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Vikings History: An Overview of Culture and History

Vikings history is as extensive as the people it studies. The seafaring Vikings (in Danish, the Vikinger) were a group of people that came from the Scandinavian countries of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. They made an enduring name for themselves in the 8th through the 11th centuries for being tactical warriors, smart traders, and daring explorers. In fact, they arrived in America 1,000 years before Columbus ever did, and archeologists have found some of their remnants scattered as far east as Russia. This is the true story of Vikings history.

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Vikings History: The Viking Age—An Overview

Viking is a verb, not a noun.

When the quiet monks on the Holy Island of Lindisfarne saw the dragon ships approaching, they didn’t know what was coming. They were fully unprepared for the ferocity of the warriors, armed with sword, axe and shield. The attack and plunder of Lindisfarne, a rich and unprotected monastery, echoed throughout the next 300 years of European history. The Viking Age had begun.

Historians use the term the Viking Age to describe the turbulent expansion of the Scandinavian people into Europe and Russia. Beginning in A.D. 793 with the Lindisfarne raid, Norwegians, Swedes and Danes set to raiding. Any unprotected community was a target. Vikings attacked places all along the coasts of Scotland, England, Ireland, France, Italy and inland Russia. They terrorized, plundered, traded, explored and finally settled and farmed all over the lands they encountered.

Who Were the Vikings?

The true Vikings history is fascinating. Simply put, the Vikings were Norwegians, Swedes and Danes, men who were usually farmers, traders, blacksmiths, and craftsmen. For various reasons, they took to raiding towns, churches and monasteries. Many of the places they attacked were on the coasts as they were easiest to reach. With their swift and easily landed ships, the Vikings could quickly swarm over the communities, killing and looting, and just as fast return to their ships and leave. They were gone before any defense or counter-attack could be made.

Strangely enough, for most of the men who went a-viking, it was only part time. When a Viking wasn’t busy farming, planting crops, for instance, they left their farms and went raiding. They often returned in time for harvest in the fall. Raiding was very profitable, however, and many farmers became full time pirates and raiders.

The people called Vikings were also fearless explorers who actually reached North America, making them the first Europeans to discover America. They settled Iceland and tried to colonize Greenland. They were also shrewd and competent traders and merchants. They traded all the goods of the north – furs, amber, iron and timber – for all the goods of the south – silver, gold, silks and spices. And all along the trade routes, the Vikings traded in slaves. Read our articles to explore these aspects of the incredible culture of these intrepid and dangerous men. This is the true story of Vikings history.

Why Scandinavians Left their Homelands

Scholars debate why the Scandinavian people began to go raiding in the late 8th century. Most likely it was a combination of factors that lead to the Vikings setting off in their long boats to raid other communities. We’ll discuss these reasons in articles you’ll find here, explaining why they left their farms and blacksmith forges to first attack and finally settle all over Europe and Russia.

Viking Ships and Navigation

The Vikings’ advanced ships and navigation techniques provided the means and skills for sailing not only over open ocean out of the sight of land but also far up inland rivers into the interior of other countries. Viking ship technology made the fearful Viking raids possible.

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Special ship construction techniques made the long ships and larger dragon ships versatile enough to sail great distances, carry up to 200 men, withstand rough seas while still being light enough to drag over land or carry through portages. Explore with us as we consider Viking ship building and navigation skills. Contemporaries of the Vikings were awed by their ships and sailing skills. Find out why by reading further.

Impact of the Viking Age

The Scandinavians changed the history of Ireland, England, Russia and other European countries. They established new territories in Iceland, Greenland and temporarily, North America. From A.D. 793 to 1066, Vikings raided, traded, challenged, conquered and settled in many lands. Popular movies and novels give you a glimpse into their lives, but usually show only a part of the impact these energetic people had on the known world of the time. Reading here will give you a much better grasp of their impact on other cultures.

Viking Culture

We will explore Viking culture and the structure of their society, the roles of men and women and the daily life of the time. Here you will find articles on women and children in that warrior culture. You’ll discover how they lived, what their homes were like and what they did for fun. Examine their stunning artwork and jewelry, as well as their weaponry and armor. The brave among you can read about a Viking raid from the point of view of the victims. Come with us as we take ship with Vikings to explore the new lands of Iceland and Vinland. We’ll explain Viking ship building and their remarkable navigation skills. Find out what your name would look like in runes, the Viking writing system. Explore with us the mythology and literature of the Viking era.

Vikings History — Why Did the Viking Age Happen?

While the Vikings had the runic alphabet, they didn’t have written history. Thus, we don’t know exactly why the Vikings began raiding in A.D. 793. Scholars have many theories about the reasons why the Scandinavians began leaving home on extensive raids, trading missions, explorations and settlement, which include:

• population pressures and not enough good farmland
• too many landless younger sons
• easy targets of unprotected, wealthy church properties and towns
• trade imbalances between European Christians and the pagan Vikings
• competition among chieftains in their native lands
• the lure of adventure in foreign lands

Population Pressures

Most scholars today agree that the population pressure theory doesn’t hold weight. As the Viking Age raids and trading brought more wealth into Scandinavian, the growing prosperity might have led to greater population growth. But a burgeoning population probably wasn’t a cause of the Viking Age.

Landless Younger Sons

The Vikings practiced primogeniture, which means the eldest son inherits everything and any younger sons nothing. Without land to farm, younger sons would need to find a way to make a living. This theory seems likely at least as one of the factors leading to the Scandinavian expansion into Europe.

Easy Targets

Vikings were not Christians, therefore, they saw no hindrance in attacking ecclesiastical centers such as monasteries. However, even in warfare, Christians did not attack properties of the Church—at least not often—so Church properties were unprotected. No doubt Vikings did see church properties as easy pickings, as the Church had grown very wealthy and usually had more wealth than even kings or merchants.

Trade Imbalances

While in previous times, Scandinavians had traded with Europeans readily, as Europe became more Christian, Christian traders began to refuse to trade with pagans or Muslims. This created problems for the Vikings, and perhaps they saw raids as a way of fixing those problems.

Power Struggles in Viking Lands

The Ynglinga saga, written by Iceland’s Snorri Sturluson, and based on earlier writings of Norwegian skalds, states that when Harald Fairhair brought Norway under his control, many minor chieftains decided to leave rather than live under the king’s rule. It seems likely that this was one of the causative factors of the Viking Age, as Vikings decided to go raiding or settle elsewhere.

Lure of Adventure

Vikings were bold, brave people who no doubt felt the lure of adventure in foreign lands. A strong Norse pagan belief was that each person’s fate was set by the Norns, and that death in battle is not only honorable, but the warrior will be taken to Valhalla by Odin, the god-father. With these beliefs, why not take chance into your hands and go raiding? After the first raid, the profitability would have been obvious to all.

Vikings History — From Pagans to Christians

While Charlemagne “converted” pagans to Christianity by the sword, the conversion of Vikings to Christianity occurred without violence for the most part. In the early Viking Age, Viking traders noted that they suffered losses in trade contracts and deals because the other party was Christian. Christian traders tended to give more business and better deals to other Christians, discriminating against pagans and Muslims. A Viking trader might then wear a cross when he was among Christians only to change it back to his usual Thor’s hammer upon returning home. As long as the Viking trader wasn’t baptized, he could practice both religions, a common practice in Scandinavia for the next few centuries.

At first, the Viking Norse didn’t take to Christianity. They loved their own gods and were content with them. English and Frankish Christian priests and monks had begun missionary tours to the Viking lands from the 700s to 800s. However, the conversion of the Vikings took place over centuries. Even when a Danish or Swedish king became Christian and proclaimed his people were Christian, many still practiced their pagan ways and held to the old gods. By the end of the Viking Age, however, most Vikings had become fully Christian and were baptized and buried in that faith.

While an earlier Danish Viking king, Harald Klak, had been baptized in 826, it wasn’t until King Harald Bluetooth was baptized in 965 that Christianity took a firmer hold in Denmark. Harald Bluetooth raised the Jelling Stone proclaiming that he made all Danes Christian, although the new faith lived side by side with the old for the next few hundred years. Danish Vikings accepted Christianity slowly. By 1110 the first stone cathedral was begun in Denmark’s oldest city of Ribe. It was finished in 1134. By then, most Danes had become Christian.

Although a few earlier kings had adopted Christianity, it wasn’t until 995 when Olaf Tryggvason led a successful revolt against the pagan king Hakkon Jarl that Christianity came to Norway. Olaf Tryggvason became King Olaf I and proceeded to convert Norwegians to Christianity by force. He burned pagan temples and killed Vikings who wouldn’t convert. Through these violent methods, every part of Norway became Christian, at least in name. Various kings’ sagas attribute the Christianization of Iceland and the other Western islands to Olaf’s efforts.

During the later Viking Age, Christianity began making inroads in Sweden, with Episcopal sees being established during the 11th century. Conflict and violence also attended Sweden’s gradual conversion to Christianity, but generally the old and new faith co-existed for many years. Most Swedish Vikings of this time favored a gradual transition to the new religion while continuing some of the old religion’s rituals. By the 12th century, however, Sweden was predominantly Christian.

Vikings History — Society: Men, Women, and Children

Within the male-dominated Viking society, women had a certain amount of personal power, depending on their social status. When Viking men were away from home—raiding, fishing, exploring or on trading missions—women in Viking society took over all the men’s work as well as doing their own. Women were valuable members of the society and it was shameful for a man to harm a woman.

Women’s role was domestic, taking care of the family, preparing food, laundry, milking cows, sheep and goats, making butter and cheeses, preserving food for winter, gardening, cleaning and the most time-consuming task of all, making the family’s clothes. Spinning, carding, weaving, cutting and sewing took a long time. It could take a Viking woman 35 hours to spin enough yarn for a day’s weaving, to give you some idea of how much time it took to make clothing.

Viking women married young—as early as 12 years old. By the age of 20, virtually all men and women were married. Life expectancy was about 50 years, but most died long before reaching 50. Only a few lived to 60.

Marriages were arranged by the parents of the young couple. A marriage was a contract between two families: the groom’s family paid a bride price to bride’s family when the couple was betrothed. At the marriage, the bride’s father paid a dowry. Since both families had a financial investment in the new couple, a marriage was as much a matter for the families as it was for the people involved.

Viking children did not go to school as we know it today. Rather, the boys learned all the men’s work, taught by their fathers, brothers and uncles. Girls worked along with their mothers and aunts learning how to cook, garden, take care of the domestic animals and make clothing. By the time they reached adulthood at 12 to 15, both boys and girls could effectively run a household and a farm .

As is always the case, there were exceptions to these general societal rules of behavior. When the men went to settle Iceland, Greenland and Vinland, women went with them. Vikings settled in England, Ireland and France as families. However, only men went raiding and trading while women stayed home and minded the farm.

Women in Viking society had more power than most other European women of the time. They could divorce their husbands, own some property and sell their own handicrafts. Some women became wealthy landowners. Others participated in trade—scales used for weighing silver used in trade have been found in women’s graves. Even a few weapons were found in female graves, giving the notion that some women were fighters along side of their men. Most women in Viking society, however, lived and worked in the domestic realm of the household .

Vikings History — Norse Mythology

In the world of Norse mythology, we find gods and goddesses, giants, strange and powerful creatures, elves, dwarves and land spirits. It is difficult for a 21st century person to conceive of the worldview of the Vikings, brimming as it was with such a variety of spiritual beings.

Yggdrasil and the Nine Worlds

The center of the Vikings’ cosmos is the ash tree Yggdrasil, growing out of the Well of Urd. Yggdrasil holds the Nine Worlds, home of gods, man and all spiritual beings. The gods live in Asgard and Vanaheim and humans inhabit Midgard. Giants live in Jotunheim, elves in Alfheim and dwarves in Svartalfheim. Another is the primordial world of ice, Niflheim, while Muspelheim is the world of fire. The last world comprises Hel, the land of the dead, ruled by the goddess Hel.

Gods and Goddesses

The gods and goddesses venerated by the Vikings are Odin, Thor, Loki, Baldur, Frigg, Freya, Freyr and Njoror. There are many other gods and goddesses in the Norse pantheon but these received the primary attention in the sagas and eddas.

• Odin, the allfather, the one-eyed seeker of wisdom, god of magic, war and runes, hung himself on Yggdrasil for nine days and nights to find wisdom, brought the runes to mankind
• Thor, with his magic hammer Mjolnir, protects mankind and his realm of Midgard, god of warriors
• Loki, a dangerous half-god, half-giant trickster always wreaking havoc among the gods
• Baldur, son of Odin and Frigg, a beautiful and gracious god, beloved of all, killed by Loki’s trickery
• Frigg, wife of Odin, practitioner of magic, goddess of the home, mother of Baldur
• Freya, feather-cloaked goddess of love and fertility but also of war and death
• Freyr, her brother, god of farming, agriculture, fertility and prosperity
• Njoror, powerful god of the sea

Giants, Elves, Dwarves and Land Spirits

Giant is not a good name for these spiritual beings; think of them as devourers, out to destroy order and return the world to primeval chaos. They are the enemies of gods, but also their relatives. Giants are dangerous to mankind, which is why Thor often hunts them. Elves and dwarves appear in the sagas, but are different from what we might picture them to be. Dwarves are miners and smiths and live underground. They are invisible, powerful spiritual beings, not short humans. Elves are also spiritual beings, demi-gods who can mate with mankind and have children with them.

Land spirits inhabit everything on the land—trees, herbs, stones and bodies of water. The land spirits (landvaettir in Old Norse) hold considerable power over the well being of the land and those who live on it. People took care to honor and placate the landvaettir. In the first law of Iceland, Vikings were told to remove the dragon heads from their ships when approaching land so they wouldn’t frighten the land spirits.

Norse mythology is intricate and complex and we’ve presented just the barest bones here. See the resources page for further information on this fascinating aspect of the Vikings’ belief system.

Vikings History—Symbols

Viking symbols play a large role in their iconography, just as they do in all societies. Symbols are cultural shorthand, a sign that conveys layers of meaning about the culture. The pagan Vikings used symbols to represent their gods, beliefs and myths.

Cultural symbols can take any form, such as sounds, gestures, words, pictures and images. Most of the Vikings symbols we know about were carved on runestones, swords, axes and other items precious to the Norse people. The sagas refer to amulets the people wore, such as Thor’s hammer, Mjolnir. In the article on Viking art, we learned that the Vikings loved decorating the items around them, their weapons, bowls, tools and combs. They used their symbols in the decorative arts, in weaving, bone carving and in jewelry.

While some Viking symbols remain mysterious in that we don’t know exactly what they represent, but others have clear meanings. Many Vikings wore Thor’s hammer on thongs around their necks. Jewelry, runestones and valuable weapons were often engraved with the symbols that resonated the most with the Vikings: The Valknut, the Helm of Awe and Thor’s hammer.

The Valknut

In the illustration you can see two Valknut symbols: three interlocking triangles that represent Hrungnir’s heart or the heart of the slain. Hrungnir is a legendary giant, discussed in Snorri Sturluson’s Eddas. The Valknut probably signifies the afterlife. The nine points of the three triangles symbolize the nine worlds of the Vikings, which will be discussed in the section on Norse mythology. The Valknut is representative of Odin, the father God of the Vikings, and his power of life over death. The Valknut is often carved on funerary steles and memorial runestones.

The Helm of Awe

The term aegishjalmr means the helm of awe or terror. The symbol was used most often in magic to induce delusion or forgetfulness. A special form of magic called seior was used to create illusions or to prevent people seeing things as they really are. Thus, this symbol was used to hide someone from his or her pursuers. It is mentioned often in the sagas as being used by women who performed this kind of magic. The Helm of Awe might be engraved onto a goatskin, which was then thrown over the head of the fugitive. Even after the advent of Christianity, belief in the aegishjalmr persisted.

Thor’s Hammer, Mjolnir

Mjolnir means lightning, and Thor’s hammer indicates the god’s power over thunder and lightning. Mjolnir, a magic weapon, always came back to Thor when he threw it. Wearing Thor’s hammer as an amulet of protection was quite common as this was probably the most popular of all the pagan Viking symbols. Even during Christian times, from A.D. 1000 on, Vikings wore Thor’s Mjolnir as well as a cross on a chain or thong around their necks.

Vikings History — Sagas and Stories

Viking culture was rich in stories, tales and poems. Kings, brave heroes, beautiful women, dangerous journeys, battles, fearsome dragons and otherworldly creatures were all subjects of tales told by skalds and everyone else. In the Viking Age, no one wrote them down, but everyone knew them, mostly by heart.

Long winters when people were cooped up inside were fertile soil for these stories of old. For centuries, they were kept alive in the hearts of Scandinavians by storytellers. However, the great literature of the Viking Age was in danger of being completely lost as time went by, old folks died and younger people didn’t remember. Finally, with the advent of Christianity in Iceland, Christian churchmen taught the Icelanders to write. Educated men in Iceland saved all of it, from the poetry to the family legends and feuds, by writing it down. Most importantly, now no one would now forget this rich heritage.

Thanks to men like Snorri Sturluson, an Icelandic writer, a great flowering of Viking Age literature was produced in Iceland in the 13th century. Sturluson himself produced many of these works: Poetic Edda and Prose Edda, books about Norse mythology and heroes, the Heimskringla, a book about the kings of Norway, Scandinavian history and most likely, Egil’s saga. Sturluson was a lawspeaker at Iceland’s Althing, a poet, historian and politician. Most of what we know about the Viking Age comes from these Icelandic collections of poems, tales, sagas and stories.

All of this Norse literature was written in the vernacular, the language of Iceland, which was unusual for medieval times. Latin was used by educated people and was the usual language employed when writing anything from laws to fairy tales. Viking literature in the vernacular is the only other body of writings in the people’s language besides the Irish hero tales.

Of Norse poetry, there are two varieties: skaldic poetry and eddaic poetry. Skalds were the Viking’s poets and wrote complex, compelling verse usually honoring a king or patron. Eddaic poetry was anonymous and could be about anything—its subjects were humorus, scathing, bawdy, romantic, heroic or brusquely insulting.

Sagas are stories, somewhat like historical fiction. While many of the characters and event are real, saga writers took poetic license in describing them. The events themselves took place a few hundred years before, which is why they should be considered fiction, not fact. Sagas are prose, occasionally with poetic stanzas in the text. The subjects are tales of men’s deeds, battles, journeys, feuds and fights. The subjects could be Christian or pagan, realistic or fantastic, tales of giants or saints or heroes or even regular people.

Vikings History — What Did They Eat?

What did Vikings eat? The Vikings farmed crops, grew gardens and raised animals, as is typical of food produced from a feudal economy . They ate what they produced on their farms or what they could hunt, fish or gather. Viking farms were generally small, but large enough to keep the family or extended family well-fed in good years. Their food was seasonal, so they might have a lot of food available to eat at some times of the year and very little to eat at others.

On a typical day at the farm, the family would eat two meals. One, the dagmal , or day meal, was served an hour after rising. The family ate the nattmal or night meal at the end of the working day. For breakfast, the dagmal, the adults might eat a bit of some leftover stew still in the cauldron from the night before, with bread and fruit. The children would have porridge and dried fruit or perhaps buttermilk and bread. The evening meal could be fish or meat, stewed with vegetables. They might also eat some more dried fruit with honey as a sweet treat. Honey was the only sweetener the Vikings knew. Vikings drank ale, mead or buttermilk daily.

Feasts would include the same foods—meat, fish, fowl, vegetables, wild greens, bread and fruit, but in a greater variety than usual meal and more of it. Vikings enjoyed drinking ale and mead at feasts. Mead is a strong, fermented drink made from honey.

Women cooked meats, vegetables and breads over the hearth—an open fire pit in the middle of the hall. A Viking wife either roasted the meat on a spit over the fire or boiled it in a soapstone pot or iron cauldron. Vikings loved rich stews, so often meats, vegetables and wild greens were stewed in the cauldron with water. Breads were baked on flat stones or iron griddles over the fire. Salt and pepper were available to most Vikings while costlier spices were imported and added to the foods of wealthier Vikings.

This of course omits the more exotic foods that Vikings obtained by trade.

Crops and Gardens

Barley and rye were the grains that grew best in the northern climate, along with oats. From these grains, Vikings made beer, bread, stews and porridge. Barley was used mostly for beer, with hops to flavor it. Flatbread was the daily bread of the Vikings. A simple dough was made from ground oats or barley, water was added and then the dough flattened out on a griddle and baked over the fire.

Vikings consumed a variety of vegetables including cabbage, onions, garlic, leeks, turnips, peas and beans. These garden crops were sowed in spring and harvested in late summer and fall. Women and children gathered wild plants and herbs, mostly greens. These wild vegetables included nettles, docks, cresses and lambs-quarters. Vikings also grew some herbs such as dill, parsley, mustard, horseradish and thyme.

What Did Vikings Eat? Meat, Fowl and Fish

Scandinavians raised cows, horses, oxen, goats, pigs, sheep, chickens and ducks. They ate beef, goat, pork, mutton, lamb, chicken and duck and occasionally horsemeat. The chickens and ducks produced eggs, so the Vikings ate their eggs as well as eggs gathered from wild seabirds. . Because most Vikings lived on the coast, they ate all kinds of fish, both ocean-going and freshwater fish. In fact, fish was probably a good 25 percent of their diet. So, in the realm of Vikings history, it would seem they were quite well fed.

Most Viking cows lived long enough to raise a calf and were then slaughtered for meat. Some cows, however, lived to about 10 years old, showing that they were milk cows. While Vikings enjoyed drinking milk, whey and buttermilk, they also used the milk to make other dairy products including cheese, skyr, a soft, yogurt-like cheese, curds and butter. Sour whey was used to preserve cooked meats in the winter.

Fruits and Nuts

Viking farms included apple orchards and such fruit trees as pears and cherries. Wild berries were harvested in the summer, including sloe-berries, lingon berries, strawberries, bilberries and cloud-berries. Walnuts were imported, but hazelnuts grew wild and nuts were a favorite treat.

In summer and fall, Vikings ate well as these were the seasons of plentiful, fresh food. It was important to preserve and store foods for winter and spring, when fresh foods were gone. Fish, fowl and meat were dried, salted or smoked. Vegetables and fruits were dried and stored for winter. Grains were ground and the flour made into bread, which was preserved and stored as well. Even though fresh foods were hard to come by in winter and spring, archeological studies reveal that Vikings didn’t suffer from vitamin or mineral deficiencies.

Vikings History — Explorations and Settlements: Iceland, Greenland and Vinland

When the Vikings burst out of their homelands starting in the 8th century, they raided, fought and settled in many parts of Europe and Russia, but they also took off on voyages of discovery across the Atlantic Ocean. They moved into Scotland and Ireland and most of the Atlantic Islands—Shetland, Orkney and the Hebrides. Vikings soon settled in the Faroe Islands as well and later discovered Iceland through a sailing mishap. Over the next two centuries, Viking explorers settled in Iceland, Greenland and Vinland, in what is now Newfoundland. For many, this is where Vikings history begins.

Norwegian Vikings first discovered Iceland. The first was Naddod, who was blown off course sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands in 861. He called the new island Snowland. Naddod returned to Norway and told people of his discovery. Six years later, Floki Vilgerdarson was the first Viking to set out for Iceland and find it. Floki gave the island its present name of Iceland. However, it wasn’t until 870 that people arrived to settle in Iceland.

When Harald Fairhair strong-armed Norway under his control, many people fled—some settled in Scotland, Ireland, Orkneys and Faroe Islands and Iceland. A Norwegian chieftain, Ingolfur Arnarson brought his family to Iceland in 874, settling on the southwest peninsula in a place he called Reykjavik or Cove of Smoke. Many other families from Norway, Scotland and Ireland followed. The Icelandic sagas and Landnamabok or Book of the Settlements, written 200 years later, describes the early settling of Iceland. For the next 60 years, settlers came and picked out arable land to farm.

Icelanders discovered and settled in Greenland starting in the 980s. Erik the Red, an adventuresome and belligerent man, was exiled from Iceland for killing a man. During his three year-exile, Erik explored the southwest coast of Greenland. When he returned to Iceland, he bragged of the good land he had found, calling it Greenland to attract settlers. Icelanders settled in two main areas, the Eastern Settlement and the Western Settlement.

Farming was difficult, but settlers were able raise livestock and enough grain to feed them. Greenland was able to export furs, wool, sheep, whale blubber and walrus ivory. Due to the advance of the Little Ice Age, however, the colony declined during the 14th century. Life had become too hard, shipping too difficult due t o growing ice. By 1408, all the settlers were gone.

Vinland, North America

A trader named Bjarni Herjolfsson was sailing to Greenland. He was blown off course and sighted lands to the west. He successfully completed his journey to Greenland where he described his accidental find to Leif Ericson, son of Erik the Red. Circa A.D. 1000, Leif and a crew sailed across 1,800 miles across open sea, following Bjarni’s description of his voyage. The Greenlanders made a small settlement in the land they called Vinland. Due to hostile natives that the Vikings called skraelings, the settlement eventually failed.

In the 1960s, a Norse settlement was found at L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland by an archeologist Anne Stine Ingstad and her husband Helge. Whether this is the Viking settlement mentioned in various sagas is still in dispute, but archeology proves the Vikings discovered North America 500 years before Christopher Columbus.

Vikings History — Ships for War and Trade

The technological innovation in Scandinavian ship building gave the Vikings the tactical superiority they needed to raid and subdue most of Europe and Russia during the Viking Age. Viking longships were fast, strong enough to cross open ocean, light enough to carry over portages and easy to maneuver with a shallow draft that allowed beach landings and river navigation. With these ships and the tactics that grew from their use, Vikings successfully raided, traded, conquered and settled all over Europe and parts of Russia. To the Vikings, their ships were symbols of power, capable of transporting them to war, to distant shores and even to the afterlife, as some Vikings were buried in their ships.

The unique design element of Viking ships were the overlapping planks of the hull using the lapstrake or clinker method of shipbuilding. Europeans used the carvel method of boatbuilding, where strakes or planks were fastened onto a skeleton of the ship’s ribs, and the plank edges butted up smooth from seam to seam. In any size or type of Viking ship, Norse ship builders laid the keel first, then added strakes or planks and fitted internal timbers as the last step. Planks were riveted together with strong iron rivets. The overlapping planks made Viking ships lighter and far more flexible than a same-sized carvel built ship.

Vikings used different ships for war and trade. The war ships were longer, shallower and narrower than the big, broad knarr, the boats built for trade and exploration. They also had smaller boats for carrying cargo, fishing and ferrying. The two main types were the longships for war and the knarr for trade and exploration.

Ships built for raids and war had shallow drafts that allowed for landings without the need for a harbor. Bigger-keeled European built ships needed deeper waters and a harbor for landing and unloading. The shallow draft of Viking vessels also permitted river navigation; Vikings could row or sail 100 plus miles inland in order to raid or set up an impregnable base on a river island or harborless ocean island. There they were safe from enemy attacks, even deep within the interior of a country. Longships were also fast, maneuverable and powered by both wind and oars. They were symmetrical and double-ended, which allowed them to reverse direction without turning around. Viking longships had an average speed of 5 to 10 knots, but could reach a peak speed of 15 knots.

Ships built for crossing the Atlantic were deeper, broader and sturdier, with room for people, livestock and tools. Smaller, coastal ships for trading expeditions were built to carry cargos of trade goods and light enough to carry overland. One such ship of the 11th century was 45 feet long, 11 feet broad and could carry 4.6 tons of goods. Trade and exploration ships relied primarily on wind for power and used oars only to maneuver for landings.

Vikings History—Vikings as Traders

Viking traders went west as far as Newfoundland in the New World, and East as far as the Volga River, down to Constantinople. When the Vikings left their homelands in the beginning of the Viking Age in the 790s, they didn’t just go to raid and loot. Many of them set out to discover or open new trade routes, to establish a more secure foundation of future income. In general, the men of Sweden went east to Russia while Norwegians and the Danes went to the west to Ireland and Scotland, England and France. All along the way they traded the goods of the north such as fur, amber, iron and walrus tusks for goods they needed from other places. They also traded in slaves.

Western Trade

Vikings raided, traded and settled all along Europe’s coasts. For 300 years, churches would pray to be spared the “wrath of the Norsemen.” The Vikings were equal opportunity traders and raiders. If they found an unprotected church or monastery, they’d raid. If they came to a well-defended town, they would set up trade. Early in the Viking Age, trade was done by direct barter. Eventually, Viking traders obtained a great deal of trade silver and Arabic coins, which then was used to buy goods.

Vikings established home bases and trade centers in both Dublin, Ireland and York, England. Not only did these towns attract international traders, but many Viking craftsmen settled there. Their workshops produced cups, tableware, glass beads, pottery, drinking glasses, bone and antler combs, leather goods, jewelry, and cloth. Blacksmiths and armor makers produced swords, battle axes, chainmail and armor.

During the Viking Age, Norsemen traded all up and down the coasts of Europe, establishing new homes in many locations. They took over and settled Normandy in France and southern Italy. They settled on all the Atlantic islands, the Orkneys, Shetland, Hebrides, Scilly and Isle of Man. Eventually, these Vikings intermarried and settled in permanently.

Eastern Trade

Vikings had always traded around the Baltic Sea, but in the 8th century, they began to venture into Russia, looking to establish profitable trade routes. The Norsemen, mostly Swedes with some Danes and Norwegians, found they could go south by river routes. The two main trade routes were via the Dnieper River down to the Black Sea and the Volga River route to the Caspian Sea. Vikings established trade centers and towns along the way, notably Novgorod and Kiev. Another trade town was Bulgar, where the Volga Bulgars ran the trade along with the Rus, as these Vikings came to be called.

Vikings took slaves in their raids and after battles. These slaves were always welcomed in the slave markets of Constantinople and Baghdad. During the Viking Age, slave trading was extremely profitable; slaves might be Irish, British, Franks, Slavs or any of the other tribes that came in contact with Vikings.

Vikings fostered close ties with Constantinople, becoming the Varangian guard to the Byzantine emperor. From Constantinople, Baghdad and perhaps even Persia, the Vikings could obtain goods from the Far East. Timber, iron, furs, amber, soapstone, whetstones and slaves were carried south by Viking traders. On return trips to the north, the cargo contained Arabic silver, coins, fabrics, spices, silk, fruit, wine and other goods of the south. By the end of the Viking Age, Norsemen had created a trading empire, covering most of the known world.

Vikings History — Games and Entertainment

Viking games and entertainment occupied the time of these people between conquest raids and trade journeys, and they were quite complicated. While Vikings worked hard, they also played hard. From grave goods and the sagas, we learn that Vikings played board games avidly, carved wooden dolls and toys for their children, played dice and gambled and played rough sports at their feasts and gatherings.

The board game enjoyed most often by Vikings was Hnefatafl, which they took with them to Greenland, Iceland, Scotland, Ireland and Great Britain. Unfortunately, we do not know the rules of the game except that it was a game of strategic skill. Two players of unequal strength engaged in the game. One player was by far the strongest, with the most pieces. His job was to corner the king, who was defending his castle with a much smaller force. A variety of Tafl games existed in many areas, but during the Viking Age, hnefatafl was the most popular. It lasted until the 12th century when chess was introduced into Scandinavia.

Other indoor games including drinking games with man/woman teams. Each team would drink, then boast, tell rhymes and insult the other team. The second team would then try to out-drink and out-insult the first team. The object was to see who could drink the most and remain articulate and witty. After meals, adults might bring out the dice and gamble or they might sing and tell stories.

Outdoor games were greatly popular. Based on Viking warrior skills, there were competitions in archery, wrestling, stone throwing and sword play. Horse fighting was also popular; two stallions would be goaded into fighting. Occasionally mares would be tied up around the field, within the sight and smell of the stallions. The horses would battle until one was killed or ran away.

Vikings engaged in running, swimming, tug-of-war called toga-honk and wrestling. Vikings also played a ball game with stick and ball. It wasn’t uncommon for someone to get hurt or even killed, as Vikings played rough. Women did not participate in these games, but they would gather to watch the men.

Children played with wooden toys their parents carved, or they played ball and also engaged in child versions of adult games. Child-sized replicas of weapons such as swords, shield and spears were found buried with other grave goods.

This picture of Vikings at leisure and play helps to round out the impression of Vikings as raiders and killers, left to us by their victim monks. In their leisure time, Vikings liked to play as much as any other people of the time.

Vikings History — Art

Viking art is emblematic of the surprisingly ornate material culture of the Northerners. Vikings loved elaborate decorations and they decorated many of the things they used: weapons , jewelry, runestones, ship woodwork and even their common, everyday items. They loved abstract and intricate animal designs and multiple interlacing lines. The animals depicted in their art include serpents, horses, wolves, birds and unreal, fantastic animals. As the Viking Age progressed, craftsmen varied the designs and six distinct but overlapping art styles developed. Each style is named for an area where a decorated object was found. We’ll take a look at each of the art styles.

The Oseberg style lasted most of the 9th century and appears in some Viking religious iconography . Its main feature is the gripping beast motif and sinuous animal forms. Paws grip borders, the neck of the creature, other creatures or other parts of its body. The gripping beast must have echoed something in the culture of Viking art as it stood fast for a good 150 years.

The Borre style was named for a set of bridle mounts from a ship burial at Borre, Norway. The Borre overlaps with the Oseberg and the Jelling styles, periods specific to the Viking Age. While the gripping beast remains, the sinuous creature of the Oseberg style now boasts a triangular head, a cat-like face with round eyes and protruding ears. This style appears to be purely Norse with no outside influences. It has appeared in Iceland, Russia, England, which shows Viking art existed wherever they went. Borre was prominent from the end of the 9th century to the middle of the 10th.

The Jelling style appears from the start of the 10th century and continues for about 75 years. Stylistic animals are S-shaped and intertwined, with profiled heads, spiral hips and pigtails. Borre and Jelling overlap and occasionally both are used on the same object.

The Mammem Viking art style emerged from the Jelling style and was prominent in the last half of the 10th century. Almost naturalistic lions and birds are featured as well as serpents and foliate patterns. The name comes from a small ax head from a grave site in Mammem, Denmark. The ax head was carved, then inlayed with silver. On one side of the axe head is a foliate pattern and on the other is a stylized, ribbon-like bird with tendrils on wings and tail.

The first half of the 11th century featured the Ringerike style in Viking art. Lion-shaped beasts still appear as well as plant motifs and foliate patterns. Also during this time, runestones became more prominent and were decorated in the Ringerike fashion. Ringerike animals are exceedingly curvy and thin with almond-shaped eyes and thinner, longer tendrils.

The Urnes style dates from 1050 to the 12th century and gets its name from a stave church in Urnes, Norway. Carved wooden panels reveal sinuous animals interlacing and looping, with long eyes pointed forward. Snakes and plants are also featured. The greyhound-like creature appears to be fighting with a serpent.

Vikings History — Weapons and Armor

There are a few things to keep in mind as you read about Viking weapons and armor. First, free, adult male Vikings were always armed; they hung their weapons by their bed at night, within easy reach. In an honor-based society such as the Vikings, men stood ready to defend their honor and good name at any moment. Feuds and duels were a fact of life in Viking times.

Because iron was hard to dig out of the ground, weapons could be costly. Only the richest Vikings would own the complete set of available weaponry: sword, sax (a short sword), axe, spear, bow and arrows, shield, helmet and chainmail. Poorer Vikings would carry an axe or a spear and a shield. Even the poorest Vikings had access to the ax he used at the farm.

Women, children and slaves in general did not carry weapons, although free women and children carried the knives they used in farm work. Slaves were prohibited from carrying weapons of any type.

The most expensive weapon was the sword, as it took the most iron to make. Rich men owned swords, the most prestigious weapon. Swords were double-edged and about 35 inches long. Most were pattern-welded, which means wrought iron strips and steel were twisted together then hammered into a blade with a hardened edge. Swords were often highly decorated and many had names such as Blood-hungry or Leg-biter. Vikings carried their swords in scabbards, worn over the shoulder and always accessible to the right hand.

Axes and Spears

More Viking men carried axes or spears. Battle axes had long handles, were light, well balanced and deadly. Battle axes had a variety of head shapes with a cutting edge from 3 to 6 inches. Later axe heads were much larger, from 9 to 18 inches long. The long handle allowed the warrior a longer reach in a fight. Axe heads as well as swords were richly decorated. The Mammen axe dated to 971 even had gold and silver inlay.

Spears were probably the most common weapon, taking the least amount of iron to make. They could be thrown or used to thrust at the enemy. Spear heads came in a variety of shapes and sizes from long and thin to spear heads with a wing shape near the shaft. Spear heads were also made of iron and many were decorated. Bows and arrows were also used in battle.

Defensive Weapons

All Viking men would carry a round shield for protection. How rich a Viking was determined his defensive weapons. A rich man might also own chainmail and an iron helmet. Chainmail was difficult to make and no doubt quite expensive. Helmets were basically an iron bowl that protected the head, and many had a nose piece to protect the face. Poorer Vikings without access to chainmail wore thick, padded leather garments which gave some protection from edged weapons.

Viking shields could be up to a meter wide. They were made of wooden boards riveted together with an central hole for a hand grip. Shields were also highly decorated and some were painted with patterns or mythological heroes.

With these simple but effective weapons, Vikings were able to conquer major portions of England, France and Russia. Muscles from hard work and ferocity in battle won Vikings their reputation as feared warriors.

Vikings History — Law and Government: The Thing

During the Viking Age , the Norse had an oral culture and only rune writing existed. However, the Vikings had both law and government even without written law. All free men of the Vikings would gather in their communities to make law and to decide cases in a meeting called a Thing. Each community had its own independent Thing.

Rather than have all disputes settled by duel or family feuds, the Thing was instituted to both write Viking law and to decide cases of disputes within the law. The Thing met at specific, regular times. Each Thing had a law speaker who would recite the law from memory. The law speaker and the local chieftain would judge and settle the cases of dispute they heard, although all free men of the community had a say. Things were most likely dominated by a local, powerful family or families.

At the lowest level were the local, community Things. The community Thing was then represented at the next higher level Thing. In Iceland, disputes and laws were finally settled at the national Thing, or the Althing.

Malefactors who were tried at the Thing and found guilty were either fined, declared semi-outlaw or fully outlawed. To be an outlaw was a dreadful punishment for a Viking. That person was put outside of Viking law, banished from society and his property confiscated. They were to receive no help, no food and no support from anyone. Besides the terrible loneliness, these people could be killed by anyone. They often fled the country and tried to settle in some other location.

Besides the proto-court of the Thing, disputes could also be settled by arbitration, where both parties would agree on an objective third party to judge between them. A dispute could also be settled by the holmgang, or duel, which was fought either to first blood or to death. If the dispute was taken to the Thing, the loser could be subjected to a fine, which would be paid to the injured party or to partial outlawry, which would last for three years or to complete outlawry as described above.

The Thing had both judiciary and legislative powers, but no power to carry out a sentence. The injured party’s family would carry out the sentence. Politics, community decisions and new laws were also functions of the Thing. These meetings generally lasted several days, often with a festive atmosphere. Traders would bring their goods for sale and merchants would set up booths for their wares. Things were held where water was easily obtained, there was grazing for animals and fishing or hunting would provide food for all. Brew masters brought barrels of ale and mead. During the Thing, marriages were arranged, alliances were crafted, news and gossip exchanged and friendships established and renewed.

Vikings History — Life on a Viking Farm

Life on a Viking farm during the age of the  Vikinger  during the eighth to eleventh centuries required lots of hard, constant work. Most Viking farms raised enough crops and animals to sustain everyone who lived on the farm, human and animal. Most Vikings were farmers, a common fact of the medieval era , even if they also traded or fished part of the time. Viking farms were usually small, unless the owner was wealthy. While some farms were isolated, many grouped together in small farming villages.

Below is a list of the animals, crops and vegetables raised on a Viking farm:

• Geese, Ducks and Chickens

Because winters were so severe in the Scandinavian lands, cattle had to be kept indoors during the winter. This meant that farmers had to grow enough hay to keep their cattle alive during that time.

Besides hay, farmers grew barley, rye and oats. Women tended vegetable gardens, and some Viking farms had apple orchards as well. Plowing, sowing the crops and harvest were all done according to the seasons. Some tasks were year-round: fencing and repairing fences, mucking out animal stalls, gathering wood or dung for fires, making or repairing tools, milking cows and sheep and feeding chickens and ducks. Everyone worked, from toddlers on up. Slaves did the hardest, most backbreaking work.

When Viking men went away on fishing or raiding expeditions, the women ran the farm and did the work. For that reason, women held a certain amount of power in Viking society. Children didn’t go to school; boys learned the tasks of the men and girls learned by helping their mothers. Most Viking men returned from raiding for the harvest and to winter over at their farms.

In summer, cattle and sheep were often driven to higher ground to pasture there for the season. Pigs were often set free to roam and forage in the wild until it was time to round them up and butcher them for the winter. Horses were kept closer to the farm as they were used for farm work and transportation. Dairy cows, sheep and goats also stayed closer to the farm as they had to be milked daily. Vikings appreciated cheeses, butter, buttermilk and whey and valued them more highly than meat.

Unfortunately, we don’t know too much of Viking farming methods. Most farming tools and implements didn’t survive the 1,000 years between then and now. We do know a simple plow called an ard was used to cut grooves through the soil in preparation for sowing. Harvesting the grain required iron sickles and sharp knives for cutting hay.

We also know that Viking farms and villages didn’t stay in the same place. Both farms and villages would shift one hundred meters every generation to take advantage of fresh soils. It wasn’t until the transition to Christianity when Vikings built stone churches that villages remained in the same place.

Vikings History — Eight Interesting Features of the Vikinger

While video games and movies tend to portray Vikings as ruthless savages with oversized helmets and hollow brains, their culture and motives reach far beyond that. The true Vikings history is a little more complicated. The term Viking means, “pirate raid” in the Old Norse language. The people of Scandinavia commonly used the word as a verb to describe a tradition where men would take off in the summers and go “viking.” Contrary to popular belief, the majority of these expeditions did not consist of raiding villages and raping women. Instead, their purpose was usually to discover new land and trade. They even had a  legal system.

Catholic propaganda is responsible for most of the modern misconception about Vikings (they were pagans, not Christian) The church lost several facilities, treasures, and relics to Scandinavian people, so they made it their mission for many years to make them look like wild beasts.

Vikings History- They Didn’t Wear Those Horned Helmets

Pretty much every single Viking costume you have seen in a movie or video game is a lie. These warriors usually went into battle bareheaded. The whole horned-helm idea came about in Victorian times when Vikings were romanticized. Painters began to depict them as glamorous savages with horned helmets; however, nothing found during the Viking Age shows this image to be in the least bit authentic.

Vikings History – They Buried their Dead in Boats

Vikings loved their boats, and the Scandinavian culture was extremely superstitious. It was considered a great honor for a person to be mummified, dressed in finery, and placed to rest in a ship. They believed that these ships would transcend the dead into the afterlife. Distinguished warriors and highborn women were often put to rest in vessels, surrounded by valuable goods and sacrificed slaves.

Vikings History – They Loved to Keep Themselves Clean and Tidy

Several Viking excavations have turned up razors, combs, tweezers, and even ear cleaners. It turns out these savage warriors cared quite a lot about their personal hygiene. Historians also believe that the typical Viking citizen bathed at least once a week, far more than any other European group during that time.

Vikings History – They Liked to Ski for Fun

Vikings history also delves into the Viking’s hobbies. Roughly 6000 years ago, the Scandinavian people developed their own version of skis and used them for hunting, traveling, and entertainment. They even had a god of skiing, who was named Ullr. Kings and high lords indulged in skiing for entertainment, and sometimes had competitions where the best skiers could win prizes.

Vikings History – Viking Women Had Basic Rights

Vikings girls were usually forced to marry around the age of 12 and tend to a household full of kids while their husbands sailed off into awesome adventures. However, when compared to other women during that time, they enjoyed a wide range of freedoms. They had the right to inherit property, file for a divorce, and even reclaim settlements if the marriage failed. In terms of Vikings history, that was the state of women.

Vikings History – They Used Urine to Start Fires

Vikings lived a large part of their lives on the go. Because they did not have lighters, they would collect a tree fungus called touchwood, and boil it for several days in their own urine. After the mixture was done, they would pound it into a felt like substance. The sodium nitrate found in the urine would mix with the touchwood and make the mixture easily combustible, so they could easily start a fire while on the road.

Vikings History – They Took Part in Human Trafficking

Many Viking businessmen made small fortunes by capturing women and young men and then selling them in giant slave markets across the Middle East and Europe. These slaves were usually referred to as thralls, and came from Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and Slavic settlements raided by the Vikings.

Vikings History – Viking Men Often Dyed their Hair

During the Viking Era, having blonde hair was really “in” with the cool crowd. Therefore, brunette Vikings, mostly men, would use a heavily concentrated soap with high levels of lye that would bleach their hair. Historians believe that aside from being part of their culture’s beauty ideal, the bleached hair would also help keep lice away.

That is the story of vikings history.

This article is part of our larger selection of posts about The Vikings. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to The Vikings .

Additional Resources About The Vikings

Viking traders: how exactly did they trade, viking literature: stories, sagas and myths, viking runes and runestones, viking names and naming conventions: how did they work, cite this article.

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The Vikings: A Very Short Introduction

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The Vikings: A Very Short Introduction reveals the history, society, and culture of the Vikings, and their expansion overseas for trade, colonization, and plunder. How did the Vikings express their identity through their artistic expression, rune stones, their ships, and their religion? How has their legacy influenced the medieval Icelandic sagas, nationalism of the 19th century, Wagner, and the Nazis? The Viking reputation is of bloodthirsty seafaring warriors, repeatedly plundering the British Isles and the North Atlantic throughout the early Middle Ages. Yet Vikings were also traders, settlers, and farmers, with a complex artistic and linguistic culture, whose expansion overseas led people to cross the Atlantic for the first time in European history.

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How to Write a Compelling Essay on Viking History

Introduction – who were Vikings?

The name Viking originates from the expression víkingr, meaning pirate in the early Scandinavian languages. These pirates were pagan Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish seafaring warriors. They colonized wide areas of Europe from the 9th to the 11th century. The reasons why they went on expeditions are varied. But the most significant are overpopulation at home and the relative helplessness of victims abroad. At home, these Scandinavians were independent farmers, but at the sea, they were merciless pillagers. The Vikings were led by a landowning chieftain, clan heads, and their retainers. The clan consisted of freemen and an energetic young man who was looking for adventure and treasure overseas.

Writing a comprehensive essay on Viking history

Writing an engaging and informative essay on Viking history is not much different from crafting a paper on any other broad and interesting topic. It requires a combination of itemized research, critical analysis, and captivating storytelling. We offer you a step-by-step guide to help you create a mesmerizing essay that will bring you great academic success. Let’s begin and see how to write a compelling essay on Viking history.

Unearth an Intriguing Topic

Viking history is a wide and endless field of information. Yet, every student should select a specific aspect that interests you. It should be suitable for exploration within the scope of your essay. You can consider topics such as famous Vikings in history or Vikings raids, exploration, and settlement. Try to explore their religion and mythology. You can read all about their social structures and how did Vikings affect European society and other civilizations. Try to focus on one of these segments of Viking history and immerse yourself in deeper research on that specific topic.

Navigate the Depths of Research

Keep in mind that you should find credible sources. One of them could be EduBirdie, an essay writing service that you can tell do my essay any time. Academic books, reputable sites, and journal articles could be other trustworthy sources. Your starting points should also be Norse sagas and archeological findings. Consult historical documents to provide firsthand insight and evidence. All these sources will help you to get a deeper insight into the topic you want to deal with. Furthermore, they will ensure that the information you incorporate into your essay is truthful and reliable.

Forging a Mighty Thesis Statement

The next step in your writing journey is creating a clear and concise thesis statement. It is a short statement, usually one sentence. It should present the main argument or perspective of your assignment. Try to make your thesis statement debatable. It would give you the chance to approach your topic from several angles. Moreover, the thesis statement should be supported by evidence from your research. This way, your essay will become more receptive to reading from the very beginning.

Plotting Your Course: Crafting an Outline

Outlining your essay will help you organize your ideas. You will be able to structure your essay logically. This is the time to create common parts of an essay that include an introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. Keep in mind that each paragraph should focus on a specific aspect of your topic.

Think about intriguing introduction

Come up with a captivating introduction. Use the introduction to grab the readers’ attention. Start with an intriguing fact or a thought-provoking question. For instance: Did You Know that Vikings were skilled navigators who sailed vast distances across treacherous seas using only the stars and natural landmarks for guidance? Furthermore, it could also be a vivid description of a Viking event or artifact. You can try it with Viking longships which are marvels of engineering. They were designed for both speed and shallow draft, enabling raids on unsuspecting coastal settlements and monasteries. The introduction should also announce the topic and issues the essay will address. It should show what readers will gain from reading your essay.

Arm Yourself with Evidence and Insight

Support your thesis with relevant evidence from your research. That means you should use quotes from primary sources, scholarly interpretations, and archeological findings. The main part is considering different perspectives and interpretations. That way, you will provide a nuanced understanding of your topic. You will also convince readers that you have approached the topic from different angles. It brings you credibility and future success in the academic world.

Sharp Swords and Clear Words: Writing with Precision

Try to create brief and clear sentences. It will help you to convey your ideas effectively. Using jargon is a big no-no in writing research papers . You should also avoid overly complex language that might confuse your audience. At the very beginning, define key terms and concepts. That way, you will ensure clarity, especially if you deal with unfamiliar aspects of Viking history.

Bringing History to Life: Illustrations and Examples

Some people understand better through examples. Use vibrant examples and illustrations to bring your arguments to life. For instance, if you write about Viking seafaring battles, describe the appearance of their longship in detail. Include some images, illustrations, maps, and diagrams to enhance understanding and visual appeal. You can download convenient images from stock photo websites. Add an explanation of what readers can see in every picture.

Facing the Foes: Addressing Counterarguments

This is a very important segment of your research paper. In this part, you should acknowledge and address potential counterarguments to your thesis. It will help you demonstrate a systematic understanding of the topic. Refute these counterarguments with evidence and logical reasoning. Try to acknowledge their validity while explaining why your arguments are still more convincing.

Don’t forget to create a memorable conclusion

The conclusion serves to summarize the main points of your essay . This is the part where you restate your thesis. Make an effort to reflect on the significance of your findings and broaden your implications. The conclusion should leave the reader with a thought-provoking takeaway. It should call for further explanations on the topic.

Refinement and Polish: The Art of Revision

No matter how confident you are that the essay you wrote is excellent, you shouldn’t skip revising and editing. Review your essay carefully to ensure clarity, accuracy, and coherence. It is essential to check for grammar and spelling errors. Try to refine your language for precision and impact. Maybe you could seek feedback from some peers or educators. It will ensure the improvement of your essay further.

To wrap it up, writing a fascinating essay about Viking history is manageable if you apply the tips mentioned here. Vikings were pioneers in the 9th to the 11th centuries, and they went through a lot of discovering and conquering. Numerous interesting topics can serve as the subject matter of your essay. That could entail life during the Vikings and the contribution of the Vikings to the world. Viking Project ideas, like making Viking handicrafts or playing historical plays, will increase the interest of your essay and make it more real. After completing research, brainstorming creative ideas, and reveling in the topic, you can make your readers feel as if they knew the Vikings. Therefore, go ahead to be curious, reflect, and get involved in the exciting world of Viking history!

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

The vikings (780–1100).

Brooch in Form of a Bird of Prey

Gold Bracteate

Round Box Brooch

Disk Brooch

Bow Brooch with Disk

Bracteate Pendant

Oval Brooch

Terminal for an Open Ring Brooch

Jean Sorabella Independent Scholar

October 2002

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , a history of early medieval England, the year 793 brought with it terrifying omens, lightning, high winds, flying dragons, famine, “and a little after that, in the same year, on 8 June, the ravages of the heathen men miserably destroyed God’s church on Lindisfarne with plunder and slaughter.” By 820, the Irish Annals of Ulster record similar occurrences: “The sea spewed forth floods of foreigners over Erin, so that no haven, no landing-place, no stronghold, no fort, no castle might be found, but it was submerged by waves of Vikings and pirates.” In the ninth and tenth centuries, Scandinavian raiders repeatedly visited the Christian countries of Europe, at first to plunder and later to settle. These were Vikings in the Old Norse sense of the term, where viking designates the enterprise of going abroad on raids, and a vikingr is a pirate so engaged. In modern usage, the term Viking is generally applied to medieval Scandinavian culture as it flourished between the 790s and roughly 1000. Although Christian annalists normally portray the Vikings as uncivilized and unprincipled men, the evidence of their achievements proves their sophistication, and the record of their violent activities shows them hardly rougher than their contemporaries.

The success of the Vikings depended on their skills as seamen and the excellence of their wooden ships. The seagoing craft recovered from a ninth-century burial at Gokstad in Norway demonstrates the ingenuity and the effectiveness of Viking ship design: fast, light, maneuverable, and flexible, it could be simply beached and quickly launched, rowed by oarsmen or sailed in any wind. In 1893, an exact replica of the ship was sailed from Norway to Newfoundland in just 28 days. Scandinavian sagas record voyages of similar length. In the ninth century, Norwegian adventurers sailed to settle in Iceland and Ireland, Danish arrivals claimed territory in France and Britain, and Swedish Vikings established themselves in the river valleys of Russia. In the late tenth century, the Icelander Eirik the Red founded a colony on Greenland that flourished for over four centuries, and around 1003, Eirik’s son Leif the Lucky sailed to a land called Vinland further to the west, which may mark the first European voyage to the Americas.

Population growth and dwindling resources in Scandinavia may have sent the Vikings to seek their fortunes elsewhere. In the early Viking period, periodic raids on the rich monasteries of Ireland and England seem to have contented them, but later they seized land, proclaimed their own rule, and exacted heavy tribute, the so-called Danegeld, as payment in exchange for safety from attack. They also conducted brisk trade in timber, amber, furs, and slaves with Byzantine and Arab merchants in the Mediterranean and Middle East, and with the Scandinavian colonies throughout Europe. Evidence confirms the range and impact of the Vikings’ enterprise. Runic characters inscribed by Viking visitors have been found throughout the Mediterranean, and Viking hoards in Scandinavia contain coins and precious objects from Byzantium and Baghdad . A Viking raid of the late tenth century furnished material for the Anglo-Saxon poem The Battle of Maldon , and the gruesome rituals surrounding the funeral of a Viking chieftain in Russia were described by Ibn Fadlan, an Arab diplomat who witnessed them around 922.

The sophistication and delicacy of Viking art ( 1982.323.1 ) presents a striking contrast with the stereotype of the rude and restless barbarian. Viking craftsmen excelled in woodwork and metalwork, adorning brooches ( 1991.308 ), weapons, implements, and ship timbers with abstracted animal forms and elaborate patterns of interlace ( 47.100.25ab ). Runic texts and complementary scenes were inscribed on stones and rock faces. The Viking love of riddling phrases and schemes of rhyme yielded a rich poetic tradition, and tales of mythic events and heroic deeds as well as historical episodes were celebrated in Old Norse epic sagas. Earl Rognvald of the Orkneys demonstrates the refinement of his Viking heritage in this twelfth-century verse: “There are nine skills known to me–/ At tables I play ably; / Rarely I run out of runes; / Reading, smith-craft, both come ready; / I can skim the ground on skis, / Wield a bow, do well in rowing; / To both arts I can bend my mind: Poet’s lay and harper’s playing.”

Sorabella, Jean. “The Vikings (780–1100).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vikg/hd_vikg.htm (October 2002)

Further Reading

Fitzhugh, William W., and Elisabeth I. Ward, eds. Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga . Exhibition catalogue. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000.

Glubok, Shirley. The Art of the Vikings . New York: Macmillan, 1978.

Graham-Campbell, James, and Dafydd Kidd. The Vikings . Exhibition catalogue. London: British Museum, 1980.

La Fay, Howard. The Vikings . Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1972.

Sawyer, Peter, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings . New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Additional Essays by Jean Sorabella

• Sorabella, Jean. “ Pilgrimage in Medieval Europe .” (April 2011)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ Portraiture in Renaissance and Baroque Europe .” (August 2007)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ Venetian Color and Florentine Design .” (October 2002)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ Art of the Roman Provinces, 1–500 A.D. .” (May 2010)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ The Nude in Baroque and Later Art .” (January 2008)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ The Nude in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance .” (January 2008)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ The Nude in Western Art and Its Beginnings in Antiquity .” (January 2008)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ Monasticism in Western Medieval Europe .” (originally published October 2001, last revised March 2013)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ Interior Design in England, 1600–1800 .” (October 2003)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ Painting the Life of Christ in Medieval and Renaissance Italy .” (June 2008)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ The Birth and Infancy of Christ in Italian Painting .” (June 2008)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ The Crucifixion and Passion of Christ in Italian Painting .” (June 2008)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ Carolingian Art .” (December 2008)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ Ottonian Art .” (September 2008)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ The Ballet .” (October 2004)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ Baroque Rome .” (October 2003)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ The Opera .” (October 2004)
• Sorabella, Jean. “ The Grand Tour .” (October 2003)

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Vikings and Early Exploration Essay

Introduction, history of vikings and the spanish, comparison and contrast, economic and social events and conditions, works cited.

Early exploration was mainly fueled by the fact that settlers had specific reasons for exploring their target regions. This was also the period of transitional history that helped in shaping past lives and events (Benjamin, Hall & Rutherford 2). This research paper shall examine the Vikings and early exploration. In this case, the history of the Viking s and the Spanish explorers shall be assessed. In addition, the paper shall also endeavor to compare and contrast the two groups of early explorers. Further, the events that took place in England during this period will be explored, along with the political, economic, and social events that affected colonization. The impact of these events on the early settlers in North America will be examined. Moreover, the French and English exploration endeavors will be examined, as they attempted to settle in America and the Caribbean during the sixteenth century.

The Vikings were pirates from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden who raided most parts of Europe. They explored Europe at the beginning of the 18th century and settled mainly in Iceland, France, Ireland, and Central Russia. Originally, the Vikings were from the Scandinavian region, and their common dialect was the Norse language. These Norsemen were sailors, farmers, and traders. However, they were also violent as they attacked and robbed people (Magnusson $ Hermann 173). Vikings’ attacks were dangerous as they would kill victims and rob them of any treasures that they had in their possession. The Vikings believed in gods and goddesses and were strict followers of the Norse religion. They managed to accomplish their exploration escapades half a millennium ahead of the other European explorers. To a great extent, the success of the Vikings can be attributed to the sophisticated ships they had at their disposal, in addition to the survival techniques they had adopted. Early exploration was never safe due to bad weather, starvation, and the long distances involved. Accordingly, explorers were required to have well-developed ships. The Europeans might have also been intrigued by what they heard about the Norsemen (Magnusson and Hermann 175). For these reasons, it became difficult for other explorers to sail as they were not fully equipped. The Viking’s exploration also contributed to the exploration of other Europeans as they were involved in activities like trade which spread widely. There was an advent of new ships which promoted safe and easier sailing for other sailors. Technologically, the Vikings had superior ships, and this enhanced their sea movement to vast distances (Middleton.p.14). They were also competent sailors who used hit-and-run tactics to raid their victims. Due to these reasons, the Vikings were able to sail in the cold regardless of the treacherous ocean that was a threat to other Europeans. Eventually, the Viking age came to an end due to the establishment of royal authority and Christianity. As a result, the Vikings were unable to consolidate their achievements. They were also unable to establish an enduring empire that would have stretched from the Scandinavian fjords across the northern Atlantic latitudes. Later Spain settled and colonized America as they left their families in their home country. The Spanish settlement was spearheaded by the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. They mainly settled in Mexico they had to move to other parts later on. Their settlement enabled other individual Spanish settlers to further explore the region. One such example is Father Junipero Serra who led the Spanish settlers to California. Other priests also joined Father Serra and helped build a church in San Diego. In San Diego, the Indians were taught about Christianity by these priests. This trend continued as more people were converted to Christianity. Apart from their spreading of Christianity, the Spanish settlers continued to explore America in search of wealth and power. Spain became successful mainly because of the numerous expeditions that they conducted (Magnusson and Hermann 184).

The Spanish and Vikings were similar in the sense that they were both settlers who managed to explore the American region. Both the Spanish and Vikings traveled to America via sea, sailing through long distances. Unlike the Vikings, Spanish explorers were mainly Christians and they spread the gospel along the way. The Vikings were involved in trading activities, raiding, and settlers. Many people became Christian followers as the gospel was spread to even the remotest areas. At the beginning of their exploration, the Spanish settled in Mexico and later on moved to other areas. On the other hand, the Vikings settled in the southwest of Greenland, although they had to leave due to the cold climate. While the Vikings were settlers from Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, the Spanish settlers were from Spain, England, The Netherlands, and France. Viking settlement was much earlier than Spanish settlement because they arrived in America at the end of the 8th century. The Spanish arrived half a millennium later when Vikings had already settled. The Spanish settlement was successful compared to Vikings because they were able to convert Americans into Christianity. The Vikings failed in their trading activities and also did not succeed because they raided people. In their settlement, the Vikings were worshipers of many gods while the Spanish worshiped only one God. Spanish homes were made of ironwork which was very spacious and displayed renaissance architecture. Spanish homes were furnished with chairs, tables, cupboards, and benches which were mainly made from leather. The Spanish homes were one level or split level which sprawled out with thick adobe walls. Some of their homes were built of palm-thatched homes which became popular in Mexico. Vikings on the other hand lived in longhouses together with their animals although in different rooms. Unlike Spanish homes, the Viking houses were wet and full of smoke. This resulted in such health problems as chest complications. The Vikings were talented in metalwork which they used in building their homes. Unlike the Spanish settlers, the Vikings did not have priests and did not have churches in places where they lived. The Spanish built churches in the area where they settled as they would hold Christian meetings together (Malden 5).

Events in England in the first half of the seventeenth century exerted a profound influence on all aspects of the early colonization of North America. There were political, economic, and social events and conditions during those fifty years that affected colonization (Middleton 14). In England, there were Puritans who formed self-governing communities of religious groups of farmers and their families. Politically, some top politicians donated parcels of land to settlers. White settlers were given the priority of having bigger land that could support their families. The white settlers also made important decisions during town meetings. Most of England’s settlers were small-scale farmers and lived in wooden houses because there was plenty of wood. In the middle of the 18th century, agricultural life was affected by religion as more people concentrated in the church than on the farms. There farming became a problem because there was not enough land to plow. There were however some farmers who bought land from speculators in New Hampshire. They used the lands to plant nutritious grass which provided them with high production. In 1750, there were merchants, artisans, and shopkeepers who provided services to the growing population. The difference in ethnicity was realized as women were not allowed to work with men on the farms. All these events in England promoted colonization as there were explores who found the land productive. With the events in England, there was more population which led to the settlement of North America (Middleton 172).

During the sixteenth century, there were numerous French and English explorations and attempts at settlement in North America and the Caribbean. The French first settled in North America as explorers who were searching for wealth and were led by the King of France. Their major settlement was on the island of Hispaniola where they established the colony of Saint Dominguez. On the other hand, English colonization started in the year 1607 to around 1681. During that time, there were several attempts to establish colonies but eventually, this failed due to scarcity of food and harsh winter climate. Later, the Englishmen went to the Caribbean which was attractive, and took some small Islands. This settlement did not last for long as there was a transition to slavery in the Caribbean which made Englishmen vacate. Unfortunately, the Englishmen did not achieve much in the Caribbean (Middleton 84).

Early exploration led to the colonization of many nations which were centers of interest. It was a period in which some explorers succeeded in their ambitions while there were defeated by other nations.

Benjamin, Thomas, Hall Timothy, and Rutherford, David. The Atlantic World in the Age of Empir e Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001. Print.

Magnusson, Magnus and Hermann ,Palsson. The Vinland Sagas : The Norse Discovery Of America . Trans. And Ed. By Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Palsson NY: Viking, 1965. Web.

Middleton, Richard. Colonial America history . A History, 1565-1776. 3rd Edition.

Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2002. Web.

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English History

Viking Homelands

The Viking homelands consisted of the three present-day Scandinavian kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, together with part of Finland. The original border of the Danish Viking kingdom was at the base of the Jutland peninsula which today lies in north Germany. This represents a huge combined landmass extending from well inside the Arctic Circle to over 1,200 miles to the South.

The geography of Scandinavia, with its long indented coastline, numerous islands and inland waterways, meant that the lives of its inhabitants were dominated by water and water-borne conimunicitions. Natural inland barriers – dense forests, deep bogs and high mountains – and the low agricultural potential of much of the Scandinavian landmass, restricted both where people could settle and farm, and the nature and frequency of interaction between established communities.

These geographical differences in the Scandinavian homelands led to variations in both agricultural and building practices. Geography also determined to a great extent the directions of the Viking movements: Norwegian Vikings looked inevitably to the west while Swedish Vikings looked eastwards,- the Danes looked mainly to the west along the southern coast of the North Sea.

Yet despite its enormous physical diversity, Scandinavia constituted a relatively uniform cultural area in the Viking Age. Vikings all over the Scandinavian homelands spoke almost the same language and worshipped the same Norse gods .

Throughout three centuries of Viking adventure, Scandinavian farmers, hunters, fishermen and trappers at home continued to lead the same lives as their forebears. Scandinavia was just too far north and surrounded by too hostile waters for the cultural impulses from the centres of power in central and southern Europe to have much influence.

Moreover, in the eyes of the Christinised Europeans, one fact united the Vikings above all others: they were pagans.

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Essay Samples on Vikings

The Vikings were renowned for their exceptional shipbuilding skills, constructing longships that allowed them to navigate the treacherous waters of the North Atlantic and establish trade routes across Europe and beyond. These ships, often adorned with intricate carvings and boasting impressive speed and agility, were crucial to their exploration, colonization, and conquests.

In addition to their prowess on the seas, the Vikings had a rich cultural and mythological heritage. They worshiped a pantheon of gods and goddesses, with Odin, Thor, and Freya being among the most prominent. Their mythology was filled with epic tales of heroism, gods, giants, and mythical creatures, providing a captivating backdrop for further exploration.

How to Write an Essay on Vikings

When it comes to Viking essay topics, you can delve into various aspects of Viking society and history. Consider exploring their trade routes and economic impact, their impact on European politics and kingdoms, their legal systems and social structure, or their artistic achievements, including intricate metalwork, jewelry, and rune stones.

• Information

To write an engaging and well-rounded essay Vikings, gather information from a range of sources, such as historical texts, archaeological discoveries, and academic research. Analyze primary sources, such as sagas and runic inscriptions, and consult scholarly works to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Remember to structure Viking essays effectively, presenting a clear introduction, body paragraphs that explore key points, and a concise conclusion. Use evidence to support your arguments and provide examples that illustrate the impact and significance of the Vikings.

Historical Drama About No-Nonsense Mentality of the Vikings

Amazon's award-winning historical drama, “Vikings', realistically depicted the Viking Age. The television series was set in 793 BCE, where vikings from Eastern Baltic aim to reach and expand into western territories. More specifically, the show focused on a community found in Scandinavia. The authors further...

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Comparison Of The Mythological And Historical Representations Of Vikings

Intro “There is an evident gap between the Vikings of myth and the Vikings of history,” Simon Coupland. The narratives of conquest and colonialism have heavily dominated historical interpretations of Vikings. The narratives of conquest and colonialism in a Viking context include sources and stories...

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Why the Vikings Were Successful Raiders

The Vikings were Norsemen from Scandinavia and they terrorised the coasts of Europe for hundreds of years, mainly from the late 8th to the late 11th century. The Vikings, who were Germanic people inhabiting Scandinavia, were successful raiders for many reasons, some of these reasons...

How the Vikings Discovered the European Land

From the eighth to the tenth century, Birka, Sweden was a highly populated Viking city on the Baltic Sea. Bio-archaeologist & paleoscatologist Andrew Jones used ground penetrating radar to map out structures from past Birka, and found jewelry making tools through sifted soil samples. Jones...

The History and Impacts of Vikings on Our World

The classic view of Vikings as bloodthirsty seafaring heathens who raided and raped their way across the peaceful settlements of the Frankish Empire is not the actual way Vikings acted. Despite this view of Vikings as conquerors and thieves, during the Viking age of glory...

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Comprasion of the Image of Vikings in History and Mythology

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Vikings: Unveiling the Norse World Through Primary Sources

Introduction:.

The essay will then utilize primary sources to explore the Vikings, who are often praised as well as hated. This explores how the Vikings are presented as barbarian savages and pagans. The analysis hinges on three primary sources: A report by Ohthere’s late 9th-century Chronicle of Events in Anglo-Saxon, a detailed accounting as documented on a yearly basis in the monastic annals, and an overview of the Viking Raid on Lindisfarne. This all-encompassing assessment attempts to unravel the intricacies of Viking identity and explore the effects of their interaction with other cultures in the world arena. However, they go further than reflections on any aspect of Viking life, showing us these later-day re-creations as themselves subjected to particular perspectives, if not outright biases. This paper focuses on how to understand different stories about the life of the Vikings.

Oh there is Report: Navigating the Northern Frontiers

Taking Ohthere’s story involves immediately diving into huge unexplored regions and exploring the hidden web of Viking connections with virgin lands. Ohthere’s travelogue is painstakingly chronicled, for it gives insight into the dynamic, unfriendly environment that fashioned the experience of the Northmen. There is graceful sailing along the land as a scene unfolds, illustrating the complex nature of the geography that makes up their world. In this case, a portion focuses on describing the physical environment that Ohthere presents with its limitations. The story opens with the smallness of the Northmen’s land, depicting an environment made up of seas mingled with woods. Indeed, the constraints of the landscape helped to determine the Viking pattern of movement and set boundaries for their expansion. The resulting geographical setting serves as an important framework for interpreting the difficulties and benefits surrounding Viking engagement with fellow civilizations.

In addition, the relations formed with neighboring societies, in particular, Sami as well as Cwenas, are discussed, revealing the entanglements related to encounters as well as conflicts in culture. Ohthere’s account reveals how different tribes blended in these northern lands. The experiences from meeting the Sami and Cwenas give crucial information about Vikings’ relations as being both friendly and sometimes fighting. A better understanding of cultural dynamics reveals that men were not just sea explorers; they played a part in forming a wider set of worldviews.

Ohthere’s narrative involves more than a mere description of geographic and cultural aspects; it sheds light on the pursuit of wealth and well-being, which was central to what Vikings lived for. The examination of the whaling rituals and the complexity of trade sheds light on the interwoven livelihood of the Northmen (Ohthere). The essay then examines the economic importance of these undertakings, questioning how they influenced the Viking way of living, as well as the overall socio-economic trends during this period. Ohthere emerges as one of those important individuals who made a significant contribution to whale hunting, an economically vital activity that brought sustenance and the bones and hides trade.

The next discussion revolves around Ohthere’s perception towards the affluence among the Northmen as well as their dependence on nature. The quest seeks to reveal the intricacies related to Ohthere’s riches and position in society as compared to other contemporaries. Northmen are presented as people closely linked to the environment who live in harmony with nature. It demands an exploration of the values that defined Viking culture, which is linked to the environment and its influence on Vikings’ distinctiveness (Ohthere). The geography dictated how much space they moved in.

Additionally, their way of trade had intertwined socio-economics of hunting, whales and so forth. It also peels off different strata of the Viking society, revealing how it was in constant engagement with its wealth, culture and nature. The more one goes through Ohthere’s account, the details become clearer and the mystery around the Viking civilization diminishes.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Chronicles of Viking Catastrophes

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is an accurate year-by-year record of what has happened in England since the time of the Vikings. The plunder of Lindisfarne of 793 A.D. is one such entry that serves as the window of the common perception of Vikings’ actions during their most turbulent years. In analyzing the Chronicle’s entries, we discover a woven-tapestry of linguistics that chronicles reveal about Vikings. The manner in which these Norse invaders are depicted gives us a glimpse of the emotional and cultural lens through which these chroniclers approached them (Suzanne). Influencing narrative, the choice of words, many times heavily saturated with emotive content, does not just depict Vikings akin to normal raiders but rather introduces them as dark augurs of calamity.

It makes more sense when you consider the role played by omens and premonition during the Viking invades as portrayed in the Chronicle. The story of the Vikings is told alongside ominous signs such as whirlwinds, lightning storms, and fiery dragons in the skies (Suzanne). The conjunction of the earthly and the spiritual only increases the sense of fear that is directed toward the Vikings by many people’s imaginations.

In this part, we explore the effect that the psychological impact of Viking raids had on the psyche of the English population. The Chronicle goes beyond merely describing the physical damages that these barbarians brought in their wake, for instance, the horrifying raid and massacre of Lindisfarne, but takes us deep into what happened in the minds and hearts of these terrified victims. Words such as “fierce” and “woefully terrified” reflect the severe emotional effect made on the Northumbrians, highlighting the deep scratches that were created by the Viking’s attack (Suzanne). This journey reveals in what capacity the Chronicle becomes a record book, not only from the point of view of history but also of emotions relating to the time of the “Viking” era.

The study also evaluates the impact of the Chronicle on historical memory. As the chroniclers saw the Vikings’ threat through the lens of their religious and culturally-based views, they reflected modern outlooks. Thus, the Chronicle is no longer simply a record of happenings, but rather, it is an account that was created by those who either saw or heard about the Vikings’ attacks. Through analysis of religion-based prejudice and cultural presumptions embedded in the entries, one may interpret comprehensively of ways in which the Viking menace was perceived, embraced as a way of life and transmitted through posterity. Thus, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle becomes a crucial historical object that reflects how one perceived Vikings at that time (Suzanne). By incorporating the language, prophetic imagery, and the emotional effects involved in suffering Viking raids, a complete picture of these raiders can be attained. Moreover, this Chronicle affects history’s culture since it portrays the way people live and their emotions.

III. Viking Raid on Lindisfarne: Christianity under Siege

It is worth mentioning that the raid on Lindisfarne was one of the most important moments regarding the relationship between the Vikings and Christianity and also the history of the European worldview. It is an important episode of history that we can look at to examine the long-lasting impact it has made on both religious circles and the policy environment. listade, 2017). We learn a lot about why the targeted monastic institutions were attacked, the importance of looting and the European reaction to the unique onslaught by analyzing what happened in the wake of the Lindisfarne raid and how it affected later Viking expansions. This analysis turns on the reasons behind the Vikings’ preference for attacking monastic establishments ( Viking Raid on Lindisfarne – English History ). As was the case with Lindisfarne, which had gained a worldwide reputation as an abode of Christian faith and scholarship, unfortunately, turned out to be the target of Nordic raiders. In addition, this part looks at the causes for these directed attacks, analyzing what could be a religious, economic or strategic motive that influenced Vikings toward the center of Christian spirituality. One of the iconic events that inspired us to consider how the Vikings perceived Christianity as a dual physical and spiritual enemy was the raid on Lindisfarne.

Another essential element that arises is the role of looting in the strategic plan for Vikings. The Vikings, unlike opportunistic pirates, understood and exploited these possibilities for gain. The planned plundering of Lindisfarne, with its fine ecclesiastical ornaments of gold, gems, and relics, showcases more than simple damage. The motives behind such Viking raids are elucidated in this paper, illustrating that loot earned during such attacks did not only serve to enrich the raiders but also for the consolidation of power and wealth within the Viking community. Our examination is centered on one area—the European response to the Lindisfarne onslaught. The effects of this attack were felt across Europe, giving birth to the idea that the Vikings were not an individual but rather a danger group, hence, a collective consciousness ( Viking Raid on Lindisfarne – English History ). The monasteries came to represent a vulnerability in the sense that they were no more holy than any other place. The European landscape struggled to realize that holy institutions of Christendom were not sacred at all, as had been made evident through events that had taken place in Lindisfarne and other areas prior. The final section focuses on the reactions of these European powers (both ecclesiastical and secular) and the ways through which they strengthened themselves with the aim of combating future Viking attacks.

Additionally, we examine how the Lindisfarne raid assisted in shaping contemporary perceptions of the Viking identity. The Lindisfarne incident marked a shift in the way people thought about the Vikings, who were previously seen as mysterious sea-faring raiders.b In addition, the deliberate targeting of sacred Christian sites added an element of religious antagonism to their already-established Viking identity. Here, this paper looks at changing the image of the Vikings that was based on the fact that the Lindisfarne raid was crucial in making them be perceived as robbers and enemies of Christians. It is for this reason that the invasion of Lindisfarne serves as an epitome in appreciating how Vikings battled with Christianity over time towards its development ( Viking Raid on Lindisfarne – English History ). This investigation reveals the complex reasons behind Viking raids, looting as a means of strategy, the Europeans’ reaction to the danger, and the changing Viking identity. It represents the difficulties that Christianity faced even though it was threatened by the expansion of the Vikings and their impact on the more extensive mental awareness of Europe.

Conclusion:

When we walk through Vikings stories by way of Ohthere’s report, Anglo-Saxon chronicles and Vikings’ raid at Lindisfarne, we have a more vivid image and multi-dimensional impression of the Norse world. It is a complicated identity of Vikings who are the explorers and merchants – but also raiders. The aim of this essay is thus to examine Viking identity through the lens of primary sources and how these informed historical representation by looking at how outsiders perceive the Vikings and what it meant for their image in historical accounts. The essay goes beyond the stereotype, giving an overall picture of who the Vikings were and why they are essential for history.

Works Cited

Ohthere. “Ohthere’s Report.” The Old English Orosius, late 9th century, https://vikingraiders.yolasite.com/resources/Ohthere-dual.pdf.

Suzanne, Kemmer. “Words in English: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.”  Www.ruf.rice.edu , www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/aschron.html. Accessed 25 Nov. 2023.

Viking Raid on Lindisfarne – English History . 7 Feb. 2022, englishhistory.net/vikings/raid-on-lindisfarne/.

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How to write an introduction for a history essay

Every essay needs to begin with an introductory paragraph. It needs to be the first paragraph the marker reads.

While your introduction paragraph might be the first of the paragraphs you write, this is not the only way to do it.

You can choose to write your introduction after you have written the rest of your essay.

This way, you will know what you have argued, and this might make writing the introduction easier.

Either approach is fine. If you do write your introduction first, ensure that you go back and refine it once you have completed your essay. 

What is an ‘introduction paragraph’?

An introductory paragraph is a single paragraph at the start of your essay that prepares your reader for the argument you are going to make in your body paragraphs .

It should provide all of the necessary historical information about your topic and clearly state your argument so that by the end of the paragraph, the marker knows how you are going to structure the rest of your essay.

In general, you should never use quotes from sources in your introduction.

Introduction paragraph structure

While your introduction paragraph does not have to be as long as your body paragraphs , it does have a specific purpose, which you must fulfil.

A well-written introduction paragraph has the following four-part structure (summarised by the acronym BHES).

B – Background sentences

H – Hypothesis

E – Elaboration sentences

S - Signpost sentence

Each of these elements are explained in further detail, with examples, below:

1. Background sentences

The first two or three sentences of your introduction should provide a general introduction to the historical topic which your essay is about. This is done so that when you state your hypothesis , your reader understands the specific point you are arguing about.

Background sentences explain the important historical period, dates, people, places, events and concepts that will be mentioned later in your essay. This information should be drawn from your background research . 

Example background sentences:

Middle Ages (Year 8 Level)

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15 th and 16 th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges.

WWI (Year 9 Level)

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe.

Civil Rights (Year 10 Level)

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success.

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)  

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times.

2. Hypothesis

Once you have provided historical context for your essay in your background sentences, you need to state your hypothesis .

A hypothesis is a single sentence that clearly states the argument that your essay will be proving in your body paragraphs .

A good hypothesis contains both the argument and the reasons in support of your argument. 

Example hypotheses:

Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery.

Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare.

The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.

Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1 st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state.

3. Elaboration sentences

Once you have stated your argument in your hypothesis , you need to provide particular information about how you’re going to prove your argument.

Your elaboration sentences should be one or two sentences that provide specific details about how you’re going to cover the argument in your three body paragraphs.

You might also briefly summarise two or three of your main points.

Finally, explain any important key words, phrases or concepts that you’ve used in your hypothesis, you’ll need to do this in your elaboration sentences.

Example elaboration sentences:

By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period.

Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined.

The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results.

While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period.

4. Signpost sentence

The final sentence of your introduction should prepare the reader for the topic of your first body paragraph. The main purpose of this sentence is to provide cohesion between your introductory paragraph and you first body paragraph .

Therefore, a signpost sentence indicates where you will begin proving the argument that you set out in your hypothesis and usually states the importance of the first point that you’re about to make. 

Example signpost sentences:

The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20 th century.

The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

Putting it all together

Once you have written all four parts of the BHES structure, you should have a completed introduction paragraph. In the examples above, we have shown each part separately. Below you will see the completed paragraphs so that you can appreciate what an introduction should look like.

Example introduction paragraphs: 

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15th and 16th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges. Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies, but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery. By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period. The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe. Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare. Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined. The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success. The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results. The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20th century.

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times. Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state. While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period. The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

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At The Brink

An Introduction: It’s Time to Protest Nuclear War Again

Kathleen Kingsbury, Opinion Editor

The threat of nuclear war has dangled over humankind for much too long. We have survived so far through luck and brinkmanship. But the old, limited safeguards that kept the Cold War cold are long gone. Nuclear powers are getting more numerous and less cautious. We’ve condemned another generation to live on a planet that is one grave act of hubris or human error away from destruction without demanding any action from our leaders. That must change.

In New York Times Opinion’s latest series, At the Brink, we’re looking at the reality of nuclear weapons today. It’s the culmination of nearly a year of reporting and research. We plan to explore where the present dangers lie in the next arms race and what can be done to make the world safer again.

W.J. Hennigan, the project's lead writer, begins that discussion today by laying out what’s at stake if a single nuclear weapon were used, as well as revealing for the first time details about how close U.S. officials thought the world came to breaking the decades-long nuclear taboo.

Russia’s president, Vladimir Putin, threatened in his 2024 annual speech that more direct Western intervention in Ukraine could lead to nuclear conflict. Yet an American intelligence assessment suggests the world may have wandered far closer to the brink of a nuclear launch more than a year earlier, during the first year of Mr. Putin's invasion.

This is the first telling of the Biden administration’s efforts to avoid that fate, and had they failed, how they hoped to contain the catastrophic aftermath. Mr. Hennigan explores what happened during that tense time, what officials were thinking, what they did and how they’re approaching a volatile future.

In the first essay of the series, W.J. Hennigan lays out the risks of the new nuclear era and how we got here. You can listen to an adaptation of the piece here .

Within two years, the last major remaining arms treaty between the United States and Russia is to expire. Yet amid mounting global instability and shifting geopolitics, world leaders aren’t turning to diplomacy. Instead, they have responded by building more technologically advanced weapons. The recent intelligence on Russia’s development of a space-based nuclear weapon is the latest reminder of the enormous power these weapons continue to wield over our lives.

There is no precedent for the complexity of today’s nuclear era. The bipolarity of the Cold War has given way to a great-power competition with far more emerging players. With the possibility of Donald Trump returning as president, Iran advancing its nuclear development and China on track to stock its arsenal with 1,000 warheads by 2030, German and South Korean officials have wondered aloud if they should have their own nuclear weapons, as have important voices in Poland, Japan and Saudi Arabia.

The latest generation of nuclear technology can still inflict unspeakable devastation. Artificial intelligence could someday automate war without human intervention. No one can confidently predict how and if deterrence will work under these dynamics or even what strategic stability will look like. A new commitment to what could be years of diplomatic talks will be needed to establish new terms of engagement.

Over the past several months, I’ve been asked, including by colleagues, why I want to raise awareness on nuclear arms control when the world faces so many other challenges — climate change, rising authoritarianism and economic inequality, as well as the ongoing wars in Ukraine and the Middle East.

Part of the answer is that both of those active conflicts would be far more catastrophic if nuclear weapons were introduced into them. Consider Mr. Putin’s threat at the end of February: “We also have weapons that can strike targets on their territory,” the Russian leader said during his annual address. “Do they not understand this?”

The other answer lies in our recent history. When people around the world in the 1960s, ’70s, ’80s and early ’90s began to understand the nuclear peril of that era, a vocal constituency demanded — and achieved — change.

Fear of mutual annihilation last century spurred governments to work together to create a set of global agreements to lower the risk. Their efforts helped to end atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, which, in certain cases, had poisoned people and the environment. Adversarial nations started talking to each other and, by doing so, helped avoid accidental use. Stockpiles were reduced. A vast majority of nations agreed to never build these weapons in the first place if the nations that had them worked in good faith toward their abolishment. That promise was not kept.

In 1982 as many as a million people descended on Central Park calling for the elimination of nuclear arms in the world. More recently, some isolated voices have tried to raise the alarm — Jamie Dimon, the chief executive of JPMorgan Chase, said last year that “the most serious thing facing mankind is nuclear proliferation” — but mostly such activism is inconceivable now. The once again growing threat of nuclear weapons is simply not part of the public conversation. And the world is less secure.

Today the nuclear safety net is threadbare. The good news is that it can be restitched. American leadership requires that Washington marshal international support for this mission — but it also requires leading by example. There are several actions that the U.S. president could take without buy-in from a Congress unlikely to cooperate.

As a first step, the United States could push to reinvigorate and establish with Russia and China, respectively, joint information and crisis control centers to ensure that misunderstandings and escalation don’t spiral. Such hotlines have all but gone dormant. The United States could also renounce the strategy of launching its nuclear weapons based only on a warning of an adversary’s launch, reducing the chance America could begin a nuclear war because of an accident, a human or mechanical failure or a simple misunderstanding. The United States could insist on robust controls for artificial intelligence in the launch processes of nuclear weapons.

Democracy rarely prevents war, but it can eventually serve as a check on it. Nuclear use has always been the exception: No scenario offers enough time for voters to weigh in on whether to deploy a nuclear weapon. Citizens, therefore, need to exert their influence well before the country finds itself in such a situation.

We should not allow the next generation to inherit a world more dangerous than the one we were given.

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