is one of the most common mental health issues, with an estimated prevalence of 5% among adults [ 1 , 2 ]. Symptoms may include anhedonia, feelings of worthlessness, concentration and sleep difficulties, and suicidal ideation. According to the World Health Organization, depression is a leading cause of disability; research shows that it is a burdensome condition with a negative impact on educational trajectories, work performance, and other areas of life [ 1 , 3 ]. Depression can start early in the lifecourse and, if it remains unmanaged, may increase the risk for substance abuse, chronic conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, and premature mortality [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ].

Treatment for depression exists, such as pharmacotherapy, cognitive behavioural therapy, and other modalities. A meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials of patients shows that 56–60% of people respond well to active treatment with antidepressants (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants) [ 9 ]. However, pharmacotherapy may be associated with problems, such as side-effects, relapse issues, a potential duration of weeks until the medication starts working, and possible limited efficacy in mild cases [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Psychotherapy is also available, but access barriers can make it difficult for a number of people to get the necessary help.

Studies on depression have increased significantly over the past few decades. However, the literature remains fragmented and the interpretation of heterogeneous findings across studies and between fields is difficult. The cross-pollination of ideas between disciplines, such as genetics, neurology, immunology, and psychology, is limited. Reviews on the determinants of depression have been conducted, but they either focus exclusively on a particular set of determinants (ex. genetic risk factors [ 15 ]) or population sub-group (ex. children and adolescents [ 16 ]) or focus on characteristics measured predominantly at the individual level (ex. focus on social support, history of depression [ 17 ]) without taking the wider context (ex. area-level variables) into account. An integrated approach paying attention to key determinants from the biological, psychological, and social spheres, as well as key themes, such as the lifecourse perspective, enables clinicians and public health authorities to develop tailored, person-centred approaches.

The primary aim of this literature review: to address the aforementioned challenges, we have synthesized recent research on the biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression and we have reviewed research from fields including genetics, immunology, neurology, psychology, public health, and epidemiology, among others.

The subsidiary aim: we have paid special attention to important themes, including the lifecourse perspective and interactions between determinants, to guide further efforts by public health and medical professionals.

This literature review can be used as an evidence base by those in public health and the clinical setting and can be used to inform targeted interventions.

2. Materials and Methods

We conducted a review of the literature on the biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression in the last 4 years. We decided to focus on these determinants after discussions with academics (from the Manchester Metropolitan University, University of Cardiff, University of Colorado, Boulder, University of Cork, University of Leuven, University of Texas), charity representatives, and people with lived experience at workshops held by the University of Cambridge in 2020. In several aspects, we attempted to conduct this review according to PRISMA guidelines [ 18 ].

The inclusion and exclusion criteria are the following:

• - We included documents, such as primary studies, literature reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, reports, and commentaries on the determinants of depression. The determinants refer to variables that appear to be linked to the development of depression, such as physiological factors (e.g., the nervous system, genetics), but also factors that are further away or more distal to the condition. Determinants may be risk or protective factors, and individual- or wider-area-level variables.
• - We focused on major depressive disorder, treatment-resistant depression, dysthymia, depressive symptoms, poststroke depression, perinatal depression, as well as depressive-like behaviour (common in animal studies), among others.
• - We included papers regardless of the measurement methods of depression.
• - We included papers that focused on human and/or rodent research.
• - This review focused on articles written in the English language.
• - Documents published between 2017–2020 were captured to provide an understanding of the latest research on this topic.
• - Studies that assessed depression as a comorbidity or secondary to another disorder.
• - Studies that did not focus on rodent and/or human research.
• - Studies that focused on the treatment of depression. We made this decision, because this is an in-depth topic that would warrant a separate stand-alone review.
• Next, we searched PubMed (2017–2020) using keywords related to depression and determinants. Appendix A contains the search strategy used. We also conducted focused searches in Medline, Scopus, and PsycInfo (2017–2020).
• Once the documents were identified through the databases, the inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to the titles and abstracts. Screening of documents was conducted by O.R., and a subsample was screened by J.M.; any discrepancies were resolved through a communication process.
• The full texts of documents were retrieved, and the inclusion and exclusion criteria were again applied. A subsample of documents underwent double screening by two authors (O.R., J.M.); again, any discrepancies were resolved through communication.
• a. A data charting form was created to capture the data elements of interest, including the authors, titles, determinants (biological, psychological, social), and the type of depression assessed by the research (e.g., major depression, depressive symptoms, depressive behaviour).
• b. The data charting form was piloted on a subset of documents, and refinements to it were made. The data charting form was created with the data elements described above and tested in 20 studies to determine whether refinements in the wording or language were needed.
• c. Data charting was conducted on the documents.
• d. Narrative analysis was conducted on the data charting table to identify key themes. When a particular finding was noted more than once, it was logged as a potential theme, with a review of these notes yielding key themes that appeared on multiple occasions. When key themes were identified, one researcher (O.R.) reviewed each document pertaining to that theme and derived concepts (key determinants and related outcomes). This process (a subsample) was verified by a second author (J.M.), and the two authors resolved any discrepancies through communication. Key themes were also checked as to whether they were of major significance to public mental health and at the forefront of public health discourse according to consultations we held with stakeholders from the Manchester Metropolitan University, University of Cardiff, University of Colorado, Boulder, University of Cork, University of Leuven, University of Texas, charity representatives, and people with lived experience at workshops held by the University of Cambridge in 2020.

We condensed the extensive information gleaned through our review into short summaries (with key points boxes for ease of understanding and interpretation of the data).

Through the searches, 6335 documents, such as primary studies, literature reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, reports, and commentaries, were identified. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 470 papers were included in this review ( Supplementary Table S1 ). We focused on aspects related to biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression (examples of determinants and related outcomes are provided under each of the following sections.

3.1. Biological Factors

The following aspects will be discussed in this section: physical health conditions; then specific biological factors, including genetics; the microbiome; inflammatory factors; stress and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction, and the kynurenine pathway. Finally, aspects related to cognition will also be discussed in the context of depression.

3.1.1. Physical Health Conditions

Studies on physical health conditions—key points:

• The presence of a physical health condition can increase the risk for depression
• Psychological evaluation in physically sick populations is needed
• There is large heterogeneity in study design and measurement; this makes the comparison of findings between and across studies difficult

A number of studies examined the links between the outcome of depression and physical health-related factors, such as bladder outlet obstruction, cerebral atrophy, cataract, stroke, epilepsy, body mass index and obesity, diabetes, urinary tract infection, forms of cancer, inflammatory bowel disorder, glaucoma, acne, urea accumulation, cerebral small vessel disease, traumatic brain injury, and disability in multiple sclerosis [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 ]. For example, bladder outlet obstruction has been linked to inflammation and depressive behaviour in rodent research [ 24 ]. The presence of head and neck cancer also seemed to be related to an increased risk for depressive disorder [ 45 ]. Gestational diabetes mellitus has been linked to depressive symptoms in the postpartum period (but no association has been found with depression in the third pregnancy trimester) [ 50 ], and a plethora of other such examples of relationships between depression and physical conditions exist. As such, the assessment of psychopathology and the provision of support are necessary in individuals of ill health [ 45 ]. Despite the large evidence base on physical health-related factors, differences in study methodology and design, the lack of standardization when it comes to the measurement of various physical health conditions and depression, and heterogeneity in the study populations makes it difficult to compare studies [ 50 ].

The next subsections discuss specific biological factors, including genetics; the microbiome; inflammatory factors; stress and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction, and the kynurenine pathway; and aspects related to cognition.

3.1.2. Genetics

Studies on genetics—key points:

There were associations between genetic factors and depression; for example:

• The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays an important role in depression
• Links exist between major histocompatibility complex region genes, as well as various gene polymorphisms and depression
• Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of genes involved in the tryptophan catabolites pathway are of interest in relation to depression

A number of genetic-related factors, genomic regions, polymorphisms, and other related aspects have been examined with respect to depression [ 61 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 ]. The influence of BDNF in relation to depression has been amply studied [ 117 , 118 , 141 , 142 , 143 ]. Research has shown associations between depression and BDNF (as well as candidate SNPs of the BDNF gene, polymorphisms of the BDNF gene, and the interaction of these polymorphisms with other determinants, such as stress) [ 129 , 144 , 145 ]. Specific findings have been reported: for example, a study reported a link between the BDNF rs6265 allele (A) and major depressive disorder [ 117 ].

Other research focused on major histocompatibility complex region genes, endocannabinoid receptor gene polymorphisms, as well as tissue-specific genes and gene co-expression networks and their links to depression [ 99 , 110 , 112 ]. The SNPs of genes involved in the tryptophan catabolites pathway have also been of interest when studying the pathogenesis of depression.

The results from genetics studies are compelling; however, the findings remain mixed. One study indicated no support for depression candidate gene findings [ 122 ]. Another study found no association between specific polymorphisms and major depressive disorder [ 132 ]. As such, further research using larger samples is needed to corroborate the statistically significant associations reported in the literature.

3.1.3. Microbiome

Studies on the microbiome—key points:

• The gut bacteria and the brain communicate via both direct and indirect pathways called the gut-microbiota-brain axis (the bidirectional communication networks between the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract; this axis plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis).
• A disordered microbiome can lead to inflammation, which can then lead to depression
• There are possible links between the gut microbiome, host liver metabolism, brain inflammation, and depression

The common themes of this review have focused on the microbiome/microbiota or gut metabolome [ 146 , 147 , 148 , 149 , 150 , 151 , 152 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 , 160 , 161 ], the microbiota-gut-brain axis, and related factors [ 152 , 162 , 163 , 164 , 165 , 166 , 167 ]. When there is an imbalance in the intestinal bacteria, this can interfere with emotional regulation and contribute to harmful inflammatory processes and mood disorders [ 148 , 151 , 153 , 155 , 157 ]. Rodent research has shown that there may be a bidirectional association between the gut microbiota and depression: a disordered gut microbiota can play a role in the onset of this mental health problem, but, at the same time, the existence of stress and depression may also lead to a lower level of richness and diversity in the microbiome [ 158 ].

Research has also attempted to disentangle the links between the gut microbiome, host liver metabolism, brain inflammation, and depression, as well as the role of the ratio of lactobacillus to clostridium [ 152 ]. The literature has also examined the links between medication, such as antibiotics, and mood and behaviour, with the findings showing that antibiotics may be related to depression [ 159 , 168 ]. The links between the microbiome and depression are complex, and further studies are needed to determine the underpinning causal mechanisms.

3.1.4. Inflammation

Studies on inflammation—key points:

• Pro-inflammatory cytokines are linked to depression
• Pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as the tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, may play an important role
• Different methods of measurement are used, making the comparison of findings across studies difficult

Inflammation has been a theme in this literature review [ 60 , 161 , 164 , 169 , 170 , 171 , 172 , 173 , 174 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 179 , 180 , 181 , 182 , 183 , 184 ]. The findings show that raised levels of inflammation (because of factors such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) have been associated with depression [ 60 , 161 , 174 , 175 , 178 ]. For example, pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, have been linked to depression [ 185 ]. Various determinants, such as early life stress, have also been linked to systemic inflammation, and this can increase the risk for depression [ 186 ].

Nevertheless, not everyone with elevated inflammation develops depression; therefore, this is just one route out of many linked to pathogenesis. Despite the compelling evidence reported with respect to inflammation, it is difficult to compare the findings across studies because of different methods used to assess depression and its risk factors.

3.1.5. Stress and HPA Axis Dysfunction

Studies on stress and HPA axis dysfunction—key points:

• Stress is linked to the release of proinflammatory factors
• The dysregulation of the HPA axis is linked to depression
• Determinants are interlinked in a complex web of causation

Stress was studied in various forms in rodent populations and humans [ 144 , 145 , 155 , 174 , 176 , 180 , 185 , 186 , 187 , 188 , 189 , 190 , 191 , 192 , 193 , 194 , 195 , 196 , 197 , 198 , 199 , 200 , 201 , 202 , 203 , 204 , 205 , 206 , 207 , 208 , 209 , 210 , 211 ].

Although this section has some overlap with others (as is to be expected because all of these determinants and body systems are interlinked), a number of studies have focused on the impact of stress on mental health. Stress has been mentioned in the literature as a risk factor of poor mental health and has emerged as an important determinant of depression. The effects of this variable are wide-ranging, and a short discussion is warranted.

Stress has been linked to the release of inflammatory factors, as well as the development of depression [ 204 ]. When the stress is high or lasts for a long period of time, this may negatively impact the brain. Chronic stress can impact the dendrites and synapses of various neurons, and may be implicated in the pathway leading to major depressive disorder [ 114 ]. As a review by Uchida et al. indicates, stress may be associated with the “dysregulation of neuronal and synaptic plasticity” [ 114 ]. Even in rodent studies, stress has a negative impact: chronic and unpredictable stress (and other forms of tension or stress) have been linked to unusual behaviour and depression symptoms [ 114 ].

The depression process and related brain changes, however, have also been linked to the hyperactivity or dysregulation of the HPA axis [ 127 , 130 , 131 , 182 , 212 ]. One review indicates that a potential underpinning mechanism of depression relates to “HPA axis abnormalities involved in chronic stress” [ 213 ]. There is a complex relationship between the HPA axis, glucocorticoid receptors, epigenetic mechanisms, and psychiatric sequelae [ 130 , 212 ].

In terms of the relationship between the HPA axis and stress and their influence on depression, the diathesis–stress model offers an explanation: it could be that early stress plays a role in the hyperactivation of the HPA axis, thus creating a predisposition “towards a maladaptive reaction to stress”. When this predisposition then meets an acute stressor, depression may ensue; thus, in line with the diathesis–stress model, a pre-existing vulnerability and stressor can create fertile ground for a mood disorder [ 213 ]. An integrated review by Dean and Keshavan [ 213 ] suggests that HPA axis hyperactivity is, in turn, related to other determinants, such as early deprivation and insecure early attachment; this again shows the complex web of causation between the different determinants.

3.1.6. Kynurenine Pathway

Studies on the kynurenine pathway—key points:

• The kynurenine pathway is linked to depression
• Indolamine 2,3-dioxegenase (IDO) polymorphisms are linked to postpartum depression

The kynurenine pathway was another theme that emerged in this review [ 120 , 178 , 181 , 184 , 214 , 215 , 216 , 217 , 218 , 219 , 220 , 221 ]. The kynurenine pathway has been implicated not only in general depressed mood (inflammation-induced depression) [ 184 , 214 , 219 ] but also postpartum depression [ 120 ]. When the kynurenine metabolism pathway is activated, this results in metabolites, which are neurotoxic.

A review by Jeon et al. notes a link between the impairment of the kynurenine pathway and inflammation-induced depression (triggered by treatment for various physical diseases, such as malignancy). The authors note that this could represent an important opportunity for immunopharmacology [ 214 ]. Another review by Danzer et al. suggests links between the inflammation-induced activation of indolamine 2,3-dioxegenase (the enzyme that converts tryptophan to kynurenine), the kynurenine metabolism pathway, and depression, and also remarks about the “opportunities for treatment of inflammation-induced depression” [ 184 ].

3.1.7. Cognition

Studies on cognition and the brain—key points:

• Cognitive decline and cognitive deficits are linked to increased depression risk
• Cognitive reserve is important in the disability/depression relationship
• Family history of cognitive impairment is linked to depression

A number of studies have focused on the theme of cognition and the brain. The results show that factors, such as low cognitive ability/function, cognitive vulnerability, cognitive impairment or deficits, subjective cognitive decline, regression of dendritic branching and hippocampal atrophy/death of hippocampal cells, impaired neuroplasticity, and neurogenesis-related aspects, have been linked to depression [ 131 , 212 , 222 , 223 , 224 , 225 , 226 , 227 , 228 , 229 , 230 , 231 , 232 , 233 , 234 , 235 , 236 , 237 , 238 , 239 ]. The cognitive reserve appears to act as a moderator and can magnify the impact of certain determinants on poor mental health. For example, in a study in which participants with multiple sclerosis also had low cognitive reserve, disability was shown to increase the risk for depression [ 63 ]. Cognitive deficits can be both causal and resultant in depression. A study on individuals attending outpatient stroke clinics showed that lower scores in cognition were related to depression; thus, cognitive impairment appears to be associated with depressive symptomatology [ 226 ]. Further, Halahakoon et al. [ 222 ] note a meta-analysis [ 240 ] that shows that a family history of cognitive impairment (in first degree relatives) is also linked to depression.

In addition to cognitive deficits, low-level cognitive ability [ 231 ] and cognitive vulnerability [ 232 ] have also been linked to depression. While cognitive impairment may be implicated in the pathogenesis of depressive symptoms [ 222 ], negative information processing biases are also important; according to the ‘cognitive neuropsychological’ model of depression, negative affective biases play a central part in the development of depression [ 222 , 241 ]. Nevertheless, the evidence on this topic is mixed and further work is needed to determine the underpinning mechanisms between these states.

3.2. Psychological Factors

Studies on psychological factors—key points:

• There are many affective risk factors linked to depression
• Determinants of depression include negative self-concept, sensitivity to rejection, neuroticism, rumination, negative emotionality, and others

A number of studies have been undertaken on the psychological factors linked to depression (including mastery, self-esteem, optimism, negative self-image, current or past mental health conditions, and various other aspects, including neuroticism, brooding, conflict, negative thinking, insight, cognitive fusion, emotional clarity, rumination, dysfunctional attitudes, interpretation bias, and attachment style) [ 66 , 128 , 140 , 205 , 210 , 228 , 235 , 242 , 243 , 244 , 245 , 246 , 247 , 248 , 249 , 250 , 251 , 252 , 253 , 254 , 255 , 256 , 257 , 258 , 259 , 260 , 261 , 262 , 263 , 264 , 265 , 266 , 267 , 268 , 269 , 270 , 271 , 272 , 273 , 274 , 275 , 276 , 277 , 278 , 279 , 280 , 281 , 282 , 283 , 284 , 285 , 286 , 287 , 288 , 289 , 290 ]. Determinants related to this condition include low self-esteem and shame, among other factors [ 269 , 270 , 275 , 278 ]. Several emotional states and traits, such as neuroticism [ 235 , 260 , 271 , 278 ], negative self-concept (with self-perceptions of worthlessness and uselessness), and negative interpretation or attention biases have been linked to depression [ 261 , 271 , 282 , 283 , 286 ]. Moreover, low emotional clarity has been associated with depression [ 267 ]. When it comes to the severity of the disorder, it appears that meta-emotions (“emotions that occur in response to other emotions (e.g., guilt about anger)” [ 268 ]) have a role to play in depression [ 268 ].

A determinant that has received much attention in mental health research concerns rumination. Rumination has been presented as a mediator but also as a risk factor for depression [ 57 , 210 , 259 ]. When studied as a risk factor, it appears that the relationship of rumination with depression is mediated by variables that include limited problem-solving ability and insufficient social support [ 259 ]. However, rumination also appears to act as a mediator: for example, this variable (particularly brooding rumination) lies on the causal pathway between poor attention control and depression [ 265 ]. This shows that determinants may present in several forms: as moderators or mediators, risk factors or outcomes, and this is why disentangling the relationships between the various factors linked to depression is a complex task.

The psychological determinants are commonly researched variables in the mental health literature. A wide range of factors have been linked to depression, such as the aforementioned determinants, but also: (low) optimism levels, maladaptive coping (such as avoidance), body image issues, and maladaptive perfectionism, among others [ 269 , 270 , 272 , 273 , 275 , 276 , 279 , 285 , 286 ]. Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the way these determinants increase the risk for depression. One of the underpinning mechanisms linking the determinants and depression concerns coping. For example, positive fantasy engagement, cognitive biases, or personality dispositions may lead to emotion-focused coping, such as brooding, and subsequently increase the risk for depression [ 272 , 284 , 287 ]. Knowing the causal mechanisms linking the determinants to outcomes provides insight for the development of targeted interventions.

3.3. Social Determinants

Studies on social determinants—key points:

• Social determinants are the conditions in the environments where people are born, live, learn, work, play, etc.; these influence (mental) health [ 291 ]
• There are many social determinants linked to depression, such as sociodemographics, social support, adverse childhood experiences
• Determinants can be at the individual, social network, community, and societal levels

Studies also focused on the social determinants of (mental) health; these are the conditions in which people are born, live, learn, work, play, and age, and have a significant influence on wellbeing [ 291 ]. Factors such as age, social or socioeconomic status, social support, financial strain and deprivation, food insecurity, education, employment status, living arrangements, marital status, race, childhood conflict and bullying, violent crime exposure, abuse, discrimination, (self)-stigma, ethnicity and migrant status, working conditions, adverse or significant life events, illiteracy or health literacy, environmental events, job strain, and the built environment have been linked to depression, among others [ 52 , 133 , 235 , 236 , 239 , 252 , 269 , 280 , 292 , 293 , 294 , 295 , 296 , 297 , 298 , 299 , 300 , 301 , 302 , 303 , 304 , 305 , 306 , 307 , 308 , 309 , 310 , 311 , 312 , 313 , 314 , 315 , 316 , 317 , 318 , 319 , 320 , 321 , 322 , 323 , 324 , 325 , 326 , 327 , 328 , 329 , 330 , 331 , 332 , 333 , 334 , 335 , 336 , 337 , 338 , 339 , 340 , 341 , 342 , 343 , 344 , 345 , 346 , 347 , 348 , 349 , 350 , 351 , 352 , 353 , 354 , 355 , 356 , 357 , 358 , 359 , 360 , 361 , 362 , 363 , 364 , 365 , 366 , 367 , 368 , 369 , 370 , 371 ]. Social support and cohesion, as well as structural social capital, have also been identified as determinants [ 140 , 228 , 239 , 269 , 293 , 372 , 373 , 374 , 375 , 376 , 377 , 378 , 379 ]. In a study, part of the findings showed that low levels of education have been shown to be linked to post-stroke depression (but not severe or clinical depression outcomes) [ 299 ]. A study within a systematic review indicated that having only primary education was associated with a higher risk of depression compared to having secondary or higher education (although another study contrasted this finding) [ 296 ]. Various studies on socioeconomic status-related factors have been undertaken [ 239 , 297 ]; the research has shown that a low level of education is linked to depression [ 297 ]. Low income is also related to depressive disorders [ 312 ]. By contrast, high levels of education and income are protective [ 335 ].

A group of determinants touched upon by several studies included adverse childhood or early life experiences: ex. conflict with parents, early exposure to traumatic life events, bullying and childhood trauma were found to increase the risk of depression (ex. through pathways, such as inflammation, interaction effects, or cognitive biases) [ 161 , 182 , 258 , 358 , 362 , 380 ].

Gender-related factors were also found to play an important role with respect to mental health [ 235 , 381 , 382 , 383 , 384 , 385 ]. Gender inequalities can start early on in the lifecourse, and women were found to be twice as likely to have depression as men. Gender-related factors were linked to cognitive biases, resilience and vulnerabilities [ 362 , 384 ].

Determinants can impact mental health outcomes through underpinning mechanisms. For example, harmful determinants can influence the uptake of risk behaviours. Risk behaviours, such as sedentary behaviour, substance abuse and smoking/nicotine exposure, have been linked to depression [ 226 , 335 , 355 , 385 , 386 , 387 , 388 , 389 , 390 , 391 , 392 , 393 , 394 , 395 , 396 , 397 , 398 , 399 , 400 , 401 ]. Harmful determinants can also have an impact on diet. Indeed, dietary aspects and diet components (ex. vitamin D, folate, selenium intake, iron, vitamin B12, vitamin K, fiber intake, zinc) as well as diet-related inflammatory potential have been linked to depression outcomes [ 161 , 208 , 236 , 312 , 396 , 402 , 403 , 404 , 405 , 406 , 407 , 408 , 409 , 410 , 411 , 412 , 413 , 414 , 415 , 416 , 417 , 418 , 419 , 420 , 421 , 422 , 423 , 424 , 425 , 426 , 427 , 428 ]. A poor diet has been linked to depression through mechanisms such as inflammation [ 428 ].

Again, it is difficult to constrict diet to the ‘social determinants of health’ category as it also relates to inflammation (biological determinants) and could even stand alone as its own category. Nevertheless, all of these factors are interlinked and influence one another in a complex web of causation, as mentioned elsewhere in the paper.

Supplementary Figure S1 contains a representation of key determinants acting at various levels: the individual, social network, community, and societal levels. The determinants have an influence on risk behaviours, and this, in turn, can affect the mood (i.e., depression), body processes (ex. can increase inflammation), and may negatively influence brain structure and function.

3.4. Others

Studies on ‘other’ determinants—key points:

• A number of factors are related to depression
• These may not be as easily categorized as the other determinants in this paper

A number of factors arose in this review that were related to depression; it was difficult to place these under a specific heading above, so this ‘other’ category was created. A number of these could be sorted under the ‘social determinants of depression’ category. For example, being exposed to deprivation, hardship, or adversity may increase the risk for air pollution exposure and nighttime shift work, among others, and the latter determinants have been found to increase the risk for depression. Air pollution could also be regarded as an ecologic-level (environmental) determinant of mental health.

Nevertheless, we have decided to leave these factors in a separate category (because their categorization may not be as immediately clear-cut as others), and these factors include: low-level light [ 429 ], weight cycling [ 430 ], water contaminants [ 431 ], trade [ 432 ], air pollution [ 433 , 434 ], program-level variables (ex. feedback and learning experience) [ 435 ], TV viewing [ 436 ], falls [ 437 ], various other biological factors [ 116 , 136 , 141 , 151 , 164 , 182 , 363 , 364 , 438 , 439 , 440 , 441 , 442 , 443 , 444 , 445 , 446 , 447 , 448 , 449 , 450 , 451 , 452 , 453 , 454 , 455 , 456 , 457 , 458 , 459 , 460 , 461 , 462 , 463 , 464 , 465 , 466 , 467 , 468 , 469 ], mobile phone use [ 470 ], ultrasound chronic exposure [ 471 ], nighttime shift work [ 472 ], work accidents [ 473 ], therapy enrollment [ 226 ], and exposure to light at night [ 474 ].

4. Cross-Cutting Themes

4.1. lifecourse perspective.

Studies on the lifecourse perspective—key points:

• Early life has an importance on mental health
• Stress has been linked to depression
• In old age, the decline in social capital is important

Trajectories and life events are important when it comes to the lifecourse perspective. Research has touched on the influence of prenatal or early life stress on an individual’s mental health trajectory [ 164 , 199 , 475 ]. Severe stress that occurs in the form of early-life trauma has also been associated with depressive symptoms [ 362 , 380 ]. It may be that some individuals exposed to trauma develop thoughts of personal failure, which then serve as a catalyst of depression [ 380 ].

At the other end of the life trajectory—old age—specific determinants have been linked to an increased risk for depression. Older people are at a heightened risk of losing their social networks, and structural social capital has been identified as important in relation to depression in old age [ 293 ].

4.2. Gene–Environment Interactions

Studies on gene–environment interactions—key points:

• The environment and genetics interact to increase the risk of depression
• The etiology of depression is multifactorial
• Adolescence is a time of vulnerability

A number of studies have touched on gene–environment interactions [ 72 , 77 , 82 , 119 , 381 , 476 , 477 , 478 , 479 , 480 , 481 ]. The interactions between genetic factors and determinants, such as negative life events (ex. relationship and social difficulties, serious illness, unemployment and financial crises) and stressors (ex. death of spouse, minor violations of law, neighbourhood socioeconomic status) have been studied in relation to depression [ 82 , 135 , 298 , 449 , 481 ]. A study reported an interaction of significant life events with functional variation in the serotonin-transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) allele type (in the context of multiple sclerosis) and linked this to depression [ 361 ], while another reported an interaction between stress and 5-HTTLPR in relation to depression [ 480 ]. Other research reported that the genetic variation of HPA-axis genes has moderating effects on the relationship between stressors and depression [ 198 ]. Another study showed that early-life stress interacts with gene variants to increase the risk for depression [ 77 ].

Adolescence is a time of vulnerability [ 111 , 480 ]. Perceived parental support has been found to interact with genes (GABRR1, GABRR2), and this appears to be associated with depressive symptoms in adolescence [ 480 ]. It is important to pay special attention to critical periods in the lifecourse so that adequate support is provided to those who are most vulnerable.

The etiology of depression is multifactorial, and it is worthwhile to examine the interaction between multiple factors, such as epigenetic, genetic, and environmental factors, in order to truly understand this mental health condition. Finally, taking into account critical periods of life when assessing gene–environment interactions is important for developing targeted interventions.

5. Discussion

Depression is one of the most common mental health conditions, and, if left untreated, it can increase the risk for substance abuse, anxiety disorders, and suicide. In the past 20 years, a large number of studies on the risk and protective factors of depression have been undertaken in various fields, such as genetics, neurology, immunology, and epidemiology. However, there are limitations associated with the extant evidence base. The previous syntheses on depression are limited in scope and focus exclusively on social or biological factors, population sub-groups, or examine depression as a comorbidity (rather than an independent disorder). The research on the determinants and causal pathways of depression is fragmentated and heterogeneous, and this has not helped to stimulate progress when it comes to the prevention and intervention of this condition—specifically unravelling the complexity of the determinants related to this condition and thus refining the prevention and intervention methods.

The scope of this paper was to bring together the heterogeneous, vast, and fragmented literature on depression and paint a picture of the key factors that contribute to this condition. The findings from this review show that there are important themes when it comes to the determinants of depression, such as: the microbiome, dysregulation of the HPA axis, inflammatory reactions, the kynurenine pathway, as well as psychological and social factors. It may be that physical factors are proximal determinants of depression, which, in turn, are acted on by more distal social factors, such as deprivation, environmental events, and social capital.

The Marmot Report [ 291 ], the World Health Organization [ 482 ], and Compton et al. [ 483 ] highlight that the most disadvantaged segments of society are suffering (the socioeconomic context is important), and this inequality in resources has translated to inequality in mental health outcomes [ 483 ]. To tackle the issue of egalitarianism and restore equality in the health between the groups, the social determinants need to be addressed [ 483 ]. A wide range of determinants of mental health have been identified in the literature: age, gender, ethnicity, family upbringing and early attachment patterns, social support, access to food, water and proper nutrition, and community factors. People spiral downwards because of individual- and societal-level circumstances; therefore, these circumstances along with the interactions between the determinants need to be considered.

Another important theme in the mental health literature is the lifecourse perspective. This shows that the timing of events has significance when it comes to mental health. Early life is a critical period during the lifespan at which cognitive processes develop. Exposure to harmful determinants, such as stress, during this period can place an individual on a trajectory of depression in adulthood or later life. When an individual is exposed to harmful determinants during critical periods and is also genetically predisposed to depression, the risk for the disorder can be compounded. This is why aspects such as the lifecourse perspective and gene–environment interactions need to be taken into account. Insight into this can also help to refine targeted interventions.

A number of interventions for depression have been developed or recommended, addressing, for example, the physical factors described here and lifestyle modifications. Interventions targeting various factors, such as education and socioeconomic status, are needed to help prevent and reduce the burden of depression. Further research on the efficacy of various interventions is needed. Additional studies are also needed on each of the themes described in this paper, for example: the biological factors related to postpartum depression [ 134 ], and further work is needed on depression outcomes, such as chronic, recurrent depression [ 452 ]. Previous literature has shown that chronic stress (associated with depression) is also linked to glucocorticoid receptor resistance, as well as problems with the regulation of the inflammatory response [ 484 ]. Further work is needed on this and the underpinning mechanisms between the determinants and outcomes. This review highlighted the myriad ways of measuring depression and its determinants [ 66 , 85 , 281 , 298 , 451 , 485 ]. Thus, the standardization of the measurements of the outcomes (ex. a gold standard for measuring depression) and determinants is essential; this can facilitate comparisons of findings across studies.

5.1. Strengths

This paper has important strengths. It brings together the wide literature on depression and helps to bridge disciplines in relation to one of the most common mental health problems. We identified, selected, and extracted data from studies, and provided concise summaries.

5.2. Limitations

The limitations of the review include missing potentially important studies; however, this is a weakness that cannot be avoided by literature reviews. Nevertheless, the aim of the review was not to identify each study that has been conducted on the risk and protective factors of depression (which a single review is unable to capture) but rather to gain insight into the breadth of literature on this topic, highlight key biological, psychological, and social determinants, and shed light on important themes, such as the lifecourse perspective and gene–environment interactions.

6. Conclusions

We have reviewed the determinants of depression and recognize that there are a multitude of risk and protective factors at the individual and wider ecologic levels. These determinants are interlinked and influence one another. We have attempted to describe the wide literature on this topic, and we have brought to light major factors that are of public mental health significance. This review may be used as an evidence base by those in public health, clinical practice, and research.

This paper discusses key areas in depression research; however, an exhaustive discussion of all the risk factors and determinants linked to depression and their mechanisms is not possible in one journal article—which, by its very nature, a single paper cannot do. We have brought to light overarching factors linked to depression and a workable conceptual framework that may guide clinical and public health practice; however, we encourage other researchers to continue to expand on this timely and relevant work—particularly as depression is a top priority on the policy agenda now.

Acknowledgments

Thank you to Isla Kuhn for the help with the Medline, Scopus, and PsycInfo database searches.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/brainsci11121633/s1 , Figure S1: Conceptual framework: Determinants of depression, Table S1: Data charting—A selection of determinants from the literature.

Appendix A.1. Search Strategy

Search: ((((((((((((((((“Gene-Environment Interaction”[Majr]) OR (“Genetics”[Mesh])) OR (“Genome-Wide Association Study”[Majr])) OR (“Microbiota”[Mesh] OR “Gastrointestinal Microbiome”[Mesh])) OR (“Neurogenic Inflammation”[Mesh])) OR (“genetic determinant”)) OR (“gut-brain-axis”)) OR (“Kynurenine”[Majr])) OR (“Cognition”[Mesh])) OR (“Neuronal Plasticity”[Majr])) OR (“Neurogenesis”[Mesh])) OR (“Genes”[Mesh])) OR (“Neurology”[Majr])) OR (“Social Determinants of Health”[Majr])) OR (“Glucocorticoids”[Mesh])) OR (“Tryptophan”[Mesh])) AND (“Depression”[Mesh] OR “Depressive Disorder”[Mesh]) Filters: from 2017—2020.

Ovid MEDLINE(R) and Epub Ahead of Print, In-Process, In-Data-Review & Other Non-Indexed Citations, Daily and Versions(R)

• exp *Depression/
• exp *Depressive Disorder/
• exp *”Social Determinants of Health”/
• exp *Tryptophan/
• exp *Glucocorticoids/
• exp *Neurology/
• exp *Genes/
• exp *Neurogenesis/
• exp *Neuronal Plasticity/
• exp *Kynurenine/
• exp *Genetics/
• exp *Neurogenic Inflammation/
• exp *Gastrointestinal Microbiome/
• exp *Genome-Wide Association Study/
• exp *Gene-Environment Interaction/
• exp *Depression/et [Etiology]
• exp *Depressive Disorder/et
• or/4-16   637368
• limit 22 to yr = “2017–Current”
• “cause* of depression”.mp.
• “cause* of depression”.ti.
• (cause adj3 (depression or depressive)).ti.
• (caus* adj3 (depression or depressive)).ti.

Appendix A.2. PsycInfo

(TITLE ( depression OR “ Depressive Disorder ”) AND TITLE (“ Social Determinants of Health ” OR tryptophan OR glucocorticoids OR neurology OR genes OR neurogenesis OR “ Neuronal Plasticity ” OR kynurenine OR genetics OR “ Neurogenic Inflammation ” OR “ Gastrointestinal Microbiome ” OR “ Genome-Wide Association Study ” OR “ Gene-Environment Interaction ” OR aetiology OR etiology )) OR TITLE ( cause* W/3 ( depression OR depressive )).

Author Contributions

O.R. was responsible for the design of the study and methodology undertaken. Despite P.T.’s involvement in YPMH, he had no role in the design of the study; P.T. was responsible for the conceptualization of the study. Validation was conducted by O.R. and J.F.M. Formal analysis (data charting) was undertaken by O.R. O.R. and P.T. were involved in the investigation, resource acquisition, and data presentation. The original draft preparation was undertaken by O.R. The writing was conducted by O.R., with review and editing by P.T. and J.F.M. Funding acquisition was undertaken by O.R. and P.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research was funded by The William Templeton Foundation for Young People’s Mental Health, Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the Aviva Foundation.

Conflicts of Interest

The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate In Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

The nature vs. nurture debate in psychology concerns the relative importance of an individual’s innate qualities (nature) versus personal experiences (nurture) in determining or causing individual differences in physical and behavioral traits. While early theories favored one factor over the other, contemporary views recognize a complex interplay between genes and environment in shaping behavior and development.

Key Takeaways

• Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors.
• Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception, e.g., the product of exposure, life experiences, and learning on an individual.
• Behavioral genetics has enabled psychology to quantify the relative contribution of nature and nurture concerning specific psychological traits.
• Instead of defending extreme nativist or nurturist views, most psychological researchers are now interested in investigating how nature and nurture interact in a host of qualitatively different ways.
• For example, epigenetics is an emerging area of research that shows how environmental influences affect the expression of genes.

The nature-nurture debate is concerned with the relative contribution that both influences make to human behavior, such as personality, cognitive traits, temperament and psychopathology.

Examples of Nature vs. Nurture

Nature vs. nurture in child development.

In child development, the nature vs. nurture debate is evident in the study of language acquisition . Researchers like Chomsky (1957) argue that humans are born with an innate capacity for language (nature), known as universal grammar, suggesting that genetics play a significant role in language development.

Conversely, the behaviorist perspective, exemplified by Skinner (1957), emphasizes the role of environmental reinforcement and learning (nurture) in language acquisition.

Twin studies have provided valuable insights into this debate, demonstrating that identical twins raised apart may share linguistic similarities despite different environments, suggesting a strong genetic influence (Bouchard, 1979)

However, environmental factors, such as exposure to language-rich environments, also play a crucial role in language development, highlighting the intricate interplay between nature and nurture in child development.

Nature vs. Nurture in Personality Development

The nature vs. nurture debate in personality psychology centers on the origins of personality traits. Twin studies have shown that identical twins reared apart tend to have more similar personalities than fraternal twins, indicating a genetic component to personality (Bouchard, 1994).

However, environmental factors, such as parenting styles, cultural influences, and life experiences, also shape personality.

For example, research by Caspi et al. (2003) demonstrated that a particular gene (MAOA) can interact with childhood maltreatment to increase the risk of aggressive behavior in adulthood.

This highlights that genetic predispositions and environmental factors contribute to personality development, and their interaction is complex and multifaceted.

Nature vs. Nurture in Mental Illness Development

The nature vs. nurture debate in mental health explores the etiology of depression. Genetic studies have identified specific genes associated with an increased vulnerability to depression, indicating a genetic component (Sullivan et al., 2000).

However, environmental factors, such as adverse life events and chronic stress during childhood, also play a significant role in the development of depressive disorders (Dube et al.., 2002; Keller et al., 2007)

The diathesis-stress model posits that individuals inherit a genetic predisposition (diathesis) to a disorder, which is then activated or exacerbated by environmental stressors (Monroe & Simons, 1991).

This model illustrates how nature and nurture interact to influence mental health outcomes.

Nature vs. Nurture of Intelligence

The nature vs. nurture debate in intelligence examines the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to cognitive abilities.

Intelligence is highly heritable, with about 50% of variance in IQ attributed to genetic factors, based on studies of twins, adoptees, and families (Plomin & Spinath, 2004).

Heritability of intelligence increases with age, from about 20% in infancy to as high as 80% in adulthood, suggesting amplifying effects of genes over time.

However, environmental influences, such as access to quality education and stimulating environments, also significantly impact intelligence.

Shared environmental influences like family background are more influential in childhood, whereas non-shared experiences are more important later in life.

Research by Flynn (1987) showed that average IQ scores have increased over generations, suggesting that environmental improvements, known as the Flynn effect , can lead to substantial gains in cognitive abilities.

Molecular genetics provides tools to identify specific genes and understand their pathways and interactions. However, progress has been slow for complex traits like intelligence. Identified genes have small effect sizes (Plomin & Spinath, 2004).

Overall, intelligence results from complex interplay between genes and environment over development. Molecular genetics offers promise to clarify these mechanisms. The nature vs nurture debate is outdated – both play key roles.

Nativism (Extreme Nature Position)

It has long been known that certain physical characteristics are biologically determined by genetic inheritance.

Color of eyes, straight or curly hair, pigmentation of the skin, and certain diseases (such as Huntingdon’s chorea) are all a function of the genes we inherit.

These facts have led many to speculate as to whether psychological characteristics such as behavioral tendencies, personality attributes, and mental abilities are also “wired in” before we are even born.

Those who adopt an extreme hereditary position are known as nativists.  Their basic assumption is that the characteristics of the human species as a whole are a product of evolution and that individual differences are due to each person’s unique genetic code.

In general, the earlier a particular ability appears, the more likely it is to be under the influence of genetic factors. Estimates of genetic influence are called heritability.

Examples of extreme nature positions in psychology include Chomsky (1965), who proposed language is gained through the use of an innate language acquisition device. Another example of nature is Freud’s theory of aggression as being an innate drive (called Thanatos).

Characteristics and differences that are not observable at birth, but which emerge later in life, are regarded as the product of maturation. That is to say, we all have an inner “biological clock” which switches on (or off) types of behavior in a pre-programmed way.

The classic example of the way this affects our physical development are the bodily changes that occur in early adolescence at puberty.

However, nativists also argue that maturation governs the emergence of attachment in infancy , language acquisition , and even cognitive development .

Empiricism (Extreme Nurture Position)

At the other end of the spectrum are the environmentalists – also known as empiricists (not to be confused with the other empirical/scientific  approach ).

Their basic assumption is that at birth, the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this is gradually “filled” as a result of experience (e.g., behaviorism ).

From this point of view, psychological characteristics and behavioral differences that emerge through infancy and childhood are the results of learning.  It is how you are brought up (nurture) that governs the psychologically significant aspects of child development and the concept of maturation applies only to the biological.

For example, Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory states that aggression is learned from the environment through observation and imitation. This is seen in his famous bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).

Also, Skinner (1957) believed that language is learned from other people via behavior-shaping techniques.

Evidence for Nature

• Biological Approach
• Biology of Gender
• Medical Model

Freud (1905) stated that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality.

He thought that parenting is of primary importance to a child’s development , and the family as the most important feature of nurture was a common theme throughout twentieth-century psychology (which was dominated by environmentalists’ theories).

Behavioral Genetics

Researchers in the field of behavioral genetics study variation in behavior as it is affected by genes, which are the units of heredity passed down from parents to offspring.

“We now know that DNA differences are the major systematic source of psychological differences between us. Environmental effects are important but what we have learned in recent years is that they are mostly random – unsystematic and unstable – which means that we cannot do much about them.” Plomin (2018, xii)

Behavioral genetics has enabled psychology to quantify the relative contribution of nature and nurture with regard to specific psychological traits. One way to do this is to study relatives who share the same genes (nature) but a different environment (nurture). Adoption acts as a natural experiment which allows researchers to do this.

Empirical studies have consistently shown that adoptive children show greater resemblance to their biological parents, rather than their adoptive, or environmental parents (Plomin & DeFries, 1983; 1985).

Another way of studying heredity is by comparing the behavior of twins, who can either be identical (sharing the same genes) or non-identical (sharing 50% of genes). Like adoption studies, twin studies support the first rule of behavior genetics; that psychological traits are extremely heritable, about 50% on average.

The Twins in Early Development Study (TEDS) revealed correlations between twins on a range of behavioral traits, such as personality (empathy and hyperactivity) and components of reading such as phonetics (Haworth, Davis, Plomin, 2013; Oliver & Plomin, 2007; Trouton, Spinath, & Plomin, 2002).

Implications

Jenson (1969) found that the average I.Q. scores of black Americans were significantly lower than whites he went on to argue that genetic factors were mainly responsible – even going so far as to suggest that intelligence is 80% inherited.

The storm of controversy that developed around Jenson’s claims was not mainly due to logical and empirical weaknesses in his argument. It was more to do with the social and political implications that are often drawn from research that claims to demonstrate natural inequalities between social groups.

For many environmentalists, there is a barely disguised right-wing agenda behind the work of the behavioral geneticists.  In their view, part of the difference in the I.Q. scores of different ethnic groups are due to inbuilt biases in the methods of testing.

More fundamentally, they believe that differences in intellectual ability are a product of social inequalities in access to material resources and opportunities.  To put it simply children brought up in the ghetto tend to score lower on tests because they are denied the same life chances as more privileged members of society.

Now we can see why the nature-nurture debate has become such a hotly contested issue.  What begins as an attempt to understand the causes of behavioral differences often develops into a politically motivated dispute about distributive justice and power in society.

What’s more, this doesn’t only apply to the debate over I.Q.  It is equally relevant to the psychology of sex and gender , where the question of how much of the (alleged) differences in male and female behavior is due to biology and how much to culture is just as controversial.

Polygenic Inheritance

Rather than the presence or absence of single genes being the determining factor that accounts for psychological traits, behavioral genetics has demonstrated that multiple genes – often thousands, collectively contribute to specific behaviors.

Thus, psychological traits follow a polygenic mode of inheritance (as opposed to being determined by a single gene). Depression is a good example of a polygenic trait, which is thought to be influenced by around 1000 genes (Plomin, 2018).

This means a person with a lower number of these genes (under 500) would have a lower risk of experiencing depression than someone with a higher number.

The Nature of Nurture

Nurture assumes that correlations between environmental factors and psychological outcomes are caused environmentally. For example, how much parents read with their children and how well children learn to read appear to be related. Other examples include environmental stress and its effect on depression.

However, behavioral genetics argues that what look like environmental effects are to a large extent really a reflection of genetic differences (Plomin & Bergeman, 1991).

People select, modify and create environments correlated with their genetic disposition. This means that what sometimes appears to be an environmental influence (nurture) is a genetic influence (nature).

So, children that are genetically predisposed to be competent readers, will be happy to listen to their parents read them stories, and be more likely to encourage this interaction.

Interaction Effects

However, in recent years there has been a growing realization that the question of “how much” behavior is due to heredity and “how much” to the environment may itself be the wrong question.

Take intelligence as an example. Like almost all types of human behavior, it is a complex, many-sided phenomenon which reveals itself (or not!) in a great variety of ways.

The “how much” question assumes that psychological traits can all be expressed numerically and that the issue can be resolved in a quantitative manner.

Heritability statistics revealed by behavioral genetic studies have been criticized as meaningless, mainly because biologists have established that genes cannot influence development independently of environmental factors; genetic and nongenetic factors always cooperate to build traits. The reality is that nature and culture interact in a host of qualitatively different ways (Gottlieb, 2007; Johnston & Edwards, 2002).

Instead of defending extreme nativist or nurturist views, most psychological researchers are now interested in investigating how nature and nurture interact.

For example, in psychopathology , this means that both a genetic predisposition and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a mental disorder to develop. For example, epigenetics state that environmental influences affect the expression of genes.

What is Epigenetics?

Epigenetics is the term used to describe inheritance by mechanisms other than through the DNA sequence of genes. For example, features of a person’s physical and social environment can effect which genes are switched-on, or “expressed”, rather than the DNA sequence of the genes themselves.

Stressors and memories can be passed through small RNA molecules to multiple generations of offspring in ways that meaningfully affect their behavior.

One such example is what is known as the Dutch Hunger Winter, during last year of the Second World War. What they found was that children who were in the womb during the famine experienced a life-long increase in their chances of developing various health problems compared to children conceived after the famine.

Epigenetic effects can sometimes be passed from one generation to the next, although the effects only seem to last for a few generations. There is some evidence that the effects of the Dutch Hunger Winter affected grandchildren of women who were pregnant during the famine.

Therefore, it makes more sense to say that the difference between two people’s behavior is mostly due to hereditary factors or mostly due to environmental factors.

This realization is especially important given the recent advances in genetics, such as polygenic testing.  The Human Genome Project, for example, has stimulated enormous interest in tracing types of behavior to particular strands of DNA located on specific chromosomes.

If these advances are not to be abused, then there will need to be a more general understanding of the fact that biology interacts with both the cultural context and the personal choices that people make about how they want to live their lives.

There is no neat and simple way of unraveling these qualitatively different and reciprocal influences on human behavior.

Epigenetics: Licking Rat Pups

Michael Meaney and his colleagues at McGill University in Montreal, Canada conducted the landmark epigenetic study on mother rats licking and grooming their pups.

This research found that the amount of licking and grooming received by rat pups during their early life could alter their epigenetic marks and influence their stress responses in adulthood.

Pups that received high levels of maternal care (i.e., more licking and grooming) had a reduced stress response compared to those that received low levels of maternal care.

Meaney’s work with rat maternal behavior and its epigenetic effects has provided significant insights into the understanding of early-life experiences, gene expression, and adult behavior.

It underscores the importance of the early-life environment and its long-term impacts on an individual’s mental health and stress resilience.

Epigenetics: The Agouti Mouse Study

Waterland and Jirtle’s 2003 study on the Agouti mouse is another foundational work in the field of epigenetics that demonstrated how nutritional factors during early development can result in epigenetic changes that have long-lasting effects on phenotype.

In this study, they focused on a specific gene in mice called the Agouti viable yellow (A^vy) gene. Mice with this gene can express a range of coat colors, from yellow to mottled to brown.

This variation in coat color is related to the methylation status of the A^vy gene: higher methylation is associated with the brown coat, and lower methylation with the yellow coat.

Importantly, the coat color is also associated with health outcomes, with yellow mice being more prone to obesity, diabetes, and tumorigenesis compared to brown mice.

Waterland and Jirtle set out to investigate whether maternal diet, specifically supplementation with methyl donors like folic acid, choline, betaine, and vitamin B12, during pregnancy could influence the methylation status of the A^vy gene in offspring.

Key findings from the study include:

Dietary Influence : When pregnant mice were fed a diet supplemented with methyl donors, their offspring had an increased likelihood of having the brown coat color. This indicated that the supplemented diet led to an increased methylation of the A^vy gene.

Health Outcomes : Along with the coat color change, these mice also had reduced risks of obesity and other health issues associated with the yellow phenotype.

Transgenerational Effects : The study showed that nutritional interventions could have effects that extend beyond the individual, affecting the phenotype of the offspring.

The implications of this research are profound. It highlights how maternal nutrition during critical developmental periods can have lasting effects on offspring through epigenetic modifications, potentially affecting health outcomes much later in life.

The study also offers insights into how dietary and environmental factors might contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.

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Further Information

• Genetic & Environmental Influences on Human Psychological Differences

Evidence for Nurture

• Classical Conditioning
• Little Albert Experiment
• Operant Conditioning
• Behaviorism
• Social Learning Theory
• Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
• Social Roles
• Attachment Styles
• The Hidden Links Between Mental Disorders
• Visual Cliff Experiment
• Behavioral Genetics, Genetics, and Epigenetics
• Epigenetics
• Is Epigenetics Inherited?
• Physiological Psychology
• Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
• So is it nature not nurture after all?

Evidence for an Interaction

• Genes, Interactions, and the Development of Behavior
• Agouti Mouse Study
• Biological Psychology

What does nature refer to in the nature vs. nurture debate?

In the nature vs. nurture debate, “nature” refers to the influence of genetics, innate qualities, and biological factors on human development, behavior, and traits. It emphasizes the role of hereditary factors in shaping who we are.

What does nurture refer to in the nature vs. nurture debate?

In the nature vs. nurture debate, “nurture” refers to the influence of the environment, upbringing, experiences, and social factors on human development, behavior, and traits. It emphasizes the role of external factors in shaping who we are.

Why is it important to determine the contribution of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) in human development?

Determining the contribution of heredity and environment in human development is crucial for understanding the complex interplay between genetic factors and environmental influences. It helps identify the relative significance of each factor, informing interventions, policies, and strategies to optimize human potential and address developmental challenges.

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Vygotsky vs. Piaget: A Paradigm Shift

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Internal Working Models of Attachment

Soft Determinism In Psychology

Branches of Psychology

Learning Theory of Attachment

Biological Psychology Research Paper Topics

This page provides a comprehensive list of biological psychology research paper topics , curated to support students navigating the complex interplay between biology and psychology. Designed to fuel academic inquiry and innovation, these topics span the breadth of biological psychology, from neuroanatomy and brain structure to mental health and neurological disorders. Each theme is chosen for its relevance and potential to advance understanding within this fascinating field. Whether you’re exploring the basics of neurochemistry, the intricacies of genetic influences on behavior, or the cutting-edge developments in psychopharmacology, this list is a gateway to discovering the profound impact of biological factors on psychological processes.

100 Biological Psychology Research Paper Topics

Biological psychology stands at the fascinating intersection where biology meets psychology, offering insights into how our biological processes influence our behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. The significance of research in this field cannot be overstated, as it provides the foundational understanding necessary for developing treatments for psychological disorders, enhancing educational strategies, and improving overall mental health. The diversity of research paper topics available within biological psychology reflects the vastness of the human mind and body, encompassing everything from the microscopic workings of neurotransmitters to the complex behaviors driven by our genetic makeup. This section aims to introduce students to a broad spectrum of topics, encouraging exploration into the many facets of biological psychology.

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• The Role of the Hippocampus in Memory Formation
• Neuroanatomical Differences in Individuals with ADHD
• The Impact of Aging on Brain Structures
• The Brain’s Reward System and Its Link to Addiction
• Comparative Neuroanatomy of Humans and Non-Human Primates
• Brain Structure Differences in Psychiatric Disorders
• The Function of the Amygdala in Fear and Emotion
• Neurogenesis in the Adult Brain
• The Role of the Prefrontal Cortex in Decision Making
• Mapping the Connectome: Understanding Brain Networks
• The Role of Serotonin in Mood Disorders
• Neurotransmitters and Their Impact on Behavior
• The Biochemistry of Love: Neurochemical Foundations
• Dopamine Pathways and Their Role in Motivation and Reward
• Glutamate and GABA: Balancing Excitation and Inhibition
• Neurochemical Basis of Learning and Memory
• The Effect of Psychoactive Substances on Neurotransmission
• Endocannabinoids and Their Psychological Effects
• Stress and Cortisol: Neurochemical Responses to Stress
• Neuroplasticity and Changes in Neurotransmitter Function
• The Heritability of Intelligence
• Genetic Influences on Personality Traits
• Epigenetics and Psychological Disorders
• The Role of Twin Studies in Understanding Behavior
• Genetic Predispositions to Anxiety and Depression
• Behavioral Genetics of Addiction
• The Impact of Prenatal Genetic Influences on Development
• Gene-Environment Interactions in Schizophrenia
• Genetics of Sleep Patterns and Disorders
• Molecular Genetics in Cognitive Functioning
• The Evolution of Altruism and Social Behavior
• Mate Selection and Attraction from an Evolutionary Perspective
• The Evolutionary Basis of Phobias and Fears
• Evolutionary Explanations for Group Dynamics
• Sexual Dimorphism and Gender Differences in Behavior
• The Evolutionary Role of Emotions
• Evolutionary Perspectives on Parental Investment
• The Adaptive Nature of Cognitive Biases
• Evolution and Human Aggression
• Survival Strategies: Evolutionary Approaches to Modern Behavior
• Antidepressants: Mechanisms of Action and Clinical Use
• The Pharmacology of Hallucinogens and Their Therapeutic Potential
• Neuroleptics and the Treatment of Schizophrenia
• The Impact of Stimulants on Attention Disorders
• Benzodiazepines and Anxiety: A Double-Edged Sword
• The Role of Psychopharmacology in Treating PTSD
• Medications for Bipolar Disorder: An Overview
• Cognitive Enhancers and Nootropics: Ethical Considerations
• The Effects of Opioids on the Brain and Behavior
• Challenges in Developing Medications for Addiction Treatment
• The Mechanisms of Neuroplasticity
• Critical Periods in Brain Development and Learning
• The Role of Sleep in Memory Consolidation and Learning
• Neuroplasticity and Recovery from Brain Injury
• The Impact of Meditation on Brain Structure and Function
• Language Acquisition and Brain Plasticity
• Exercise and Its Effects on Brain Health and Neuroplasticity
• The Influence of Environmental Enrichment on Neural Development
• Neuroplasticity in Aging: Maintaining Cognitive Function
• Plasticity and the Treatment of Learning Disabilities
• Visual Perception and Its Neural Mechanisms
• The Neuroscience of Taste and Smell
• Auditory Processing and the Perception of Music
• The Somatosensory System: Touch and Pain Perception
• Multisensory Integration and Its Role in Perception
• Perception and the Brain: Top-Down Processes
• Neurobiology of the Vestibular System
• Synesthesia: Cross-Wiring in the Brain
• The Role of Attention in Sensory Processing
• Perception of Time and Its Neural Basis
• The Neural Correlates of Happiness and Well-Being
• Stress Response Mechanisms in the Brain
• The Physiology of Fear and the Fight or Flight Response
• Emotional Regulation and Its Neural Substrates
• The Impact of Chronic Stress on Health and Behavior
• Neural Pathways of Anger and Aggression
• The Role of Oxytocin in Social Bonding and Emotions
• Psychoneuroimmunology: The Link Between Emotion and Immune Function
• Emotional Expression and Recognition: A Neurological Perspective
• Stress and Memory: How Stress Affects Cognitive Processes
• The Neural Basis of Consciousness
• Sleep Disorders and Their Neurological Underpinnings
• Dreaming: Theories and Neurobiological Mechanisms
• The Role of the Thalamus in Sleep and Consciousness
• Neurological Studies on Meditation and Mindfulness
• The Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Brain Function
• Circadian Rhythms and Their Regulation
• The Neurobiology of Hypnosis
• Consciousness-Altering Substances: A Biological Perspective
• The Intersection of Consciousness and Memory
• Biological Underpinnings of Major Depressive Disorder
• The Neurobiology of Anxiety Disorders
• Schizophrenia: Genetic and Neurochemical Aspects
• Autism Spectrum Disorders: Neural Correlates and Interventions
• Neurological Basis of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
• Parkinson’s Disease: Neurodegeneration and Treatment Strategies
• Alzheimer’s Disease: Pathophysiology and Research Directions
• The Impact of Traumatic Brain Injury on Mental Health
• Multiple Sclerosis: Immunological and Neurological Perspectives
• Neurobiological Aspects of Eating Disorders

The range and depth of biological psychology research paper topics underscore the field’s crucial role in advancing our understanding of the human mind and behavior. By exploring these diverse areas, students have the opportunity to contribute significantly to the growth of biological psychology, uncovering new insights and applications that can influence everything from healthcare to education. We encourage students to delve into these topics, harnessing their curiosity and analytical skills to drive forward the boundaries of what we know about the biological foundations of behavior.

What is Biological Psychology

Introduction to Biological Psychology

At its core, biological psychology seeks to unravel the complex web of neural activities, genetic factors, and biochemical processes that constitute the foundation of our psychological experiences. It operates on the premise that our cognitions, emotions, and behaviors are deeply rooted in our physical bodies, particularly our brains. This perspective is pivotal, as it guides researchers and practitioners toward understanding mental health issues, developmental processes, and the myriad ways in which individuals interact with their environments.

Overview and Significance of Studying Biological Psychology

The significance of studying biological psychology cannot be overstated. It provides critical insights into the physiological bases of behavior, offering explanations for how and why we act, learn, remember, and feel. This understanding is vital for the development of effective treatments for a variety of mental health disorders, including depression, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorder. Furthermore, biological psychology research contributes to our knowledge of how genetics and the environment interact to influence our behavior, leading to more nuanced approaches to education, therapy, and social policy.

Discussion on How Biological Factors Influence Behavior and Mental Processes

Biological factors influence behavior and mental processes in myriad ways. From the genetic codes that predispose individuals to certain traits and behaviors, to the neurotransmitters that facilitate communication within the brain, every thought, memory, emotion, and action can be traced back to biological origins. Hormonal changes, for example, can significantly affect mood and behavior, while structural differences in brain areas can lead to varied cognitive abilities and emotional experiences. Understanding these biological underpinnings allows psychologists to better comprehend the full spectrum of human behavior and mental health.

Exploration of the Wide Range of Research Topics Within Biological Psychology

Biological psychology encompasses a wide array of research topics, reflecting the diversity of the human experience itself. These topics include neuroanatomy, which studies the structure of the nervous system; neurochemistry, focusing on the chemical bases of neural activity; and psychopharmacology, the study of how drugs affect the mind and behavior. Other areas of interest include the investigation of the biological bases of mental disorders, the neural mechanisms of learning and memory, and the impact of stress on physical and mental health. This diversity not only highlights the complexity of the field but also its potential to contribute to various aspects of society and health care.

Examination of the Latest Advancements and Research Findings

The field of biological psychology has witnessed significant advancements in recent years, thanks in part to technological innovations such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and genome-wide association studies (GWAS). These advancements have allowed researchers to explore the brain’s structure and function with unprecedented detail, leading to new understandings of neural plasticity, the genetics of psychological disorders, and the neural bases of complex behaviors like empathy and decision-making. These findings are continuously reshaping our understanding of the brain-behavior relationship, offering new avenues for treatment and intervention.

Ethical Considerations in Biological Psychology Research

As with all scientific research, biological psychology faces its own set of ethical considerations. Issues such as the use of animals in research, the potential for genetic discrimination, and the privacy concerns surrounding genetic information are at the forefront of ethical debates. Ensuring that research is conducted responsibly, with due consideration for the welfare of participants (both human and non-human), is paramount. Moreover, the implications of biological psychology research often extend into broader societal and moral realms, necessitating ongoing dialogue among scientists, ethicists, and the public.

Future Directions and Potential Areas of Study

The future of biological psychology is bright, with numerous potential areas of study poised to further illuminate the complexities of the human mind and behavior. One promising area is the exploration of the microbiome’s impact on psychological well-being, an emerging field known as psychobiotics. Additionally, the advent of personalized medicine, including tailored psychopharmacological treatments based on individual genetic profiles, holds great promise for the treatment of mental disorders. As our understanding of the biological underpinnings of behavior continues to grow, so too will our capacity to enhance human health and productivity.

Conclusion on the Importance of Research in Biological Psychology

Research in biological psychology is essential for advancing our understanding of the intricate relationships between the brain, the body, and behavior. By uncovering the biological bases of mental processes and disorders, this field contributes invaluable knowledge that informs the development of more effective treatments, interventions, and policies. The importance of biological psychology research extends beyond academia, impacting mental health care, education, and society at large. As we continue to explore the biological foundations of behavior, we move closer to unlocking the full potential of human health and well-being, underscoring the vital role that biological psychology plays in our quest to understand the human condition.

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