define case study application

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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Understanding Case Study Method in Research: A Comprehensive Guide

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Have you ever wondered how researchers uncover the nuanced layers of individual experiences or the intricate workings of a particular event? One of the keys to unlocking these mysteries lies in the qualitative research focusing on a single subject in its real-life context.">case study method , a research strategy that might seem straightforward at first glance but is rich with complexity and insightful potential. Let’s dive into the world of case studies and discover why they are such a valuable tool in the arsenal of research methods.

What is a Case Study Method?

At its core, the case study method is a form of qualitative research that involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a single subject, such as an individual, group, organization, event, or phenomenon. It’s a method favored when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident, and where multiple sources of data are used to illuminate the case from various perspectives. This method’s strength lies in its ability to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case in its real-life context.

Historical Context and Evolution of Case Studies

Case studies have been around for centuries, with their roots in medical and psychological research. Over time, their application has spread to disciplines like sociology, anthropology, business, and education. The evolution of this method has been marked by a growing appreciation for qualitative data and the rich, contextual insights it can provide, which quantitative methods may overlook.

Characteristics of Case Study Research

What sets the case study method apart are its distinct characteristics:

• Intensive Examination: It provides a deep understanding of the case in question, considering the complexity and uniqueness of each case.
• Contextual Analysis: The researcher studies the case within its real-life context, recognizing that the context can significantly influence the phenomenon.
• Multiple Data Sources: Case studies often utilize various data sources like interviews, observations, documents, and reports, which provide multiple perspectives on the subject.
• Participant’s Perspective: This method often focuses on the perspectives of the participants within the case, giving voice to those directly involved.

Types of Case Studies

There are different types of case studies, each suited for specific research objectives:

• Exploratory: These are conducted before large-scale research projects to help identify questions, select measurement constructs, and develop hypotheses.
• Descriptive: These involve a detailed, in-depth description of the case, without attempting to determine cause and effect.
• Explanatory: These are used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships and understand underlying principles of certain phenomena.
• Intrinsic: This type is focused on the case itself because the case presents an unusual or unique issue.
• Instrumental: Here, the case is secondary to understanding a broader issue or phenomenon.
• Collective: These involve studying a group of cases collectively or comparably to understand a phenomenon, population, or general condition.

The Process of Conducting a Case Study

Conducting a case study involves several well-defined steps:

• Defining Your Case: What or who will you study? Define the case and ensure it aligns with your research objectives.
• Selecting Participants: If studying people, careful selection is crucial to ensure they fit the case criteria and can provide the necessary insights.
• Data Collection: Gather information through various methods like interviews, observations, and reviewing documents.
• Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data to identify patterns, themes, and insights related to your research question.
• Reporting Findings: Present your findings in a way that communicates the complexity and richness of the case study, often through narrative.

Case Studies in Practice: Real-world Examples

Case studies are not just academic exercises; they have practical applications in every field. For instance, in business, they can explore consumer behavior or organizational strategies. In psychology, they can provide detailed insight into individual behaviors or conditions. Education often uses case studies to explore teaching methods or learning difficulties.

Advantages of Case Study Research

While the case study method has its critics, it offers several undeniable advantages:

• Rich, Detailed Data: It captures data too complex for quantitative methods.
• Contextual Insights: It provides a better understanding of the phenomena in its natural setting.
• Contribution to Theory: It can generate and refine theory, offering a foundation for further research.

Limitations and Criticism

However, it’s important to acknowledge the limitations and criticisms:

• Generalizability : Findings from case studies may not be widely generalizable due to the focus on a single case.
• Subjectivity: The researcher’s perspective may influence the study, which requires careful reflection and transparency.
• Time-Consuming: They require a significant amount of time to conduct and analyze properly.

Concluding Thoughts on the Case Study Method

The case study method is a powerful tool that allows researchers to delve into the intricacies of a subject in its real-world environment. While not without its challenges, when executed correctly, the insights garnered can be incredibly valuable, offering depth and context that other methods may miss. Robert K\. Yin ’s advocacy for this method underscores its potential to illuminate and explain contemporary phenomena, making it an indispensable part of the researcher’s toolkit.

Reflecting on the case study method, how do you think its application could change with the advancements in technology and data analytics? Could such a traditional method be enhanced or even replaced in the future?

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Research Methods in Psychology

1 Introduction to Psychological Research – Objectives and Goals, Problems, Hypothesis and Variables

• Nature of Psychological Research
• The Context of Discovery
• Context of Justification
• Characteristics of Psychological Research
• Goals and Objectives of Psychological Research

2 Introduction to Psychological Experiments and Tests

• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Extraneous Variables
• Experimental and Control Groups
• Introduction of Test
• Types of Psychological Test
• Uses of Psychological Tests

3 Steps in Research

• Research Process
• Identification of the Problem
• Review of Literature
• Formulating a Hypothesis
• Identifying Manipulating and Controlling Variables
• Formulating a Research Design
• Constructing Devices for Observation and Measurement
• Sample Selection and Data Collection
• Data Analysis and Interpretation
• Hypothesis Testing
• Drawing Conclusion

4 Types of Research and Methods of Research

• Historical Research
• Descriptive Research
• Correlational Research
• Qualitative Research
• Ex-Post Facto Research
• True Experimental Research
• Quasi-Experimental Research

5 Definition and Description Research Design, Quality of Research Design

• Research Design
• Purpose of Research Design
• Design Selection
• Criteria of Research Design
• Qualities of Research Design

6 Experimental Design (Control Group Design and Two Factor Design)

• Experimental Design
• Control Group Design
• Two Factor Design

7 Survey Design

• Survey Research Designs
• Steps in Survey Design
• Structuring and Designing the Questionnaire
• Interviewing Methodology
• Data Analysis
• Final Report

8 Single Subject Design

• Single Subject Design: Definition and Meaning
• Phases Within Single Subject Design
• Requirements of Single Subject Design
• Characteristics of Single Subject Design
• Types of Single Subject Design
• Advantages of Single Subject Design
• Disadvantages of Single Subject Design

9 Observation Method

• Definition and Meaning of Observation
• Characteristics of Observation
• Types of Observation
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation
• Guides for Observation Method

10 Interview and Interviewing

• Definition of Interview
• Types of Interview
• Aspects of Qualitative Research Interviews
• Interview Questions
• Convergent Interviewing as Action Research
• Research Team

11 Questionnaire Method

• Definition and Description of Questionnaires
• Types of Questionnaires
• Purpose of Questionnaire Studies
• Designing Research Questionnaires
• The Methods to Make a Questionnaire Efficient
• The Types of Questionnaire to be Included in the Questionnaire
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaire
• When to Use a Questionnaire?

12 Case Study

• Definition and Description of Case Study Method
• Historical Account of Case Study Method
• Designing Case Study
• Requirements for Case Studies
• Guideline to Follow in Case Study Method
• Other Important Measures in Case Study Method
• Case Reports

13 Report Writing

• Purpose of a Report
• Writing Style of the Report
• Report Writing – the Do’s and the Don’ts
• Format for Report in Psychology Area
• Major Sections in a Report

14 Review of Literature

• Purposes of Review of Literature
• Sources of Review of Literature
• Types of Literature
• Writing Process of the Review of Literature
• Preparation of Index Card for Reviewing and Abstracting

15 Methodology

• Definition and Purpose of Methodology
• Participants (Sample)
• Apparatus and Materials

16 Result, Analysis and Discussion of the Data

• Definition and Description of Results
• Statistical Presentation
• Tables and Figures

17 Summary and Conclusion

• Summary Definition and Description
• Guidelines for Writing a Summary
• Writing the Summary and Choosing Words
• A Process for Paraphrasing and Summarising
• Summary of a Report
• Writing Conclusions

18 References in Research Report

• Reference List (the Format)
• References (Process of Writing)
• Reference List and Print Sources
• Electronic Sources
• Book on CD Tape and Movie
• Reference Specifications
• General Guidelines to Write References

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Case Study – Definition, Types & Examples

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A case study is a research method that delves deeply into a specific instance to analyze its complexities and draw broader insights applicable to similar situations. Through a structured methodology , encompassing data collection, analysis, and interpretation, case studies offer a comprehensive understanding of real-life phenomena within their natural contexts. This approach allows researchers to explore intricate details, uncover patterns, and derive valuable implications.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Case study in a nutshell
• 2 Definition: Case study
• 3 Types of case studies
• 4 When to perform a case study
• 5 Conducting a case study
• 6 Pros and cons

Case study in a nutshell

A case study is a detailed examination of a particular project, event, individual, or organization over a defined period. It focuses on the complexities and outcomes of real-life situations, providing an in-depth understanding of the factors leading to successes or failures.

Definition: Case study

A case study is a research methodology that involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a case or cases within a real-life context. It is used across various disciplines, including psychology, sociology, education, business, and law. The purpose of a case study is to explore and understand complex issues, processes, or behaviors by analyzing them from multiple angles and using multiple sources of evidence. Case studies are particularly useful for investigating phenomena that cannot be studied through experimental methods, offering insights into aspects of the subject that might be overlooked by other research methodologies.

Case studies are valuable for generating hypotheses that can be tested with other methods, developing theories, and providing practical solutions to real-world problems. They are particularly effective in capturing the nuances and complexities of situations that are too complex for more straightforward research designs . The following outlines the key characteristics of case studies.

Depth and detail

Contextual analysis, qualitative (and quantitative) data, multiple sources of evidence, specificity, flexibility.

Case studies provide a thorough understanding of the case in question, including its historical background, current situation, and the various factors influencing it.

They consider the subject’s context, recognizing that behaviors, decisions, and outcomes are often deeply influenced by environmental, social, and historical factors.

A mixed-methods case study approach relies on qualitative data like interviews , observations, and document analysis, and also includes quantitative data to support findings.

Case studies typically draw on various data sources, such as documents, archival records, interviews, direct observation, participant observation, and physical artifacts, to provide a comprehensive view of the overall case.

They focus on a specific case, event, individual, or organization, allowing for a detailed examination that might not be feasible with broader research methods.

Case study research is flexible, allowing researchers to adapt their approaches as new insights emerge during the investigation.

The goal is to gain insights and a deeper understanding of the case and its broader implications, rather than to generalize findings to all cases.

Types of case studies

Case studies vary widely in focus and purpose, adapting to the needs of different academic disciplines and professional fields. Each type of case study serves a different purpose and can be chosen based on the specific objectives of the research, the nature of the subject being studied, and the available resources. They are a powerful tool for researchers and practitioners alike, offering detailed insights and a deep understanding of complex phenomena, behaviors, and processes within their real-life contexts. Despite this diversity, they can generally be categorized into several main types based on their intent and approach.

Collective case studies

A collective case study also referred to as a multiple case study, involves the detailed examination and analysis of several cases simultaneously or sequentially to investigate a phenomenon, condition, or situation. These cases are chosen because they are expected to exhibit particular features or outcomes significant to the research question or hypothesis. By studying multiple cases, researchers aim to gain a deeper, more comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand, identifying patterns, variations, and insights that might not be evident when conducting single case study research alone.

Characteristics

• Involves multiple cases, allowing for a comparison to identify similarities between different instances of the phenomenon.
• The cases are purposefully selected based on their ability and extent to provide insight into the research question of the case.
• Aims to understand the phenomenon within its real-life context, recognizing the influence of various complex factors.
• Data are individually and in aggregate analyzed, allowing researchers to identify overarching patterns across cases.
• Variability by acknowledging and exploring the differences between cases to understand the spectrum of possible outcomes.
• Enhances generalizability: Examining multiple cases, allows researchers to test the finding of one case against others, enhancing the generalizability of the observations.
• Rich insights: Collective case studies provide rich, multifaceted, contextual insights into the studied phenomenon, ensuring the possibility to investigate the complexity of real-life situations.
• Theory development: These studies are particularly useful for developing theories, allowing researchers to refine and build upon existing ones based on the findings.

Topic: Patient experiences with telehealth services

• Objective: Exploring patient satisfaction and challenges faced when using telehealth services across various demographics.
• Cases: Patients from different age groups, health conditions, and regions who have used telehealth services for at least six months.
• Result: A comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing patient satisfaction with telehealth, including technological literacy, communication quality, and access to care, informing improvements in telehealth practices.

Comparative case studies

A comparative case study is a research approach that involves the detailed analysis and comparison of two or more cases, which can be organizations, communities, individuals, events, etc. It aims to investigate and explore similarities, contrasts, and pattern variations across cases to gain a deeper understanding of the studied topic and why certain phenomena vary under different conditions.

• Systematically examines the differences and similarities between cases to draw insights that may not emerge from one case.
• Serves as a cornerstone for developing, testing, or refining existing theories or generating new theories and concepts.
• The cases are carefully selected based on the variations in dimensions to understand the influence of different conditions.
• Does not sacrifice the depth of understanding each case individually, allowing researchers to consider the contribution of contextual factors.
• This type of case study includes qualitative and quantitative methods and approaches for collecting and analyzing data.
• Rich insights: They provide contextual and detailed insights into the dynamics of each case, which is crucial for understanding complex phenomena.
• Theory development: Comparative case studies are conducive to testing existing theories in different contexts and building new theories based on observed patterns.
• Flexibility: Methods and approaches can be adapted as the study progresses, allowing for the exploration of unexpected findings or new research questions.

Topic: Impact of socioeconomic factors on academic achievement

• Objective: Exploring how socioeconomic status (SES) influences academic achievement in primary schools.
• Case A: Primary school located in an affluent neighborhood with high-income families.
• Case B: Primary school located in an area with primarily low-income families.
• Result: Emphasis on the importance of addressing disparities in resources, support systems, and community factors to ensure equitable educational opportunities for all the students.

Critical instance case studies

A critical instance case study entails focused research that investigates one or two instances to understand one occurrence rather than generalizing the situation. It explores a unique, unusual, or particularly informative phenomenon. These cases are typically chosen because they are expected to provide insight into an area of interest or to challenge or refine existing theoretical concepts and assumptions. The goal of this method is to understand the complexity and uniqueness of critical cases and how they inform broader understandings and generalizations about a topic.

• Dives into a specific case(s) to uncover the intricacies that contribute to its unique characteristics.
• Useful for examining phenomena that are too complex or rare to be captured through broader studies.
• Cases are selected for their potential to provide insight into an issue or to challenge universal opinions.
• A detailed qualitative analysis, but quantitative methods can also complement the examination.
• Creates a balance between the uniqueness of the case and the potential for making broader inferences.
• In-depth understanding: Critical instance case studies aim to provide an in-depth and nuanced understanding of a specific case or cases, underscoring the contextual factors that influence outcomes.
• Theory development: By focusing on cases that are expected to challenge or refine theoretical assumptions, this type of study contributes to developing and refining theories.
• Flexibility: The methods used can be adapted to the specific demands of the case, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of the unique aspects of the critical instance.

Topic: Impact of innovative teaching methods on student engagement in a rural school

• Objective: Investigating how the implementation of project-based learning in a rural primary school affects student engagement and learning outcomes.
• Case: A primary school in a rural area that has recently implemented project-based learning across all grades.
• Result: Detailed analysis of the challenges and successes of implementing innovative teaching methods in a resource-constrained environment, highlighting the role of community support and teacher adaptability in fostering positive educational outcomes and results.

Cumulative case studies

A cumulative case study involves aggregating information from several sites collected at different times. The goal is to collect past studies to increase generalization without costing more time or money on new, possibly repetitive studies. It synthesizes findings from multiple cases over adequate time to understand a broader phenomenon or to identify patterns and trends. These studies are chosen because their cumulative evidence can provide a more convincing and comprehensive insight into a subject of interest, supporting or contradicting theoretical assumptions through a wider lens of observation.

• Aggregates findings from different cases and existing sources to uncover common themes.
• Specifically, valuable for integrating and comparing data from already studied situations.
• Case selection based on whether they can compare and contrast multiple instances.
• Employs both qualitative and quantitative methods, facilitating a more comprehensive analysis.
• Strike a balance between diversity and the potential for generalization.
• Comprehensive synthesis: This approach aims to synthesize data across multiple instances, offering a broader perspective on the subject matter that highlights commonalities and differences.
• Pattern identification: By examining various cases collectively, this approach seeks to identify underlying patterns, trends, and themes that might not be apparent in single case study research.
• Cost-effectiveness: Accumulating evidence from existing studies, allows for a more resource-efficient way to gain a wide-ranging understanding. Thereby, the expenses and time of conducting new, individual studies can also be avoided.

Topic: Effectiveness of remote learning across different socio-economic backgrounds

• Objective: Analyzing how remote learning during school closures impacted students’ academic performance across various socio-economic backgrounds.
• Cases: Multiple schools from diverse socio-economic areas that implemented remote learning during the same period.
• Result: A comparative analysis revealing patterns of engagement, accessibility issues, and academic outcomes, highlighting the importance of addressing equity in access to technology and learning resources.

Descriptive case studies

A descriptive case study, a process-oriented case study, is a research approach focused on providing a detailed account and analysis of a specific case (or cases) within its real-life context. Unlike other types of case studies that might seek to test hypotheses or understand causal relationships, descriptive research aims to document the unique characteristics, conditions, processes, and outcomes of the case in question. The primary goal is to describe the phenomenon in depth and detail, offering a comprehensive understanding of the context and variables involved.

• Captures the nuances, providing a rich, detailed description that covers various aspects.
• Considers the environment of the case, recognizing the context’s significant influences.
• Employs a mixed-methods case study approach using qualitative and quantitative data.
• Identifies patterns that may inform future research, like hypotheses for causal research or theories.
• Illustrates a particular phenomenon within its real-world context, providing valuable insights.
• Comprehensive documentation: It provides an exhaustive description of a case, which involves documenting contexts, processes, and results, aiming to capture complexities.
• Insightful understanding: Descriptive case studies shed light on how and why things happen under specific circumstances through detailed examination. Their detailed outcomes help to inform practice, policy, or further research.
• Pattern identification: While not primarily focusing on hypothesis testing or theory development, descriptive research often suggests areas for further research by identifying patterns.

Topic: The role of community gardens in urban food security

• Objective: Exploring the impact of community gardens on food security in urban areas extensively, seeking to understand how the gardens contribute to the availability and accessibility of fresh produce for residents.
• Cases: Three community gardens that are located in different urban neighborhoods, each with varying levels of access to supermarkets or fresh food markets.
• Result: Detailed description and comparison of each garden’s operation, community involvement, challenges faced, and the benefits realized in terms of food security, emphasizing the importance of community leadership, support from local organizations, and adaptability of garden practices to local needs.

Explanatory case studies

Similar to the descriptive type, an explanatory case study is also a process-oriented case study, that seeks to explain the underlying mechanisms or reasons behind a particular phenomenon or set of outcomes within its real-life context. Unlike descriptive case studies, which focus primarily on providing a detailed account of a specific case, explanatory case studies aim to uncover how and why certain events occur, offering insights into causal pathways and processes leading to a particular outcome.

• Process-oriented case study that explores the causal mechanisms that lead to certain outcomes.
• Allows researchers to examine complex real-life contexts in their natural setting.
• Uses multiple sources of evidence, like qualitative data and sometimes quantitative data.
• Frequently employs existing theoretical framework to guide their analysis and explain findings.
• Contributes to the development and refinement of theoretical concepts, offering practical insights.
• Uncovering causal relationships: It explores the causal mechanisms that lead to certain outcomes within a case or across cases, seeking to elucidate the processes and factors that contribute to the studied topic.
• Theory development: This type of case study can be employed to test existing theories in new contexts or to refine and develop new theoretical frameworks based on its findings.
• Informing policy and practice: Provides valuable insights that can inform policy-making, strategy, and practical interventions, emphasizing its applicability to real-world challenges.

Topic: Impact of remote work on employee productivity and well-being

• Objective: Aiming to explain the causal relationships between remote work and its effects on employee productivity and well-being, seeking to uncover the mechanisms through which remote work influences these outcomes and to identify the conditions under which the effects are most pronounced.
• Cases: Examining three companies in different industries, technology, finance, and education, that implemented long-term remote work arrangements as a response to external factors like the global pandemic.
• Result: The comparative analysis reveals that the presence of supportive digital infrastructure, degree of flexibility in work arrangements, and opportunities for informal interactions are critical factors influencing the outcome of remote work policies, suggesting that it can enhance the productivity and well-being of employees.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are qualitative research methods used to conduct preliminary projects for little-understood phenomena to develop hypotheses and establish research priorities. Unlike explanatory or descriptive case studies that aim to explain the aspects of specific cases, exploratory case studies are often conducted when a problem is not clearly defined, and there is a need for further investigation to understand the context.

• Serves as an initial step in researching a new area, gathering as much information as possible.
• Flexible research design, allowing for adjustments as new insights are gained in the process.
• Generates hypotheses or theories that can be applied and tested in further research.
• Relies on qualitative data collection methods to gain an understanding of the case in real-life context.
• Foundation for explanatory studies, experimental designs , or large-scale quantitative research.
• Comprehensive understanding : Aims to gain a clear understanding of the studied phenomenon, especially when it is new, complex, or not well defined.
• Generating hypotheses: Through detailed observation, data collection, and analysis, it is geared towards generating hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.
• Research priorities: Determines which aspects of the case merit further research by uncovering the most significant issues, challenges, or opportunities in association.

Topic: The adoption of virtual reality (VR) technologies in higher education

• Objective: Aiming to explore how and why higher education institutions are adopting VR technologies for teaching and learning purposes. The study seeks to understand the motivations, processes, challenges, and initial impacts of VR adoption on pedagogical practices and student engagement.
• Cases: Examining three universities that have recently integrated VR technologies into their curriculum, each representing a different approach such as for enhancing engineering and architecture courses, medical and healthcare training, and art and history courses.
• Result: The exploratory research uncovers various motivations, such as the desire to enhance student learning experiences, improve student engagement, and prepare students for future technological landscapes. Challenges identified across the cases include technical issues, high costs or implementation, and the need for faculty training and support.

Illustrative case studies

An illustrative case study primarily describes and demonstrates a particular phenomenon in a detailed and understandable way. It utilizes a descriptive approach, aiming to make the unfamiliar familiar by providing concrete examples that illuminate broader themes or issues. This type of case study is primarily used to provide insight into and highlight specific aspects of a research problem, helping to convey the complexities of real-life situations through the detailed examination of one or more instances.

• Provides a comprehensive description of the phenomenon that occurs within the case(s) being studied.
• Used as educational tools in various fields to help visualize complex theories and concepts.
• Simplifies particular points within a larger analysis, supporting the understanding of broader principles.
• Presents complex issues in a clear and accessible manner by focusing on specific instances.
• Primarily descriptive research, but also serves as a preliminary step towards further research.
• Clarification of complex phenomena: Aims to break down complex processes, making them more understandable by providing a detailed view.
• Introduction of issues: Introduces common and uncommon issues through detailed storytelling, shedding light on specific challenges or successes.
• Theory development: Enhances theoretical knowledge by providing concrete examples that support or exemplify theoretical concepts or frameworks.

Topic: Digital transformation in small businesses during the Covid-19 pandemic

• Objective: Aiming to illustrate the strategies and challenges small businesses faced while undergoing digital transformation due to the pandemic by highlighting how these businesses adapted to the sudden need for digital operations, the impact of these changes on their operations, and the lessons learned throughout.
• Case A: A family-owned restaurant that transitioned to online orders and delivery.
• Case B: A local bookstore that implemented an e-commerce platform for online sales and virtual book clubs.
• Case C: A small fitness studio that shifted to offering online workout classes.
• Result: The collective insights from these cases demonstrate the critical role of digital literacy, the need for flexible business models, and the importance of maintaining customer relationships during the transition. Conclusively, the study findings underscore the potential of digital transformation to not only sustain small businesses during crises but also to catalyze growth and innovation.

Instrumental case studies

An instrumental case study is an individual case study, focusing on a single subject to gain a broader understanding of a phenomenon. In contrast to other types of case studies that aim to describe or explain the case in great detail, instrumental case studies use the particular case as an instrument to understand something else. In other words, the case merely plays a supportive role in facilitating insight into larger issues or refining theoretical concepts.

• The case allows for thorough exploration and understanding of the broader phenomenon at hand.
• Instrumental case studies aim to extend findings beyond the case to address a broader issue.
• The research questions are framed to explore the broader phenomenon rather than just the specifics.
• Uses multiple sources of data and data collection methods within a real-life context.
• Develops theories by examining the representation of the broader issues in the specific case.
• Broader insights into particular issues: Uses the specific case as a vehicle to explain a broader phenomenon, contributing to refining theoretical frameworks.
• Informs policy or practice: Provides valuable insights that can guide decision-making processes that address the complexities of real-world situations.
• Identifies patterns: Explores the case in-depth to identify patterns that may apply to similar contexts by a detailed assessment of the case as a representative instance.

Topic: Integration of technology in high school education

• Objective: Aiming to explore the effect of integrating technology into high school education on student engagement and academic performance to understand how the use of technology and digital platforms can enhance the learning experience, foster engagement, and improve outcomes in high school settings.
• Cases: Examining three specific classrooms, such as science, literature, and mathematics, within the same high school that is known for integrating technology across all subject areas.
• Result: The study findings reveal that technology integration, when effectively implemented, significantly enhances student engagement and academic performance across the various subject areas. Thereby, it underscores the importance of strategic planning, professional development for teachers, and the selection of appropriate technological tools that align with educational objectives.

Intrinsic case studies

As opposed to instrumental case studies that aim to understand a broader phenomenon beyond the case, an intrinsic case study primarily focuses on the case itself. An intrinsic case study is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but because it presents a unique phenomenon that is worth exploring thoroughly on its own merits. In other words, an intrinsic case study is used when a case is revealing, distinctive, or intriguing in a way that warrants detailed examination.

• An intrinsic case study focuses on the idiosyncrasies and specifics of a case due to its uniqueness.
• Captures the essence with a profound description of the case’s contexts, processes, and outcomes.
• The insights gained from intrinsic case studies can be primarily applied to the case itself.
• Understanding the case from various perspectives, involving a flexible research process.
• Intrinsic case studies primarily use qualitative research methods to gather rich and contextual data.
• Insight into the particular case: Aims to gain a deep understanding of the case for its own sake by focusing on the uniqueness and complexities of the case.
• Explorative and interpretative: Delves into outstanding features, challenges, conditions, and opportunities of the case to uncover its distinct intricacies.
• Contribution to theories: Through the detailed study of the case, patterns may be determined that offer insights, resonating with wider concepts or theories.

Topic: Transformation of a historic library into a community hub

• Objective: Aiming to explore the transformation of a historic library in a small town into a vibrant community hub by focusing on this particular library due to its unique position in the community’s history, architectural heritage, and the innovative approach it has taken to evolve beyond traditional library services.
• Case: It revolves around the Elmwood Library, built in the early 1900s and known for its architectural significance and deep-rooted place in the town’s history. Over time, its role and relevance faced challenges due to digitalization and the change in community needs. Thus, the study examines the redefinition of becoming a community hub of the library, focusing on digital access, community engagement, and preservation of historical essence.
• Result: The study findings uncover the multifaceted impact of Elmwood Library’s transformation by highlighting the successful navigation of its historical preservation alongside modernization to meet current community needs. Key outcomes include increased community engagement, enhanced digital literacy, and the library’s role in fostering a sense of communal identity.

When to perform a case study

A case study is the right research method for examining and gaining precise, contextual insights about a real-world problem or scenario. It gives researchers a method of studying the main characteristics, definitions, and inferences about a specific individual, group, event, or organization. The decision whether to perform a case study should be driven by the nature of the research question, objectives, and the value of gaining a contextualized understanding of the issues at hand.  The following illustrates a few scenarios and research objectives that typically warrant the use of a case study.

Complex phenomenon

Rare & unique cases, testing & generating theories.

When the goal is to explore a complex phenomenon in detail, particularly within its real-life context, case studies serve as ideal methods for investigating and explaining multifaceted issues thoroughly.

Case study research is also relevant to conduct to examine rare or unique conditions that are not easily replicated or found in larger populations. Examples are studying a rare disease, unique institution, or significant event.

When you test theoretical models or hypotheses within real-life contexts, case studies allow you to observe how theoretical principles play out in practice, providing valuable insights into the applicability and limitations of these theories. Case studies also assist in generating new theories because existing theories do not adequately explain a phenomenon. They can identify patterns and relationships that lead to the formulation of new theoretical propositions through elaborate analysis.

Teaching and policy development

Prospective case studies, multifaceted approach.

Case studies are often relevant to use in educational settings to provide real-life examples for students to analyze. They are particularly valuable for policymakers and practitioners seeking an in-depth understanding of a scenario to inform decision-making processes.

Prospective case studies have the main objective of observing changes over an adequate time period within a specific context or group. Thus, prospective case studies are suitable for conducting research over extended periods to track developments, understand cause-and-effect relationships, and observe the impact of interventions.

Case studies are also relevant for research that benefits from a multi-perspective analysis, as they enable the use of multiple data sources and methods such as interviews, observations, and document analysis to provide a comprehensive view of the studied subject.

Conducting a case study

The process of conducting a case study can be divided into five crucial stages such as defining the case(s), selecting the case(s), collecting and analysis of data, interpreting data, and reporting the findings.

Defining the case(s)

Defining the case(s) for a case study involves specifying the unit of analysis or the main entity that you are investigating. This stage is crucial as it sets the boundaries of what is to be studied, guiding the focus of the research, and shaping the research questions, data collection, and analysis. A well-defined case is essential for ensuring the research is manageable, coherent, and capable of addressing the objectives effectively. It also requires a clear understanding of the purpose of the study research, context, and perspectives from which it will be explored.

In terms of the nature of the case, you must clarify whether the case is a group, organization, individual, event, or geographical unit. This in turn will affect the type of data and evidence that will be collected and further affect the interpretation of results. In addition to this, the scope of the case determines the time period and geographical boundaries.

Selecting the case

Selecting the case is a crucial stage, as it significantly influences the research questions, problem statement , depth of the research, and potential contribution to existing knowledge. Thus, it is imperative to choose a specific focus to ground your research. Key considerations in selecting the case are:

• Clearly define what you want to achieve with your case study; What are the research objectives?
• Determine the type of case study, as this will influence the type of case you select.
• Develop criteria that the case must meet to ensure it is suitable for your study.
• Identify cases that may have rich potential for contributing to your research objectives.
• Assess the potential cases against your selection criteria by considering the pros and cons.
• Offer the potential to answer your research questions, meet the aims, and ensure access to data.
• Justify how the case meets your selection criteria and how it will assist in reaching the research objectives.
• Ensure the case adheres to ethical considerations , like consent and confidentiality.
• Consider the feasibility of conducting the case such as resources, adequate time, and access to information.

Case studies usually focus on outliers rather than deliberate sampling techniques. Thus, they often do not require representative cases or random samples before research.

Collecting and analysis of data

For a case study approach, data is typically collected systematically, gathering detailed and comprehensive information that will support the analysis and conclusion of the study. This stage of the process is essential, as the relevance of the data impacts the depth and internal validity of the case study findings.

Case studies often employ multiple data sources or methods (data triangulation) that are primarily qualitative. Common methods include semi-structured interviews or structured interviews , direct observations , analyzing relevant documents, focus groups , or audiovisual materials. These types of qualitative methods can undergo thematic analysis , coding, or narrative analysis , depending on their relevance.

In some cases, quantitative methods are used to complement qualitative data to provide a broader understanding of the case study and enhance internal validity. These methods involve surveys and questionnaires or existing data sets that are relevant to the study for secondary data analysis. For these, you can employ, e.g., statistical analysis or trend analysis. Utilizing a mixed-methods case study approach offers the opportunity to provide a deeper and elaborate overview of the study.

Theoretical framework and interpreting data

Case studies overlook general theories in favor of specific details. A theoretical framework serves as the foundation that navigates every aspect of the study, ranging from data collection to data analysis and assists in interpreting findings within a broader context. Understanding its application in interpreting data is crucial for creating meaningful and impactful research.

The theoretical framework entails a variety of interrelated concepts and theories that guide your research, determining what will be measured and what statistical relationships may be looked for. It provides a general set of principles, explanations, and definitions that help organize the entire research process. A theoretical framework can be used to:

• Challenge an existing theory by investigating deviance that is not considered in the universal assumptions.
• Expand on established theories by proposing new ideas that should be included.
• Exemplify a given theory by showing the relationship between the case and the theory.
• Explain the theory for your research, grounding your study in a conceptual context.
• Guide the research question , influencing the research design, including what data to collect and interpret.
• Assist in identifying the limits to those generalizations your study can and cannot make.
• Provide a rationale for your research, indicating why it is a worthwhile contribution to knowledge.

Reporting findings

Reporting the findings of your case study poses one of the last crucial stages of finalizing your study. It involves presenting your data and analyses in a structured and compelling way and requires careful consideration of your audience, whether they are academics, industry professionals, or other stakeholders. This section is the heart of your report and should be given careful attention. Here is a short overview of the structure of reporting findings.

• Organize by theme or research question
• Support the findings with evidence from your data
• Incorporate tables, graphs, and charts to visualize data
• Present detailed narratives of events and processes clearly

For effective reporting, aim for clear and concise expression, explaining complex concepts clearly, and avoiding unnecessary jargon. Also, maintaining consistency in terms of formatting and presentation style throughout the report is vital to keeping academic integrity. Keep in mind that the goal fo your case study report is not just to present your findings, but to communicate their significance and implications effectively. Thus, tailoring your report to your audience in an engaging manner, will draw the reader into the study and thereby, enhance its impact and value.

Pros and cons

Case studies can take on the shapes of at least four research designs and can be associated with an array of types, each leading to different applications. Nonetheless, understanding their unique epistemological and ontological assumptions is important for the substantial methodological differences, they entail. The following table outlines the general benefits and limitations of using a case study for your research.

What are the four key sections of a case study?

A case study entails at least four sections:

• Introduction
• Body: background information, explaining the purpose, presenting the findings

What is the case study method in research?

The case study method is an in-depth investigation of a research subject, individual, or group. It is a focused research method that analyzes the causes and consequences of a specific phenomenon. A case study facilitates the exploration of a real-life issues within a defined context, using multiple date sources.

What are the types of case study?

Here is a list of the types of case studies:

• Comparative
• Critical instance
• Descriptive
• Explanatory
• Exploratory
• Illustrative
• Instrumental

What are examples of case studies?

Case studies are widely used in psychology and clinical contexts, analyzing rare or unique conditions. Popular ones are:

• Phineas Gage (the man who hat a railway spike through his head) – John Martin Marlow
• Little Hans and The Rat Man – Sigmund Freud

What is a case study in psychology?

In psychology, it is typically an individual case study, focusing on a single person, community, or event that relies on data in clinical contexts drawn from psychometric testing, observations, interviews, experiments, and existing case studies.

What are the limitations of a case study?

Case studies are often criticized for their subjectivity, bias, or lack of rigor, as they typically rely heavily on the researcher’s interpretations and selection of data, which is often influences by personal views, preferences, or assumptions.

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Applications of Case Study Research

This book by Robert K. Yin aims to help researchers and graduate level students to improve their knowledge and skills in conducting case study research. 21 individual applications of case study research are included that allow readers to see how the theory can be applied in practice. The book also includes sections on case study evaluations, as well as classroom activities. 

Chapter One of this book is available for free download from SAGE Publications. 

“ A. CASE STUDIES AS A RESEARCH (NOT TEACHING) METHOD

An Abbreviated Definition

All case study research starts from the same compelling feature: the desire to derive a(n) (up-)close or otherwise in-depth understanding of a single or small number of “cases,” set in their real-world contexts (e.g., Bromley, 1986, p. 1). The closeness aims to produce an invaluable and deep understanding—that is, an insightful appreciation of the “case(s)”—hopefully resulting in new learning about real-world behavior and its meaning. The distinctiveness of the case study, therefore, also serves as its abbreviated definition:

An empirical inquiry about a contemporary phenomenon (e.g., a “case”), set within its real-world context—especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (Yin, 2009a, p. 18) .

Thus, among other features, case study research assumes that examining the context and other complex conditions related to the case(s) being studied are integral to understanding the case(s).

The in-depth focus on the case(s), as well as the desire to cover a broader range of contextual and other complex conditions, produce a wide range of topics to be covered by any given case study. In this sense, case study research goes beyond the study of isolated variables. As a by-product, and as a final feature in appreciating case study research, the relevant case study data are likely to come from multiple and not singular sources of evidence.” (Yin 2012, p.4)

• Chapter 1. A (Very) Brief Refresher on the Case Study Method
• Chapter 2. Field Notes
• Chapter 3. The Role of Theory in Doing Case Studies
• Chapter 4. Start-Up for a Newly-Appointed Education Leader
• Chapter 5. Citizens on Patrol
• Chapter 6. A Case Study of a Neighborhood Organization
• Chapter 7. A Nutshell Example: The Effect of a Federal Award on a University Computer Science Department
• Chapter 8. Essential Ingredients of Explanatory Case Studies: Three Drug Prevention Examples
• Chapter 9. Transforming a Business Firm Through Strategic Planning
• Chapter 10. Rival Explanations
• Chapter 11. Proposal Processing by Public and Private Universities
• Chapter 12. Case Studies of Transformed Firms
• PART V: Case Study Evaluations
• Chapter 13: Evaluation of a Community Coalition
• Chapter 14. Sheriff’s Combined Auto Theft Task Force
• Chapter 15. Technical Assistance for HIV/AIDS Community Planning

Yin, R. (2012).  Applications of Case Study Research . (Third ed.). SAGE Publications.

Related links

• http://www.uk.sagepub.com/books/Book235140/title

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• Knowledge Base
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• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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How to write a case study — examples, templates, and tools

It’s a marketer’s job to communicate the effectiveness of a product or service to potential and current customers to convince them to buy and keep business moving. One of the best methods for doing this is to share success stories that are relatable to prospects and customers based on their pain points, experiences, and overall needs.

That’s where case studies come in. Case studies are an essential part of a content marketing plan. These in-depth stories of customer experiences are some of the most effective at demonstrating the value of a product or service. Yet many marketers don’t use them, whether because of their regimented formats or the process of customer involvement and approval.

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing your hard work and the success your customer achieved. But writing a great case study can be difficult if you’ve never done it before or if it’s been a while. This guide will show you how to write an effective case study and provide real-world examples and templates that will keep readers engaged and support your business.

In this article, you’ll learn:

What is a case study?

How to write a case study, case study templates, case study examples, case study tools.

A case study is the detailed story of a customer’s experience with a product or service that demonstrates their success and often includes measurable outcomes. Case studies are used in a range of fields and for various reasons, from business to academic research. They’re especially impactful in marketing as brands work to convince and convert consumers with relatable, real-world stories of actual customer experiences.

The best case studies tell the story of a customer’s success, including the steps they took, the results they achieved, and the support they received from a brand along the way. To write a great case study, you need to:

• Celebrate the customer and make them — not a product or service — the star of the story.
• Craft the story with specific audiences or target segments in mind so that the story of one customer will be viewed as relatable and actionable for another customer.
• Write copy that is easy to read and engaging so that readers will gain the insights and messages intended.
• Follow a standardized format that includes all of the essentials a potential customer would find interesting and useful.
• Support all of the claims for success made in the story with data in the forms of hard numbers and customer statements.

Case studies are a type of review but more in depth, aiming to show — rather than just tell — the positive experiences that customers have with a brand. Notably, 89% of consumers read reviews before deciding to buy, and 79% view case study content as part of their purchasing process. When it comes to B2B sales, 52% of buyers rank case studies as an important part of their evaluation process.

Telling a brand story through the experience of a tried-and-true customer matters. The story is relatable to potential new customers as they imagine themselves in the shoes of the company or individual featured in the case study. Showcasing previous customers can help new ones see themselves engaging with your brand in the ways that are most meaningful to them.

Besides sharing the perspective of another customer, case studies stand out from other content marketing forms because they are based on evidence. Whether pulling from client testimonials or data-driven results, case studies tend to have more impact on new business because the story contains information that is both objective (data) and subjective (customer experience) — and the brand doesn’t sound too self-promotional.

Case studies are unique in that there’s a fairly standardized format for telling a customer’s story. But that doesn’t mean there isn’t room for creativity. It’s all about making sure that teams are clear on the goals for the case study — along with strategies for supporting content and channels — and understanding how the story fits within the framework of the company’s overall marketing goals.

Here are the basic steps to writing a good case study.

1. Identify your goal

Start by defining exactly who your case study will be designed to help. Case studies are about specific instances where a company works with a customer to achieve a goal. Identify which customers are likely to have these goals, as well as other needs the story should cover to appeal to them.

The answer is often found in one of the buyer personas that have been constructed as part of your larger marketing strategy. This can include anything from new leads generated by the marketing team to long-term customers that are being pressed for cross-sell opportunities. In all of these cases, demonstrating value through a relatable customer success story can be part of the solution to conversion.

2. Choose your client or subject

Who you highlight matters. Case studies tie brands together that might otherwise not cross paths. A writer will want to ensure that the highlighted customer aligns with their own company’s brand identity and offerings. Look for a customer with positive name recognition who has had great success with a product or service and is willing to be an advocate.

The client should also match up with the identified target audience. Whichever company or individual is selected should be a reflection of other potential customers who can see themselves in similar circumstances, having the same problems and possible solutions.

Some of the most compelling case studies feature customers who:

• Switch from one product or service to another while naming competitors that missed the mark.
• Experience measurable results that are relatable to others in a specific industry.
• Represent well-known brands and recognizable names that are likely to compel action.
• Advocate for a product or service as a champion and are well-versed in its advantages.

Whoever or whatever customer is selected, marketers must ensure they have the permission of the company involved before getting started. Some brands have strict review and approval procedures for any official marketing or promotional materials that include their name. Acquiring those approvals in advance will prevent any miscommunication or wasted effort if there is an issue with their legal or compliance teams.

3. Conduct research and compile data

Substantiating the claims made in a case study — either by the marketing team or customers themselves — adds validity to the story. To do this, include data and feedback from the client that defines what success looks like. This can be anything from demonstrating return on investment (ROI) to a specific metric the customer was striving to improve. Case studies should prove how an outcome was achieved and show tangible results that indicate to the customer that your solution is the right one.

This step could also include customer interviews. Make sure that the people being interviewed are key stakeholders in the purchase decision or deployment and use of the product or service that is being highlighted. Content writers should work off a set list of questions prepared in advance. It can be helpful to share these with the interviewees beforehand so they have time to consider and craft their responses. One of the best interview tactics to keep in mind is to ask questions where yes and no are not natural answers. This way, your subject will provide more open-ended responses that produce more meaningful content.

4. Choose the right format

There are a number of different ways to format a case study. Depending on what you hope to achieve, one style will be better than another. However, there are some common elements to include, such as:

• An engaging headline
• A subject and customer introduction
• The unique challenge or challenges the customer faced
• The solution the customer used to solve the problem
• The results achieved
• Data and statistics to back up claims of success
• A strong call to action (CTA) to engage with the vendor

It’s also important to note that while case studies are traditionally written as stories, they don’t have to be in a written format. Some companies choose to get more creative with their case studies and produce multimedia content, depending on their audience and objectives. Case study formats can include traditional print stories, interactive web or social content, data-heavy infographics, professionally shot videos, podcasts, and more.

5. Write your case study

We’ll go into more detail later about how exactly to write a case study, including templates and examples. Generally speaking, though, there are a few things to keep in mind when writing your case study.

• Be clear and concise. Readers want to get to the point of the story quickly and easily, and they’ll be looking to see themselves reflected in the story right from the start.
• Provide a big picture. Always make sure to explain who the client is, their goals, and how they achieved success in a short introduction to engage the reader.
• Construct a clear narrative. Stick to the story from the perspective of the customer and what they needed to solve instead of just listing product features or benefits.
• Leverage graphics. Incorporating infographics, charts, and sidebars can be a more engaging and eye-catching way to share key statistics and data in readable ways.
• Offer the right amount of detail. Most case studies are one or two pages with clear sections that a reader can skim to find the information most important to them.
• Include data to support claims. Show real results — both facts and figures and customer quotes — to demonstrate credibility and prove the solution works.

6. Promote your story

Marketers have a number of options for distribution of a freshly minted case study. Many brands choose to publish case studies on their website and post them on social media. This can help support SEO and organic content strategies while also boosting company credibility and trust as visitors see that other businesses have used the product or service.

Marketers are always looking for quality content they can use for lead generation. Consider offering a case study as gated content behind a form on a landing page or as an offer in an email message. One great way to do this is to summarize the content and tease the full story available for download after the user takes an action.

Sales teams can also leverage case studies, so be sure they are aware that the assets exist once they’re published. Especially when it comes to larger B2B sales, companies often ask for examples of similar customer challenges that have been solved.

Now that you’ve learned a bit about case studies and what they should include, you may be wondering how to start creating great customer story content. Here are a couple of templates you can use to structure your case study.

Template 1 — Challenge-solution-result format

• Start with an engaging title. This should be fewer than 70 characters long for SEO best practices. One of the best ways to approach the title is to include the customer’s name and a hint at the challenge they overcame in the end.
• Create an introduction. Lead with an explanation as to who the customer is, the need they had, and the opportunity they found with a specific product or solution. Writers can also suggest the success the customer experienced with the solution they chose.
• Present the challenge. This should be several paragraphs long and explain the problem the customer faced and the issues they were trying to solve. Details should tie into the company’s products and services naturally. This section needs to be the most relatable to the reader so they can picture themselves in a similar situation.
• Share the solution. Explain which product or service offered was the ideal fit for the customer and why. Feel free to delve into their experience setting up, purchasing, and onboarding the solution.
• Explain the results. Demonstrate the impact of the solution they chose by backing up their positive experience with data. Fill in with customer quotes and tangible, measurable results that show the effect of their choice.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that invites readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to nurture them further in the marketing pipeline. What you ask of the reader should tie directly into the goals that were established for the case study in the first place.

Template 2 — Data-driven format

• Start with an engaging title. Be sure to include a statistic or data point in the first 70 characters. Again, it’s best to include the customer’s name as part of the title.
• Create an overview. Share the customer’s background and a short version of the challenge they faced. Present the reason a particular product or service was chosen, and feel free to include quotes from the customer about their selection process.
• Present data point 1. Isolate the first metric that the customer used to define success and explain how the product or solution helped to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 2. Isolate the second metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 3. Isolate the final metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Summarize the results. Reiterate the fact that the customer was able to achieve success thanks to a specific product or service. Include quotes and statements that reflect customer satisfaction and suggest they plan to continue using the solution.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that asks readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to further nurture them in the marketing pipeline. Again, remember that this is where marketers can look to convert their content into action with the customer.

While templates are helpful, seeing a case study in action can also be a great way to learn. Here are some examples of how Adobe customers have experienced success.

Juniper Networks

One example is the Adobe and Juniper Networks case study , which puts the reader in the customer’s shoes. The beginning of the story quickly orients the reader so that they know exactly who the article is about and what they were trying to achieve. Solutions are outlined in a way that shows Adobe Experience Manager is the best choice and a natural fit for the customer. Along the way, quotes from the client are incorporated to help add validity to the statements. The results in the case study are conveyed with clear evidence of scale and volume using tangible data.

The story of Lenovo’s journey with Adobe is one that spans years of planning, implementation, and rollout. The Lenovo case study does a great job of consolidating all of this into a relatable journey that other enterprise organizations can see themselves taking, despite the project size. This case study also features descriptive headers and compelling visual elements that engage the reader and strengthen the content.

Tata Consulting

When it comes to using data to show customer results, this case study does an excellent job of conveying details and numbers in an easy-to-digest manner. Bullet points at the start break up the content while also helping the reader understand exactly what the case study will be about. Tata Consulting used Adobe to deliver elevated, engaging content experiences for a large telecommunications client of its own — an objective that’s relatable for a lot of companies.

Case studies are a vital tool for any marketing team as they enable you to demonstrate the value of your company’s products and services to others. They help marketers do their job and add credibility to a brand trying to promote its solutions by using the experiences and stories of real customers.

When you’re ready to get started with a case study:

• Think about a few goals you’d like to accomplish with your content.
• Make a list of successful clients that would be strong candidates for a case study.
• Reach out to the client to get their approval and conduct an interview.
• Gather the data to present an engaging and effective customer story.

Adobe can help

There are several Adobe products that can help you craft compelling case studies. Adobe Experience Platform helps you collect data and deliver great customer experiences across every channel. Once you’ve created your case studies, Experience Platform will help you deliver the right information to the right customer at the right time for maximum impact.

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The case study approach

Sarah crowe.

1 Division of Primary Care, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Kathrin Cresswell

2 Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Ann Robertson

3 School of Health in Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Anthony Avery

Aziz sheikh.

The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well recognised in the fields of business, law and policy, but somewhat less so in health services research. Based on our experiences of conducting several health-related case studies, we reflect on the different types of case study design, the specific research questions this approach can help answer, the data sources that tend to be used, and the particular advantages and disadvantages of employing this methodological approach. The paper concludes with key pointers to aid those designing and appraising proposals for conducting case study research, and a checklist to help readers assess the quality of case study reports.

Introduction

The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. Our aim in writing this piece is to provide insights into when to consider employing this approach and an overview of key methodological considerations in relation to the design, planning, analysis, interpretation and reporting of case studies.

The illustrative 'grand round', 'case report' and 'case series' have a long tradition in clinical practice and research. Presenting detailed critiques, typically of one or more patients, aims to provide insights into aspects of the clinical case and, in doing so, illustrate broader lessons that may be learnt. In research, the conceptually-related case study approach can be used, for example, to describe in detail a patient's episode of care, explore professional attitudes to and experiences of a new policy initiative or service development or more generally to 'investigate contemporary phenomena within its real-life context' [ 1 ]. Based on our experiences of conducting a range of case studies, we reflect on when to consider using this approach, discuss the key steps involved and illustrate, with examples, some of the practical challenges of attaining an in-depth understanding of a 'case' as an integrated whole. In keeping with previously published work, we acknowledge the importance of theory to underpin the design, selection, conduct and interpretation of case studies[ 2 ]. In so doing, we make passing reference to the different epistemological approaches used in case study research by key theoreticians and methodologists in this field of enquiry.

This paper is structured around the following main questions: What is a case study? What are case studies used for? How are case studies conducted? What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided? We draw in particular on four of our own recently published examples of case studies (see Tables ​ Tables1, 1 , ​ ,2, 2 , ​ ,3 3 and ​ and4) 4 ) and those of others to illustrate our discussion[ 3 - 7 ].

Example of a case study investigating the reasons for differences in recruitment rates of minority ethnic people in asthma research[ 3 ]

Example of a case study investigating the process of planning and implementing a service in Primary Care Organisations[ 4 ]

Example of a case study investigating the introduction of the electronic health records[ 5 ]

Example of a case study investigating the formal and informal ways students learn about patient safety[ 6 ]

What is a case study?

A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table ​ (Table5), 5 ), the central tenet being the need to explore an event or phenomenon in depth and in its natural context. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as a "naturalistic" design; this is in contrast to an "experimental" design (such as a randomised controlled trial) in which the investigator seeks to exert control over and manipulate the variable(s) of interest.

Definitions of a case study

Stake's work has been particularly influential in defining the case study approach to scientific enquiry. He has helpfully characterised three main types of case study: intrinsic , instrumental and collective [ 8 ]. An intrinsic case study is typically undertaken to learn about a unique phenomenon. The researcher should define the uniqueness of the phenomenon, which distinguishes it from all others. In contrast, the instrumental case study uses a particular case (some of which may be better than others) to gain a broader appreciation of an issue or phenomenon. The collective case study involves studying multiple cases simultaneously or sequentially in an attempt to generate a still broader appreciation of a particular issue.

These are however not necessarily mutually exclusive categories. In the first of our examples (Table ​ (Table1), 1 ), we undertook an intrinsic case study to investigate the issue of recruitment of minority ethnic people into the specific context of asthma research studies, but it developed into a instrumental case study through seeking to understand the issue of recruitment of these marginalised populations more generally, generating a number of the findings that are potentially transferable to other disease contexts[ 3 ]. In contrast, the other three examples (see Tables ​ Tables2, 2 , ​ ,3 3 and ​ and4) 4 ) employed collective case study designs to study the introduction of workforce reconfiguration in primary care, the implementation of electronic health records into hospitals, and to understand the ways in which healthcare students learn about patient safety considerations[ 4 - 6 ]. Although our study focusing on the introduction of General Practitioners with Specialist Interests (Table ​ (Table2) 2 ) was explicitly collective in design (four contrasting primary care organisations were studied), is was also instrumental in that this particular professional group was studied as an exemplar of the more general phenomenon of workforce redesign[ 4 ].

What are case studies used for?

According to Yin, case studies can be used to explain, describe or explore events or phenomena in the everyday contexts in which they occur[ 1 ]. These can, for example, help to understand and explain causal links and pathways resulting from a new policy initiative or service development (see Tables ​ Tables2 2 and ​ and3, 3 , for example)[ 1 ]. In contrast to experimental designs, which seek to test a specific hypothesis through deliberately manipulating the environment (like, for example, in a randomised controlled trial giving a new drug to randomly selected individuals and then comparing outcomes with controls),[ 9 ] the case study approach lends itself well to capturing information on more explanatory ' how ', 'what' and ' why ' questions, such as ' how is the intervention being implemented and received on the ground?'. The case study approach can offer additional insights into what gaps exist in its delivery or why one implementation strategy might be chosen over another. This in turn can help develop or refine theory, as shown in our study of the teaching of patient safety in undergraduate curricula (Table ​ (Table4 4 )[ 6 , 10 ]. Key questions to consider when selecting the most appropriate study design are whether it is desirable or indeed possible to undertake a formal experimental investigation in which individuals and/or organisations are allocated to an intervention or control arm? Or whether the wish is to obtain a more naturalistic understanding of an issue? The former is ideally studied using a controlled experimental design, whereas the latter is more appropriately studied using a case study design.

Case studies may be approached in different ways depending on the epistemological standpoint of the researcher, that is, whether they take a critical (questioning one's own and others' assumptions), interpretivist (trying to understand individual and shared social meanings) or positivist approach (orientating towards the criteria of natural sciences, such as focusing on generalisability considerations) (Table ​ (Table6). 6 ). Whilst such a schema can be conceptually helpful, it may be appropriate to draw on more than one approach in any case study, particularly in the context of conducting health services research. Doolin has, for example, noted that in the context of undertaking interpretative case studies, researchers can usefully draw on a critical, reflective perspective which seeks to take into account the wider social and political environment that has shaped the case[ 11 ].

Example of epistemological approaches that may be used in case study research

How are case studies conducted?

Here, we focus on the main stages of research activity when planning and undertaking a case study; the crucial stages are: defining the case; selecting the case(s); collecting and analysing the data; interpreting data; and reporting the findings.

Defining the case

Carefully formulated research question(s), informed by the existing literature and a prior appreciation of the theoretical issues and setting(s), are all important in appropriately and succinctly defining the case[ 8 , 12 ]. Crucially, each case should have a pre-defined boundary which clarifies the nature and time period covered by the case study (i.e. its scope, beginning and end), the relevant social group, organisation or geographical area of interest to the investigator, the types of evidence to be collected, and the priorities for data collection and analysis (see Table ​ Table7 7 )[ 1 ]. A theory driven approach to defining the case may help generate knowledge that is potentially transferable to a range of clinical contexts and behaviours; using theory is also likely to result in a more informed appreciation of, for example, how and why interventions have succeeded or failed[ 13 ].

Example of a checklist for rating a case study proposal[ 8 ]

For example, in our evaluation of the introduction of electronic health records in English hospitals (Table ​ (Table3), 3 ), we defined our cases as the NHS Trusts that were receiving the new technology[ 5 ]. Our focus was on how the technology was being implemented. However, if the primary research interest had been on the social and organisational dimensions of implementation, we might have defined our case differently as a grouping of healthcare professionals (e.g. doctors and/or nurses). The precise beginning and end of the case may however prove difficult to define. Pursuing this same example, when does the process of implementation and adoption of an electronic health record system really begin or end? Such judgements will inevitably be influenced by a range of factors, including the research question, theory of interest, the scope and richness of the gathered data and the resources available to the research team.

Selecting the case(s)

The decision on how to select the case(s) to study is a very important one that merits some reflection. In an intrinsic case study, the case is selected on its own merits[ 8 ]. The case is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but because of its uniqueness, which is of genuine interest to the researchers. This was, for example, the case in our study of the recruitment of minority ethnic participants into asthma research (Table ​ (Table1) 1 ) as our earlier work had demonstrated the marginalisation of minority ethnic people with asthma, despite evidence of disproportionate asthma morbidity[ 14 , 15 ]. In another example of an intrinsic case study, Hellstrom et al.[ 16 ] studied an elderly married couple living with dementia to explore how dementia had impacted on their understanding of home, their everyday life and their relationships.

For an instrumental case study, selecting a "typical" case can work well[ 8 ]. In contrast to the intrinsic case study, the particular case which is chosen is of less importance than selecting a case that allows the researcher to investigate an issue or phenomenon. For example, in order to gain an understanding of doctors' responses to health policy initiatives, Som undertook an instrumental case study interviewing clinicians who had a range of responsibilities for clinical governance in one NHS acute hospital trust[ 17 ]. Sampling a "deviant" or "atypical" case may however prove even more informative, potentially enabling the researcher to identify causal processes, generate hypotheses and develop theory.

In collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases are carefully selected. This offers the advantage of allowing comparisons to be made across several cases and/or replication. Choosing a "typical" case may enable the findings to be generalised to theory (i.e. analytical generalisation) or to test theory by replicating the findings in a second or even a third case (i.e. replication logic)[ 1 ]. Yin suggests two or three literal replications (i.e. predicting similar results) if the theory is straightforward and five or more if the theory is more subtle. However, critics might argue that selecting 'cases' in this way is insufficiently reflexive and ill-suited to the complexities of contemporary healthcare organisations.

The selected case study site(s) should allow the research team access to the group of individuals, the organisation, the processes or whatever else constitutes the chosen unit of analysis for the study. Access is therefore a central consideration; the researcher needs to come to know the case study site(s) well and to work cooperatively with them. Selected cases need to be not only interesting but also hospitable to the inquiry [ 8 ] if they are to be informative and answer the research question(s). Case study sites may also be pre-selected for the researcher, with decisions being influenced by key stakeholders. For example, our selection of case study sites in the evaluation of the implementation and adoption of electronic health record systems (see Table ​ Table3) 3 ) was heavily influenced by NHS Connecting for Health, the government agency that was responsible for overseeing the National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT)[ 5 ]. This prominent stakeholder had already selected the NHS sites (through a competitive bidding process) to be early adopters of the electronic health record systems and had negotiated contracts that detailed the deployment timelines.

It is also important to consider in advance the likely burden and risks associated with participation for those who (or the site(s) which) comprise the case study. Of particular importance is the obligation for the researcher to think through the ethical implications of the study (e.g. the risk of inadvertently breaching anonymity or confidentiality) and to ensure that potential participants/participating sites are provided with sufficient information to make an informed choice about joining the study. The outcome of providing this information might be that the emotive burden associated with participation, or the organisational disruption associated with supporting the fieldwork, is considered so high that the individuals or sites decide against participation.

In our example of evaluating implementations of electronic health record systems, given the restricted number of early adopter sites available to us, we sought purposively to select a diverse range of implementation cases among those that were available[ 5 ]. We chose a mixture of teaching, non-teaching and Foundation Trust hospitals, and examples of each of the three electronic health record systems procured centrally by the NPfIT. At one recruited site, it quickly became apparent that access was problematic because of competing demands on that organisation. Recognising the importance of full access and co-operative working for generating rich data, the research team decided not to pursue work at that site and instead to focus on other recruited sites.

Collecting the data

In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study approach usually involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence, using a range of quantitative (e.g. questionnaires, audits and analysis of routinely collected healthcare data) and more commonly qualitative techniques (e.g. interviews, focus groups and observations). The use of multiple sources of data (data triangulation) has been advocated as a way of increasing the internal validity of a study (i.e. the extent to which the method is appropriate to answer the research question)[ 8 , 18 - 21 ]. An underlying assumption is that data collected in different ways should lead to similar conclusions, and approaching the same issue from different angles can help develop a holistic picture of the phenomenon (Table ​ (Table2 2 )[ 4 ].

Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods case study approach to investigate the impact of a cancer care programme[ 22 ]. Here, quantitative measures were collected with questionnaires before, and five months after, the start of the intervention which did not yield any statistically significant results. Qualitative interviews with patients however helped provide an insight into potentially beneficial process-related aspects of the programme, such as greater, perceived patient involvement in care. The authors reported how this case study approach provided a number of contextual factors likely to influence the effectiveness of the intervention and which were not likely to have been obtained from quantitative methods alone.

In collective or multiple case studies, data collection needs to be flexible enough to allow a detailed description of each individual case to be developed (e.g. the nature of different cancer care programmes), before considering the emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons (e.g. to explore why one programme is more effective than another). It is important that data sources from different cases are, where possible, broadly comparable for this purpose even though they may vary in nature and depth.

Analysing, interpreting and reporting case studies

Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically disparate sources of data (whether qualitative alone or together with quantitative) is far from straightforward. Repeated reviewing and sorting of the voluminous and detail-rich data are integral to the process of analysis. In collective case studies, it is helpful to analyse data relating to the individual component cases first, before making comparisons across cases. Attention needs to be paid to variations within each case and, where relevant, the relationship between different causes, effects and outcomes[ 23 ]. Data will need to be organised and coded to allow the key issues, both derived from the literature and emerging from the dataset, to be easily retrieved at a later stage. An initial coding frame can help capture these issues and can be applied systematically to the whole dataset with the aid of a qualitative data analysis software package.

The Framework approach is a practical approach, comprising of five stages (familiarisation; identifying a thematic framework; indexing; charting; mapping and interpretation) , to managing and analysing large datasets particularly if time is limited, as was the case in our study of recruitment of South Asians into asthma research (Table ​ (Table1 1 )[ 3 , 24 ]. Theoretical frameworks may also play an important role in integrating different sources of data and examining emerging themes. For example, we drew on a socio-technical framework to help explain the connections between different elements - technology; people; and the organisational settings within which they worked - in our study of the introduction of electronic health record systems (Table ​ (Table3 3 )[ 5 ]. Our study of patient safety in undergraduate curricula drew on an evaluation-based approach to design and analysis, which emphasised the importance of the academic, organisational and practice contexts through which students learn (Table ​ (Table4 4 )[ 6 ].

Case study findings can have implications both for theory development and theory testing. They may establish, strengthen or weaken historical explanations of a case and, in certain circumstances, allow theoretical (as opposed to statistical) generalisation beyond the particular cases studied[ 12 ]. These theoretical lenses should not, however, constitute a strait-jacket and the cases should not be "forced to fit" the particular theoretical framework that is being employed.

When reporting findings, it is important to provide the reader with enough contextual information to understand the processes that were followed and how the conclusions were reached. In a collective case study, researchers may choose to present the findings from individual cases separately before amalgamating across cases. Care must be taken to ensure the anonymity of both case sites and individual participants (if agreed in advance) by allocating appropriate codes or withholding descriptors. In the example given in Table ​ Table3, 3 , we decided against providing detailed information on the NHS sites and individual participants in order to avoid the risk of inadvertent disclosure of identities[ 5 , 25 ].

What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided?

The case study approach is, as with all research, not without its limitations. When investigating the formal and informal ways undergraduate students learn about patient safety (Table ​ (Table4), 4 ), for example, we rapidly accumulated a large quantity of data. The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources. This highlights a more general point of the importance of avoiding the temptation to collect as much data as possible; adequate time also needs to be set aside for data analysis and interpretation of what are often highly complex datasets.

Case study research has sometimes been criticised for lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for generalisation (i.e. producing findings that may be transferable to other settings)[ 1 ]. There are several ways to address these concerns, including: the use of theoretical sampling (i.e. drawing on a particular conceptual framework); respondent validation (i.e. participants checking emerging findings and the researcher's interpretation, and providing an opinion as to whether they feel these are accurate); and transparency throughout the research process (see Table ​ Table8 8 )[ 8 , 18 - 21 , 23 , 26 ]. Transparency can be achieved by describing in detail the steps involved in case selection, data collection, the reasons for the particular methods chosen, and the researcher's background and level of involvement (i.e. being explicit about how the researcher has influenced data collection and interpretation). Seeking potential, alternative explanations, and being explicit about how interpretations and conclusions were reached, help readers to judge the trustworthiness of the case study report. Stake provides a critique checklist for a case study report (Table ​ (Table9 9 )[ 8 ].

Potential pitfalls and mitigating actions when undertaking case study research

Stake's checklist for assessing the quality of a case study report[ 8 ]

Conclusions

The case study approach allows, amongst other things, critical events, interventions, policy developments and programme-based service reforms to be studied in detail in a real-life context. It should therefore be considered when an experimental design is either inappropriate to answer the research questions posed or impossible to undertake. Considering the frequency with which implementations of innovations are now taking place in healthcare settings and how well the case study approach lends itself to in-depth, complex health service research, we believe this approach should be more widely considered by researchers. Though inherently challenging, the research case study can, if carefully conceptualised and thoughtfully undertaken and reported, yield powerful insights into many important aspects of health and healthcare delivery.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

AS conceived this article. SC, KC and AR wrote this paper with GH, AA and AS all commenting on various drafts. SC and AS are guarantors.

Pre-publication history

The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2288/11/100/prepub

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the participants and colleagues who contributed to the individual case studies that we have drawn on. This work received no direct funding, but it has been informed by projects funded by Asthma UK, the NHS Service Delivery Organisation, NHS Connecting for Health Evaluation Programme, and Patient Safety Research Portfolio. We would also like to thank the expert reviewers for their insightful and constructive feedback. Our thanks are also due to Dr. Allison Worth who commented on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

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• Published: 24 May 2024

Integration of case-based learning and three-dimensional printing for tetralogy of fallot instruction in clinical medical undergraduates: a randomized controlled trial

• Jian Zhao 1   na1 ,
• Xin Gong 1   na1 ,
• Jian Ding 1 ,
• Kepin Xiong 2 ,
• Kangle Zhuang 3 ,
• Rui Huang 1 ,
• Shu Li 4 &
• Huachun Miao 1  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  571 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Case-based learning (CBL) methods have gained prominence in medical education, proving especially effective for preclinical training in undergraduate medical education. Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is a congenital heart disease characterized by four malformations, presenting a challenge in medical education due to the complexity of its anatomical pathology. Three-dimensional printing (3DP), generating physical replicas from data, offers a valuable tool for illustrating intricate anatomical structures and spatial relationships in the classroom. This study explores the integration of 3DP with CBL teaching for clinical medical undergraduates.

Sixty senior clinical medical undergraduates were randomly assigned to the CBL group and the CBL-3DP group. Computed tomography imaging data from a typical TOF case were exported, processed, and utilized to create four TOF models with a color 3D printer. The CBL group employed CBL teaching methods, while the CBL-3DP group combined CBL with 3D-printed models. Post-class exams and questionnaires assessed the teaching effectiveness of both groups.

The CBL-3DP group exhibited improved performance in post-class examinations, particularly in pathological anatomy and TOF imaging data analysis ( P  < 0.05). Questionnaire responses from the CBL-3DP group indicated enhanced satisfaction with teaching mode, promotion of diagnostic skills, bolstering of self-assurance in managing TOF cases, and cultivation of critical thinking and clinical reasoning abilities ( P  < 0.05). These findings underscore the potential of 3D printed models to augment the effectiveness of CBL, aiding students in mastering instructional content and bolstering their interest and self-confidence in learning.

The fusion of CBL with 3D printing models is feasible and effective in TOF instruction to clinical medical undergraduates, and worthy of popularization and application in medical education, especially for courses involving intricate anatomical components.

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Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is the most common cyanotic congenital heart disease(CHD) [ 1 ]. Characterized by four structural anomalies: ventricular septal defect (VSD), pulmonary stenosis (PS), right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH), and overriding aorta (OA), TOF is a focal point and challenge in medical education. Understanding anatomical spatial structures is pivotal for learning and mastering TOF [ 2 ]. Given the constraints of course duration, medical school educators aim to provide students with a comprehensive and intuitive understanding of the disease within a limited timeframe [ 3 ].

The case-based learning (CBL) teaching model incorporates a case-based instructional approach that emphasizes typical clinical cases as a guide in student-centered and teacher-facilitated group discussions [ 4 ]. The CBL instructional methods have garnered widespread attention in medical education as they are particularly appropriate for preclinical training in undergraduate medical education [ 5 , 6 ]. The collection of case data, including medical records and examination results, is essential for case construction [ 7 ]. The anatomical and hemodynamic consequences of TOF can be determined using ultrasonography, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging techniques. However, understanding the anatomical structures from imaging data is a slow and challenging psychological reconstruction process for undergraduate medical students [ 8 ]. Three-dimensional (3D) visualization is valuable for depicting anatomical structures [ 9 ]. 3D printing (3DP), which creates physical replicas based on data, facilitates the demonstration of complex anatomical structures and spatial relationships in the classroom [ 10 ].

During the classroom session, 3D-printed models offer a convenient means for hands-on demonstration and communication, similar to facing a patient, enhancing the efficiency and specificity of intra-team communication and discussion [ 11 ]. In this study, we printed TOF models based on case imaging data, integrated them into CBL teaching, and assessed the effectiveness of classroom instruction.

Research participants

The study employed a prospective, randomized controlled design which received approval from the institutional ethics committee. Senior undergraduate students majoring in clinical medicine at Wannan Medical College were recruited for participation based on predefined inclusion criteria. The researchers implemented recruitment according to the recruitment criteria by contacting the class leaders of the target classes they had previously taught. Notably, these students were in their third year of medical education, with anticipation of progressing to clinical courses in the fourth year, encompassing Internal Medicine, Surgery, Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Pediatrics. Inclusion criteria for participants encompassed the following: (1) proficient communication and comprehension abilities, (2) consistent attendance without absenteeism or truancy, (3) absence of failing grades in prior examinations, and (4) capability to conscientiously fulfill assigned learning tasks. Exclusion criteria were (1) absence from lectures, (2) failure to complete pre-and post-tests, and (3) inadequate completion of questionnaires. For their participation in the study, Students were provided access to the e-book “Localized Anatomy,” authored by the investigators, as an incentive for their participation. Voluntary and anonymous participation was emphasized, with participants retaining the right to withdraw from the study at any time without providing a reason.

The study was conducted between May 1st, 2023, and June 30, 2023, from recruitment to completion of data collection. Drawing upon insights gained from a previous analogous investigation which yielded an effect size of 0.95 [ 10 ]. Sample size was computed, guided by a statistical consultant, with the aim of 0.85 power value, predicated on an effect size of 0.8 and a margin of error set at 0.05. A minimum of 30 participants per group was calculated using G*Power software (latest ver. 3.1.9.7; Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany), resulting in the recruitment of a total of 60 undergraduate students. Each participant was assigned an identification number, with codes placed in boxes. Codes drawn from the boxes determined allocation to either the CBL group or the CBL-3DP group. Subsequently, participants were randomly assigned to either the CBL group, receiving instruction utilizing the CBL methodology, or the CBL-3DP group, which received instruction integrating both CBL and 3D Printed models.

Printing of TOF models

Figure  1 A shows the printing flowchart of the TOF models. A typical TOF case was collected from the Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College. The CT angiography imaging data of the case was exported. Mimics Research 20.0 software (Mimics Innovation Suite version 20, Materialize, Belgium) was used for data processing. The cardiovascular module of the CT-Heart tool was employed to adjust the threshold range, independently obtain the cardiac chambers and vessels, post-process the chambers and vessels to generate a hollow blood pool, and merge it with the myocardial volume to construct a complete heart model. The file was imported into Magics 24.0 software (version 24.0; Materialize, Belgium) for correction using the Shell tool page. After repairs, the model entered the smoothing page, where tools such as triangular surface simplification, local smoothing, refinement and smoothing, subdivision of components, and mesh painting were utilized to achieve varying degrees of smoothness. Finally, optimized data were obtained and exported as stereolithography (STL) files. An experienced cardiothoracic surgeon validated the anatomical accuracy of the digital model.

The STL files were imported into a 3D printer (J401Pro; Sailner 3D Technology, China) for model printing. This printer can produce full-color medical models using different materials. The models were fabricated using two distinct materials: rigid and flexible. Both materials are suitable for the observational discussion of the teaching objectives outlined in our study. From the perspective of observing pathological changes in the TOF, there is no significant difference between the two materials.

Experimental flow chart of this study. A TOF model printing flow chart. B The instructional framework

Teaching implementation

Figure  1 B illustrates the instructional framework employed in this study. One week preceding the class session, all the students were tasked with a 30-minute self-study session, focusing on the theoretical content related to TOF as outlined in the Pediatrics and Surgery textbooks, along with a review of pertinent academic literature. Both groups received co-supervision from two basic medicine lecturers boasting over a decade of teaching experience, alongside a senior cardiothoracic surgeon. Teaching conditions remained consistent across groups, encompassing uniform assessment criteria and adherence to predefined teaching time frames, all conducted in a Project-Based Learning (PBL) classroom at Wannan Medical College. Additionally, a pre-course examination was administered to gauge students’ preparedness for self-study.

In adherence to the curriculum guidelines, the teaching objectives aimed to empower students to master TOF’s clinical manifestations, diagnostic modalities, and differential diagnoses, while acquainting them with treatment principles and surgical methodologies. Additionally, the objectives sought to cultivate students’ clinical reasoning abilities and problem-solving skills. the duration of instruction for the TOF theory session was standardized to 25 min. The didactic content was integrated with the TOF case study to construct a coherent pedagogical structure.

During the instructional session, both groups underwent teaching utilizing the CBL methodology. Clinical manifestations and case details of TOF cases were presented to stimulate students’ interest and curiosity. Subsequently, the theory of TOF, including its etiology, pathogenesis, pathologic anatomy, clinical manifestations, diagnostic methods, and therapeutic interventions, was briefly elucidated. Emphasis was then placed on the case, wherein selected typical TOF cases were explained, guiding students in analysis and discussion. Students were organized into four teams under the instructors’ supervision, fostering cooperative learning and communication, thereby deepening their understanding of the disease through continuous inquiry and exploration (Fig.  2 L). In the routinely equipped PBL classroom with standard heart models (Fig.  2 J, K), all students had prior exposure to human anatomy and were familiar with these models. Both groups were provided with four standard heart models for reference, while the CBL-3DP group received additional four 3D-printed models depicting TOF anomalies, enriching their learning experience (Fig.  2 D, G). After the lesson, summarization, and feedback sessions were conducted to consolidate group discussions’ outcomes, evaluate teaching effectiveness, and assess learning outcomes.

Heart models utilized in instructional sessions. A External perspective of 3D digital models. B, C Cross-sectional views following trans-septal sagittal dissection of the 3D digital model (PS: Pulmonary Stenosis; OA: Overriding Aorta; VSD: Ventricular Septal Defect; RVH: Right Ventricular Hypertrophy). D External depiction of rigid 3D printed model. E, F Sagittal sections of the rigid 3D printed model. G External portrayal of flexible 3D printed model. H, I Sagittal sections of the flexible 3D printed model. J, K The normal heart model employed in the instruction of the CBL group. L Ongoing classroom session

Teaching effectiveness assessment

Following the instructional session, participants from the two groups underwent a theoretical examination to assess their comprehension of the taught material. This assessment covered domains such as pathological anatomy, clinical manifestations, imaging data interpretation, diagnosis, and treatment relevant to TOF. Additionally, structured questionnaires were administered to evaluate the efficacy of the pedagogical approach employed. The questionnaire consisted of six questions designed to gauge participants’ understanding of the teaching content, enhancement of diagnostic skills, cultivation of critical thinking and clinical reasoning abilities, bolstering of confidence in managing TOF cases, satisfaction with the teaching mode, and satisfaction with the CBL methodology.

The questionnaire employed a 5-point Likert scale to gauge responses, with 5 indicating “strongly satisfied/agree,” 4 for “satisfied/agree,” 3 denoting “neutral,” 2 reflecting “dissatisfied/disagree,” and 1 indicating “strongly dissatisfied/disagree.” It comprised six questions, with the initial two probing participants’ knowledge acquisition, questions 3 and 4 exploring satisfaction regarding enhanced competence, and the final two assessing satisfaction with teaching methods and modes. Additionally, participants were encouraged to provide suggestions at the end of the questionnaire. To ensure the questionnaire’s validity, five esteemed lecturers in basic medical sciences with more than 10 years of experience verified its content and assessed its Content Validity Ratio and Content Validity Index to ensure alignment with the study’s objectives.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were conducted utilizing GraphPad Prism 9.0 software. Aggregate score data for both groups were presented as mean ± standard deviation (x ± s). The gender comparisons were analyzed with the chi-square (χ2) test, while the other variables were compared using the Mann-Whitney U test. The threshold for determining statistical significance was set at P  < 0.05.

Three-dimensional printing models

After configuring the structural colors of each component (Fig.  2 A, B, C), we printed four color TOF models using both rigid and flexible materials, resulting in four life-sized TOF models. Two color TOF models were created using rigid materials (Fig.  2 D, E, F). These models, exhibiting resistance to deformation, and with a firm texture, smooth and glossy surface, and good transparency, allowing visibility of the internal structures, were deemed conducive to teaching and observation. We also fabricated two color TOF models using flexible materials (Fig.  2 G, H, I), characterized by soft texture, opacity, and deformability, allowing for easy manipulation and cutting. It has potential utility beyond observational purposes. It can serve as a valuable tool for simulating surgical interventions and may be employed to create tomographic anatomical specimens. In this study, both material models were suitable for observation in the classroom. The participants were able to discern the four pathological changes characteristic of TOF from surface examination or cross-sectional analysis.

Baseline characteristics of the students

In total, 60 students were included in this study. The CBL group comprised 30 students (14 males and 16 females), with an average age of (21.20 ± 0.76) years. The CBL-3DP group consisted of 30 students (17 males and 13 females) with an average age of 20.96 years. All the students completed the study procedures. There were no significant differences in age, sex ratio, or pre-class exam scores between the two groups ( P  > 0.05), indicating that the baseline scores between the two groups were comparable (Table  1 ).

Theoretical examination results

All students completed the research procedures as planned. The post-class theoretical examination encompassed assessment of pathological anatomy, clinical presentations, imaging data interpretation, diagnosis, and treatment pertinent to TOF. Notably, no statistically significant disparities were observed in the scores on clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment components between the cohorts, as delineated in Table  2 . Conversely, discernible distinctions were evident whereby the CBL-3DP group outperformed the CBL group notably in pathological anatomy, imaging data interpretation, and overall aggregate scores ( P  < 0.05).

Results of the questionnaires

All the 60 participants submitted the questionnaire. Comparing the CBL and CBL-3DP groups, the scores from the CBL-3DP group showed significant improvements in many areas. This included satisfaction with the teaching mode, promotion of diagnostic skills, bolstering of self-assurance in managing TOF cases, and cultivation of critical thinking and clinical reasoning abilities (Fig.  3 B, C, D, E). All of which improved significantly ( P  < 0.05 for the first aspects and P  < 0.01 for the rest). However, the two groups were not comparable ( P  > 0.05) in terms of understanding of the teaching content and Satisfaction with the CBL methodology (Fig.  3 A, F).

Upon completion of the questionnaires, participants were invited to proffer recommendations. Notably, in the CBL group, seven students expressed challenges in comprehending TOF and indicated a need for additional time for consolidation to enhance understanding. Conversely, within the CBL-3DP group, twelve students advocated for the augmentation of model repertoire and the expansion of disease-related data collection to bolster pedagogical efficacy across other didactic domains.

Five-point Likert scores of students’ attitudes in CBL ( n  = 30) and CBL-3DP ( n  = 30) groups. A Understanding of teaching content. B Promotion of diagnostic skills. C Cultivation of critical thinking and clinical reasoning abilities. D Bolstering of self-assurance in managing TOF cases. E Satisfaction with the teaching mode. F Satisfaction with the CBL methodology. ns No significant difference, * p  < 0.05, ** p  < 0.01, *** p  < 0.001

TOF presents a significant challenge in clinical practice, necessitating a comprehensive understanding for effective diagnosis and treatment [ 12 ]. Traditional teaching methods in medical schools have relied on conventional resources such as textbooks, 2D illustrations, cadaver dissections, and radiographic materials to impart knowledge about complex conditions like TOF [ 13 ]. However, the limitations of these methods in fully engaging students and bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application have prompted a need for innovative instructional approaches.

CBL has emerged as a valuable tool in medical education, offering students opportunities to engage with authentic clinical cases through group discussions and inquiry-based learning [ 14 ]. By actively involving students in problem-solving and decision-making processes, CBL facilitates the application of theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios, thus better-preparing students for future clinical practice [ 15 ]. Our investigation revealed that both groups of students exhibited comparable levels of satisfaction with the CBL methodology, devoid of discernible disparities.

CHD presents a formidable challenge due to the intricate nature of anatomical anomalies, the diverse spectrum of conditions, and individual variations [ 16 ]. Utilizing 3D-printed physical models, derived from patient imaging data, can significantly enhance comprehension of complex anatomical structures [ 17 ]. These models have proven invaluable in guiding surgical planning, providing training for junior or inexperienced pediatric residents, and educating healthcare professionals and parents of patients [ 18 ]. Studies indicate that as much as 50% of pediatric surgical decisions can be influenced by the insights gained from 3D printed models [ 19 ]. By providing tangible, anatomically accurate models, 3D printing offers a unique opportunity for people to visualize complex structures and enhance their understanding of anatomical intricacies. Our study utilized full-color, to-scale 3D printed models to illustrate the structural abnormalities associated with TOF, thereby enriching classroom sessions and facilitating a deeper comprehension of the condition.

Comparative analysis between the CBL-3DP group and the CBL group revealed significant improvements in post-test performance, particularly in pathological anatomy and imaging data interpretation. Additionally, questionnaire responses indicated higher levels of satisfaction and confidence among students in the CBL-3DP group, highlighting the positive impact of incorporating 3D printed models into the learning environment, improving the effectiveness of CBL classroom instruction. Despite the merits, our study has limitations. Primarily, participants were exclusively drawn from the same grade level within a single college, possibly engendering bias owing to shared learning backgrounds. Future research could further strengthen these findings by expanding the sample size and including long-term follow-up to assess the retention of knowledge and skills. Additionally, the influence of the 3D models depicting a normal heart on the learning process and its potential to introduce bias into the results warrants consideration, highlighting a need for scrutiny in subsequent studies.

As medical science continues to advance, the need for effective teaching methods becomes increasingly paramount. Our study underscores the potential of combining active learning approaches like CBL with innovative technologies such as 3D printing to enhance teaching effectiveness, improve knowledge acquisition, and foster students’ confidence and enthusiasm in pursuing clinical careers. Moving forward, further research and integration of such methodologies are essential for meeting the evolving demands of medical education, especially in areas involving complex anatomical understanding.

Conclusions

Integrating 3D-printed models with the CBL method is feasible and effective in TOF instruction. The demonstrated success of this method warrants broad implementation in medical education, particularly for complex anatomical topics.

Data availability

All data supporting the conclusions of this research are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.

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Acknowledgements

We extend our sincere appreciation to the instructors and students whose invaluable participated in this study.

This paper received support from the Education Department of Anhui Province, China (Grant Numbers 2022jyxm1693, 2022jyxm1694, 2022xskc103, 2018jyxm1280).

Author information

Jian Zhao and Xin Gong are joint first authors.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Human Anatomy, Wannan Medical College, No.22 West Wenchang Road, Wuhu, 241002, China

Jian Zhao, Xin Gong, Jian Ding, Rui Huang & Huachun Miao

Department of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China

Kepin Xiong

Zhuhai Sailner 3D Technology Co., Ltd., Zhuhai, China

Kangle Zhuang

School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China

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Contributions

Jian Zhao and Huachun Miao designed the research. Jian Zhao, Xin Gong, Jian Ding, Kepin Xiong designed the tests and questionnaires. Kangle Zhuang processed the imaging data and printed the models. Xing Gong and Kepin Xiong implemented the teaching. Jian Zhao and Rui Huang collected the data and performed the statistical analysis. Jian Zhao and Huachun Miao prepared the manuscript. Shu Li and Huachun Miao revised the manuscript. Shu Li provided the Funding acquisition. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Shu Li or Huachun Miao .

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This investigation received ethical approval from the Ethical Committee of School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wannan Medical College (ECBMSWMC2022-1-12). All methodologies adhered strictly to established protocols and guidelines. Written informed consent was obtained from the study participants to take part in the study.

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Written informed consent was obtained from the individuals for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

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Zhao, J., Gong, X., Ding, J. et al. Integration of case-based learning and three-dimensional printing for tetralogy of fallot instruction in clinical medical undergraduates: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Med Educ 24 , 571 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05583-z

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Received : 03 March 2024

Accepted : 21 May 2024

Published : 24 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05583-z

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