presentation on history of internet

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• Prof. Hari Balakrishnan
• Prof. George Verghese

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Introduction to eecs ii: digital communication systems, lecture 23: a brief history of the internet.

Description: This lecture offers a historical account of the development of the Internet and Internet Protocol (IP). The ideal case for area networking is presented, followed by the creation of the domain name system (DNS).

Instructor: Hari Balakrishnan

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A short history of the internet

Published: 3 December 2020

Read about the history of the internet, from its 1950s origins to the World Wide Web’s explosion in popularity in the late 1990s and the ‘dotcom bubble’.

The origins of the internet

The origins of the internet are rooted in the USA of the 1950s. The Cold War was at its height and huge tensions existed between North America and the Soviet Union. Both superpowers were in possession of deadly nuclear weapons, and people lived in fear of long-range surprise attacks. The US realised it needed a communications system that could not be affected by a Soviet nuclear attack.

At this time, computers were large, expensive machines exclusively used by military scientists and university staff.

These machines were powerful but limited in numbers, and researchers grew increasingly frustrated: they required access to the technology, but had to travel great distances to use it.

To solve this problem, researchers started ‘time-sharing’. This meant that users could simultaneously access a mainframe computer through a series of terminals, although individually they had only a fraction of the computer’s actual power at their command.

The difficulty of using such systems led various scientists, engineers and organisations to research the possibility of a large-scale computer network.

Who invented the internet?

No one person invented the internet. When networking technology was first developed, a number of scientists and engineers brought their research together to create the ARPANET . Later, other inventors’ creations paved the way for the web as we know it today.

• PAUL BARAN (1926–2011)

An engineer whose work overlapped with ARPA’s research. In 1959 he joined an American think tank, the RAND Corporation, and was asked to research how the US Air Force could keep control of its fleet if a nuclear attack ever happened. In 1964 Baran proposed a communication network with no central command point. If one point was destroyed, all surviving points would still be able to communicate with each other. He called this a distributed network.

• LAWRENCE ROBERTS (1937–2018)

Chief scientist at ARPA, responsible for developing computer networks. Paul Baran’s idea appealed to Roberts, and he began to work on the creation of a distributed network.

• LEONARD KLEINROCK (1934–)

An American scientist who worked towards the creation of a distributed network alongside Lawrence Roberts.

• DONALD DAVIES (1924–2000)

A British scientist who, at the same time as Roberts and Kleinrock, was developing similar technology at the National Physical Laboratory in Middlesex.

• BOB KAHN (1938–) AND VINT CERF (1943–)

American computer scientists who developed TCP/IP , the set of protocols that governs how data moves through a network. This helped the ARPANET evolve into the internet we use today. Vint Cerf is credited with the first written use of the word ‘internet’.

When asked to explain my role in the creation of the internet, I generally use the example of a city. I helped to build the roads—the infrastructure that gets things from point A to point B. —Vint Cerf, 2007

• PAUL MOCKAPETRIS (1948–) AND JON POSTEL (1943–98)

Inventors of DNS , the ‘phone book of the internet’.

• TIM BERNERS-LEE (1955–)

Creator of the World Wide Web who developed many of the principles we still use today, such as HTML, HTTP, URLs and web browsers.

There was no “Eureka!” moment. It was not like the legendary apple falling on Newton’s head to demonstrate the concept of gravity. Inventing the World Wide Web involved my growing realisation that there was a power in arranging ideas in an unconstrained, weblike way. And that awareness came to me through precisely that kind of process. The Web arose as the answer to an open challenge, through the swirling together of influences, ideas, and realisations from many sides. —Tim Berners-Lee,  Weaving the Web , 1999

• MARC ANDREESSEN (1971–)

Inventor of Mosaic, the first widely-used web browser.

The first use of a computer network

In 1965, Lawrence Roberts made two separate computers in different places ‘talk’ to each other for the first time. This experimental link used a telephone line with an acoustically coupled modem, and transferred digital data using packets.

When the first packet-switching network was developed, Leonard Kleinrock was the first person to use it to send a message. He used a computer at UCLA to send a message to a computer at Stanford. Kleinrock tried to type ‘login’ but the system crashed after the letters ‘L’ and ‘O’ had appeared on the Stanford monitor.

A second attempt proved successful and more messages were exchanged between the two sites. The ARPANET was born.

The life and death of the ARPANET

President Dwight D. Eisenhower formed the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1958, bringing together some of the best scientific minds in the country. Their aim was to help American military technology stay ahead of its enemies and prevent surprises, such as the launch of the satellite Sputnik 1, happening again. Among ARPA’s projects was a remit to test the feasibility of a large-scale computer network.

Lawrence Roberts was responsible for developing computer networks at ARPA, working with scientist Leonard Kleinrock. Roberts was the first person to connect two computers. When the first packet-switching network was developed in 1969, Kleinrock successfully used it to send messages to another site, and the ARPA Network—or ARPANET—was born.

Once ARPANET was up and running, it quickly expanded. By 1973, 30 academic, military and research institutions had joined the network, connecting locations including Hawaii, Norway and the UK.

As ARPANET grew, a set of rules for handling data packets needed to be put in place. In 1974, computer scientists Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf invented a new method called transmission-control protocol, popularly known as TCP/IP , which essentially allowed computers to speak the same language.

After the introduction of TCP/IP, ARPANET quickly grew to become a global interconnected network of networks, or ‘Internet’.

The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990.

What is packet switching?

‘Packet switching’ is a method of splitting and sending data. A computer file is effectively broken up into thousands of small segments called ‘packets’—each typically around 1500 bytes—distributed across a network, and then reordered back into a single file at their destination. The packet switching method is very reliable and allows data to be sent securely, even over damaged networks; it also uses bandwidth very efficiently and doesn’t need a single dedicated link, like a telephone call does.

The world’s first packet-switching computer network was produced in 1969. Computers at four American universities were connected using separate minicomputers known as ‘Interface Message Processors’ or ‘IMPs’. The IMPs acted as gateways for the packets and have since evolved into what we now call ‘routers’.

Packet switching is the basis on which the internet still works today.

What is TCP/IP?

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The term is used to describe a set of protocols that govern how data moves through a network.

After the creation of ARPANET, more networks of computers began to join the network, and the need arose for an agreed set of rules for handling data. In 1974 two American computer scientists, Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf, proposed a new method that involved sending data packets in a digital envelope or ‘datagram’. The address on the datagram can be read by any computer, but only the final host machine can open the envelope and read the message inside.

Kahn and Cerf called this method transmission-control protocol (TCP). TCP allowed computers to speak the same language, and it helped the ARPANET to grow into a global interconnected network of networks, an example of ‘internetworking’—internet for short.

IP stands for Internet Protocol and, when combined with TCP, helps internet traffic find its destination. Every device connected to the internet is given a unique IP number. Known as an IP address, the number can be used to find the location of any internet-connected device in the world.

What is DNS?

DNS stands for Domain Name System. It is the internet’s equivalent of a phone book, and converts hard-to-remember IP addresses into simple names.

In the early 1980s, cheaper technology and the appearance of desktop computers allowed the rapid development of local area networks (LANs). An increase in the amount of computers on the network made it difficult to keep track of all the different IP addresses.

This problem was solved by the introduction of the Domain Name System (DNS) in 1983. DNS was invented by Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel at the University of Southern California. It was one of the innovations that paved the way for the World Wide Web.

The beginnings of email

Email was a rapid—but unintended—consequence of the growth of ARPANET. As the network increased in popularity and scope, users quickly realised the potential of the network as a tool for sending messages between different ARPANET computers.

Ray Tomlinson , an American computer programmer, is responsible for electronic mail as we know it today. He introduced the idea that the destination of a message should be indicated using the @ symbol, which was first used to distinguish between the individual user’s name and that of their computer (i.e. user@computer). When DNS was introduced, this was extended to  [email protected] .

Early email users sent personal messages and began mailing lists on specific topics. One of the first big mailing lists was ‘SF-LOVERS’ for science fiction fans.

The development of email showed how the network had transformed. Rather than a way of accessing expensive computing power, it had started to become a place to communicate, gossip and make friends.

Early home computers

From the 1970s onwards, the home computer industry grew exponentially. The uptake of home computers was not necessarily driven by users’ needs or a computer’s functionality; early machines could actually do relatively little. The appeal to the consumer was the idea of becoming part of the ‘Information Revolution’. Computers were embedded with the rhetoric of the future and learning, but in most cases this meant learning to program so that people could actually make the technology do something, such as play games.

More information about collection object

The growth of the internet, 1985–95.

The invention of DNS, the common use of TCP/IP and the popularity of email caused an explosion of activity on the internet. Between 1986 and 1987, the network grew from 2,000 hosts to 30,000. People were now using the internet to send messages to each other, read news and swap files. However, advanced knowledge of computing was still needed to dial in to the system and use it effectively, and there was still no agreement on the way that documents on the network were formatted.

The internet needed to be easier to use. An answer to the problem appeared in 1989 when a British computer scientist named Tim Berners-Lee submitted a proposal to his employer, CERN, the international particle-research laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. Berners-Lee proposed a new way of structuring and linking all the information available on CERN’s computer network that made it quick and easy to access. His concept for a ‘web of information’ would ultimately become the World Wide Web.

The launch of the Mosaic browser in 1993 opened up the web to a new audience of non-academics, and people started to discover how easy it was to create their own HTML web pages. Consequently, the number of websites grew from 130 in 1993 to over 100,000 at the start of 1996.

By 1995 the internet and the World Wide Web were established phenomena: Netscape Navigator, which was the most popular browser at the time, had around 10 million global users.

How is the World Wide Web different from the internet?

The terms ‘World Wide Web’ and ‘internet’ are often confused. The internet is the networking infrastructure that connects devices together, while the World Wide Web is a way of accessing information through the medium of the internet.

Tim Berners-Lee first proposed the idea of a ‘web of information’ in 1989. It relied on ‘hyperlinks’ to connect documents together. Written in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), a hyperlink can point to any other HTML page or file that sits on top of the internet.

In 1990, Berners-Lee developed Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and designed the Universal Resource Identifier (URI) system. HTTP is the language computers use to communicate HTML documents over the internet, and the URI, also known as a URL, provides a unique address where the pages can be easily found.

Berners-Lee also created a piece of software that could present HTML documents in an easy-to-read format. He called this ‘browser’ the ‘WorldWideWeb’.

On 6 August 1991 the code to create more web pages and the software to view them was made freely available on the internet. Computer enthusiasts around the world began setting up their own websites. Berners-Lee’s vision of a free, global and shared information space began to take shape.

The dream behind the Web is of a common information space in which we communicate by sharing information. Its universality is essential: the fact that a hypertext link can point to anything, be it personal, local or global, be it draft or highly polished. Tim Berners-Lee (1998)

The introduction of web browsers

Tim Berners-Lee was the first to create a piece of software that could present HTML documents in an easy-to-read format. He called this ‘browser’ the ‘WorldWideWeb’. However, this original application had limited use as it could only be used on advanced  NeXT machines . A simplified version that could run on any computer was created by Nicola Pellow, a maths student who worked alongside Berners-Lee at CERN.

In 1993, Marc Andreessen, an American student in Illinois, launched a new browser called Mosaic. Created at the National Center for Super-computing Applications (NCSA), Mosaic was easy to download and install, worked on many different computers and provided simple point-and-click access to the World Wide Web. Mosaic was also the first browser to display images next to text, rather than in a separate window.

Mosaic’s simplicity opened the web up to a new audience, and caused an explosion of activity on the internet, with the number of websites growing from 130 in 1993 to over 100,000 at the start of 1996.

In 1994 Andreesen formed Netscape Communications with entrepreneur Jim Clark. They led the company to create Netscape Navigator, a widely used internet browser that at the time was faster and more sophisticated than any of the competition. By 1995, Navigator had around 10 million global users.

Early ecommerce and the ‘dotcom bubble’

The enormous excitement surrounding the internet led to a massive boom in new technology shares between 1998 and 2000. This became known as the ‘dotcom bubble’.

The claim was that world industry was experiencing a ‘new economic paradigm’, the likes of which had never been experienced before. Investors in the stock market began to believe the hype and threw themselves into a frenzy of activity. The internet was thought to be central to economic growth, while share prices implied that new online companies carried the seeds for expansion. This led in turn to a feverish level of investment and unrealistic expectations about rates of return.

We have entered a period of sustained growth that could eventually double the world’s economy every dozen years and bring increasing prosperity for—quite literally—billions of people on the planet. We are riding the early waves of a 25-year run of a greatly expanding economy that will do much to solve seemingly intractable problems like poverty and to ease tensions throughout the world. —Peter Schwartz and Peter Leyden,  Wired , July 1997

Venture capitalists flourished and many companies were founded on dubious business plans. The most notorious of these was the high fashion online retailer Boo.com, which spent its way through $200 million, only to collapse within six months of its website going live.

However, despite their failure, such businesses helped cause a fundamental transformation and left an important legacy. Many investors lost money, but they also helped to finance the new system and lay the groundwork for future success in ecommerce.

Further reading

• Brief History of the Internet , Internet Society
• Internet History 1962 to 1992 , Computer History Museum
• Internet Pioneers , ibiblio
• Tim Berners-Lee biography , World Wide Web Consortium
• The World Wide Web: A global information space , Science Museum
• John Naughton,  A Brief History of the Future: The Origins of the Internet , 1999
• Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon,  Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet , 1996
• Tim Berners-Lee,  Weaving the Web , 1999

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History of the internet

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History of the internet who created the internet? when did it start? why? how did it evolve? why do we care? how does it work? what does it take to get access to it? who started it, and why? the U. S. Department of Defense Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)

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History of the internet nethistory.ppt

who created the internet? • when did it start? • why? • how did it evolve? • why do we care? • how does it work? • what does it take to get access to it? nethistory.ppt

who started it, and why? • the U. S. Department of Defense • Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) • began ~1962 in reaction to the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik in 1957 • DARPA was told to find ways to utilize the nation’s investment in computers • funding for projects that might provide dramatic advances for military • timeframe of research could be 5 years or longer • formed with an emphasis towards basic computing research • was not oriented only to military products • eventually, DARPA settled on computer networking as a main goal nethistory.ppt

it didn’t happen all at once • 1969 • ARPANET commissioned by DoD for research into networking • 1971 • 15 nodes (23 hosts) networked for the first time • used NCP (network control protocol) to allow computers to communicate UCLA, SRI, UCSB, Univ of Utah, BBN, MIT, RAND, SDC, Harvard, Lincoln Lab, Stanford, UIU(C), CWRU, CMU, NASA/Ames • 1972 • the first e-mail program was created by Ray Tomlinson of BBN • 1973 • first international connections to the ARPANET • University College of London (England) via NORSAR (Norway) • development began on the protocol later to be called TCP/IP • (collaboration between Stanford and DARPA) • 1974 • first use of term internet in a paper on Transmission Control Protocol • 1976 • Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom, sends her first email nethistory.ppt

how did the network evolve? • ARPA’s created the first network • ARPA did not act as an enforcer on standards, but instead, invited public participation in improving the network • the founding philosophy: • to be resilient, the network was not supposed to rely on a centralized control • this was revolutionary • the network relied on a growing number of standard specification documents • only standards-compliant computers could communicate • ARPA retained “control” but exercised it judiciously (little) nethistory.ppt

who wrote the network standards? • university researchers participated in standards work • private industry research contributed personnel • AT&T, IBM, and many others funded their employees to work on network improvements • some people did it “for free” as a sideline to their work • standards were created by “the public” and “developers everywhere” • via the RFC process (public proposals) • if many in industry and research institutions implemented the proposals, they eventually became “standard” nethistory.ppt

what is an RFC? • RFC stands for Request For Comment • RFCs are numbered standards documents • managed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) • RFC 1, Host Software was published in 1969 • thousands now exist • many are regarded as de facto standards by commercial and free software writers • many others are essentially ignored.  • RFCs remain known as RFCs even if they become standards nethistory.ppt

who writes an RFC? • not standards organizations (such as ANSI, ISO or ECMA) • published by technical experts acting on their own initiative • during a subsequent period of review, anyone on the Internet may submit comments • this process has avoided the intractible problems of many formal standards bodies • RFC 2026 is about the RFC process: The Internet Standards Process, Revision 3 • a complete RFC index is available from the IETF website • the text of a particular RFC can be found by entering its number nethistory.ppt

internet in 1977 nethistory.ppt

networking timeline - eighties • 1978 • TCP protocol (Stanford research since 1976) split into TCP and IP protocols • 1980 • ARPANET grinds to a complete halt on 27 October • because of an accidentally-propagated status-message virus • name server developed at University of Wisconsin • so users would not have to know the exact path to other systems • on January 1st, every machine connected to ARPANET had to use TCP/IP • TCP/IP became the core internet protocol, replacing NCP entirely • 1983 • first IBM personal computers sold • 1984 • Domain Name System (DNS) introduced on ARPANET • 1986 • Mail Exchanger (MX) records developed • to allow non-IP network hosts to have email domain addresses • Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) created • to coordinate contractors for DARPA • Coordinated work on ARPANET, US Defense Data Network (DDN), and the Internet core gateway system • 1987 • email link established between Germany and China • 1989 • number of hosts breaks 100,000 nethistory.ppt

networking timeline – advent of WWW • 1990 • ARPANET ceases to exist • Tim Berners-Lee and CERN in Geneva implement HTTP for members of the international high-energy physics community • independent internet service provicers begin to spring up everywhere • 1991 • PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) released by Philip Zimmerman • 1992 • number of internet hosts breaks 1,000,000 • no web yet; email and newsnet only (mostly at command line) • world-wide web (WWW) HTTP protocol released by CERN • Tim Berners-Lee, developer nethistory.ppt

the web lumbers to its feet • 1993 • the InterNIC created by U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) to maintain the internet: • directory and database (AT&T) • domain registration (Network Solutions Inc.) • information (General Atomics/CERFnet) • Marc Andreessen and the Univ. of Illinois develop a GUI HTTP client • Mosaic (see http://www.ibiblio.org/pioneers/andreesen.html) • first web browser; initially it was free • U.S. White House comes on-line (http://www.whitehouse.gov/): • President Bill Clinton: [email protected] • Vice-President Al Gore: [email protected] • 1996 • most internet traffic carried by independent Internet Service Providers (ISP’s) such as MCI, AT&T, Sprint, and many smaller companies • number of internet hosts exceeds 15,000,000 • planning begins for IPv6 (next generation) nethistory.ppt

IP v4 (now) vs. IP v6 (future) • the number of unassigned internet addresses is running out • a new classless scheme is gradually replacing the system based on classes A, B, and C • tied to adoption of IPv6 nethistory.ppt

the InterNIC • Internet Network Information Center • a registered service mark of the U.S. Department of Commerce and now a defunct entity • the InterNIC began as a collaboration between AT&T and Network Solutions, Inc. (NSI) supported by the National Science Foundation; it offered four services: • InterNIC Directory and Database Services -- online white pages directory and directory of publicly accessible databases • Registration Services -- domain name and IP address assignment • Support Services -- outreach, education, and information services for the Internet community • Net Scout Services -- online publications that summarize recent happenings of interest to Internet users • the InterNIC is currently an informational Web site to provide the public with information about domain name registration • ICANN (see next slide) now oversees domain name registration nethistory.ppt

ICANN • Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers • a nonprofit organization that does: • IP address space allocation • protocol parameter assignment • domain name system management • root server system management functions previously performed under U.S. Government contract • ICANN was created in the fall of 1998 in response to a policy statement issued by the US Department of Commerce. This statement called for the formation of a private sector not-for-profit Internet stakeholder to administer policy for the Internet name and address system • ICANN is responsible for managing and coordinating the DNS to ensure universal resolvability nethistory.ppt

Domain Name Service (DNS) • stands for Domain Name System (or Service) • a distributed database system • translates domain names into IP addresses, and vice versa www.example.com might translate to 198.105.232.4 • DNS is a hierarchy of databases • if one DNS server doesn't know how to translate a particular domain name, it asks another (higher-level) one, recursively until the IP address association has been returned • nslookup is the command-line network application for DNS nethistory.ppt

ICANN coordinates the root DNS servers • at the heart of the DNS are 13 special computers, called root servers • the root servers are distributed around the world • all 13 contain the same vital information • this is to spread the workload and back each other up nethistory.ppt

resiliency of the network • the network is not under centralized control • frustrating but also good • part of the collapse of USSR in the late 1980’s came from the government’s inability to suppress information from being disseminated over the world-wide computer networks • in recent years, there have been serious, coordinated cyber-attacks on the DNS root servers; as many as 11 of the 13 were once disabled… • but the internet kept working, with only some slowdown • during Katrina, the internet kept working in the stricken zones for anyone who had power and access via a phone line, cable network or satellite • in some instances, this was the only reliable source of information about what was happening in the stricken areas • a few data centers remained open, with backup power, barracading themselves inside and publishing status reports nethistory.ppt

domain names • every domain name has a suffix that indicates which top level domain it belongs to • there are only a limited number of such domains, such as: • .gov - government • .edu - education • .org – nonprofit organizations • .mil - military • .com - commercial business • .net - network service providers • .ca - Canada • .th - Thailand nethistory.ppt

DARPA spending today • in 2001 ~$500 million total ($223 to universities) • in 2005 ~$500 million total ($114 to universities) • many more grants going exclusively to defense industry • many grants won’t allow non-U.S. citizens • more grants require non-publication of results nethistory.ppt

the end of this slideset nethistory.ppt

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HISTORY OF THE INTERNET. Some sources . Summary of information obtained from Websites such as: Hobbes ’ Internet Timeline What is the Internet? History of Internet http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/. Beginnings of communication revolution.

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History of the internet. who created the internet?. when did it start? why? how did it evolve? why do we care? how does it work? what does it take to get access to it?. who started it, and why?. the U. S. Department of Defense Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)

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History of the Internet. WeeSan Lee [email protected]. 1969 ARPANET was born. 4 nodes were inter-connected: UCLA,SRI,UCSB, U. of Utah Charley Kline from UCLA sent 1 st packet. First RFC by Steve Crocker. RFC = Request for Comments RFC's were invented by Steve Crocker to help provide a

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History of the Internet. Dr Maria Elena Villapol January 2009. 1957. Spuntnik was launched. Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD) was formed as response. Mid-1960s. Mainframe computers were standalone computers. ARPA.

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The internet: History, evolution and how it works

The Internet is a massive computer network that has revolutionized communication and changed the world forever.

What is the internet?

• Internet invention
• How it works

How do websites work?

• Speed and bandwidth

Additional resources

Bibliography.

The internet is a vast network that connects computers across the world via more than 750,000 miles (1,200,000 kilometres) of cable running under land and sea, according to the University of Colorado Boulder. 

It is the world's fastest method of communication, making it possible to send data from London, U.K. to Sydney, Australia in just 250 milliseconds, for example. Constructing and maintaining the internet has been a monumental feat of ingenuity.

The internet is a giant computer network, linking billions of machines together by underground and underwater fibre-optic cables.These cables run connect continents and islands , everywhere except Antarctica

Each cable contains strands of glass that transmit data as pulses of light, according to the journal Science . Those strands are wrapped in layers of insulation and buried beneath the sea floor by ships carrying specialist ploughs. This helps to protect them from everything from corrosion to shark bites.

When you use it, your computer or device sends messages via these cables asking to access data stored on other machines. When accessing the internet, most people will be using the world wide web. 

When was the internet invented?

It was originally created by the U.S. government during the Cold War . In 1958, President Eisenhower founded the Advanced Research Projects Agency ( ARPA ) to give a boost to the country’s military technology, according to the Journal of Cyber Policy . Scientists and engineers developed a network of linked computers called ARPANET. 

- The Internet of Things: A seamless network of everyday objects

- What is cyberwarfare?

- Internet history timeline: ARPANET to the World Wide Web

ARPANET's original aim was to link two computers in different places, enabling them to share data. That dream became a reality in 1969, according to Historian Jeremy Norman . In the years that followed, the team linked dozens of computers together and, by the end of the 1980s, the network contained more than 30,000 machines, according to the U.K.'s Science and Media Museum .

How the onternet works

Most computers connect to the internet without the use of wires, using   Wi-Fi , via a physical modem. It connects via a wire to a socket in the wall, which links to a box outside. That box connects via still more wires to a network of cables under the ground. Together, they convert radio waves to electrical signals to fibre optic pulses, and back again. 

At every connection point in the underground network, there are junction boxes called routers. Their job is to work out the best way to pass data from your computer to the computer with which you’re trying to connect. According to the IEEE International Conference on Communications , they use your IP addresses to work out where the data should go. Latency is the technical word that describes how long it takes data to get from one place to another, according to Frontier . 

Each router is only connected to its local network. If a message arrives for a computer that the router doesn’t recognizse, it passes it on to a router higher up in the local network. They each maintain an address book called a routing table . According to the Internet Protocol Journal , it shows the paths through the network to all the local IP addresses. 

The internet sends data around the world, across land and sea, as displayed on the Submarine Cable Map . The data passes between networks until it reaches the one closest to its destination. Then, it passes through local routers until it arrives at the computer with the matching IP address.

The internet relies upon the two connecting computers  speaking the same digital language. To achieve this, there is a set of rules called the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), according to the web infrastructure and website security company Cloudflare . 

TCP/IP makes the internet work a bit like a postal system. There is an address book that contains the identity of every device on the network, and a set of standard envelopes for packaging up data. The envelopes must carry the address of the sender, the address of the recipient, and details about the information packed inside. The IP, explains how the address system works, whileTCP, how to package and send the data.

Click the numbers on the following interactive image to find out what happens when you type www.livescience.com into your browser:

Internet speed and bandwidth

When it comes to internet speed how much data you can download in one second: bandwidth. According to Tom’s Guide , to surf the web, check your email, and update your social media, 25 megabits per second is enough. But, if you want to watch 4K movies, live stream video, or play online multiplayer games, you might need speeds of up to 100-200 megabits per second.

Your download speed depends on one main factor: the quality of the underground cables that link you to the rest of the world. Fibre optic cables send data much faster than their copper counterparts, according to the cable testing company BASEC , and your home internet is limited by the infrastructure available in your area.

Jersey has the highest average bandwidth in the world, according to Cable.co.uk . The little British island off the coast of France boasts average download speeds of over 274 megabits per second. Turkmenistan has the lowest, with download speeds barely reaching 0.5 megabits per second.

You can read more about the history of the internet at the Internet Society website . To discover how the Internet has changed our daily lives, read this article by Computing Australia .

• " Getting to the bottom of the internet’s carbon footprint ". University of Colorado Boulder, College of Media, Communication and Information (2021).
• " The evolution of the Internet: from military experiment to General Purpose Technology ". Journal of Cyber Policy (2016). 
• " The Internet: Past, Present, and Future ". Educational Technology (1997). 
• " Three-Way Handshake ". CISSP Study Guide (Second Edition) (2012).
• " Content Routers: Fetching Data on Network Path ". IEEE International Conference on Communications (2011).
• " Analyzing the Internet's BGP Routing Table ". The Internet Protocol Journal (2001). 
• " The Internet of Tomorrow ". Science (1999).

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Laura Mears is a biologist who left the confines of the lab for the rigours of an office desk as a keen science writer and a full-time software engineer. Laura has previously written for the magazines How It Works and T3 .  Laura's main interests include science, technology and video games.

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