definition of homework by authors

Homework: Facts and Fiction

• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 09 November 2021
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Rubén Fernández-Alonso 4 , 5 &
• José Muñiz 6  

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE))

283 Accesses

4 Citations

Homework is a universal student practice. Despite this universality, the role that homework plays in student academic performance is complex and open to various interpretations. This chapter reviews the current available evidence about the relationships between homework and achievement. We begin by examining the differences between countries and follow that by reviewing the influence of variables related to student homework behavior, teaching practices around assigning homework, and the role of the family in helping with homework. The results indicate that the relationship between time spent on homework and school results is curvilinear, and the best results are seen to be associated with moderate amounts of daily homework. With regard to student homework behavior, there is abundant evidence indicating that the “how” is much more important than the “how much.” Commitment and effort, the emotions prompted by the task, and autonomous working are three key aspects in predicting academic achievement. Effective teaching practice around homework is determined by setting it daily and systematic review. Although family involvement in the educational process is desirable, in the case of homework, direct help has doubtful effects on student achievement.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Extending a model of homework: a multilevel analysis with Chinese middle school students

Understanding the Quality of Effective Homework

Bembenutty, H., & White, M. C. (2013). Academic performance and satisfaction with homework completion among college students. Learning and Individual Differences, 24 , 83–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.10.013

Article   Google Scholar  

Borgonovi, F., & Montt, G. (2012). Parental involvement in selected PISA countries and economies . OECD Education Working Papers, 73. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/5k990rk0jsjj-en .

Castro, M., Expósito-Casas, E., López-Martín, E., Lizasoain, L., Navarro-Asencio, E., & Gaviria, J. L. (2015). Parental involvement on student achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 14 , 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.01.002

Cooper, H. (1989). Homework . Longman. https://doi.org/10.1037/11578-000

Book   Google Scholar  

Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987–2003. Review of Educational Research, 76 , 1–62. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543076001001

Cooper, H., & Valentine, J. C. (2001). Using research to answer practical questions about homework. Educational Psychologist, 36 (3), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3603_1

Corno, L. (1996). Homework is a complicated thing. Educational Researcher, 25 (8), 27–30. www.jstor.org/stable/1176489

De Jong, R., Westerhof, K. J., & Creemers, B. P. M. (2000). Homework and student math achievement in junior high schools. Educational Research and Evaluation, 6 (2), 130–157. https://doi.org/10.1076/1380-3611(200006)6:2;1-E;F130

Dettmers, S., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, M., Kunter, M., & Baumert, J. (2010). Homework works if homework quality is high: Using multilevel modeling to predict the development of achievement in mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102 , 467–482. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018453

Dettmers, S., Trautwein, U., & Lüdtke, O. (2009). The relationship between homework time and achievement is not universal: Evidence from multilevel analyses in 40 countries. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 20 (4), 375–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243450902904601

Dettmers, S., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Goetz, T., Pekrun, R., & Frenzel, A. (2011). Students‘ emotions during homework in mathematics: Testing a theoretical model of antecedents and achievement outcomes. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36 , 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.001

Dumont, H., Trautwein, U., Nagy, G., & Nagengast, B. (2014). Quality of parental homework involvement: Predictors and reciprocal relations with academic functioning in the reading domain. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102 , 144–161. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034100

Epstein, J. L. (1988). Homework practices, achievements, and behaviors of elementary school students . Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools, Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved December 13, 2020, from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED301322

Epstein, J. L., & Van Voorhis, F. L. (2001). More than minutes: Teachers’ roles in designing homework. Educational Psychologist, 36 (3), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3603_4

Falch, T., & Rønning, M. (2012). Homework assignment and student achievement in OECD countries . Statistics Norway discussion papers, 711. Statistics Norway. Retrieved April 15, 2020, from: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/192693

Fan, H., Xu, J., Cai, Z., He, J., & Fan, X. (2017). Homework and students’ achievement in math and science: A 30-year meta-analysis, 1986–2015. Educational Research Review, 20 , 35–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.11.003

Farrow, S., Tymms, P., & Henderson, B. (1999). Homework and attainment in primary schools. British Educational Research Journal, 25 (3), 323–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141192990250304

Fernández-Alonso, R., Álvarez-Díaz, M., Suárez-Álvarez, J., & Muñiz, J. (2017). Students’ achievement and homework assignment strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 8 , 286. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00286

Fernández-Alonso, R., Álvarez-Díaz, M., Woitschach, P., Suárez-Álvarez, J., & Cuesta, M. (2017). Parental involvement and academic performance: Less control and more communication. Psicothema, 29 , 453–461. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2017.181

Fernández-Alonso, R., Suárez-Álvarez, J., & Muñiz, J. (2015). Adolescents’ homework performance in mathematics and science: Personal factors and teaching practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107 (4), 1075–1085. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000032

Fernández-Alonso, R., Suárez-Álvarez, J., & Muñiz, J. (2016). Homework and performance in mathematics: The role of the teacher, the family and the student’s background. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 21 (1), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1387/RevPsicodidact.13939

Fernández-Alonso, R., Woitschach, P., Álvarez-Díaz, M., González-López, A. M., Cuesta, M., & Muñiz, J. (2019). Homework and academic achievement in Latin America: A multilevel approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 10 , 95. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00095

Flunger, B., Trautwein, U., Nagengast, B., Lüdtke, O., Niggli, A., & Schnyder, I. (2015). The Janus-faced nature of time spent on homework: Using latent profile analyses to predict academic achievement over a school year. Learning and Instruction, 39 , 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.05.008

Flunger, B., Trautwein, U., Nagengast, B., Lüdtke, O., Niggli, A., & Schnyder, I. (2017). A person-centered approach to homework behavior: Students’ characteristics predict their homework learning type. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 48 , 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.07.002

Flunger, B., Trautwein, U., Nagengast, B., Lüdtke, O., Niggli, A., & Schnyder, I. (2019). Using multilevel mixture models in educational research: An illustration with homework research. The Journal of Experimental Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2019.1652137

Goetz, T., Nett, U. E., Martiny, S. E., Hall, N. C., Pekrun, R., Dettmers, S., & Trautwein, U. (2012). Students’ emotions during homework: Structures, self-concept antecedents, and achievement outcomes. Learning and Individual Differences, 22 , 225–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.04.006

Gustafsson, J. E. (2013). Causal inference in educational effectiveness research: A comparison of three methods to investigate effects of homework on student achievement. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 24 (3), 275–295. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2013.806334

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning. A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement . Routledge.

Google Scholar  

Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology, 45 (3), 740–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015362

Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Battiato, A. C., Walker, J. M. T., Reed, R. P., DeJong, J. M., & Jones, K. P. (2001). Parental involvement in homework. Educational Psychologist, 36 , 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3603_5

Jerrim, J., Lopez-Agudo, L. A., & Marcenaro-Gutierrez, O. D. (2020). The association between homework and primary school children’s academic achievement. International evidence from PIRLS and TIMSS. European Journal of Education, 00 , 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12374

Kim, S. w., & Hill, N. E. (2015). Including fathers in the picture: A meta-analysis of parental involvement and students’ academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107 (4), 919–934. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000023

Kitsantas, A., Cheema, J., & Ware, H. (2011). Mathematics achievement: The role of homework and self-efficacy beliefs. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22 (2), 310–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X1102200206

Kitsantas, A., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2009). College students homework and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-regulatory beliefs. Metacognition and Learning, 4 (2), 1556–1623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-008-9028-y

Lee, J., & Stankov, L. (2018). Non-cognitive predictors of academic achievement: Evidence from TIMSS and PISA. Learning and Individual Differences, 65 , 50–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.05.009

Moroni, S., Dumont, H., Trautwein, U., Niggli, A., & Baeriswyl, F. (2015). The need to distinguish between quantity and quality in research on parental involvement: The example of parental help with homework. Journal of Educational Research, 108 (5), 417–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2014.901283

Murillo, F. J. (2003). La investigación sobre eficacia escolar en Iberoamérica. Revisión Internacional sobre el estado del arte [Research on school effectiveness in Latin America. An international review] . Convenio Andrés Bello. Retrieved December 13, 2020, from: http://convenioandresbello.org/cab/educacion/eficacia-escolar-en-iberoamerica/

Núñez, J. C., Suárez, N., Cerezo, R., González-Pienda, J., Rosário, P., Mourão, R., & Valle, A. (2015). Homework and academic achievement across Spanish compulsory education. Educational Psychology, 35 (6), 726–746. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.817537

Núñez, J. C., Suárez, N., Rosário, P., Vallejo, G., Cerezo, R., & Valle, A. (2015). Teachers’ feedback on homework, homework-related behaviors, and academic achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 108 , 204–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2013.878298

OECD. (2013). PISA 2012 results: What makes schools successful? Resources, policies and practices (volume IV) . OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264201156-en

Paschal, R. A., Weinstein, T., & Walberg, H. J. (1984). The effects of homework on learning: A quantitative synthesis. The Journal of Educational Research, 78 (2), 97–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885581

Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008). Parent involvement in homework: A research synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 78 (4), 1039–1101. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325185

Pomerantz, E. M., Moorman, E. A., & Litwack, S. D. (2007). The how, whom, and why of parents’ involvement in children’s academic lives: More is not always better. Review of Educational Research, 77 (3), 373–410. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430305567

Ramdass, D., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2011). Developing self-regulation skills: The important role of homework. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22 , 194–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X1102200202

Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods . Sage.

Rosário, P., Cunha, J., Nunes, T., Nunes, A. R., Moreira, T., & Núñez, J. C. (2019). “Homework should be…but we do not live in an ideal world”: Mathematics teachers’ perspectives on quality homework and on homework assigned in elementary and middle schools. Frontiers in Psychology, 10 , 224. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00224

Rosário, P., Mourão, R., Baldaque, M., Nunes. T., Núñez, J. C., González-Pienda, J. A., Cerezo, R., & Valle A. (2009). Homework, self-regulated learning and Math achievement. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 14 (2), 179–192. Retrieved December 13, 2020, from: https://ojs.ehu.eus/index.php/psicodidactica/article/view/721

Sammons, P., Hillman, J., & Mortimore, P. (1995). Key characteristics of effective schools: A review of school effectiveness research . Office for Standards in Education. Retrieved December 13, 2020, from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED389826

Scheerens, J. (2016). Educational effectiveness and ineffectiveness. A critical review of the knowledge base . Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7459-8

Scheerens, J., Hendriks, M., Luyten, H., Sleegers, P., & Cees, G. (2013). Productive time in education. A review of the effectiveness of teaching time at school, homework and extended time outside school hours . University of Twente. Retrieved April 15, 2020, from: https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/productive-time-in-education-a-review-of-the-effectiveness-of-tea

Scheerens, J., Witziers, B., & Steen, R. (2013). A meta-analysis of school effectiveness studies. Revista de Educación, 361 , 619–645. https://doi.org/10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2013-361-235

Shell, D. F., Brooks, D. W., Trainin, G., Wilson, K. M., Kauffman, D. F., & Herr, L. M. (2010). The unified learning model . Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3215-7

Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A Meta-Analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75 (3), 417–453. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003417

Stoeger, H., & Ziegler, A. (2008). Evaluation of a classroom based training to improve self-regulation in time management tasks during homework activities with fourth graders. Metacognition and Learning, 3 , 207–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-008-9027-z

Tan, C. Y., Lyu, M., & Peng, B. (2019). Academic benefits from parental involvement are stratified by parental socioeconomic status: A Meta-analysis. Parenting , 1–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2019.1694836

Tan, C. Y., Peng, B., & Lyu, M. (2019). What types of cultural capital benefit students’ academic achievement at different educational stages? Interrogating the meta-analytic evidence. Educational Research Review , 100289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100289

Trautwein, U. (2007). The homework–achievement relation reconsidered: Differentiating homework time, homework frequency, and homework effort. Learning and Instruction, 17 , 372–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.02.009

Trautwein, U., & Köller, O. (2003). The relationship between homework and achievement: Still much of a mystery. Educational Psychology Review, 15 , 115–145. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023460414243

Trautwein, U., Köller, O., Schmitz, B., & Baumert, J. (2002). Do homework assignments enhance achievement? A multilevel analysis in 7th grade mathematics. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27 , 26–50. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2001.1084

Trautwein, U., & Lüdtke, O. (2007). Students’ self-reported effort and time on homework in six school subjects: Between-student differences and within-student variation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99 , 432–444. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.432

Trautwein, U., Niggli, A., Schnyder, I., & Lüdtke, O. (2009). Between-teacher differences in homework assignments and the development of students’ homework effort, homework emotions, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101 , 176–189. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.101.1.176

Trautwein, U., Schnyder, I., Niggli, A., Neumann, M., & Lüdtke, O. (2009). Chameleon effects in homework research: The homework–achievement association depends on the measures used and the level of analysis chosen. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34 , 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.09.001

UNESCO, & LLECE. (2000). Primer Estudio Internacional Comparativo sobre lenguaje, matemática y factores asociados, para alumnos del tercer y cuarto grado de la educación básica [First international comparative study on language, mathematics and associated factors, for third and fourth grade students of basic education] . UNESCO.

UNESCO-OREALC, & LLECE. (2016). Informe de resultados del Tercer Estudio regional Comparativo y Explicativo. Factores Asociados [Report of the third regional comparative and explanatory study. Effectiveness factors] . UNESCO.

Valle, A., Piñeiro, I., Rodríguez, S., Regueiro, B., Freire, C., & Rosário, P. (2019). Time spent and time management in homework in elementary school students: A person-centered approach. Psicothema, 31 (4), 422–428. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2019.191

Wilder, S. (2014). Effects of parental involvement on academic achievement: A meta-synthesis. Educational Review, 66 (3), 377–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2013.780009

Wingard, L., & Forsberg, L. (2009). Parent involvement in children’s homework in American and Swedish dual-earner families. Journal of Pragmatics, 41 , 1576–1595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2007.09.010

Xu, J. (2013). Why do students have difficulties completing homework? The need for homework management. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 1 (1), 98–105. https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v1i1.78

Xu, J., & Wu, H. (2013). Self-regulation of homework behavior: Homework management at the secondary school level. The Journal of Educational Research, 106 (1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2012.658457

Xu, J., Yuan, R., Xu, B., & Xu, M. (2014). Modeling students’ time management in math homework. Learning and Individual Differences, 34 , 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.05.011

Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (2005). Homework practices and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and perceived responsibility beliefs. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30 , 397–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.05.003

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Education, Government of Principado de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain

Rubén Fernández-Alonso

University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain

Nebrija University, Madrid, Spain

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rubén Fernández-Alonso .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

University of Oslo, Blindern, Oslo, Norway

Trude Nilsen

IEA Hamburg, Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Agnes Stancel-Piątak

University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

Jan-Eric Gustafsson

Section Editor information

CEMO, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Ronny Scherer

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Cite this entry.

Fernández-Alonso, R., Muñiz, J. (2021). Homework: Facts and Fiction. In: Nilsen, T., Stancel-Piątak, A., Gustafsson, JE. (eds) International Handbook of Comparative Large-Scale Studies in Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38298-8_40-1

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38298-8_40-1

Received : 31 January 2021

Accepted : 03 February 2021

Published : 09 November 2021

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-38298-8

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-38298-8

eBook Packages : Springer Reference Education Reference Module Humanities and Social Sciences Reference Module Education

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

• More from M-W
• To save this word, you'll need to log in. Log In

Definition of homework

Examples of homework in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'homework.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1662, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Dictionary Entries Near homework

Cite this entry.

“Homework.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/homework. Accessed 25 May. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of homework, more from merriam-webster on homework.

Thesaurus: All synonyms and antonyms for homework

Nglish: Translation of homework for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of homework for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about homework

Subscribe to America's largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search—ad free!

Can you solve 4 words at once?

Word of the day, countermand.

See Definitions and Examples »

Get Word of the Day daily email!

Popular in Grammar & Usage

More commonly misspelled words, your vs. you're: how to use them correctly, every letter is silent, sometimes: a-z list of examples, more commonly mispronounced words, how to use em dashes (—), en dashes (–) , and hyphens (-), popular in wordplay, the words of the week - may 24, flower etymologies for your spring garden, birds say the darndest things, a great big list of bread words, 10 scrabble words without any vowels, games & quizzes.

A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

A lock ( ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

• About Child Abuse and Neglect
• Risk and Protective Factors
• Public Health Strategy
• Essentials for Childhood Framework
• Child abuse and neglect are serious public health problems.
• Child abuse and neglect can have long-term impacts on health, opportunity, and well-being.

What are child abuse and neglect?

Child abuse and neglect includes all types of abuse and neglect of a child under the age of 18 by a parent, caregiver, or another person in a custodial role (e.g., a religious leader, a coach, or a teacher) that results in harm, the potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child.

There are four common types of abuse and neglect:

• Physical abuse is the intentional use of physical force that can result in physical injury. Examples include hitting, kicking, shaking, or other shows of force against a child. 1
• Sexual abuse involves pressuring or forcing a child to engage in sexual acts. Examples include fondling, penetration, and exposing a child to other sexual activities. 1 Read more information about child sexual abuse .
• Emotional abuse refers to behaviors that harm a child's self-worth or emotional well-being. Examples include name-calling, shaming, rejecting, and withholding love. 1
• Neglect is the failure to meet a child's basic physical and emotional needs. These needs include housing, food, clothing, education, access to medical care, and having feelings validated and appropriately responded to. 1 2

For more information about child abuse and neglect definitions please see Child Maltreatment Surveillance: Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements [4.12 MB, 148 Pages, 508] .

Quick facts and stats

Child abuse and neglect are common. At least one in seven children experienced child abuse or neglect in the past year in the United States. 3 This is likely an underestimate because many cases are unreported. In 2021, 1,820 children died of abuse and neglect in the United States. 4

Children living in poverty experience more abuse and neglect. Experiencing poverty can place a lot of stress on families, which may increase the risk for child abuse and neglect. Rates of child abuse and neglect are five times higher for children in families with low socioeconomic status compared to families with a higher socioeconomic status. 1

Child maltreatment is costly. In the United States, the total lifetime economic burden associated with child abuse and neglect was about $592 billion in 2018. 5 This economic burden rivals the cost of other high-profile public health problems, such as heart disease and diabetes. 6

Children who are abused or neglected may suffer immediate physical injuries such as cuts, bruises, or broken bones. They may also have emotional and psychological problems, such as anxiety or posttraumatic stress. 1

Over the long term, children who are abused or neglected are also at increased risk for experiencing future violence victimization and perpetration, substance abuse, sexually transmitted infections, delayed brain development, lower educational attainment, and limited employment opportunities. 1

Abuse and neglect may result in toxic stress, which can change brain development and increase the risk for problems like posttraumatic stress disorder and learning, attention, and memory difficulties. 7

Child abuse and neglect can be prevented. Certain factors may increase or decrease the risk of perpetrating or experiencing child abuse and neglect.

Preventing child abuse and neglect requires understanding and addressing the factors that put people at risk for or protect them from violence. 8

Everyone benefits when children have safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments. We all have role to play.

• Fortson, B. L., Klevens, J., Merrick, M. T., Gilbert, L. K., & Alexander, S. P. (2016). Child Abuse and Neglect Prevention Resource for Action: A Compilation of the Best Available Evidence. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Note: The title of this document was changed in July 2023 to align with other Prevention Resources being developed by CDC's Injury Center. The document was previously cited as "Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect: A Technical Package for Policy, Norm, and Programmatic Activities".
• Leeb RT, Paulozzi L, Melanson C, Simon T, Arias I. Child Maltreatment Surveillance: Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements, Version 1.0. Atlanta (GA): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control; 2008.
• Finkelhor D, Turner HA, Shattuck A, Hamby SL. Prevalence of Childhood Exposure to Violence, Crime, and Abuse: Results from the National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169(8):746–754. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0676
• U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau. (2023). Child Maltreatment 2021. Available from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/data-research/child-maltreatment.
• Klika JB, Rosenzweig J, Merrick M. Economic burden of known cases of child maltreatment from 2018 in each state. Child and adolescent social work journal. 2020 Jun;37(3):227-34.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.(2022). Health and Economic Costs of Chronic Diseases. Available from https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/about/costs/index.htm
• Shonkoff J, Garner A, & Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care, and Section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232-e246.
• Preventing Multiple Forms of Violence: A Strategic Vision for Connecting the Dots. (2016). Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Child Abuse and Neglect Prevention

Child abuse and neglect can have long-term impact on health, opportunity, and well-being. CDC works to understand the problems of child abuse and neglect and prevent them.

For Everyone

Public health.

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

How to Talk to an Employee Who Isn’t Meeting Expectations

• Jenny Fernandez

It’s an opportunity to address the gap between the work they’re delivering and the company’s goals.

Approaching a conversation about improving an employee’s performance requires preparation, empathy, and a focus on collaboration. Even though hearing the truth about their current performance will be tough and potentially hurtful, it’s a teaching moment managers must embrace to help them become more resilient and adept at problem-solving and developing professional relationships. The author offers several strategies for treating difficult performance conversations not as fault-finding missions, but instead as opportunities to work collaboratively to define a shared commitment to growth and development.

As a leadership and team coach, I frequently encounter situations where managers feel ill-equipped to give their team members negative performance feedback. These conversations can be particularly challenging because the stakes are high for both sides. Unfavorable performance reviews and ratings come with tangible consequences for an employee’s compensation and career progression. Further, if the negative feedback is a surprise to them, it might prompt them to start looking for a new job.

• Jenny Fernandez , MBA, is an executive and team coach, Columbia and NYU faculty, and future of work and brand strategist. She works with senior leaders and their teams to become more collaborative, innovative, and resilient. Her work spans Fortune 500 companies, startups, and higher education. Jenny has been recognized by LinkedIn as a “Top Voice in Executive Coaching, Leadership Development, and Personal Branding” and was invited to join the prestigious Marshall Goldsmith’s 100 Coaches community. She is a Gen Z advocate. Connect with her on LinkedIn .

Partner Center