agriculture of bangladesh essay

Agriculture Growth Reduces Poverty in Bangladesh

Story Highlights

Agriculture has played a key role in reducing Bangladesh’s poverty from 48.9% in 2000 to 31.5% by 2010 with over 87% of rural people part of their some income from agricultural activities.
Irrigation, high-yielding crop varieties, more efficient markets, and mechanization, enabled by policy reforms and investments in agriculture research, human capital, and roads have driven growth.
Bangladesh now needs to shift toward high-value agriculture, including horticulture, livestock, poultry and fisheries to foster future growth and further reduce poverty.

Bangladesh is well known for its progress in human development. But its achievements in agriculture remain an untold story despite being key to reducing poverty since 2000. A new World Bank report “ Dynamics of Rural Growth in Bangladesh: Sustaining Poverty Reduction ” identifies changes in the farm and non-farm sectors of the rural economy and the policy implications and actions to foster future growth, further reduce poverty, and improve food security and nutrition.

A Vibrant Rural Economy

Agriculture plays a key role in Bangladesh’s economic growth. Extensive irrigation, high-yielding crop varieties, more efficient markets, and mechanization, enabled by policy reforms and investments in agriculture research, human capital, and roads have driven agriculture sector’s growth.

Agriculture is a major source of rural jobs in Bangladesh. Over 87 percent rural people derive at least some income from agriculture. However, two thirds of rural households rely on both farm and non-farm incomes. Pro-poor agriculture growth has stimulated the non-farm economy in Bangladesh: a 10 percent rise in farm incomes generates a 6 percent rise in non-farm incomes. As non-farm incomes continue to grow, the government needs to focus on fostering a more robust rural non-farm economy.

Realigning Priorities to Sustain Growth Into the Future

Today, the largest share of public expenditure for agriculture goes to subsidies. At the same time, nearly half of the farmers are overusing chemical fertilizers, which create environmental and health hazards.

While rural non-farm employment is large -- almost double of total urban employment– and growing, non-farm businesses are not expanding or diversifying fast enough.

Even though the market is functioning well, more investments are necessary to upgrade market facilities, improve food safety systems, and help traders of high value products access working capital.

Bangladesh has great potential to raise agriculture-generated incomes, increase agriculture productivity and make it more resilient to climate change, and improve the nutritional value of crops. As the study suggests, the country should focus on the following action areas:

A balanced development strategy should be developed for both farm and non-farm growth.
More rapid diversification in agriculture—with balanced attention to rice. Diversification into high value agriculture is a priority. This includes ensuring balanced incentives to promote high value agriculture that includes horticulture, livestock, poultry and fisheries.
Further improving the policy framework and rebalancing public expenditure priorities. More investment is required in research and extension services, markets and infrastructure. Regulatory and institutional constraints should be removed for encouraging private sector participation in the seed sector.
An enabling environment for robust rural non-farm growth and more efficient value chains. For non-farm growth to flourish, it is essential to make it easier for enterprises to do business. Access to finance, power, roads, technology and information along with removing discriminatory taxes and stifling regulations are needed. It is also important to ensure food safety standards, build modern market infrastructure and promote agriculture related non-farm enterprises such as trading and processing.
Continued investment in connectivity is needed to increase business jobs in smaller cities and rural areas which remain isolated.

Read Full Report
Key Messages
Bangladesh Agriculture: A Key Driver in Reducing Poverty, Must Diversify
World Bank Bank South Asia on Twitter
World Bank Bangladesh on Facebook

Indigenous knowledge and the challenge of development in agriculture of Bangladesh

Related Papers

Laxmi Narayana

Marta G. Rivera-Ferre , Mamen Cuéllar , Isabel Vara , Marina Di Masso

CHANDA G U R U N G GOODRICH

The paper focuses on the tribal communities of Sikkim and Nagaland, where men have come to be seen as ‘providers’, superior to women ‘caretakers’. As agrarian- forest dwellers, both the Lepcha women of Sikkim and Naga women play a key role in agro-biodiversity management and conservation. Their authority over three levels of agriculture — the ecosystem, species and gene — is based on their knowledge (particularly of seeds and plant breeding) and their labour. But, women’s work and knowledge are now being undermined by a market economy that undervalues all non-market transactions. The women’s adaptive livelihood practices are threatened by both global and regional market economies, land tenure issues, and a rapidly increasing population. In a ‘surcharged clash of identities’, women are being sidelined and ‘it is difficult to predict how gender relations, land-related stewardship and sustainable agro-biodiversity conservation will play out’.

Yildiz Thomas

, DEVELOPMENT, RESOURCES AND LIVELIHOODS, ORGANISED BY DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY (UGC-SAP)

Vijay K Bodh

A series of modern folklores and post-development narratives across the sites of construction Identical discords tend to disjuncture a hydro electricity dam and a road. In both of the projects the expanse of construction requisite allows sufficient commonalities. One is that these projects are being undertaken by larger bodies like government, private and via publicprivate partnership (PPP) model. Two; stress on land grab: agricultural, forest, residential or a wasteland. Thirdly; broader inclusion into a pre-acknowledged category of development work. Four; unambiguous pollution reinforcement: water, air, noise and visual. Five; ascertains unavoidable fatalities at times. The simple dissimilarity among the two subsists in the context of their distinct social positioning. The dam construction on the one hand surpasses numerous challenges; socioeconomic, moral, environmental and legal. On the other, road construction is universally welcomed. Exemplifying the noted societal disparities in agreed impressions of ‘an unwanted’ and ‘the desired’ development that prevails simultaneously. Both the facets of ‘development’ scenario have been acknowledged in equal spirits. On the promising note uplifting in economic conditions by promoting schools, health care systems and roads have become much acceptable. Whereas undesired compromises at the cost of ecology, life, and livelihoods faced the collective burdens of liability and inaction. As in the case of forced displacement, threats endangering culture, community and traditional values. Throughout time, ecological harms have been rebuked to catalyse as an otherwise avoidable consequence of ill-execution in ‘development’ procedure. Development in its presumed form, technological or social, greatly impacts the terrains, lives of people and collective ecology. Development studies and the field of anthropology have thus co-existed since long. The chronology of studies from evolutionary theories of Tylor (1865), 71 Morgan(1877) to post modernism (Derrida 1997; Foucault 1970; Lyotard 1984; Baudrillard 1995) itself have invited profound schools of social thoughts. Anthropologists acted as policy maker by becoming a part of development processes and also as the critiques of the development. ‘Development’ and ‘change’ have been immensely braced in the growing world of building economy. Prolific scholarly writings are found on the timeless topics of ‘globalisation and development’ (Mehta 2009), ‘ecological and sociological impacts of development’ (EIA GOI 2009). Development studies have flourished as an autonomous discipline. The flash floods related disaster in Uttarkhand (2013), Kinnaur (June 2013), Jammu & Kashmir (2014) have all been largely attributed to prevailing development models. Largely, dam construction and related encroachments have been made liable for the high cost of loss of precious human lives and capital damage. An expert body report submitted to The Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of India, 2014 has come up with harsh recommendations for the state body with hints that advocate ‘that several more projects could be dropped.’ (MOEF report 2013), clearly an admission that there is something fundamentally wrong, the way we conceptualise development. National Institute of Disaster Management report puts it on to claim “climatic conditions combined with haphazard human intervention” a down factor. As the residents and the bye passers share modern folklores prevalent in the project affected sites. The paper positions etic and emic approaches (Dundes 1962). To arrange the post dam narratives, case studies voice a series of experiences from the hill region of Sainj, in district Kullu, Himachal Pradesh.

Yildiz AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS

Patricia Howard , Stephen Wooten

‘This is a very important book. Taken together, the collected papers present a rich picture of the vital role played by peasant women around the world. They are struggling to preserve, in the face of modern agribusiness, the agricultural wisdom of the past and the diversity of plants that have been used for both food and medicine. It is vital that decision makers, especially in the developing world, heed the knowledge of these women who understand so well the art of a sustainable lifestyle. Women and Plants must be in the library of every individual who cares about the future of our planet.’ Jane Goodall

Ashok Dasgupta

Binayak P Rajbhandari

Chapter 2 and chapter 3 of Bio-intensive farming system and sustainable livelihoods are shared for wider readership and with those working on agro-ecology and bio-intensive farming system.i

Ajith Joseph K

Fifty years of agricultural development in Bangladesh: a comparison with India and Pakistan

Original Article
Published: 18 June 2022
Volume 2 , article number 71 , ( 2022 )

Cite this article

Shahidul Islam ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4281-884X 1 ,
Subhadip Ghosh 2 &
Mohua Podder 3

559 Accesses

2 Citations

Explore all metrics

Since its independence in 1971, Bangladesh has made remarkable economic progress, evolving from a low-income to a lower-middle-income country. Its agricultural sector remains essential for the economy and food and nutrition requirements despite having a gradually declining share of GDP and employment. This paper examines various aspects of the agricultural growth of Bangladesh using different forms of analysis, including the use of a log-linear Cobb–Douglas production function. Empirical models include the ordinary least-squares method for investigating the agricultural growth in Bangladesh since independence and the generalized least square method for the cross-country comparison with India and Pakistan. We observe that Bangladesh underwent a typical sectoral transformation in employment and GDP growth, transferring labor from the low-productive agriculture sector to the high-productive manufacturing and service sectors. Such a transformation was due to the declining labor demand in the agriculture sector because of growing mechanization as well as the increased labor demand from rural off-farm activities and manufacturing and service sectors, resulting in enhanced rural wages and standard of living. The agriculture sector of Bangladesh, despite its continuously declining contribution to GDP, remains vital for sustained food and nutrition security and economic growth. The low values of calculated output elasticities from our regression results imply a limited growth possibility with the existing technology. Despite this and several other constraints, the agriculture sector has potential for growth by developing and adopting appropriate technology and realizing efficiency gains from proper input and output mixes. These need to be supported by appropriate policies and institutions. As land is a major constraint, less land-intensive subsectors like livestock and poultry should also be explored among the possible policy recommendations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

(Source: FAO 2021 )

(Source: World Bank 2021a )

(Source: authors own calculations based on data from ILO)

Understanding agricultural growth and performance in Bihar, India

Agricultural Development and the Rural Economy: The Case of Bangladesh

Agricultural Growth: Performance, Constraints and Strategy for Future Development

Data availability.

Data used in this paper are mostly publicly available, and the authors cited the source. If required, the authors are willing to provide data if necessary.

Bangladesh has been implementing many safety-net programs which include both cash and in-kind contributions to the poor. The 100-day Employment Generation Program (100-DEGP) is one such program initiated in 2008. Food for Work was another well-known program introduced in 1975 (Osmani and Chowdhury 1983 ; Zhang et al. 2014 ; Mannan et al. 2018 ). In 2015, the Government of Bangladesh announced a comprehensive National Social Security Strategy (NSSS) to ensure a comprehensive social protection system for all (Khatun and Saadat 2018 ) and an important theme of the 8th Five Year Plan is “A broad-based strategy of inclusiveness with a view to empowering every citizen to participate fully and benefit from the development process and helping the poor and vulnerable with social protection-based income transfer;” (GED 2020).

Microfinance has been prevalent in Bangladesh. Since the establishment of Grameen Bank in 1983, both the number of subscribers and the number of disbursements increased exponentially (Khandker et al. 2016 ; Khan and Malik 2020 ). Khandker and Koolwal ( 2016 ) show that microcredit benefits low-income households by increasing agricultural income through livestock and off-farm income, but not crop income indicating an outward push of rural labor from agriculture.

Data on pesticide in Pakistan are obtained from several published sources including Tariq et al. ( 2007 ), Khooharo et al. ( 2008 ), and Khan et al. ( 2020 ). Data unavailable for few years were interpolated from the existing ones.

Bangladesh has several agricultural research institutes. These are Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI), Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA), Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI), Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (FRI), Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI), Bangladesh Sugar Research Institute (BSRI), Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI), and Bangladesh Tea Research Institute (BTRI).

Empirical results are all over the map—negative, positive (Jawaid and Raza 2014 ; Salahuddin and Gow 2015 ; Amjad 2017 ; Mannan 2017 ; Zaman et al. 2021 ), u-shaped contribution (Hassan et al. 2016 ; Hassan and Shakur 2017 ; Kumar et al. 2018 ), causing Dutch disease (Roy and Dixon 2016 ), etc. Jawaid and Raza ( 2014 ) and Kumar et al. ( 2018 ) provided lists of previous studies with contradictory results.

Abdullah A (1998) Poverty and reforms in Bangladesh. Pak Dev Rev 37:1071–1079. https://www.pide.org.pk/pdfpdr/1998/1071-1079.pdf

ADB-ILO (2016) Bangladesh: looking beyond garments—employment diagnostic study. Co-publication of the Asian Development Bank and the International Labour Organization. Regional Office for the Labour and the Pacific. The Philippines. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-dhaka/documents/publication/wcms_517561.pdf . Accessed 8 Apr 2021

Agrawala S, Ota T, Ahmed AU, Smith J, Van Aalst M (2003) Development and climate change in Bangladesh: focus on coastal flooding and the sundarbans. OECOD, France. https://www.oecd.org/env/cc/21055658.pdf

Ahluwalia IJ, Hussain Z (2004) Development achievements and challenges. Econ Political Wkly 39(36):4013–4022. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4415502

Ahmed I (1981) Wage determination in Bangladesh agriculture. Oxf Econ Pap 33(2):298–322

Article Google Scholar

Ahmed M (1988) Bangladesh agriculture: toward self-sufficiency. External Publicity Wing, Ministry of Information, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka

Ahmed N, Garnett T (2011) Integrated rice-fish farming in Bangladesh: meeting the challenges of food security. Food Secur 3:81–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-011-0113-8

Ahmed AU, Ghostlaw J (2019) Diversifying rice-centric agriculture and diets: the Bangladesh experience. In: Fan et al (eds) Agriculture for improved nutrition: seizing the momentum. CAB International, UK, pp 154–164. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/133088/filename/133299.pdf

Ahmed BN, Waibel H (2019) The role of homestead fish ponds for household nutrition security in Bangladesh. Food Secur 11:835–854. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00947-6

Ahmed AU, Hernandez R, Naher F (2016) Adoption of stress-tolerant rice varieties in Bangladesh. In: Batzweiler FW, von Braun J (eds) Technological and institutional innovations for marginalized smallholders in agricultural development. pp 241–255. Springer Open. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25718-1_15

Akter A, Ahmed KR (2021) Insight and explore farming adaptation measures to support sustainable development goal 2 in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh. Environ Dev Sustain 23:4358–4384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00778-y

Alam GMM, Alam K, Mushtaq S (2016) Influence of institutional access and social capital on adaptation decision: empirical evidence from hazard-prone rural households in Bangladesh. Ecol Econ 130:243–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.07.012

Alauddin M, Biswas J (2014) Agricultural credit in Bangladesh: trends, patterns, problems and growth impacts. Jahangirnagar Econ Rev 25:125–138. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292286780_Agricultural_Credit_in_Bangladesh_Trends_Patterns_Problems_and_Growth_Impacts

Amjad R (2017) Remittances and poverty: a comparison of Bangladesh and Pakistan, 2000–2016. Bangladesh Dev Stud 40(3&4):75–103

Google Scholar

Anik AR, Rahman S, Sarker JR (2017) Agricultural productivity growth and the role of capital in South Asia (1980–2013). Sustainability 9:470. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9030470

Ansari SA, Khan W (2018) Relevance of declining agriculture in economic development of South Asian countries: an empirical analysis. Agris Online Pap Econ Inform 10(2):3–14

Ara I, Ostendort B (2017) A review of food security and potentials to develop spatially informed food policies in Bangladesh. Earth Syst Environ 1:19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-017-0021-y

Arimond M, Hawkes C, Ruel MT, Sifri Z, Berti PR et al (2011) Agricultural interventions and nutrition: lessons from the past and new evidence. In: Thompson B, Amoroso L (eds) Combating micronutrient deficiencies: food-based approaches. FAO Rome/CAB International, Wallingford, pp 41–75. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781845937140.0041

Chapter Google Scholar

Aryal PA, Sapkota TB, Krupnik TJ, Rahut DB, Jat ML, Stirling CM (2021) Factors affecting farmers’ use of organic and inorganic fertilizers in South Asia. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:51480–51496. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13975-7

Atiyas I, Galal A, Selim H (2015) Structural transformation and Industrial Policy. Volume 1. A comparative analysis of Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey. European Investment Bank, Luxembourg. https://www.eib.org/attachments/country/femip_study_structural_transformation_and_industrial_policy_en.pdf . Accessed 8 May 2021

Bagchi M, Rahman S, Shunbo Y (2019) Growth in agricultural productivity and its components in Bangladesh regions (1987–2009): an application of bootstrapped data envelopment analysis (DEA). Economies 7:37

BARC (2005) Fertilizer recommendation in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council. Dhaka, Bangladesh. https://msibsri4313.files.wordpress.com/2013/10/frg_2005.pdf . Accessed 9 May 2021

Basu, K (2018) Why is Bangladesh booming?. https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/bangladesh-sources-of-economic-growth-by-kaushik-basu-2018-04 . Accessed 23 Apr 2018

BBS (2018) Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics—2017, 29th Series, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, April 2018. http://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/1b1eb817_9325_4354_a756_3d18412203e2/Yearbook-2017-Final-05-05-2018.pdf . Accessed 8 May 2021

BBS (2021) Statistical Yearbook Bangladesh 2020. 40th Edition, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1UspiEI_SZz4qCPZUlRWE-dP3Ww68ZeL5/view . Accessed 8 May 2021

Begum MEA, Hossain MI, D’Haese L (2013) Food security in Bangladesh: present status and trend. Prog Agric 24:263–271

Belton B, Asseldonk IJMV, Thilsted SH (2014) Faltering fisheries and ascendant aquaculture: implications for food and nutrition security in Bangladesh. Food Policy 44:77–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.11.003

Belton B, Karim M, Thilsted S, Jahan KME, Collis W, Phillips M (2011) Review of aquaculture and fish consumption in Bangladesh. Studies and reviews 2011–53. The WorldFish Center. https://pubs.iclarm.net/resource_centre/WF_2970.pdf . Accessed 9 Nov 2020

Bhuiyan MSR (2013) Role of agricultural education in agriculture development in Bangladesh. In: Gurung TR, Azad AK (eds) National Agricultural Education System in SAARC Countries: comparative analysis. SAARC Agriculture Centre, Dhaka, pp 33–42. https://www.sac.org.bd/archives/publications/NAES_SAARC_Countries.pdf#page=41

Bishwajit G, Barmon R, Ghosh S (2014) Reviewing the status of agricultural production in Bangladesh from a food security perspective. Russ J Agric Socioecon Sci 1(25): 19–27. https://rjoas.com/issue-2014-01/article_04.pdf

Bose ML, Dey MM (2007) Food and nutrition security in Bangladesh: Going beyond carbohydrate counts. Agric Econ Res Rev 20:203–225. https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/handle/20.500.12348/1604

Bryan E, Bell AR, Ringler C, Ahmed AU (2018) Increasing crop production benefits to small producers in Bangladesh. Asian J Agric Dev 15(1):1–21. https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/275686/files/AJAD%2015_1_Paper%201.pdf

Chakraborty BK (2021) Status of fish diversity and production in Bangladesh. Integrated biological resources for prosperity 2021:85–99. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352539057_Status_of_Fish_Diversity_and_Production_in_Bangladesh

Chowdhury NT (2010) Water management in Bangladesh: an analytical review. Water Policy 12:32–51. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2009.112

Chowdhury MA, Hasan MK, Islam SLU (2021a) Climate change adaptation in Bangladesh: current practices, challenges and way forward. J Clim Change Health. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joclim.2021.100108 ( In Press )

Chowdhury MMI, Rahman SM, Abubakar IR, Aina YA, Hasan MA, Khondaker AN (2021b) A review of policies and initiatives for climate change mitigation and environmental sustainability in Bangladesh. Environ Dev Sustain 23:1133–1161

Clark C (1957) The conditions of economic progress, 3rd edn. Macmillan and Co Ltd, London

Datt G, Ravallion M (1998) Farm productivity and rural poverty in India. J Dev Stud 34(4):62–85

Daway-Ducames SLS (2019) Remittances, Dutch disease, and manufacturing growth in developing economies. Scott J Political Econ 66:360–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjpe.12185

de Brauw A, Kramer B, Murphy M (2020) Yielding profits? Low adoption of an improved mung bean seed variety in Southern Bangladesh. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01975. Markets, Trade, and Institutions Division, International Food Policy Research Institute, November 2020. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134157

de Roos B, Roos N, Mamun A, Ahmed T, Sneddon AA, Murray F, Grieve E, Little DC (2018) Linking agroecosystems producing farmed seafood with food security and health status to better address the nutritional challenges in Bangladesh. Public Health Nutr 22(16):2941–2949. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980019002295

Delaporte I, Maurel M (2018) Adaptation to climate change in Bangladesh. Clim Policy 18:49–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2016.1222261

DOF (2018) Yearbook of fisheries statistics of Bangladesh, 2017–18. Fisheries Resource Survey System (FRSS), Department of Fisheries. Government of Bangladesh. https://fisheries.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/fisheries.portal.gov.bd/page/4cfbb3cc_c0c4_4f25_be21_b91f84bdc45c/Fisheries%20Statistical%20Yearboook%202017-18.pdf . Accessed 10 Apr 2021

DOF (2020) Yearbook of fisheries statistics of Bangladesh 2018–2019. Department of Fisheries Bangladesh. Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. https://fisheries.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/fisheries.portal.gov.bd/page/4cfbb3cc_c0c4_4f25_be21_b91f84bdc45c/2020-10-20-11-57-8df0b0e26d7d0134ea2c92ac6129702b.pdf . Accessed 10 Apr 2021

Durbin J, Koopman SJ (2012) Time-series analysis by state space methods, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford

Book Google Scholar

Emran S, Shilpi F (2018) Agricultural productivity, hired labor, wages, and poverty: evidence from Bangladesh. World Dev 109:470–482

Emran SA, Krupnik TJ, Kumar V, Ali MY, Pittelkow CM (2019) Agronomic, economic, and environmental performance of nitrogen rates and source in Bangladesh’s coastal rice agroecosystems. Field Crop Res 241:107567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2019.107567

FAO (2020) The state of world fisheries and aquaculture, 2020: sustainability in action. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en . Accessed 7 Apr 2021

FAO (2021) FAOSTAT. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data . Accessed 9 Apr 2021

Fisher AGB (1939) Production: primary, secondary and tertiary. Econ J 15:24–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4932.1939.tb01015.x

Foster A, Rosenzweig M (2004) Agricultural development, industrialization and rural inequality. Mimeo, Harvard University, Cambridge. https://economics.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/Workshops-Seminars/Development/foster-031201.pdf

Gardner B (2005) Causes of rural economic development. Agric Econ 32:21–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0169-5150.2004.00012.x

Gautam M, Faruqee R (2016) Dynamics of rural growth in Bangladesh: sustaining poverty reduction. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/24544/9781464808760.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y . Accessed 9 Apr 2021

GED (2020) 8th Five Year Plan July 2020–June 2025: promoting prosperity and fostering inclusiveness. General Economic Division (GED), Bangladesh Planning Commission, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, December 2020. https://bnnrc.net/bangladesh-eighth-five-year-plan-july-2020-june-2025-has-published-eversion/ . Accessed 8 May 2021

GED (2015) 7th Five Year Plan FY2016-FY2020: Accelerating growth, empowering citizens. General Economics Division (GED), Planning Commission, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. December 2015. https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/sites/unicef.org.bangladesh/files/2018-10/7th_FYP_18_02_2016.pdf . Accessed 8 May 2021

GOB (2020) Making Vision 2041 a Reality: Perspective Plan of Bangladesh 2021–2041. General Economic Division (GED), Bangladesh Planning Commission, Ministry of Planning. March 2020. http://oldweb.lged.gov.bd/UploadedDocument/UnitPublication/1/1049/vision%202021-2041.pdf . Accessed 9 Apr 2021

Greene WH (2012) Econometric analysis, 7th edn. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River

Greene WH (2018) Econometric Analysis, 8th Edn. Pearson

Guha B (2006) Green revolutions and miracle economies: agricultural innovations, trade and growth. Int J Trade Econ Dev 15(2):209–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638190600690986

Hassan GM, Shakur S (2017) Nonlinear effects of remittances on per capita GDP growth in Bangladesh. Economies 5:25. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies5030025

Hassan GM, Chowdhury M, Bhuyan M (2016) Growth effects of remittances in Bangladesh: is there a U-shaped relationship? Int Migr 54(5):105–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12242

Hayami Y, Ruttan VW (1970) Agricultural Productivity Differences Among Countries. Am Econ Rev 60: 895–911. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1818289

Headey DD, Hoddinott J (2016) Agriculture, nutrition and the green revolution in Bangladesh. Agric Syst 149:122–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2016.09.001

Hijioka Y, Li, E, Pereira JJ, Corlett RT, Cui X, Insarov GE, Lasco RD, Lindgren E, Surjan A (2014) Asia. In: Barros VR, Field CB, Dokken DJ, Mastrandrea MD, Mach KJ, Bilir TE, Chatterjee M, Ebi KL, Estrada YO, Genova RC, Girma B, Kissel ES, Levy AN, MacCracken S, Mastrandrea PR, White LL (eds) Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part B: regional aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1327e1370. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ar5_wgII_spm_en.pdf

Hill R, Cevallos JJE (2019) Spatial and structural changes in poverty reduction in Bangladesh from 2000 to 2016. Bangladesh Dev Stud 42(2/3):75–101. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27031108

Hoque MZ, Shenghui C, Xu L, Islam I, Tang J, Ding S (2019) Assessing agricultural livelihood vulnerability to climate change in coastal Bangladesh. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16:4552. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224552

Hossain M (1984) Agricultural development in Bangladesh: a historical perspective. Bangladesh Dev Stud 12(4):29–57. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40795208

Hossain SMA (1989) Evolution of cropping systems in Mymensingh and Comilla Region. JSARD Publication No. 12. Japan International Cooperation Agency, Dhaka

Hossain M (2014) What implications does the world food price rise have for food security in Bangladesh. Int J Food Agric Econ 2:51–63. https://www.foodandagriculturejournal.com/vol2.no.1.pp51.pdf

Hossain SMA, Islam MS (2006) Fertilizer management in Bangladesh. Adv Agron Res Bangladesh 1:48–54

Hossain MS, Uddin MT (2021) Export trend of ready-made garments (RMG) sector of Bangladesh. J Sci Res 13(1):101–110. https://doi.org/10.3329/jsr.v13i1.47810

Hossain SMA, Islam MS, Salam MU (1990) Evolution of agricultural systems in Bangladesh with special emphasis on farming systems. In: Kaida Y (ed) Agricultural and rural development in Bangladesh: a review of related studies. Japan International Cooperation Agency, Dhaka, pp 1–35

Hossain MK, Kamil AA, Baten MA, Mustafa A (2012) Stochastic frontier approach and data envelopment analysis to total factor productivity and efficiency measurement of Bangladeshi rice. PLoS One 7(10):e46081. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0046081

Hossen MA, Talukder MRA, Mamun MRA, Rahman H, Paul S, Rahman MR, Miaruddin M, Ali MA, Islam MN (2020) Mechanization status, promotional activities and government strategies of Thailand and Vietnam in comparison to Bangladesh. AgriEngineering 2:489–510. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering2040033

IDE (2012) Study into the commercialization of selected agricultural machines in Bangladesh. International Development Enterprise (IDE), Dhaka. https://repository.cimmyt.org/bitstream/handle/10883/3394/98527.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y . Accessed 8 May 2021

Islam MS (1998) An analysis of agricultural productivity in Bangladesh 1972–1992. Q J Int Agric 37(4):298–309. https://www.degruyter.com/database/IBZ/entry/ibz.ID1126602047/html

Islam AHMS (2016) Integrated rice-fish farming system in Bangladesh: an ex-ante value chain evaluation framework. In: Gatzweiler, von Braun (eds) Technological and institutional innovations for marginalized smallholders in agricultural development, Chapter 17. pp 289–322. Springer Open. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25718-1_17

Islam R (2017) Structural transformation and absorption of surplus labour. Bangladesh Dev Stud 40B(3&4):105–135. https://bids.org.bd/uploads/publication/BDS/40/40-3&4/04.%20Rizwan_Structural%20Transformation%20and%20Absorption%20of%20Surplus%20Labour.pdf

Islam MS (2021) Ready-made garments exports earning and its contribution to economic growth in Bangladesh. GeoJournal 86:1301–1309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-019-10131-

Islam MT, Nursey-Bray M (2017) Adaptation to climate change in agriculture in Bangladesh: the role of formal institutions. J Environ Manag 200:347–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.05.092

Islam AHMS, Braun JV, Thorne-Lyman AL, Ahmed AU (2018) Farm diversification and food and nutrition security in Bangladesh: empirical evidence from nationally representative household panel data. Food Secur 10:701–720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-0806-3

Islam MS, Hasif MAM, Ema NS, Jahan H (2020) Role of agriculture and manufacturing sectors in the economic growth of Bangladesh and India: An ARDL approach. Rom Econ J 78:82–92. http://www.rejournal.eu/sites/rejournal.versatech.ro/files/articole/2020-12-18/3623/6sayemulislam.pdf

Islam MA, de Bruyn LL, Warwick NWM, Koech R (2021) Salinity-affected threshold yield loss: a signal of adaptation tipping points for salinity management of dry season rice cultivation in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. J Environ Manag 288:112413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112413

Jawaid ST, Raza SA (2014) Effects of workers’ remittances and its volatility on economic growth in South Asia. Int Migr 54(2):50–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12151

Johnston BF, Mellor JW (1961) The role of agriculture in economic development. Am Econ Rev 51:566–593. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1812786

Kabeer N, Mahmud S (2004) Rags, riches, and women workers: export-oriented garment manufacturing in Bangladesh. In: Carr M (ed) Chains of fortune: linking women producers and workers with global markets. Commonwealth Secretariat, London, pp 133–162. https://www.wiego.org/sites/default/files/publications/files/Kabeer-Mahmud-Export-Oriented-Garment-Bangladesh.pdf . Accessed 8 Apr 2021

Kader MA, Aditya TL, Majunder RR, Hore TK, Shalahuddin AKM, Amin A (2020) Development of drought tolerant rice variety BRRI Dhan 66 for rainfed lowland ecosystem of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Rice J 23(1):45–55. https://doi.org/10.3329/brj.v23i1.46080

Karim MR, Noman MRAF (2018) Effectiveness of agricultural extension system in the implementation of relevant policies of Bangladesh. In: Alam K (ed) Bangladesh: economic, political and social issues. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York, pp 67–95. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328942663_Effectiveness_of_Agricultural_Extension_System_in_the_Implementation_of_Relevant_Policies_of_Bangladesh . Accessed 8 Apr 2021

Karim Z, Huque KS, Hussain MG, Ali Z, Hossain M (2010) Growth and development potential of livestock and fisheries in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Food Security Investment Forum, May 2010. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.474.4037&rep=rep1&type=pdf . Accessed 8 Apr 2021

Khan AR (2015) The economy of Bangladesh: a quarter-century of development. Palgrave MacMillan, London

Khan A, Malik MS (2020) Micro-financing: a comparative study of Bangladesh & Pakistan. Bus Econ Res 10(3):181–202. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343135230_Micro-Financing_A_Comparative_Study_of_Bangladesh_Pakistan

Khan MIK, Shoukat MA, Cheema SA, Arif HN, Niazi NK, Azam M, Bashir S, Sharaf I, Qadri R (2020) Use, contamination and exposure of pesticides in Pakistan: a review. Pak J Agric Sci 57:131–149. https://doi.org/10.21162/PAKJAS/20.7437

Khandker SR, Khalily MAB, Samad HA (2016) Beyond ending poverty: the dynamics of microfinance in Bangladesh. Int Bank Reconstr Dev World Bank Washington DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0894-4

Khatun F, Saadat SY (2018) Towards a Social Protection Strategy for Bangladesh. CPD Working Paper 117. Centre for Policy Dialogue, Dhaka, Bangladesh. https://think-asia.org/handle/11540/8583 . Accessed 8 May 2021

Khandker SR, and Koolwal GB (2016) How has microcredit supported agriculture? Evidence using panel data from Bangladesh. Agric Econ 47:157–168. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12185

Khooharo AA, Memon RJ, Mallah MU (2008) An empirical analysis of pesticides marketing in Pakistan. Pak Econ Soc Rev 46:57–74. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25825324

Kikkawa A, Otsuka K (2020) The changing landscape of international migration: evidence from rural households in Bangladesh, 2000–2014. Oxf Dev Stud 48(3):222–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2020.1790509

Kumar RR, Stauvermann PJ, Kumar NN, Shahzad SJH (2018) Revisiting the threshold effect of remittances on total factor productivity growth in South Asia: a study of Bangladesh and India. Appl Econ 50(26):2860–2877. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2017.1412074

Kuznets S (1973) Modern economic growth: findings and reflections. Am Econ Rev 63(3):247–258. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1914358

Lewis WA (1954) Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour. Manchester School (1463–6786) 22(2): 139–191. https://la.utexas.edu/users/hcleaver/368/368lewistable.pdf

Mainuddin M, Kirby M (2015) National food security in Bangladesh to 2050. Food Secur 7:633–646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-015-0465-6

Mainuddin M, Alam MM, Maniruzzaman M, Kabir MJ, Mojid MA, Hasan MM, Schmidt EJ, Islam MT (2021) Yield, profitability, and prospects of irrigated Boro rice cultivation in the North-West region of Bangladesh. PLoS One 16(4):e0250897. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250897

Majumder S, Bala BK, Arshad FM, Haque MA, Hossain MA (2016) Food security through increasing technical efficiency and reducing postharvest losses of rice production systems in Bangladesh. Food Sci 8:361–374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-016-0558-x

Mannan AB (2017) Macro determinants of remittance: Relationship between remittance and economic growth in Bangladesh. Southern Cross University. MPRA (Munich Personal RePEc Archive) Paper No. 97947. http://mpra.pub.uni-muenchen.de/97947 . Accessed 9 Apr 2021

Mannan MA, Chowdhury AMZI, Hoque MM, Mozumder GN (2018) Implications of employment generation program for the poorest (EGPP) to reduce disaster and gender vulnerability. Final Report, Submitted to: Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief. Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. June 2018. https://www.think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/9677/FINALREPORT_EGPP.pdf?sequence=1 . Accessed 15 Apr 2021

Mendola M (2007) Agricultural technology adoption and poverty reduction: a propensity-score matching analysis for rural Bangladesh. Food Policy 32:372–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2006.07.003

Miah MD, Hasan R, Uddin H (2020) Agricultural development and the rural economy: the case of Bangladesh. In: Barai M (ed) Bangladesh’s economic and social progress. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1683-2_8

Mishra AK, Mottaleb KA, Mohanty S (2015) Impact of off-farm income on food expenditures in rural Bangladesh: an unconditional quantile regression approach. Agric Econ 46:139–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12146

MOA (Ministry of Agriculture) (1999) National Agriculture Policy, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. http://dae.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/dae.portal.gov.bd/page/dd7d2be1_aeef_452f_9774_8c23462ab73a/NAP.pdf . Accessed 9 April 2021

MOA (Ministry of Agriculture) (2006) A synthesis of agricultural policies in Bangladesh. Agriculture Sector Review. Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Bangladesh. Dhaka. https://socialprotection.gov.bd/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Agricultural-Policies-in-Bangladesh.pdf . Accessed 9 Apr 2021

MOA (Ministry of Agriculture) (2018) National Agriculture Policy 2018. Ministry of Agriculture, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. https://bangladeshbiosafety.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/National-Agricullture-Policy_2018_English.pdf . Accessed 8 Apr 2021

Mottaleb KA, Krupnik TJ, Keil A, Erenstein O (2019) Understanding clients, providers and the institutional dimensions of irrigation services in developing countries: a study of water markets in Bangladesh. Agric Water Manag 222:242–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2019.05.038

Mujeri MK, Mujeri N (2020) Bangladesh at fifty: moving beyond development traps. Palgrave MacMillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56791-0

Mujeri MK, Mujeri N (2021) Structural Transformation of Bangladesh Economy: A south Asian perspective. South Asia Economic and Policy Studies. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd., Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0764-6

Muqtada M (2020) Alternative approaches to full employment in Bangladesh: role of the rural non-farm sector. In: Muqtada M (ed) Quest for inclusive growth in Bangladesh: an employment-focused strategy. South Asia Economic and Policy Studies. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd, Singapore, pp 175–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7614-0_6

Osmani SR, Chowdhury OH (1983) Short-run impacts of Food for Work Programme in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Dev Stud 11(1/2):135–190. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40794382

Osmani SR, Ahmed A, Ahmed T, Hossain N, Huq S, Shahan A (2016) Strategic Review of Food Security and Nutrition in Bangladesh. World Food Program. https://www.wfp.org/content/food-and-nutrition-security-bangladesh . Accessed 9 May 2021

Palmer-Jones R (2001) Irrigation service markets in Bangladesh: private provision of local public goods and community regulation? Paper presented at Workshop on Managing Common Resources, Stockholm. https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/8107/Irrigation%20Service%20Markets%20in%20Bangladesh.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y . Accessed 8 Apr 2021

Pant J, Barman BK, Jahan KM, Belton B, Beveridge M (2014) Can aquaculture benefit the extreme poor? A case study of landless and socially marginalized Adivasi (ethnic) communities in Bangladesh. Aquaculture 418–419:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.09.027

Qureshi AS, Ahmad ZU, Krupnik TJ (2015) Moving from resource development to resource management: problems, prospects and policy recommendations for sustainable groundwater management in Bangladesh. Water Resour Manag 29:4269–4283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-015-1059-y

Rabbani A (2014) Household food security in Bangladesh: going beyond poverty measures. Bangladesh Dev Stud 37(1&2):103–125. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26538549

Rahman S (2005) Productivity and efficiency issues in Bangladesh agriculture. In: Riley AP (ed) New developments in food policy, control and research. Nova Science Publishers Inc., New York

Rahman S (2009) Whether crop diversification is a desired strategy for agricultural growth in Bangladesh? Food Policy 34:340–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2009.02.004

Rahman SMK, Mirza JA (2013) Agricultural education in Bangladesh. In: Gurung TR, Azad AK (eds) National Agricultural Education System in SAARC Countries: comparative analysis. SAARC Agriculture Centre, Dhaka, pp 1–32. https://www.sac.org.bd/archives/publications/NAES_SAARC_Countries.pdf . Accessed 15 Mar 2021

Rahman A, Ali MR, Kabir MSN, Rahman MM, Mamun MRA, Hossen MA (2021) Agricultural mechanization in Bangladesh: status and challenges toward achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Agric Mech Asia Afr Latin Am 51(4):106–120. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348234210_Agricultural_Mechanization_in_Bangladesh_Status_and_Challenges_towards_Achieving_the_Sustainable_Development_Goals_SDGs

Raihan S, Khan SS (2020) Structural transformation, inequality dynamics, and inclusive growth in Bangladesh. United Nations University WIDER Working Paper 2020/44. https://www.wider.unu.edu/sites/default/files/Publications/Working-paper/PDF/wp2020-44.pdf . Accessed April 2020

Raihana B (2013) Change in input relations in Bangladesh agriculture, 1973–1995. Bangladesh Dev Stud 36(3):43–67. https://bids.org.bd/uploads/publication/BDS/36/36-3/2_Bilkis.pdf

Ramírez OA, Misra SK, Nelson J (2002) Estimation of efficient regression models for applied agricultural economics research (No. 375-2016-19923). http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.127.9412&rep=rep1&type=pdf . Accessed 15 Mar 2021

Ratha A, Moghaddam M (2020) Remittances and the Dutch disease phenomenon: evidence from the bounds error correction modelling and a panel space. Appl Econ 52:3327–3336. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2019.1710452

Rehan SF, Sumelius J, Backman S (2021) Diversification as a means to improve household food security in Bangladesh. J Dev Areas 55(2):31–42. https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.2021.0030

Rezitis AN, Ahammad SM (2015) Investigating agricultural production relations across Bangladesh, India and Pakistan using vector error correction and Markov-switching models. Agric Econ Res Rev 28(1):57–72. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-0279.2015.00004.X

Rostow WW (1959) The stages of economic growth. Econ Hist Rev 12(1):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0289.1959.tb01829.x

Roy R, Dixon R (2016) Workers’ remittances and the Dutch disease in South Asian countries. Appl Econ Lett 23(6):407–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2015.1078436

Roy A, Haider MZ (2018) Stern review of the economics of climate change: implications for Bangladesh. Int J Clim Change Strat Manag 11:100–117. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-04-2017-0089

Roy D, Dev DS, Shoheli S (2019) Food security in Bangladesh: insight from available literature. J Nutr Food Secur 4(1):66–75. https://doi.org/10.18502/jnfs.v4i1.401

Salahuddin M, Gow J (2015) The relationship between economic growth and remittances in the presence of cross-sectional dependence. J Dev Areas 49(1):207–221. https://eprints.usq.edu.au/26180/1/Salahuddin_Gow_AV.pdf

Salim R, Hassan K, Rahman S (2020) Impact of R&D expenditures, rainfall and temperature variations in agricultural productivity: empirical evidence from Bangladesh. Appl Econ 52:2877–2990. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2019.1697422

Selim S (2009) Labour productivity and rice production in Bangladesh: A stochastic frontier approach. Cardiff Economics Working Papers. Cardiff University, UK. https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/77758/1/e2007_10.pdf

Sen A (2013) What’s happening in Bangladesh? Published Online. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(1362162-5/fulltext . Accessed 21 Nov 2013

Sen B, Dorosh P, Ahmed M (2021) Moving out of agriculture in Bangladesh: the role of farm, non-farm and mixed households. World Dev 144:105479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105479

Shahabuddin Q (2020) Agricultural Mechanization and Rural Labour Market in Bangladesh. Paper presented at the seminar on Bangladesh Employment and Labour Market Watch 2019: sectoral challenges and opportunities, jointly organized by Centre for Development and Employment Research (CDER) and Policy Research Institute (PRI), March 2, 2020

Sharmin S, Rashid MH, Begum R, Hoque SS (2018) Relative profitability of farming systems research and development (FSRD) project farmers and non-project farmers of integrated farming systems in Tangail district of Bangladesh. J Bangladesh Agric Univ 16:117–122. https://doi.org/10.3329/jbau.v16i1.36492

Singh RK, Kumar M (2021) Assessing vulnerability of agriculture system to climate change in the SAARC region. Environ Challenges 5:100398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100398

Singh S, Jones AD, DeFries RS, Jain M (2020) The association between crop and income diversity and farmer intra-household dietary diversity in India. Food Secur 12:369–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-020-01012-3

Talukdar D, Chile L (2018) Technological innovation and total factor productivity growth of rice production in bangladesh in the post-liberalisation era. Glob Econ Obs 6(2), 50–70. http://www.globeco.ro/wp-content/uploads/vol/split/vol_6_no_2/geo_2018_vol6_no2_art_005.pdf

Tariq MI, Afzal S, Hussain I, Sultana N (2007) Pesticides exposure in Pakistan: a review. Environ Int 33:1107–1122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2007.07.012

Taslim MA, Taslim QN (2018) Productivity and agricultural real wage in Bangladesh: 1959–60 to 2012–13. Bangladesh Dev Stud 41(1):1–29

Tiffin R, Irz X (2006) Is agriculture the engine of growth? Agric Econ 35:79–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2006.00141.x

Timsina J, Wolf J, Guilpart N, van Bussel LGJ, Grassini P, van Wart J, Hossain A, Rashid H, Islam S, van Ittersum MK (2018) Can Bangladesh produce enough cereals to meet future demand? Agric Syst 163:36–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2016.11.003

Toufique KA, Farook SN, Belton B (2017) Managing fisheries for food security: implications from demand analysis. Mar Resour Econ 33:61–85. https://doi.org/10.1086/694792

Tsakok I, Gardner B (2007) Agriculture in economic development: primary engine of growth or chicken and egg? Am J Agric Econ 89:1145–1151. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30139452

Uddin MMM (2020) What are the dynamic links between agriculture and manufacturing growth and environmental degradation? Evidence from different panel income countries. Environ Sustain Indic 7:100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2020.100041

Udmale P, Pal I, Szabo S, Pramanik M (2021) International cereal trade of Bangladesh: implications for virtual land, water, and GHG emissions from agriculture. Int Energy J 21:107–118. http://www.rericjournal.ait.ac.th/index.php/reric/article/view/2607/836

UN (2017) International Migration, Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates17.asp . Accessed 10 Dec 2021

Urama NE, Edeh HC, Urama EC (2019) Do migrant remittances cause Dutch disease in Nigeria? Int Migr 57:151–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12572

Wooldridge JM (2002) Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. MIT Press, Cambridge

World Bank (2012) Disaster Risk Management in South Asia: a regional overview. South Asia Region Disaster Risk Management and Climate Change Unit, Sustainable Development Network. The World Bank Group. December 2012. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/13218 . Accessed 15 Apr 2021

World Bank (2013) Turn down the heat: climate extremes, regional impacts, and the case for resilience. A report for the World Bank by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Climate Analytics. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Turn_Down_the_Heat/4XlgpHSVzKgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover . Accessed 15 Apr 2021

World Bank (2020) Bangladesh: promoting agri-food sector transformation in Bangladesh—policy and investment priorities. Report No. AUS0001570. The World Bank, Washington DC. May 27, 2020. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/33832/Bangladesh-Promoting-Agri-Food-Sector-Transformation-in-Bangladesh-Policy-and-Investment-Priorities.pdf?sequence=1 . Accessed 15 Apr 2021

World Bank (2021a) World Bank Open Data. https://data.worldbank.org/ . Accessed 9 May 2021

World Bank (2021b) World Development Indicators database. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators . Accessed 9 May 2021

World Bank (2021c) International Debt Statistics. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/international-debt-statistics . Accessed 9 May 2021

Yao S (2010) How important is agriculture in China’s economic growth? Oxf Dev Stud 28(1):33–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/713688306

Yusuf S (2021) Bangladesh: growth miracle or mirage? Center for Global Development. https://www.cgdev.org/blog/bangladesh-growth-miracle-or-mirage . Accessed 16 June 2021

Zaman S, Wang Z, Zaman Q (2021) Exploring the relationship between remittances received, education expenditures, energy use, income, poverty, and economic growth: fresh empirical evidence in the context of selected remittances receiving countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:17865–17877. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11943-1

Zhang X, Rashid S, Ahmad K, Ahmed A (2014) Escalation of real wages in Bangladesh: is it the beginning of structural transformation? World Dev 64:273–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.06.015

Download references

The authors declare that they did not receive any financial support from any individual or organization for this research.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Economics, MacEwan University, Edmonton, Canada

Shahidul Islam

Department of Decision Sciences, School of Business, MacEwan University, Edmonton, Canada

Subhadip Ghosh

Alberta School of Business, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

Mohua Podder

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shahidul Islam .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (XLSX 33 kb)

Rights and permissions.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Islam, S., Ghosh, S. & Podder, M. Fifty years of agricultural development in Bangladesh: a comparison with India and Pakistan. SN Bus Econ 2 , 71 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-022-00240-3

Download citation

Received : 01 July 2021

Accepted : 16 May 2022

Published : 18 June 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-022-00240-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Agricultural development
Production function
Productivity growth

JEL Classification

Find a journal
Publish with us
Track your research

Investigative Stories
Entertainment
Life & Living
Tech & Startup
Rising Star
Star Literature
Daily Star Books
Roundtables
Star Holiday
weekend read
Environment
Supplements
Brand Stories
Law & Our Rights

Blueprint For a Brighter Tomorrow

Most Viewed

Rain, at last, in some parts of Dhaka

Met office issues 48-hour heat alert

Where should I invest my money?

Column by Mahfuz Anam: Has Bangladesh gained anything by a restrictive press?

Role of agriculture in Bangladesh’s economic growth

After independence, the agriculture sector was Bangladesh's main economic driving force. Its contribution to GDP was around 60 percent. Agriculture in Bangladesh is vital for people's livelihood, employment, and contributing to GDP; we all know that. Its contribution has reduced over the last decade, going from 17 percent in 2010 to 12.6 percent in 2020. The sector is at the centre of our economy, decreasing poverty and ensuring food security. However, with the ever-growing population, going from 147.6 million in 2010 to 164.7 million in 2020, added by the blow of the pandemic and climate change, the sector has continued to be resilient in terms of profitability and productivity.

I still remember international organisations referring to food riots in Bangladesh back in 2007-2008, but we have beaten their assumptions and proved them absolutely wrong; the same way, during Covid-19, agriculture as an individual sector has contributed and supported the people and state of Bangladesh relentlessly. Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries globally, with a density of 1,239.7 people living per square kilometre (2018)—its land is decreasing as population grows rapidly. The characteristic of a modern economy is to grow through the industrial and service sectors. This has been observed gradually in the farming sector as well. The economy has also been integrated with the global economy. We have been on the road to a self-reliant growth effort that has become a great example in the world.

For all latest news, follow The Daily Star's Google News channel.

The GDP contribution came down for mainstream farming, while the service and industry sector's contribution increased as people started migrating to the cities from the villages. The service sector was added to the farming sector. Only the mainstream farming sector was regarded as the main source of economic development. Afterwards came the sub-sectors of farming. On the one hand, we could see the boom in food grain production, especially due to rice varietal developments, and on the other hand fisheries, poultry, livestock and dairy turned into huge economic source. All these sub-sectors started taking shape as commercial farms in the hands of youth and progressive women entrepreneurs, not just amateur ventures. In respect to the mainstream farming sector, the GDP came down, but the significance of farming as a whole, including the sub-sectors, service and industry sectors, have increased manifold. High-value fruit orchards and vegetables also played a significant role in the economic boom. Not only the farms, but the value addition of the agricultural products came in as a booster for the agricultural service sector. Say, for example, PRAN, ACI; these huge agricultural industrial companies played a key role as well. Besides, the small scale agro-processed and agro-dependent industries played a part in the value addition.

Former Finance Minister Abul Maal Abdul Muhith used to say that, including the service and industry engaged with the farming sector, the GDP contribution of it is nearly 40 percent. Agricultural production value has increased at 3.54 percent per year in the last two decades (1999-2019). The sector remains the main source of employment, as I have mentioned earlier, providing livelihood to 40 percent of the labour force. Thus, agriculture remains the largest sector in terms of employment.

The other indirect contribution of agriculture is to provide basic raw materials for industrial processing. Immediately, jute comes to mind as an example of a product of the agro-processing industry. And at present, many agro-processing industries are fully dependent on agriculture for basic raw materials which include rice milling, sugar, tea, fruit juice, spices, etc. In the FY2020-21, the total production of grains was 455.05 lakh (45.505 million) metric tonnes, potato 106.13 lakh (10.61 million) metric tonnes, pulses 9.39 lakh metric (0.94 million) tonnes, onion 33.62 lakh (3.36 million) metric tonnes and jute 6.25 lakh (0.62 million) bales. BRRI (Bangladesh Rice Research Institute) must be credited for the grain production which has been quite remarkable. Alongside the production, the research didn't stop for a day and with responsibility, it moved ahead with the support of BARI (Bangladeshi Agricultural Research Institute). How can I not mention BINA (Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture) as they are primarily mandated to make peaceful use of nuclear and advanced techniques to boost agricultural production and develop technologies that are environment-friendly as well as sustainable. Once upon a time, we used to import capsicum and today we're growing it here on our soil.

Now, the five-star hotels and many restaurants around the country collect foreign vegetables from inside the country, which is saving a lot of foreign currencies and many people are employed through producing such crops.

The same goes with the Qurbani season. We used to import livestock but today we're meeting this demand with our own efforts. Father of the Nation,Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman initiated subsidy support in farming, especially fertilisers, in his policy planning to ensure food security. It is still being followed. The infrastructure Bangabandhu built for seeds, irrigation and agricultural extension has helped us a lot. This is a huge service sector today. Most importantly BADC (Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation) has worked well with the high yielding variety seed, that is why Bangladesh is experiencing such crop diversity with huge productions. The question comes in, did the lifestyle or standard of the people involved with farming change? I would say, the farming sector has individually employed more than 40.6 percent people still, directly or indirectly. Previously, farmers were really poor, but today, their fates have changed with their relentless labour and definitely with quality seed support. The change has taken place because they are getting more production because of the seeds and more money than in the past. It means farmers' buying capacity has also increased. They can now feed themselves and their families, send their children to school. However, the question still rises: what is the quality of food they are eating? What is the quality of clothes they are wearing? What is the quality of education their children are receiving? We have to bring these issues into focus. If only they could get a fair price for their produce, they could have good quality life, food and clothing. The media has also played a vital role in bringing out the real facts and figures and the causes and prospects of farming and farmers over nearly 50 years. Today, with the help of mass media and also digital media platforms, a lot of farmers can share, exchange and learn from the experts and replicate the best examples or learn about the new trends and crisis inf farming.

Another aspect is the three driving forces of our economy, i.e., farming, RMG and remittance—in all these sectors, the sons and daughters of farmers are working. And they're sending money to their parents in the villages. And this money is being invested in farming, either at small scale or in large scale farming initiatives. This has not only strengthened our economy but has empowered the youth, especially the women. Moreover, agricultural tourism has opened a new door for us. I have seen in many European countries and USA the concept of the family farm. In Bangladesh, young entrepreneurs have started wonderful eco-resorts across the country and people from around Bangladesh are going to these beautiful places where they can come close to nature. There are many resorts very near to Dhaka even where you would find resorts being built, keeping the farming environment in mind so that the visitors can go and enjoy the rural setting. During the past decade, there have been so many resorts built in this manner and concept, which is really a positive approach.

Climate change is a big challenge, which we have to face with the facilitation of new agricultural technologies and adaptability. Farmers have to be provided with technologies based on their local climate change scenarios. We must come up with new seeds based on salinity and other adversities. We can't make anyone a climate refugee, rather we must try to make their life accommodating with the given changes. We must follow global adaptation technology and concentrate more on new examples of climate adaptability which fit our settings. More emphasis on agricultural mechanisation and ICT in farming should be given. This will help us to fight climate change. In the same way, we should also focus on the weather-based index, crop insurance which will ensure real empowerment of farmers and will make them more resilient. We have to make sure that new technologies of the sub-sectors of farming are being adopted and used skilfully. The challenge of the government would be to ensure that these new technologies reach the farmers, as well as the subsidies.

As the prices of the fertilisers increased across the world, the amount of subsidy has now gone up to Tk 22,000 crore (USD 2569 million). If the prices increase further, then how would the government manage equality among farmers and industries? How would they make up the fiscal gap? The course curriculum of higher studies in agriculture should be organised keeping in mind the fourth industrial revolution (4IR). Those who would train the students and farm-level officers must be able to get global-standard training (ToT) so that they can properly teach others. After completion of studies, I am sure this new generation of students could work more effectively in the field and assist the farmers with easy and handy solutions, with help of the best and most advanced technologies with government support. We must give importance to all the components of the fourth industrial revolution. Since building a "Digital Economy" is a must for implementing Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina's Vision 2041, Sheikh Hasina Institute for Frontier Technologies and hi-tech parks are being set up to develop the next generation with skills to face the 4IR. We must build our skilled human resources to handle these initiatives.

বৈষম্যের প্রতিবাদে সারাদেশে পল্লী বিদ্যুৎ অফিসে কর্মবিরতির ঘোষণা

রোববার সকাল ৯টা থেকে দেশের ৮০টি পবিসের সদর কার্যালয়ের সামনে এ কর্মসূচি পালন করা হবে...

সুন্দরবনে আগুন

The Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Economics

Current issue.

The Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Economics is an official publication of Bureau of Socioeconomic Research and Training (BSERT). BSERT publishes original full length papers and review articles from all areas of Agricultural Sciences and reflecting the considerable and continuing changes with particular emphasis on interdisciplinary studies from authors throughout the world. BSERT is a peer-reviewed journal published quarterly (June and December) in a year.

Original research papers and review articles are accepted on the basis of their quality and national/international context. On the decision of the Editorial Board, papers are reviewed by experts in relevant fields. The Editorial Board is the final authority to take a decision on publication.

The previous volumes (before 2018) are available at: https://ideas.repec.org/s/ags/bdbjaf.html

Subscription Fee (For Hard Copy)

Publication Fee

There is no article processing fee (APC) or any other cost for publishing articles in this journal. The BSERT provides all publication costs.

For Readers
For Authors
For Librarians

ISSN (Print): 0257-3539

RFI: USAID/Bangladesh’s Feed the Future Sylhet Agricultural Development Project

The United States Agency for International Development, Bangladesh is in the process of gathering information to support anticipated activity design for the USAID/Bangladesh’s Feed the Future Sylhet Agricultural Development Project.

USAID’s Feed the Future (FTF) program accelerates agriculture sector growth to supplement the Government of Bangladesh’s food security and economic growth initiatives. The FTF program in Bangladesh focuses on agricultural research, extension, value chain development, climate resilient agriculture, mechanization, agricultural infrastructure, trade, and private sector competitiveness, agriculture-sensitive nutrition, and responding to communities impacted by the Rohingya refugee crisis. Since its inception in 2010, FTF Bangladesh investments have focused on 23 districts in southwest and southeast Bangladesh. Over the past decade, the program has made remarkable progress in terms of developing nutrition-sensitive value chains related to dairy and fish production, equipping millions of farmers with new skills and knowledge, strengthening women’s empowerment, and partnering with the private sector to expand access to high-quality agricultural inputs and services. Under the new Global Food Security Strategy (GFSS) Bangladesh Country Plan, USAID’s FTF program will extend its reach into the Sylhet Division due to the region’s food security needs and potential for agriculture-driven development, and to address the region’s susceptibility to climate change and high poverty and malnutrition rates.

Response Date: May 6, 2024

Essay on Bangladesh

Students are often asked to write an essay on Bangladesh in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Bangladesh

Introduction to bangladesh.

Bangladesh is a country in South Asia. It is next to India and Myanmar. The capital city is Dhaka. The official language is Bengali. It is known for its rich culture and history.

Geography of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is mostly flat with rivers and hills. It has a tropical monsoon climate. The country has many rivers including the Padma and the Meghna. These rivers are very important for farming and transportation.

Population of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is one of the most populated countries in the world. People here are known as Bangladeshis. Most people speak Bengali and follow Islam. There are also many different ethnic groups.

Culture of Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a rich and diverse culture. It includes literature, music, dance, and art. The country also celebrates many festivals like Eid, Pohela Boishakh, and Durga Puja.

Economy of Bangladesh

Bangladesh’s economy is growing fast. It is known for its garment industry. The country also grows a lot of rice, jute, and tea. Many people work in farming, but services and industry jobs are increasing.

Bangladesh is a unique country with a rich culture and history. It has a growing economy and a diverse population. Despite facing challenges, it continues to develop and prosper.

250 Words Essay on Bangladesh

Introduction.

Bangladesh is a country in South Asia. It is surrounded by India, Myanmar, and the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is famous for its rich culture, history, and natural beauty.

Bangladesh is a land of rivers. It has more than 700 rivers, including the Padma, Meghna, and Jamuna. These rivers play a big role in the country’s economy and culture. Bangladesh also has the largest mangrove forest in the world, the Sundarbans.

The culture of Bangladesh is very rich and diverse. The people of Bangladesh celebrate various festivals such as Pohela Boishakh (New Year), Eid, and Durga Puja. The traditional music and dance forms, like Baul and Jatra, are very popular.

The economy of Bangladesh has been growing rapidly. The country is one of the world’s largest producers of textiles and garments. It also has a strong agriculture sector, with rice and jute being the main crops.

Bangladesh, with its rich culture, natural beauty, and hardworking people, is a fascinating country. Despite facing many challenges, it has shown great resilience and is making steady progress in many areas.

500 Words Essay on Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a small and beautiful country in South Asia. It is bordered by India on all sides except for a small part in the southeast which borders Myanmar. Bangladesh is known for its rich culture, history, and natural beauty.

Bangladesh is mainly a flat land with fertile soil. It has the largest delta in the world, formed by the mighty rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. These rivers make the soil very fertile, which is great for farming. The country is also known for its beautiful green landscapes and many water bodies. The Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world, is located in Bangladesh and is home to the Royal Bengal Tiger.

The history of Bangladesh is rich and ancient. It was once part of the powerful Maurya and Gupta Empires. Later, it was ruled by the Mughals and the British. In 1947, when India got independence from British rule, Bangladesh became a part of Pakistan and was known as East Pakistan. But after a long struggle and a nine-month-long war in 1971, Bangladesh gained its independence.

Bangladesh has a rich and diverse culture. The people of Bangladesh are known for their love of music, dance, and art. The traditional dance forms and music like Baul and Marfoti are very popular. The country also has a rich tradition of folk literature. The main festival of Bangladesh is Pohela Boishakh, the Bengali New Year. The people of Bangladesh celebrate this day with great joy and enthusiasm.

The economy of Bangladesh is growing rapidly. The main occupation is farming, with rice being the main crop. The country is also one of the largest producers of jute, a plant used for making rope and sacks. In recent years, the garment industry has grown a lot and has become a major part of the economy. Bangladesh is now one of the world’s largest exporters of garments.

Bangladesh is a country of great potential and beauty. Despite facing many challenges like natural disasters and overpopulation, the people of Bangladesh are known for their resilience and hard work. With its rich culture, history, and natural beauty, Bangladesh is a country that has a lot to offer. It is a country that is moving forward with hope and determination.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Essay on Banning Plastic Bags
Essay on Banking Sector
Essay on Barangay Problems And Solutions

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Short Composition on Agriculture in Bangladesh

Similar to:

Agriculture: Our Productions

Agriculture: our economy, agriculture: its importance.

Introduction: Bangladesh is mainly an agricultural country. About 85% of our total population depends on agriculture directly or indirectly. The soil of Bangladesh is fertile and its climate is favourable for an agricultural product.

Importance of our agriculture/various kinds of agricultural products: rice and jute are the main agricultural products of our country. Rice is our principal food and jute is our main cash crop. Other valuable crops are various kinds of pulse, sugarcane, betel nut and betel left, vegetables are also important among the products of our country. The commonest of them are potato, brinjal, onion, garlic, radish, and pumpkin.

Cause of backwardness in agriculture : the soil of Bangladesh is very fertile. It seems strange to think why the agricultural output of this land is low. So the peasants and hardly procure two meals a day. They are ill-clad and ill-fed. They fall easy victims to disease and cannot give proper medical aid to themselves and their children. They are ignorant of the scientific methods of cultivation and farming.

Way to improve our agriculture: it is the first and foremost duty to impart agricultural education to our peasants. Night schools should be established in every village for adult education. They should be taught to use scientific methods of cultivation. Sub-divisions of land should be stopped by making law. The land should be ploughed by tractors.

Conclusion: in view of the fact that agriculture is the backbone of our national economy, top-priority should be given for the development of our agriculture. The government of Bangladesh has undertaken various programs for the improvement of agriculture.