is geography essay based

How to Write a Geography Essay that Transcends Borders

Have you ever found yourself floating effortlessly in the Dead Sea, that magical stretch of water between Israel and Jordan? It's the saltiest lake globally, turning you into a buoyant bobber without much effort. Now, just as geography unveils such fascinating quirks about our planet, writing an essay on this subject can be an equally intriguing venture.

Let's take a stroll through the world of geography essays together. We'll start by figuring out what exactly makes up a geography essay definition and then dive into the secrets of writing a great one. Along the way, we'll share some helpful tips, break down the important parts, and talk about why geography matters in today's world. Whether you're a student trying to do well in your geography class or just curious about why geography is important, this article is here for you. Let's get started!

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Essential Factors When Writing a Geography Essay

A great essay comes from a good understanding of the topic. Let's share some tips to help you create an impressive essay.

• Stick to What You Know : Pick geography topics that you're familiar with.
• Think Global : Show how your chosen topic connects to bigger issues like climate change or cultural diversity.
• Grab Attention : Choose a topic that interests you and your readers.
• Show with Examples : Use real examples to explain geography concepts in your essay.
• Stay on Track : Make sure everything in your essay relates to the main message.
• Use Sources : Share your thoughts based on what reliable sources say.
• Make it Real : Describe landscapes in a way that brings them to life for your readers.

In the next parts, our skilled writers, who you can buy essay from, will share a simple guide to help you write essays successfully!

Exploring What Is a Geography Essay

In simple terms, a geography essay is a well-organized explanation of geographic topics and ideas. It's more than just listing facts—it's a chance for you to showcase what you understand about geographical principles, processes, and their real-world impacts.

• Keep it Focused : Your essay should revolve around a specific topic or question in geography. This focus helps you stay on track and make your writing clear and relevant.
• Grasp the Concepts : Geography essays should include important geographical ideas like spatial relationships, scale, location, and interactions. These concepts give you the tools to understand and explain the world.
• Use Data : Geography relies on data and evidence. Bring in facts, maps, visuals, and statistics to support your points and show geographical patterns.
• Think Critically : A good essay doesn't just share information; it digs into the details. Explore the nuances, root causes, and broader impacts to give a deeper insight. ‍
• Connect to Reality: These essays often link theory with real-world issues. Whether you're talking about global warming, urbanization, cultural landscapes, or geopolitical shifts, these essays show why geography matters in our interconnected world.

How to Start a Geography Essay

Starting your essay in the right way not only grabs your readers' attention but also sets the stage for a well-organized and interesting exploration of your selected geography research paper topics .

• Establish the Geography : Kick-off by placing your topic in a geographic context. Explain where and why this topic matters, considering both local and global perspectives.
• Spark Interest : Draw your readers in by asking a thought-provoking question or sharing a surprising statistic related to your geography essay topics.
• Give Background Info : Provide a quick overview of the subject to make sure your readers have the basic knowledge needed to follow your arguments.
• Include a Quote : Think about using a fitting quote from a well-known geographer, researcher, or historical figure to add depth and credibility to your introduction.
• Set the Tone : Decide on the tone of your essay—whether it's informative, analytical, or persuasive—and let that tone shine through in your introductory language and style.

Select a Subject You're Comfortable Discussing

Picking the right research paper topic in geography is a big deal—it can really shape how the whole writing journey goes. One smart move to kick off your research paper well is to go for a subject you genuinely feel comfortable talking about. Here's why it matters:

• Expertise Shines : When your research paper topic matches what you already know and enjoy, your expertise shines through. You can use what you know to analyze and explain the subject better.
• Stay Motivated : Choosing a topic that genuinely interests you, like doing a geography essay about earthquakes, can be a great source of motivation. This inner drive helps you stay engaged during the whole research and writing process, leading to a better end result.
• Research Efficiency : Knowing your topic makes the research process smoother. You know where to find good sources, what keywords to use, and how to tell if information is reliable.
• Confident Analysis : Understanding your topic well, say, when dealing with a geography essay about global warming, gives you confidence. This confidence comes through in your analysis, making it more convincing.
• Boosted Creativity : Being comfortable with your topic can boost your creativity. You're more likely to come up with new ideas and unique perspectives when you're discussing something you're familiar with.

Let's explore a range of research topics that provide plenty of chances for thorough investigation and analysis. Feel free to choose the one that aligns with your interests and fits the particular focus of your research.

• Microclimates in Urban Spaces: Analyzing Local Community Impacts
• Geopolitics of Water Scarcity: Transboundary Water Conflict Case Study
• Ecotourism in Unexplored Territories: Balancing Conservation and Development
• Digital Cartography's Influence on Public Perception of Geographic Information
• Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Sustainable Resource Management
• Urban Heat Islands: Assessing Heat-Related Risks in Growing Cities
• Climate Change Impact on Traditional Agricultural Practices in Vulnerable Regions
• Geography of Infectious Diseases: Spatial Analysis of Disease Spread
• Patterns of Renewable Energy Adoption: A Global Comparative Study
• Cultural Landscapes in Transition: Globalization's Impact on Local Identities

Geography Essay Example

For a closer look at how to structure and compose an effective geography essay, we've put together a compelling example for your review. As you go through it, you'll discover the essential elements that contribute to making an essay both informative and engaging.

Exploring the Impact of River Dams on Ecosystems

Introduction:

Rivers are the lifeblood of many ecosystems, shaping landscapes and sustaining diverse forms of life. This essay delves into the intricate relationship between river dams and ecosystems, aiming to unravel the multifaceted consequences that altering natural watercourses can bring. By examining case studies and ecological principles, we seek to shed light on the complex web of interactions that define the impact of river dams on the environment.

River dams significantly modify the natural flow of water, creating reservoirs and altering the hydrological patterns downstream. This transformation often leads to changes in habitat availability for aquatic species. Case studies from various dam projects will be explored to illustrate the tangible effects on biodiversity and ecosystem structure.

Furthermore, many fish species rely on river systems for migration and spawning. Dams can present barriers to these natural processes, affecting fish populations and, consequently, the predators and prey in the broader food web. This section will examine how dams disrupt fish migration and explore potential mitigation strategies to minimize ecological consequences.

What's more, the alteration of river flow caused by dams influences water quality and sediment transport downstream. Sediment accumulation in reservoirs can have cascading effects on aquatic ecosystems. This part of the essay will delve into scientific studies highlighting changes in water quality and sedimentation patterns due to dam construction.

Beyond the ecological realm, the construction of river dams often has social and economic repercussions. Local communities dependent on rivers for their livelihoods may face challenges due to altered water regimes. Investigating case studies, we will explore the human dimension of the impact of river dams on communities and economies.

Conclusion:

In summary, the complex interplay between river dams and ecosystems demands thoughtful reflection. This essay has offered a glimpse into the diverse outcomes that come with changing natural watercourses, underscoring the importance of a comprehensive grasp of the ecological, social, and economic aspects at play. By delving into the intricate realm of river dam impacts, we acquire valuable insights into the nuanced equilibrium between human progress and environmental sustainability.

How to Write a Geography Essay: Insights and Pointers

When it comes to writing geography essays, it's not just about throwing out facts and figures. It's about digging deeper into geographical ideas, understanding how things relate, and sharing your findings in a way that makes sense. Our paper writing service experts are here to give you some handy tips:

• Dig Deep with Research: Start by really getting into your topic. Collect data, look at maps, and read up on what others have to say about it.
• Sort Your Thoughts: Organize your essay so it's easy to follow. That usually means having an intro, some main parts, and a wrap-up at the end. Keep it logical.
• Think and Talk Analysis: Get into the nitty-gritty of your analysis. Use geography ideas to explain your data and give your own take on things.
• Show Your Proof: Back up what you're saying with proof. Throw in maps, charts, or stories to make your points and show patterns.
• Question Everything: Think hard about different opinions and what your findings might mean in the big picture. Don't be afraid to question things and see where it takes you.

Breaking Down the Geography Essay Structure

A well-formatted geography essay structure is like a well-organized map – it guides readers through your analysis with clarity and purpose. To effectively break down the structure, consider the following key insights:

• Geographical Essence: Always consider the geographical context when framing your essay format . How does the landscape influence the subject, and in turn, how does it fit into the broader global narrative?
• Tailored Tone for Audience: Reflect on your audience. Are you speaking to geography enthusiasts, educators, policymakers, or the general public? Adjust your language and explanations to match their level of familiarity and interest.
• Conciseness and Wordplay: Maintain clarity by adhering to word limits and embracing conciseness. Focus on delivering pertinent information with a touch of engaging wordplay to captivate your readers.
• Innovative Perspectives: Aim for innovation in your analysis. While leveraging existing research, offer a fresh viewpoint or a unique twist on the topic to keep your essay from blending into the background.
• Ethical Dimensions: If your research involves human subjects, sensitive data, or fieldwork, be conscientious of ethical considerations. Seek necessary approvals, ensuring that your research adheres to ethical standards.
• Geographic Fluency: Demonstrate a keen grasp of geographic fluency in your essay. Showcase not just knowledge of concepts but an understanding of the interconnectedness of regions, adding depth to your exploration.
• Visual Appeal: Consider incorporating visual elements such as maps, charts, or images to enhance your essay's visual appeal. A well-chosen visual can often communicate complex geographical information more effectively.
• Future Implications: Extend your analysis to contemplate the future implications of the geographical factors you're discussing. How might current trends shape future landscapes, and what role does your topic play in this evolving narrative?

Geography Essay Introduction

The introductory paragraph is the starting point of your essay, where you contextualize, captivate your audience, and introduce your central thesis statement.

For instance, if your essay explores the effects of rising sea levels on coastal communities, your introduction could commence with a striking observation: ' In the coastal realms, where communities have thrived for generations, the encroaching rise of sea levels is transforming the very landscapes that have long shaped human existence. This unsettling shift is a direct consequence of global warming, a phenomenon casting profound implications across the globe .'

The core section of your essay, the main body, encompasses several paragraphs that house your analysis, arguments, evidence, and illustrations.

Within a segment examining the consequences of industrial pollution on river ecosystems, you might assert: ' Industrial effluents discharged into rivers represent a significant contributor to pollution. As evidenced by studies [cite], the toxic chemicals and pollutants released into water bodies pose severe threats to aquatic life, disrupting ecosystems and endangering the delicate balance of river environments. '

Geography Essay Summing Up

When wondering how to write a conclusion for an essay , remember that it acts as the final chapter, summarizing crucial findings, reiterating your thesis, and offering concluding insights or implications.

In a conclusion addressing the impact of desertification on agricultural communities, you might recapitulate: ' Surveying the intricate interplay between environmental degradation and agricultural sustainability in regions affected by desertification reveals a nuanced narrative. Despite the adversities posed, there exists an imperative for innovative solutions and adaptive strategies to ensure the resilience of agricultural communities in the face of advancing desertification. '

More Tips for Writing a Geography Essay

Here are some special tips on writing a geography essay that can enhance the depth and sophistication of your entire piece, showcasing a thorough grasp of geographic concepts and methods.

• Embrace diverse viewpoints – consider cultural, economic, and environmental angles for a richer analysis.
• Use geospatial tools like maps and satellite imagery to visually enhance your essay and emphasize spatial relationships.
• Bolster your arguments with real case studies to illustrate the practical application of your geographical analysis.
• Integrate recent global events into your essay to showcase relevance and stay aligned with the dynamic nature of geography.
• Explore intersections with other disciplines, providing a more comprehensive understanding of your topic.
• Highlight how local phenomena contribute to broader global narratives, emphasizing interconnectedness.
• If you're writing a cause and effect essay , compare urbanization trends in different cities to show the reasons and outcomes.

Why Geography Matters as a Subject of Study

Geography goes way beyond just maps and names of places; it's a lively and important field that helps us make sense of the world. Here's why geography matters:

• Knowing Spaces: It helps us understand how places, regions, and landscapes connect. This understanding is crucial for making smart choices about things like where to put resources, plan cities, and handle emergencies.
• Being a Global Citizen: It encourages us to appreciate different cultures and how we're all connected. It helps us see how big events, like climate change or pandemics, affect countries locally and globally.
• Taking Care of Nature: This subject gives us insights into environmental problems and solutions. It teaches us about issues like cutting down forests, losing habitats, and climate change so we can make choices that help our planet.
• Thinking Smart: Geography makes us think critically. It involves looking at complex information, considering different opinions, and drawing smart conclusions. These skills are handy in lots of jobs.
• Fixing Real Problems: What we learn in geography helps us solve actual problems – from designing better roads to managing water wisely and dealing with natural disasters.
• Making Rules and Plans: It has a say in making rules and plans. It guides decisions about how to use land, build things, and take care of resources.
• Loving Different Cultures: Geography helps us appreciate all kinds of cultures and how they relate to the environment. It lets us understand why places are important and how their histories have shaped them.

Ready to Explore the World without Leaving Your Desk?

Let our expert writers be your guides on this geographical voyage and map out your academic success together!

To sum it up, geography gives you the knowledge and skills to navigate our complex and connected world. Writing a geography essay helps you make smart choices, promote sustainability, and face global challenges. Whether you're exploring local landscapes or looking at global issues, geography lays the groundwork for understanding our planet and its diverse inhabitants through the art of essay writing.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

Related Articles

Writing in Geography and Urban Planning

This resource provides a brief introduction to writing in the field of  Geography and Urban Planning  through the lens of threshold concepts.

What is Geography?

Geography integrates the study of  people, places, and environments  to better understand the world and improve decision-making in sustainable development, urban and regional planning, and geospatial science.

Geography is literally and figuratively a worldview—exploring space, place, landscape, region, and environment—to better understand our changing planet, communicate that understanding, and apply it to decision-making. The geographical perspective is integrative but is focused through specialized subfields like urban geography, cultural/development geography, biogeography, and physical geography, among others. These differ in their object of study, methodology, regional focus, and application, and align with professional fields like urban planning, sustainable development, and environmental science.

Geographical research methods are also integrative yet diverse. They can be qualitative or quantitative (or a mix), including: field measurement and landscape interpretation; surveys and interviews; remote sensing, archival research, and content analysis; and geospatial analysis and mapping. Data sources or methods depend on the kind of research questions asked and who the intended audience is.

People are surprised both by the interdisciplinary breadth of geographical thinking and its relevance to understanding and impacting the world through fields like planning, sustainable development, and geospatial science. While geographers and planners are diverse, they share an emphasis on some key ideas (or threshold concepts):

• spatial processes and patterns are interdependent and linked across scales;
• landscapes and environments are dynamic across time and space;
• places reflect and reinforce patterns of unevenness and inequality; and
• individual actions have the power to transform the world.

But each geographical subfield also has its own threshold concepts. Human/social geographers emphasize the social production of space, development geographers the unevenness of development, physical geographers the dynamism of environmental processes and change, and urban geographers the mutually reinforcing link between transportation and land use.

Geographers and planners are united by many core values like the importance of curiosity and exploration, integrative thinking about interconnected phenomena, reflexivity and self awareness, engaging diverse people and places and the problems they face, and the power of the visual and graphical communication. Geographical thinking values synthesis over reductionism. And while many use laboratory or archival methods, field research is a priority. Because geography is so diverse, debates inevitably arise around differences in theories and methods as well as relative merits of different approaches (physical sciences vs. social science vs. humanism, etc.). But we value such diversity and debates, and pride ourselves in our ability to communicate across sub-disciplinary boundaries.

What Do Geographers and Planners Value in Writing?

Our values, goals, threshold concepts, and methods of study are all embodied in what and how we write.

We communicate—textually and often graphically—in genres like:

• place-based description/field reporting , including site reports, landscape interpretations, map and geovisual description and interpretation, travel writing and journalistic reporting, or existing conditions analysis;
• graphical thinking and communication , including maps, visual renderings, multimedia website, video, and diagrams, etc.;
• independent research , including literature reviews, research papers, scholarly articles and monographs;
• professional, collaborative reports , which include policy analyses/white papers, reports, and plans; and
• public communications , including presentations, posters, social media posts, and written correspondence.

The writing processes within each genre can vary:

• When  reviewing literature  we identify a topic scope, keywords, and research question. Searching for relevant sources by keyword is followed by a summary of individual sources and synthesis—seeing connections and contrasts, putting individual sources in context. We construct a narrative about the state of current knowledge and ongoing debates.
• Analyzing geographic phenomena  entails identifying a research question; synthesizing relevant literature; systematically applying an appropriate research method to gather data; and presenting, analyzing, and summarizing findings.
• When  writing plans or reports  we define a problem and goals, review existing literature and knowledge (typically including best practices), evaluate alternative problem-solving strategies, and suggest policy solutions.
• Communicating graphically  includes the visual depiction of spatial data or analysis through tools like mapping, artistic rendering, or diagramming. This involves choices about symbolic representation, and information to help viewers interpret them (e.g., map descriptions and keys).
• When  presenting to wider audiences  we make careful choices about how to concisely organize complex information for particular audiences, including choices about appropriate media and presentation styles.

What Makes Good Writing in Geography and Urban Planning?

In general, geographers and planners value writing that is clear and understandable. We look for logical structure, active voice, a sense of place, carefully framing and contextualization, support through visually rich (where relevant) evidence, and demonstration of methodical analysis and communication rooted in evidence. We also want to see authors acknowledge the limitations of their individual perspective.

As an integrated social and natural science, professional writers in our field must provide evidence for their claims. We gather data from across the world—whether that be field measurements or archived texts—to draw conclusions and develop recommendations. Professional writers in our field are credible when they:

• outline a compelling and relevant topic;
• acknowledge and cite current knowledge and debates;
• outline a clear methodology, whether qualitative and/or quantitative;
• communicate concisely and illustrate their claims with evidence; and
• draw conclusions or make recommendations grounded in evidence.

They are often not seen as credible when they do not or are not able to include supporting evidence.

The citation practices we use in our field also embody our goals, values, and conventions. In the Department of Geography, we primarily use author-date in-text citation style(s), which puts authors more front-and-center than in other fields. Often we chose the American Psychological Association (APA) citation style, simply because it is widely used and documented.

In some cases, plan and report writers will use note-based styles like footnotes. This places the bibliographic information below the cited information on the same page, so that it’s easy for the reader to refer to. We discourage the use of endnote-based styles, since they place key bibliographic information at the end where it is slower to access.

Whatever the citation style, whenever you make written claims that depend on outside information, you  must  cite the source(s) of that information. Readers must be able to quickly understand where you are getting information from. This requires:

• citing the source immediately upon first reference to that data;
• using textual cues in the same paragraph to make clear that information that follows also comes from the same source, but otherwise not repeating the same citation multiple times in the same paragraph;
• and including the page numbers if quoting material from a text with pages.

Keep in mind, however, that geographers and planners cite a wide range of data, including:

• demographic or economic development statistics from the United Nations, World Bank, or US Census Bureau;
• maps and geovisual representations of data;
• arguments from scholars and other experts about the state of knowledge that frames our work conceptually;
• interviews, portions of which we will often incorporate as quotations in social scientific and humanities-based work;
• various kinds of documents (including historical) that more humanities-oriented geographers in particular will incorporate, often as quotations to evaluate more subjective ideas, opinions, and reflections.

When deciding when to paraphrase versus directly quote information, generally you should only quote if the source of the quote is particularly significant and the specific wording strengthens the clarity of your claims. Like most disciplines, we prefer you explicitly specify in the text the quotation source, rather than to use “blind” quotes.

We follow all of these guidelines because this is how we document the evidence that supports strong arguments, and without it, we have no real basis for our claims.

How Do We Incorporate Writing in Our Courses?

Because writing styles and genres vary across Geography and Urban Planning, students develop different writing skills across the curriculum. Our major curricula prioritizes good written and graphical communication, but developing those skills happens in different ways in different classes.

• Undergraduates taking Miami Plan or electives in the Department of Geography  should recognize the interdisciplinary and space/place grounding in our writing and try to understand this when they write for us. We think this will be useful to them later even if they are not our majors because this framing will help to broaden their world view.
• Undergraduate majors in Urban and Regional Planning or Geography and Sustainable Development  should recognize spatial reasoning and evidence-based arguments and try to practice integrative thinking and analytical reasoning when they write. Over time they will need to become skilled at posing, answering, and communicating geographic research questions to prepare them for career success, lifelong learning, and informed civic engagement.
• Graduate students in Geography  should recognize the disciplinary and scholarly underpinnings of our writing and must learn to articulate geo-spatial relationships when they write for us. By graduation, they need to be able to design and carry out an independent thesis-driven research project to prepare them for professional advancement and career success.

Overall, when students are learning to write and read in our field, they will benefit from a better understanding for the dynamism of human and physical relationships over time and space.

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Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments.

Earth Science, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography

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Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and the human societies spread across it. They also examine how human culture interacts with the natural environment, and the way that locations and places can have an impact on people. Geography seeks to understand where things are found, why they are there, and how they develop and change over time.

Ancient Geographers

The term "geography" was coined by the Greek scholar Eratosthenes in the third century B.C.E. In Greek, geo- means “earth” and -graphy means “to write.” Using geography, Eratosthenes and other Greeks developed an understanding of where their homeland was located in relation to other places, what their own and other places were like, and how people and environments were distributed. These concerns have been central to geography ever since.

Of course, the Greeks were not the only people interested in geography, nor were they the first. Throughout human history, most societies have sought to understand something about their place in the world, and the people and environments around them. Mesopotamian societies inscribed maps on clay tablets, some of which survive to this day. The earliest known attempt at mapping the world is a Babylonian clay tablet known as the Imago Mundi. This map, created in the sixth century B.C.E., is more of a metaphorical and spiritual representation of Babylonian society rather than an accurate depiction of geography. Other Mesopotamian maps were more practical, marking irrigation networks and landholdings.

Indigenous peoples around the world developed geographic ideas and practices long before Eratosthenes. For example, Polynesian navigators embarked on long-range sea voyages across the Pacific Islands as early as 3000 years ago. The people of the Marshall Islands used navigation charts made of natural materials (“stick charts”) to visualize and memorize currents, wind patterns, and island locations.

Indeed, mapmaking probably came even before writing in many places, but ancient Greek geographers were particularly influential. They developed very detailed maps of Greek city-states, including parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. More importantly, they also raised questions about how and why different human and natural patterns came into being on Earth’s surface, and why variations existed from place to place. The effort to answer these questions about patterns and distribution led them to figure out that the world was round, to calculate Earth’s circumference, and to develop explanations of everything from the seasonal flooding of the Nile to differences in population densities from place to place.

During the Middle Ages, geography ceased to be a major academic pursuit in Europe. Advances in geography were chiefly made by scientists of the Muslim world, based around the Middle East and North Africa. Geographers of this Islamic Golden Age created an early example of a rectangular map based on a grid, a map system that is still familiar today. Islamic scholars also applied their study of people and places to agriculture, determining which crops and livestock were most suited to specific habitats or environments.

In addition to the advances in the Middle East, the Chinese empire in Asia also contributed immensely to geography. Around 1000, Chinese navigators achieved one of the most important developments in the history of geography: They were the first to use the compass for navigational purposes. In the early 1400s, the explorer Zheng He embarked on seven voyages to the lands bordering the China Sea and the Indian Ocean, establishing China’s influence throughout Southeast Asia.

Age of Discovery

Through the 13th-century travels of the Italian explorer Marco Polo, European interest in spices from Asia grew. Acquiring spices from East Asian and Arab merchants was expensive, and a major land route for the European spice trade was lost with the conquering of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire. These and other economic factors, in addition to competition between Christian and Islamic societies, motivated European nations to send explorers in search of a sea route to China. This period of time between the 15th and 17th centuries is known in the West as the Age of Exploration or the Age of Discovery.

With the dawn of the Age of Discovery, the study of geography regained popularity in Europe. The invention of the printing press in the mid-1400s helped spread geographic knowledge by making maps and charts widely available. Improvements in shipbuilding and navigation facilitated more exploring, greatly improving the accuracy of maps and geographic information.

Greater geographic understanding allowed European powers to extend their global influence. During the Age of Discovery, European nations established colonies around the world. Improved transportation, communication, and navigational technology allowed countries such as the United Kingdom to establish colonies as far away as the Americas, Asia, Australia, and Africa. This was lucrative for European powers, but the Age of Discovery brought about nightmarish change for the people already living in the territories they colonized. When Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492, millions of Indigenous peoples already lived there. By the 1600s, 90 percent of the Indigenous population of the Americas had been wiped out by violence and diseases brought over by European explorers.

Geography was not just a subject that enabled colonialism, however. It also helped people understand the planet on which they lived. Not surprisingly, geography became an important focus of study in schools and universities.

Geography also became an important part of other academic disciplines, such as chemistry, economics, and philosophy. In fact, every academic subject has some geographic connection. Chemists study where certain chemical elements, such as gold or silver, can be found. Economists examine which nations trade with other nations, and what resources are exchanged. Philosophers analyze the responsibility people have to take care of Earth.

Emergence of Modern Geography

Some people have trouble understanding the complete scope of the discipline of geography because geography is interdisciplinary, meaning that it is not defined by one particular topic. Instead, geography is concerned with many different topics—people, culture, politics, settlements, plants, landforms, and much more. Geography asks spatial questions—how and why things are distributed or arranged in particular ways on Earth’s surface. It looks at these different distributions and arrangements at many different scales. It also asks questions about how the interaction of different human and natural activities on Earth’s surface shape the characteristics of the world in which we live.

Geography seeks to understand where things are found and why they are present in those places; how things that are located in the same or distant places influence one another over time; and why places and the people who live in them develop and change in particular ways. Raising these questions is at the heart of the “ geographic perspective .”

Exploration has long been an important part of geography, and it’s an important part of developing a geographic perspective. Exploration isn’t limited to visiting unfamiliar places; it also means documenting and connecting relationships between spatial, sociological, and ecological elements.

The age-old practice of mapping still plays an important role in this type of exploration, but exploration can also be done by using images from satellites or gathering information from interviews. Discoveries can come by using computers to map and analyze the relationship among things in geographic space, or from piecing together the multiple forces, near and far, that shape the way individual places develop.

Applying a geographic perspective demonstrates geography’s concern not just with where things are, but with “the why of where”—a short but useful definition of geography’s central focus.

The insights that have come from geographic research show the importance of asking “the why of where” questions. Geographic studies comparing physical characteristics of continents on either side of the Atlantic Ocean, for instance, gave rise to the idea that Earth’s surface is comprised of large, slowly moving plates—plate tectonics.

Studies of the geographic distribution of human settlements have shown how economic forces and modes of transport influence the location of towns and cities. For example, geographic analysis has pointed to the role of the United States Interstate Highway System and the rapid growth of car ownership in creating a boom in U.S. suburban growth after World War II. The geographic perspective helped show where Americans were moving, why they were moving there, and how their new living places affected their lives, their relationships with others, and their interactions with the environment.

Geographic analyses of the spread of diseases have pointed to the conditions that allow particular diseases to develop and spread. Dr. John Snow’s cholera map stands out as a classic example. When cholera broke out in London, England, in 1854, Snow represented the deaths per household on a street map. Using the map, he was able to trace the source of the outbreak to a water pump on the corner of Broad Street and Cambridge Street. The geographic perspective helped identify the source of the problem (the water from a specific pump) and allowed people to avoid the disease (avoiding water from that pump).

Investigations of the geographic impact of human activities have advanced understanding of the role of humans in transforming the surface of Earth, exposing the spatial extent of threats such as water pollution by artificial waste. For example, geographic study has shown that a large mass of tiny pieces of plastic currently floating in the Pacific Ocean is approximately the size of Texas. Satellite images and other geographic technology identified the so-called “Great Pacific Garbage Patch.”

These examples of different uses of the geographic perspective help explain why geographic study and research is important as we confront many 21st century challenges, including environmental pollution, poverty, hunger, and ethnic or political conflict.

Because the study of geography is so broad, the discipline is typically divided into specialties. At the broadest level, geography is divided into physical geography, human geography, geographic techniques, and regional geography.

Physical Geography

The natural environment is the primary concern of physical geographers, although many physical geographers also look at how humans have altered natural systems. Physical geographers study Earth’s seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans. Some disciplines within physical geography include geomorphology, glaciology, pedology, hydrology, climatology, biogeography, and oceanography.

Geomorphology is the study of landforms and the processes that shape them. Geomorphologists investigate the nature and impact of wind, ice, rivers, erosion, earthquakes, volcanoes, living things, and other forces that shape and change the surface of Earth.

Glaciologists focus on Earth’s ice fields and their impact on the planet’s climate. Glaciologists document the properties and distribution of glaciers and icebergs. Data collected by glaciologists has demonstrated the retreat of Arctic and Antarctic ice in the past century.

Pedologists study soil and how it is created, changed, and classified. Soil studies are used by a variety of professions, from farmers analyzing field fertility to engineers investigating the suitability of different areas for building heavy structures.

Hydrology is the study of Earth’s water: its properties, distribution, and effects. Hydrologists are especially concerned with the movement of water as it cycles from the ocean to the atmosphere, then back to Earth’s surface. Hydrologists study the water cycle through rainfall into streams, lakes, the soil, and underground aquifers. Hydrologists provide insights that are critical to building or removing dams, designing irrigation systems, monitoring water quality, tracking drought conditions, and predicting flood risk.

Climatologists study Earth’s climate system and its impact on Earth’s surface. For example, climatologists make predictions about El Niño, a cyclical weather phenomenon of warm surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean. They analyze the dramatic worldwide climate changes caused by El Niño, such as flooding in Peru, drought in Australia, and, in the United States, the oddities of heavy Texas rains or an unseasonably warm Minnesota winter.

Biogeographers study the impact of the environment on the distribution of plants and animals. For example, a biogeographer might document all the places in the world inhabited by a certain spider species, and what those places have in common.

Oceanography, a related discipline of physical geography, focuses on the creatures and environments of the world’s oceans. Observation of ocean tides and currents constituted some of the first oceanographic investigations. For example, 18th-century mariners figured out the geography of the Gulf Stream, a massive current flowing like a river through the Atlantic Ocean. The discovery and tracking of the Gulf Stream helped communications and travel between Europe and the Americas.

Today, oceanographers conduct research on the impacts of water pollution, track tsunamis, design offshore oil rigs, investigate underwater eruptions of lava, and study all types of marine organisms from toxic algae to friendly dolphins.

Human Geography

Human geography is concerned with the distribution and networks of people and cultures on Earth’s surface. A human geographer might investigate the local, regional, and global impact of rising economic powers China and India, which represent 37 percent of the world’s people. They also might look at how consumers in China and India adjust to new technology and markets, and how markets respond to such a huge consumer base.

Human geographers also study how people use and alter their environments. When, for example, people allow their animals to overgraze a region, the soil erodes and grassland is transformed into desert. The impact of overgrazing on the landscape as well as agricultural production is an area of study for human geographers.

Finally, human geographers study how political, social, and economic systems are organized across geographical space. These include governments, religious organizations, and trade partnerships. The boundaries of these groups constantly change.

The main divisions within human geography reflect a concern with different types of human activities or ways of living. Some examples of human geography include urban geography, economic geography, cultural geography, political geography, social geography, and population geography. Human geographers who study geographic patterns and processes in past times are part of the subdiscipline of historical geography. Those who study how people understand maps and geographic space belong to a subdiscipline known as behavioral geography.

Many human geographers interested in the relationship between humans and the environment work in the subdisciplines of cultural geography and political geography.

Cultural geographers study how the natural environment influences the development of human culture, such as how the climate affects the agricultural practices of a region. Political geographers study the impact of political circumstances on interactions between people and their environment, as well as environmental conflicts, such as disputes over water rights.

Some human geographers focus on the connection between human health and geography. For example, health geographers create maps that track the location and spread of specific diseases. They analyze the geographic disparities of health-care access. They are very interested in the impact of the environment on human health, especially the effects of environmental hazards such as radiation, lead poisoning, or water pollution.

Geographic Techniques

Specialists in geographic techniques study the ways in which geographic processes can be analyzed and represented using different methods and technologies. Mapmaking, or cartography, is perhaps the most basic of these. Cartography has been instrumental to geography throughout the ages.

Today, almost the entire surface of Earth has been mapped with remarkable accuracy, and much of this information is available instantly on the internet. One of the most remarkable of these websites is Google Earth, which “lets you fly anywhere on Earth to view satellite imagery, maps, terrain, 3D buildings, from galaxies in outer space to the canyons of the ocean.” In essence, anyone can be a virtual explorer from the comfort of home.

Technological developments during the past 100 years have given rise to a number of other specialties for scientists studying geographic techniques. The airplane made it possible to photograph land from above. Now, there are many satellites and other above-Earth vehicles that help geographers figure out what the surface of the planet looks like and how it is changing.

Geographers looking at what above-Earth cameras and sensors reveal are specialists in remote sensing. Pictures taken from space can be used to make maps, monitor ice melt, assess flood damage, track oil spills, predict weather, or perform endless other functions. For example, by comparing satellite photos taken from 1955 to 2007, scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) discovered that the rate of coastal erosion along Alaska’s Beaufort Sea had doubled. Every year from 2002 to 2007, about 13.7 meters (45 feet) per year of coast, mostly icy permafrost, vanished into the sea.

Computerized systems that allow for precise calculations of how things are distributed and relate to one another have made the study of geographic information systems (GIS) an increasingly important specialty within geography. Geographic information systems are powerful databases that collect all types of information (maps, reports, statistics, satellite images, surveys, demographic data, and more) and link each piece of data to a geographic reference point, such as geographic coordinates. This data, called geospatial information, can be stored, analyzed, modeled, and manipulated in ways not possible before GIS computer technology existed.

The popularity and importance of GIS has given rise to a new science known as geographic information science (GISci). Geographic information scientists study patterns in nature as well as human development. They might study natural hazards, such as a fire that struck Los Angeles, California, United States, in 2008. A map posted on the internet showed the real-time spread of the fire, along with information to help people make decisions about how to evacuate quickly. GIS can also illustrate human struggles from a geographic perspective, such as the interactive online map published by the New York Times in May 2009 that showed building foreclosure rates in various regions around the New York City area.

The enormous possibilities for producing computerized maps and diagrams that can help us understand environmental and social problems have made geographic visualization an increasingly important specialty within geography. This geospatial information is in high demand by just about every institution, from government agencies monitoring water quality to entrepreneurs deciding where to locate new businesses.

Regional Geography

Regional geographers take a somewhat different approach to specialization, directing their attention to the general geographic characteristics of a region. A regional geographer might specialize in African studies, observing and documenting the people, nations, rivers, mountains, deserts, weather, trade, and other attributes of the continent. There are different ways you can define a region. You can look at climate zones, cultural regions, or political regions. Often regional geographers have a physical or human geography specialty as well as a regional specialty.

Regional geographers may also study smaller regions, such as urban areas. A regional geographer may be interested in the way a city like Shanghai, China, is growing. They would study transportation, migration, housing, and language use, as well as the human impact on elements of the natural environment, such as the Huangpu River.

Whether geography is thought of as a discipline or as a basic feature of our world, developing an understanding of the subject is important. Some grasp of geography is essential as people seek to make sense of the world and understand their place in it. Thinking geographically helps people to be aware of the connections among and between places and to see how important events are shaped by where they take place. Finally, knowing something about geography enriches people’s lives—promoting curiosity about other people and places and an appreciation of the patterns, environments, and peoples that make up the endlessly fascinating, varied planet on which we live.

Gazetteer A gazetteer is a geographic dictionary. Gazetteers, which have existed for thousands of years, usually contain some sort of map and a set of information. Some gazetteers may contain a list of capital cities or areas where a specific resource is found. Other gazetteers may contain information about the local population, such as languages spoken, money used, or religious beliefs.

Old Maps People have been making maps for thousands of years. One of the oldest known maps was found near the city of Kirkuk, Iraq. Most geographers say it dates from 2500 B.C.E. It is a palm-sized block of clay depicting an area with two hills and a stream. (Some geographers think the stream is a canal made by people for irrigation.) Geographers have identified one of the towns on the map. However, they are not sure exactly what the hand-held map represents. Ancient maps could also be quite large. A nine-foot wall painting in Catal Hyuk, Turkey, was made about 6000 B.C.E. It is a map of a busy city, complete with crowded housing and even an erupting volcano. However, some scientists believe this "map" is decorative and not an accurate representation of what was there.

Wrong-Way Corrigan The American aviator Douglas Corrigan is often nicknamed "Wrong-Way Corrigan" because of a navigational error he made on a flight in 1938. Corrigan had just piloted a very impressive flight from the U.S. cities of Long Beach, California, to New York, New York. He was scheduled to fly back to Long Beach. Instead, with the sky covered in clouds, Wrong Way Corrigan flew to Dublin, Ireland.

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1.1 Geography Basics

Learning objectives.

• Understand the focus of geography and the two main branches of the discipline.
• Learn about the tools geographers use to study the earth’s surface.
• Summarize the grid system of latitude and longitude and how it relates to seasons and time zones.
• Distinguish between the different types of regional distinctions recognized in geography.
• Understand the spatial nature of geography and how each place or region is examined, analyzed, and compared with other places or regions.
• Determine the basic geographic realms and their locations.

What Is Geography?

Geography is the spatial study of the earth’s surface (from the Greek geo , which means “Earth,” and graphein , which means “to write”). Geographers study the earth’s physical characteristics, its inhabitants and cultures, phenomena such as climate, and the earth’s place within the universe. Geography examines the spatial relationships between all physical and cultural phenomena in the world. Geographers also look at how the earth, its climate, and its landscapes are changing due to cultural intervention.

The first known use of the word geography was by Eratosthenes of Cyrene (modern-day Libya in North Africa), an early Greek scholar who lived between 276 and 194 BCE. He devised one of the first systems of longitude and latitude and calculated the earth’s circumference. Additionally, he created one of the first maps of the world based on the available knowledge of the time. Around the same time, many ancient cultures in China, southern Asia, Polynesia, and the Arabian Peninsula also developed maps and navigation systems used in geography and cartography.

The discipline of geography can be broken down into two main areas of focus: physical geography and human geography . These two main areas are similar in that they both use a spatial perspective, and they both include the study of place and the comparison of one place with another.

Physical geography is the spatial study of natural phenomena that make up the environment, such as rivers, mountains, landforms, weather, climate, soils, plants, and any other physical aspects of the earth’s surface. Physical geography focuses on geography as a form of earth science. It tends to emphasize the main physical parts of the earth—the lithosphere (surface layer), the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), and the biosphere (living organisms)—and the relationships between these parts.

The major forms of study within physical geography include the following:

• Geomorphology (the study of the earth’s surface features)
• Glaciology (the study of glaciers)
• Coastal geography (the study of the coastal regions)
• Climatology (the study of climates and climate change)
• Biogeography (the study of the geographic patterns of species distribution)

Some physical geographers study the earth’s place in the solar system. Others are environmental geographers, part of an emerging field that studies the spatial aspects and cultural perceptions of the natural environment. Environmental geography requires an understanding of both physical and human geography, as well as an understanding of how humans conceptualize their environment and the physical landscape.

Physical landscape is the term used to describe the natural terrain at any one place on the planet. The natural forces of erosion, weather, tectonic plate action, and water have formed the earth’s physical features. Many US state and national parks attempt to preserve unique physical landscapes for the public to enjoy, such as Yellowstone, Yosemite, and the Grand Canyon.

Human geography is the study of human activity and its relationship to the earth’s surface. Human geographers examine the spatial distribution of human populations, religions, languages, ethnicities, political systems, economics, urban dynamics, and other components of human activity. They study patterns of interaction between human cultures and various environments and focus on the causes and consequences of human settlement and distribution over the landscape. While the economic and cultural aspects of humanity are primary focuses of human geography, these aspects cannot be understood without describing the landscape on which economic and cultural activities take place.

The cultural landscape is the term used to describe those parts of the earth’s surface that have been altered or created by humans. For example, the urban cultural landscape of a city may include buildings, streets, signs, parking lots, or vehicles, while the rural cultural landscape may include fields, orchards, fences, barns, or farmsteads. Cultural forces unique to a given place—such as religion, language, ethnicity, customs, or heritage—influence the cultural landscape of that place at a given time. The colors, sizes, and shapes of the cultural landscape usually symbolize some level of significance regarding societal norms. Spatial dynamics assist in identifying and evaluating cultural differences between places.

Traditionally, the field of cartography , or map making, has been a vital discipline for geographers. While cartography continues to be an extremely important part of geography, geographers also look at spatial (space) and temporal (time) relationships between many types of data, including physical landscape types, economies, and human activity. Geography also examines the relationships between and the processes of humans and their physical and cultural environments. Because maps are powerful graphic tools that allow us to illustrate relationships and processes at work in the world, cartography and geographic information systems have become important in modern sciences. Maps are the most common method of illustrating different spatial qualities, and geographers create and use maps to communicate spatial data about the earth’s surface.

Geospatial techniques are tools used by geographers to illustrate, manage, and manipulate spatial data. Cartography is the art and science of making maps, which illustrate data in a spatial form and are invaluable in understanding what is going on at a given place at a given time.

Making maps and verifying a location have become more exact with the development of the global positioning system (GPS) . A GPS unit can receive signals from orbiting satellites and calculate an exact location in latitude and longitude, which is helpful for determining where one is located on the earth or for verifying a point on a map. GPS units are standard equipment for many transportation systems and have found their way into products such as cell phones, handheld computers, fish finders, and other mobile equipment. GPS technology is widely implemented in the transport of people, goods, and services around the world.

Remote sensing technology acquires data about the earth’s surface through aerial photographs taken from airplanes or images created from satellites orbiting the earth. Remotely sensed images allow geographers to identify, understand, or explain a particular landscape or determine the land use of a place. These images can serve as important components in the cartographic (map-making) process. These technologies provide the means to examine and analyze changes on the earth’s surface caused by natural or human forces. Google Earth is an excellent example of a computer tool that illustrates remotely sensed images of locations on the earth.

Figure 1.1 Low Elevation Air Photo of Cultural Landscape in Morehead, Kentucky

Photo by R. Berglee – CC BY-NC-SA.

Geographic information science (GIS) , often referred to as geographic information systems, uses a computer program to assimilate and manage many layers of map data, which then provide specific information about a given place. GIS data are usually in digital form and arranged in layers. The GIS computer program can sort or analyze layers of data to illustrate a specific feature or activity. GIS programs are used in a wide range of applications, from determining the habitat range of a particular species of bird to mapping the hometowns of university students.

Figure 1.2 Illustration of Layers in a GIS Process

GIS specialists often create and analyze geographical information for government agencies or private businesses. They use computer programs to take raw data to develop the information these organizations need for making vital decisions. For example, in business applications, GIS can be used to determine a favorable location for a retail store based on the analysis of spatial data layers such as population distribution, highway or street arrangements, and the locations of similar stores or competitive establishments. GIS can integrate a number of maps into one to help analysts understand a place in relation to their own specific needs.

GIS also focuses on storing information about the earth (both cultural and natural) in computer databases that can be retrieved and displayed in the form of specialized maps for specific purposes or analyses. GIS specialists require knowledge about computer and database systems. Over the last two decades, GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all cartography is now done with the assistance of GIS software. Additionally, analysis of various cultural and natural phenomena through the use of GIS software and specialized maps is an important part of urban planning and other social and physical sciences. GIS can also refer to techniques used to represent, analyze, and predict spatial relationships between different phenomena.

Geography is a much broader field than many people realize. Most people think of area studies as the whole of geography. In reality, geography is the study of the earth, including how human activity has changed it. Geography involves studies that are much broader than simply understanding the shape of the earth’s landforms. Physical geography involves all the planet’s physical systems. Human geography incorporates studies of human culture, spatial relationships, interactions between humans and the environment, and many other areas of research that involve the different subspecialties of geography. Students interested in a career in geography would be well served to learn geospatial techniques and gain skills and experience in GIS and remote sensing, as they are the areas within geography where employment opportunities have grown the most over the past few decades.

The Earth and Graticule Location

When identifying a region or location on the earth, the first step is to understand its relative and absolute locations. Relative location is the location on the earth’s surface with reference to other places, taking into consideration features such as transportation access or terrain. Relative location helps one compare the advantages of one location with those of another. Absolute location , on the other hand, refers to an exact point on the earth’s surface without regard to how that point is related to any other place. Absolute location is vital to the cartographic process and to human activities that require an agreed-upon method of identifying a place or point.

Just as you were taught in geometry that there are 360 degrees in a circle or a sphere, the earth also has 360 degrees, and they are measured using a grid pattern called the graticule . Lines of latitude and longitude allow any absolute location on the earth to have an identifiable address of degrees north or south and east or west, which allows geographers to accurately locate, measure, and study spatial activity.

Geographers and cartographers organize locations on the earth using a series of imaginary lines that encircle the globe. The two primary lines are the equator and the prime meridian. From these lines, the systems of longitude and latitude are formed, allowing you to locate yourself anywhere on the planet. The line is the longest when you travel along in an east-west direction. At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon on the two equinoxes, which occur in March and September.

Figure 1.3 Basic Lines of Longitude and Latitude

Parallels or Lines of Latitude

Figure 1.4 Noted Lines of Latitude

The equator is the largest circle of latitude on Earth. The equator divides the earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and is called 0 degrees latitude. The other lines of latitude are numbered from 0 to 90 degrees going toward each of the poles. The lines north of the equator toward the North Pole are north latitude, and each of the numbers is followed by the letter “N.” The lines south of the equator toward the South Pole are south latitude, and each of the numbers is followed by the letter “S.” The equator (0 latitude) is the only line of latitude without any letter following the number. Notice that all lines of latitude are parallel to the equator (they are often called parallels) and that the North Pole equals 90 degrees N and the South Pole equals 90 degrees S. Noted parallels include both the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, which are 23.5 degrees from the equator. At 66.5 degrees from the equator are the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle near the North and South Pole, respectively.

Meridians or Lines of Longitude

The prime meridian sits at 0 degrees longitude and divides the earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The prime meridian is defined as an imaginary line that runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England, a suburb of London. The Eastern Hemisphere includes the continents of Europe, Asia, and Australia, while the Western Hemisphere includes North and South America. All meridians (lines of longitude) east of the prime meridian (0 and 180) are numbered from 1 to 180 degrees east (E); the lines west of the prime meridian (0 and 180) are numbered from 1 to 180 degrees west (W). The 0 and 180 lines do not have a letter attached to them. The meridian at 180 degrees is called the International Date Line . The International Date Line (180 degrees longitude) is opposite the prime meridian and indicates the start of each day (Monday, Tuesday, etc.). Each day officially starts at 12:01 a.m., at the International Date Line. Do not confuse the International Date Line with the prime meridian (0 longitude). The actual International Date Line does not follow the 180-degree meridian exactly. A number of alterations have been made to the International Date Line to accommodate political agreements to include an island or country on one side of the line or another.

Climate and Latitude

The earth is tilted on its axis 23.5 degrees. As it rotates around the sun, the tilt of the earth’s axis provides different climatic seasons because of the variations in the angle of direct sunlight on the planet. Places receiving more direct sunlight experience a warmer climate. Elsewhere, the increased angle of incoming solar radiation near the earth’s poles results in more reflected sunlight and thus a cooler climate. The Northern Hemisphere experiences winter when sunlight is reflected off the earth’s surface and less of the sun’s energy is absorbed because of a sharper angle from the sun.

The Tropic of Cancer is the parallel at 23.5 degrees north of the equator, which is the most northerly place on Earth, receiving direct sunlight during the Northern Hemisphere’s summer. Remember that the earth is tilted 23.5 degrees, which accounts for seasonal variations in climate. The Tropic of Capricorn is the parallel at 23.5 degrees south of the equator and is the most southerly location on Earth, receiving direct sunlight during the Southern Hemisphere’s summer.

The tropics (Cancer and Capricorn) are the two imaginary lines directly above which the sun shines on the two solstices , which occur on or near June 20 or 21 (summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere) and December 21 or 22 (winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere). The sun is directly above the Tropic of Cancer at noon on June 20 or 21, marking the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of winter in the Southern Hemisphere. The sun is directly above the Tropic of Capricorn at noon on December 21 or 22, marking the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of summer in the Southern Hemisphere. Solstices are the extreme ends of the seasons, when the line of direct sunlight is either the farthest north or the farthest south that it ever goes. The region between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is known as the tropics. This area does not experience dramatic seasonal changes because the amount of direct sunlight received does not vary widely. The higher latitudes (north of the Tropic of Cancer and south of the Tropic of Capricorn) experience significant seasonal variation in climate.

Figure 1.5 Road Sign South of Dakhla, Western Sahara (Claimed by Morocco), Marking the Tropic of Cancer

This sign was placed in this desert location by the Budapest-Bamako rally participants. The non-English portion is in Hungarian because of the European participants in the race.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

The Arctic Circle is a line of latitude at 66.5 degrees north. It is the farthest point north that receives sunlight during its winter season (90 N − 23.5 = 66.5 N). During winter, the North Pole is away from the sun and does not receive much sunlight. At times, it is dark for most of the twenty-four-hour day. During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer, the North Pole faces more toward the sun and may receive sunlight for longer portions of the twenty-four-hour day. The Antarctic Circle is the corresponding line of latitude at 66.5 degrees south. It is the farthest location south that receives sunlight during the winter season in the Southern Hemisphere (90 S − 23.5 = 66.5 S). When it is winter in the north, it is summer in the south.

The Arctic and Antarctic Circles mark the extremities (southern and northern, respectively) of the polar day (twenty-four-hour sunlit day) and the polar night (twenty-four-hour sunless night). North of the Arctic Circle, the sun is above the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year and below the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year. This is true also near the Antarctic Circle, but it occurs south of the Antarctic Circle, toward the South Pole. Equinoxes , when the line of direct sunlight hits the equator and days and nights are of equal length, occur in the spring and fall on or around March 20 or 21 and September 22 or 23.

Figure 1.6 Graphic of the Four Seasons

Universal Time (UT), Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), or Zulu Time (Z): all four terms can be defined as local time at 0 degrees longitude, which is the prime meridian (location of Greenwich, England). This is the same time under which many military operations, international radio broadcasts, and air traffic control systems operate worldwide. UTC is set in zero- to twenty-four-hour time periods, as opposed to two twelve-hour time periods (a.m. and p.m.). The designations of a.m. and p.m. are relative to the central meridian: a.m. refers to ante meridiem , or “before noon,” and p.m. refers to post meridiem , or “after noon.” UT, UTC, GMT, and Z all refer to the same twenty-four-hour time system that assists in unifying a common time in regard to global operations. For example, all air flights use the twenty-four-hour time system so the pilots can coordinate flights across time zones and around the world.

The earth rotates on its axis once every twenty-four hours at the rate of 15 degrees per hour (15 × 24 = 360). Time zones are established roughly every 15 degrees longitude so that local times correspond to similar hours of day and night. With this system, the sun is generally overhead at noon in every time zone that follows the 15-degree-wide system. The continental United States has four main time zones (see Table 1.1 “Four Main Time Zones in the Continental United States and Their Central Meridians” and Figure 1.7 “Major Time Zones of the World” ).

Table 1.1 Four Main Time Zones in the Continental United States and Their Central Meridians

Figure 1.7 Major Time Zones of the World

The twenty-four times zones are based on the prime meridian in regard to Universal Coordinated Time (UTC), Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), or Zulu Time (Z), which all operate on the twenty-four-hour time clock. Local time zones are either plus or minus determined by the distance from the prime meridian.

Figure 1.8 Diagram Illustrating the Width of a Time Zone

In this diagram, 75 W is the central meridian for the eastern standard time zone in the United States.

The eastern standard time zone is five hours earlier than the time at the prime meridian (UTC) because it is about 75 degrees west of 0 degrees (5 × 15 = 75). For example, if it is noon in London, then it is 7 a.m. in New York. If it is 1 p.m. in New York, it is 10 a.m. in San Francisco, which is three times zones to the west. Since there are twenty-four hours in a day, there are twenty-four time zones on Earth. Each time zone is 15 degrees wide.

A problem with the 15-degree time zones is that the zones do not necessarily follow state, regional, or local boundaries. The result is that time zones are seldom exactly 15 degrees wide and usually have varied boundary lines. In the United States, the boundaries between the different time zones are inconsistent with the lines of longitude; in some cases, time zones zigzag to follow state lines or to keep cities within a single time zone. Other countries address the problem differently. China, for example, is as large in land area as the United States yet operates on only one time zone for the entire country.

Regions in Geography

A region is a basic unit of study in geography—a unit of space characterized by a feature such as a common government, language, political situation, or landform. A region can be a formal country governed by political boundaries, such as France or Canada; a region can be defined by a landform, such as the drainage basin of all the water that flows into the Mississippi River; and a region can even be defined by the area served by a shopping mall. Cultural regions can be defined by similarities in human activities, traditions, or cultural attributes. Geographers use the regional unit to map features of particular interest, and data can be compared between regions to help understand trends, identify patterns, or assist in explaining a particular phenomenon.

Regions are traditionally defined by internal characteristics that provide a sense of place. Their boundaries vary with the type of region, whether it is formal, functional, or vernacular; each type has its own meaning and defined purpose. A formal region has a governmental, administrative, or political boundary and can have political as well as geographic boundaries that are not open to dispute or debate. Formal boundaries can separate states, provinces, or countries from one another. Physical regions can be included within formal boundaries, such as the Rocky Mountains or New England. An official boundary, such as the boundary of a national park, can be considered a formal boundary. School districts, cities, and county governments have formal boundaries.

Natural physical geographic features have a huge influence on where political boundaries of formal regions are set. If you look at a world map, you will recognize that many political boundaries are natural features, such as rivers, mountain ranges, and large lakes. For example, between the United States and Mexico, the Rio Grande makes up a portion of the border. Likewise, between Canada and the United States, a major part of the eastern border is along the Saint Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes. Alpine mountain ranges in Europe create borders, such as the boundary between Switzerland and Italy.

While geographic features can serve as convenient formal borders, political disputes will often flare up in adjacent areas, particularly if valuable natural or cultural resources are found within the geographic features. Oil drilling near the coast of a sovereign country, for example, can cause a dispute between countries about which one has dominion over the oil resources. The exploitation of offshore fisheries can also be disputed. A Neolithic mummy of a man who died in 3300 BCE caused tension between Italy and Switzerland: the body was originally taken to Innsbruck, Switzerland, but when it was determined that the body was found about 90 meters (180 feet) inside the border of Italy, Italian officials laid claim to the body.

Functional regions have boundaries related to a practical function within a given area. When the function of an area ends, the functional region ends and its boundaries cease to exist. For example, a functional region can be defined by a newspaper service or delivery area. If the newspaper goes bankrupt, the functional region no longer exists. Church parishes, shopping malls, and business service areas are other examples of functional regions. They function to serve a region and may have established boundaries for limits of the area to which they will provide service. An example of a common service area—that is, a functional region—is the region to which a local pizza shop will deliver.

Vernacular regions have loosely defined boundaries based on people’s perceptions or thoughts. Vernacular regions can be fluid—that is, different people may have different opinions about the limits of the regions. Vernacular regions include concepts such as the region called the “Middle East.” Many people have a rough idea of the Middle East’s location but do not know precisely which countries make up the Middle East. Also, in the United States, the terms Midwest or South have many variations. Each individual might have a different idea about the location of the boundaries of the South or the Midwest. Whether the state of Kentucky belongs in the Midwest or in the South might be a matter of individual perception. Similarly, various regions of the United States have been referred to as the Rust Belt, Sun Belt, or Bible Belt without a clear definition of their boundaries. The limit of a vernacular area is more a matter of perception than of any formally agreed-upon criteria. Nevertheless, most people would recognize the general area being discussed when using one of the vernacular terms in a conversation.

Using a State as a Comparison Guide

In comparing one formal political region with another, it is often helpful to use a familiar country, state, province, or political unit as a reference or guide. Wherever you are located, you can research the statistical data for a formal region familiar to you to provide a common reference. The US state of Kentucky is one example that can be used to compare formal political regions. Kentucky ranks close to the middle range of the fifty US states in terms of its population of 4.3 million people. Kentucky is also within the median range of the fifty states in overall physical area. The state’s 40,409-square-mile physical area ranks it thirty-seventh in size in the United States. Kentucky is not as large in physical area as the western states but is larger in physical area than many of the eastern states. Kentucky includes part of the rural peripheral region of Appalachia, but the state also has cosmopolitan core urban centers such as Lexington and Louisville. Kentucky also borders the metropolitan city of Cincinnati. The rural peripheral regions of the state are home to agriculture and mining. The urban core areas are home to industry and service centers. Other US states could also be used as examples. Identifying a state’s geographical attributes provides readers both in and outside the United States with a comparison indicator for geographic purposes.

The state of Kentucky can be used as a comparison guide for understanding other formal political regions around the world.

World Regional Geography

World regional geography studies various world regions as they compare with the rest of the world. Factors for comparison include both the physical and the cultural landscape. The main questions are, Who lives there? What are their lives like? What do they do for a living? Physical factors of significance can include location, climate type, and terrain. Human factors include cultural traditions, ethnicity, language, religion, economics, and politics.

World regional geography focuses on regions of various sizes across the earth’s landscape and aspires to understand the unique character of regions in terms of their natural and cultural attributes. Spatial studies can play an important role in regional geography. The scientific approach can focus on the distribution of cultural and natural phenomena within regions as delimited by various natural and cultural factors. The focus is on the spatial relationships within any field of study, such as regional economics, resource management, regional planning, and landscape ecology.

Again, this textbook takes a regional approach with a focus on themes that illustrate the globalization process, which in turn helps us better understand our global community. The regions studied in world regional geography can be combined into larger portions called realms . Realms are large areas of the planet, usually with multiple regions, that share the same general geographic location. Regions are cohesive areas within each realm. The following eleven realms are outlined in this text:

• Europe (Eastern Europe and Western Europe)
• The Russian Realm (Russian republic of the former Soviet Union)
• North America (United States and Canada)
• Middle America (Caribbean, Mexico, Central America)
• South America
• North Africa, the Middle East and central Asia
• Subsaharan Africa (Africa south of the Sahara Desert)
• Southern Asia (India and its neighbors)
• Eastern Asia (China, Mongolia, Japan, and the Koreas)
• Southeast Asia (mainland region and the islands region)
• Australia and the Pacific (including New Zealand)

Figure 1.10 Major World Realms

Key Takeaways

• Geography is the spatial study of the earth’s surface. The discipline of geography bridges the social sciences with the physical sciences. The two main branches of geography include physical geography and human geography. GIS, GPS, and remote sensing are tools that geographers use to study the spatial nature of physical and human landscapes.
• A grid system called the graticule divides the earth by lines of latitude and longitude that allow for the identification of absolute location on the earth’s surface through geometric coordinates measured in degrees. There are twenty-four time zones that are set at 15-degree intervals each and organize time intervals around the world.
• The tilt of the earth’s axis at 23.5 degrees helps create the earth’s seasonal transitions by either absorbing or reflecting the sun’s energy. The line of direct sunlight always hits the earth between 23.5 degrees north (Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5 degrees south (Tropic of Capricorn), depending on the time of year.
• A region is the basic unit of study in geography. Three main types of boundaries define a region: formal, functional, and vernacular. World regional geography is the study of a particular group of world regions or realms as each compares with the rest of the world.

Discussion and Study Questions

• How does the discipline of geography provide a bridge between the social sciences and the physical sciences?
• How does the cultural landscape assist in indicating the differences between a wealthy neighborhood and a poverty-stricken neighborhood?
• How can remote sensing technology assist in determining what people do for a living?
• What is the significance of the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn?
• What occupations depend on knowledge of the seasons for their success?
• If it is 4 p.m. in San Francisco, what time is it in London, England?
• How would GIS, GPS, or remote sensing technology be used to evaluate the destruction caused by a tornado in Oklahoma?
• How is the cultural landscape influenced by the physical landscape?
• Can you list a formal region, a functional region, and a vernacular region that would include where you live?
• What methods, topics, or procedures would be helpful to include in the study of world geography?

Geography Exercise

Identify the following key places on a map:

• Arctic Circle
• Antarctic Circle
• International Date Line
• Prime meridian
• Tropic of Cancer
• Tropic of Capricorn
• Use Google Earth to locate your current school or residence.
• Draw a map of your home state or province and include lines of latitude and longitude.
• Compile the statistical data on your home state, province, or territory to use in comparing formal political regions.

World Regional Geography Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Tips for Online Students , Tips for Students

Why Is Geography Important? There’s More Than You Think

Updated: December 12, 2023

Published: June 29, 2020

There’s More To Geography Than You Think

When you think of geography, what comes to mind? Memorizing maps and capitals? That’s not all geography is! It’s actually much more. Geography is the study of humans and people through space, throughout time, and how those spaces have shaped history. It’s a fascinating field of study, and important too. Why is geography important? Let’s find out!

What Is Geography?

According to National Geographic, geography is the “study of places and the relationships between people and their environments.” So, you can already see that geography is much more than just studying maps and knowledge of country capitals.

Connecting With Space And Place

Geography is all about connections of humans with spaces and places. Physical properties of the earth, such as mountain ranges and bodies of water, for example, can dramatically impact the way humans move, think, and act. Geography seeks to understand how physical landscapes shape human history.

Studying Geography To Understand Our Planet

Geography can help us understand the planet’s movement, changes, and systems. Topics that are relevant to today such as climate change, water availability, natural resources, and more are much easier understood by those who know geography well.

Studying Geographical Regions And Cultures

Human geography is an important part of geography. Knowing the relationships between cultures, and why they exist at all is vital in our increasingly global world.

Photo by Johnson Wang on Unsplash

Why study geography 11 reasons.

Why is geography important? Why study it? There are so many reasons why geography is still a vital part of the curriculum. Here are just a few:

1. Space Vs. Place Awareness

Studying geography helps us to have an awareness of a place. All places and spaces have a history behind them, shaped by humans, earth, and climate. Studying geography gives a meaning and awareness to places and spaces. It also helps students with spatial awareness on the globe. Understanding direction and where things are in the world is still a vital skill, despite having easy access to this information online. Physical Geography: This is the study of the physical makeup of a land. It can include climate, landforms, soil and growth, bodies of waters, and natural resources. Human Geography: Human geography, on the other hand, includes the study of people and culture and how they are distributed across the globe.

2. A Global Community

3. Nonfiction Reading Skills

For students of all ages, studying geography helps to develop nonfiction reading skills — not only in the studying of maps, but also in the reading materials that are associated with geography. Geography often involves first-hand accounts, reading of research studies, and analysis of data sets.

4. Learn The Course Of History

Geography puts history in context. It helps us see the why, when, and how of what happened in history. You’ll learn history better by learning geography.

5. Travel Smart

Study the geography of a place before you travel. Learn about its natural landscapes, cultures, and their influence on one another. This will not only help you plan a better travel experience for yourself, but you’ll make the most out of your time while you’re there.

6. Understand Globalization

When companies go global, they are contributing to globalization. When you travel abroad, you are participating in globalization. Globalization is the process of cultures travelling globally and having an effect on others. Studying geography helps us understand where globalization might lead.

7. Global Interdependence

Global interdependence is the idea that areas of the world are all interdependent on one another. Each country, continent, and region depends on another for resources and peace. Those countries depend on others, and so on — we are all connected and depending on one another in some form.

8. Putting The News In Context

If you don’t know where something is or the physical context it’s in, how can you understand what is being reported on the news? Studying geography will make you better understand current events.

9. Navigation Skills

10. Making Sense Of Cultures

Studying geography will help you make sense of and appreciate different cultures around the globe. Learning about land, resource availability, and how that has shaped a culture to be the way it is today helps you understand the uniqueness of a culture.

11. Vast Employment Opportunities For Geography Grads

If you decide to study geography in college, your opportunities after graduation are vast. Many geography grads go into urban and regional planning, a field that is growing fast . Other geographers work in environmental management and consulting and can have a direct impact in the fight against climate change. Also, the skills learned during a geography degree, such as cartography, data representation, and research writing, transfer well into the workforce and can make you a standout applicant!

Importance of Geography

The study of geography helps us to understand relationships between cultures. Ultimately, this leads to a more accepting and culturally aware society.

Photo by Ben White on Unsplash

Geographers make a difference in the world.

Those who study geography have a unique perspective — one that comes with the knowledge of many cultures and spatial awareness that is not replicated in other disciplines. This mix of knowledge can help geographers come up with significant and unique solutions that others may not be able to see.

Another way geography can have a positive influence in the world is by creating awareness of the effect of climate change. Geographers have intimate knowledge of weather patterns and climate changes throughout the course of history on areas of land. They also have studied how those changes have affected humans in those areas. That knowledge is shared with others to hopefully bring an understanding and global awareness of the effects of climate change on human society.

University of the People is committed to making a change towards sustainability as well. As a fully online university that also uses only free, open-source textbooks, University of the People cuts the need for printed and shipped materials, the need for fuel usage for transport of people and materials to campuses, and promotes quality education for people all over the world, no matter their physical location.

Become A Global Citizen

Being an educated global citizen starts with the study of geography. Global citizens are conscious-minded of the world around them, understand others, and work towards making the entire globe a better place. That all starts with the study of geography!

So, once again, why is geography important? It’s more important than you think — learning geography will help you better understand news, help fight climate change, be a part of a global community, understand cultures, and learn history. At the end of the day, geography will help you become a better overall global citizen.

Related Articles

Is A-Level Geography worth taking?

Choosing your A-Levels can be a stressful time. The fear of limiting yourself to a small career pool or picking something you won’t end up liking is very daunting for some pupils. This blog will give you the rundown of what A-Level Geography covers, what the exams are like and what you can do with an A-Level in Geography in the future.

* The information in this blog post concerning the exam format is applicable to the CCEA specification, however, there are lots of similarities across all of the exam boards across the UK.*

What is A-Level Geography all about?

Taking A-level geography in the UK is a great way to gain a deeper understanding of the world around us. Not only will it help to develop skills such as critical thinking and problem-solving, but it can also open up the possibility of pursuing a degree in Geography and many other subjects at university.

A-level Geography is an engaging and interesting subject that explores the physical, human and environmental Geography of the UK and beyond. It provides students with an understanding of how the world works and how human activities affect the environment. It also allows you to gain a greater appreciation of the diversity and complexity of the world around us.

Physical and Human Geography at A-Level

Similarly to GCSE, the A-Level course is split into Human and Physical Geography sections.

Physical Geography

Physical geography looks at the formation of our world as we know it and involves studying the natural processes which create landforms.

Here are a few of the topics your school may choose to look at in the Physical Geography section of the course:

• Fluvial Environments (rivers)
• Tropical Ecosystems
• Oceans and Coastal Landforms
• Plate Tectonics

Human Geography

Human Geography is the study of how people interact with their physical environment, including the impact of human settlement patterns, the use of resources, and the implications of population growth and movement. It also examines the cultural and political dynamics of societies, including the effects of globalization, cultural diversity, and identity. Topics that are studied at A-Level include:

• Settlement (or Planning for Sustainable Settlement)
• Development
• Cultural Geography
• Ethnic Diversity

It is important to note that your school or exam board may offer different topics. Usually, it is the decision of your school to decide which topics are undertaken. At AS, the exam board typically sets out the topics which should be taught whereas at A-Level here is a choice in which part of the specification your school should cover for the exam.

How is A-Level Geography taught?

A-Level Geography requires students to make connections between theory and real-life scenarios. Case studies are a key element of the subject and throughout the course, you will study up to 20 different ones. The precise statistics in the case studies allow students to build arguments in their answers and provide evidence to theories that they have learnt.

They are particularly important in Human Geography and this website provides lots of background information that will be helpful to the case studies that your school chooses.

How is A-Level Geography assessed?

Exam boards across the UK examine Geography through a series of exams. I have outlined the assessment carried out by CCEA below – a popular exam board for Northern Irish schools.

At AS-Level, three exams are taken. One assesses Physical Geography, one examines Human Geography and the third is a shorter exam which covers questions on fieldwork which would have been carried out on a school trip.

The exams are weighted to calculate your overall grade.

AS 1: Physical Geography – External exam 1 hour 15 mins, 40% of AS, 16% of A level AS 2: Human Geography – External exam 1 hour 15 mins, 40% of AS, 16% of A level AS 3: Fieldwork Skills and Techniques – External exam 1 hour, 20% of AS, 8% of A level

A2-Level is assessed again by 3 exams. The exams are longer but are divided into similar categories. Questions at this level require longer responses and are more open, allowing candidates to provide as much information as they think is applicable.

While 1.5 hours seems like a long time, in the grand scheme of things it is not. The amount of information that will be studied prior to these exams means that students will always have more than enough to write and the majority actually struggle to finish on time.

A2 1: Physical Processes, Landforms and Management – External exam 1 hour 30 mins, 24% of A level A2 2: Processes and Issues in Human Geography – External exam 1 hour 30 mins, 24% of A level A2 3: Decision-Making in Geography – External exam 1 hour 30 mins, 12% of A level

The third assessment is an examination of your decision-making skills. Within a short amount of time, you are challenged to read a series of articles, graphics and reports on a proposed project and write an answer detailing your opinion. You are tasked to back up your decision with evidence that has been provided and must write from the perspective of a given figure.

See these links for the assessment outline of the exam boards AQA and WJEC .

https://www.aqa.org.uk/subjects/geography/as-and-a-level/geography-7037/scheme-of-assessment

https://www.wjec.co.uk/media/wijlspii/wjec-gce-geography-spec-from-2016-e.pdf

Why should I study A-Level Geography?

Studying A-Level Geography will provide you with key skills searched for by employers. Students gain an awareness of global issues and are tasked with being able to discuss ideas. The exams test skills on being able to write succinctly but in detail. Essay-based questions give an opportunity for students to display all that they have learnt from case studies.

Students will develop scientific skills by studying Geography. The importance of data recording and accuracy is studied and is applicable to many fields beyond high school. The interpretation of data through graphs and charts is equally important in the subject.

Geography A-Level can lead to many different degree options and careers. Taking a Geography degree at university does the exact same. A degree in the subject opens many different paths and is not as limiting as other degrees such as medicine or accounting.

Geography provides a broad starting point from which you can specialise. You do not have to take a Geography degree solely because you chose it for A-Level. For example, those that really enjoy the physical element of Geography could narrow down to Environmental Science at university. Students that really enjoyed studying settlement in the human aspect may opt for a Planning degree.

You might also decide that you don’t want to go to university at all and that is completely fine too! There are multiple apprenticeship programmes that you could apply for and utilise the skills that you are taught in A-Level Geography.

If you’re thinking about your long-term goals from studying Geography at A-Level, you might find this post interesting:

Is Geography a good degree?

It discusses the advantages of taking a Geography degree and why it is also a broad and diverse qualification.

While having GCSE knowledge of Geography will help considerably in the A-Level course, it isn’t a requirement for many schools. It’s best to check with the department head though and you should be aware that you may be behind in comparison to your fellow classmates.

Geography is definitely not the hardest subject at A-Level but it all depends on your learning style. An article by Oxford Summer Courses ranks it as being the 10th easiest A-Level. If you have a good memory, are willing to put in the time to learn the content and can write good-quality answers under pressure, then you’ll have no problems passing.

According to Think Student, 98.7% of all students who enter into A-Level Geography exams pass. While this is an incredibly high figure it’s important to remember that at A-Level an E is a pass and the distribution of grades varies for exam boards.

Trips are a key aspect of studying Geography and it is highly likely that you’ll be taken on a few throughout the course. This depends on your school though and it’s important you don’t just take Geography to get a day out of school!

As A-Level Geography encompasses both the natural and manmade world, the subject fits nicely with many others. Some students opt to choose other science subjects such as Biology and Chemistry which have some overlap in content. Others decide to pursue the humanities route and take Geography alongside Politics or History.

To sum up…

Taking Geography A-Level would be very beneficial to you and fits nicely with other science A-Level subjects. It is a very broad choice and will not limit your degree and career options. The skills you learn throughout the course can be applied to lots of different roles. The qualification is not particularly strenuous so long as you put in the work and effort required to obtain the marks. And remember…if you do choose to take A-Level Geography, The Geo Room is here to support you every step of the way!

Charlotte is the founder of The Geo Room. She is a Geography University Student with a passion for travel and combines her love for Geography and travelling right here on The Geo Room. As an expert in both fields, Charlotte shares tips and tricks to do with both Geography and travel to help readers understand more about the world we live in, and how to make the most of travelling around it.

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• Subjects You Are Ruling Out with your GCSE and A-level Options

Making the right choice of GCSEs and A-levels is essential, but it’s rarely an easy decision.

You should also read…

• How to Choose the Right A-levels: An Expert Guide
• How to Choose Your GCSEs: Finding the Right Subject Choices for You

To make your decision even harder, you ideally need to be thinking years ahead to what you want to study at university. Some subjects open doors, and by not taking them, you could be limiting your options. If you’re not sure what it is that you want to do in future, ruling out possible options is best avoided. That’s why we’ve put together a guide to help you know which subjects you’ll be ruling out by not taking certain subjects at GCSE and A-level.

Your subject choices at GCSE will have a bearing on what A-levels are open to you, and this usually means that you need the GCSE in a particular subject to carry it on to A-level (this isn’t always the case, though, as there are some A-levels you can do without having the GCSE, such as Psychology or Law ). But GCSE choice can occasionally also have a bearing on what universities are open to you, even though offers are based on A-levels. Modern languages are tremendously helpful in the real world, as well as developing certain academic skills that you won’t pick up from other subjects. This is reflected in the fact that if you don’t take a language at GCSE, certain doors may close for you, or at least be made more difficult. For instance, UCL has a language GCSE requirement for all its degrees; applicants for any of its degrees are required to hold a language GCSE or to take extra classes while alongside their degrees. It’s worth checking the university’s general entrance requirements in addition to those for specific courses, to see whether or not you’re required to have a language GCSE for admission. To make life easier, it’s strongly recommended to take a language at GCSE.

Your choice of A-levels is much more important than your choice of GCSEs, because these are the subjects with which you’ll apply to university. For many subjects – particularly the sciences – most universities have strict entrance requirements when it comes to the A-level subjects they require you to have studied before they’ll accept you onto a particular course.

A general note about science subjects

Scientific degrees will usually require at least two science subjects at A-level, often the same subject as the degree plus at least one other science subject. While you’ll need the specific knowledge from studying the subject at A-level that you’re aiming to do at university, the scientific skills and mindset you’ll develop from additional science subjects will stand you in good stead. This doesn’t mean, however, that you necessarily have to do all science subjects at A-level if you want to study a science at university; a humanities subject as one of your options would add balance, as it’s an essay-based subject that develops different skills, demonstrating that you’re talented in many areas of academia.

If you don’t take Chemistry at A-level, it’s not just Chemistry degree courses that you’ll probably not be able to get onto. Without A-level Chemistry, you’re also going to find it much harder (if not impossible) to get onto a Medicine or Medicine-related course (such as Dentistry or Biomedical Sciences), for which you’re probably going to need to pair Chemistry with Biology at A-level. A-level Chemistry is also essential if you want to study Biochemistry or Chemical Engineering, and many universities may require it in order for you to study Biology. Some Geography , Geology or Earth Sciences degree courses may require a mix of science subjects, and Chemistry can be one of them.

• Mathematics and Further Mathematics

As well as being vital for studying a Mathematics degree (or variations thereupon), Mathematics is frequently considered highly desirable if not essential for virtually all science subjects, including Chemistry, Medicine, Dentistry, Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences, Computing, Geology, Earth Sciences and Engineering . It’s also often essential for Economics, or Business -related degrees, while some science degrees, such as Geography or Psychology, may require additional science subjects, and Mathematics can be one of them. Further Mathematics is, to all intents and purposes, essential for Physics, Mathematics and sometimes Chemistry degrees, and if you don’t have it, you’d likely struggle doing these subjects at university and may end up having to take additional maths classes while you’re there (if you manage to get a place without it). It’s also highly recommended for many Engineering and Computing degrees.

By not taking Physics at A-level, it goes without saying that you’re not going to be able to take this subject at degree level. You’re also effectively ruling out Engineering, and Materials Science. Furthermore, Physics is very useful for Earth Sciences and Mathematics degree courses. Some courses ask for additional science subjects, such as Geography, Biomedical Sciences, Medicine, Dentistry and so on; Physics is an acceptable A-level to take to prove your scientific credentials for these subjects.

Biology (and Human Biology)

As a science, A-level Biology is a good qualification to have as one of a range of science subjects for scientific degree courses. As well as being essential for Biology degrees (which will likely accept either Biology or Human Biology A-levels), it’s highly desirable for Medicine, Dentistry and all Biology-related subjects (such as Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences). Its ideal partner is Chemistry, and many universities are likely to require both for the aforementioned courses. Other science-based degree courses, such as Geography, may require additional science subjects, and this can be one of them; Psychology degrees also have a Biology component, for which Biology at A-level would be useful (it’s unlikely to be a requirement, though).

Most Geography degree courses require A-level Geography, but surprisingly, it’s not always essential. It’s also very useful for Geology and Earth Sciences degree courses, as A-level Geology isn’t usually taught in schools and the Geography course teaches you about the earth processes you’ll learn about at university.

A general note about humanities subjects

Beyond the fact that universities often require you to have studied the degree subject at A-level (for instance, A-level History for a history degree), the entrance requirements are generally less stringent when it comes to the A-level subjects required for humanities degrees. If you’re aiming to do a humanities subject at university, you’ll need a range of such subjects at A-level. The humanities subjects are generally more essay-based, cultivating a particular set of skills without which you’re not likely to succeed in applying for a university course in one of these subjects. Let’s take a look at the main humanities subjects individually to see what degree courses they’ll particularly help you with.

English Literature, English Language and English Language and Literature

These are three different A-levels, and it’s worth noting that for an English Literature degree, it’ll almost certainly be necessary to have A-level English Literature or A-level English Language and Literature rather than A-level English Language. While essential for English degrees, any of these A-levels will come in useful for other essay-based humanities subjects that involve analysis and interpretation, such as History, Classics and Classics-related subjects and Religious Studies . Any of these English A-levels will also be useful for Foreign Languages, as they all require the analysis of language.

Most History degree courses require History at A-level, but not all of them (Oxford University, for example, lists it as “Recommended” rather than “Essential”), so if you don’t take History at A-level, you’re not necessarily completely ruling it out as a degree option. It’s also useful – but not always essential – for other history-related subjects, such as Archaeology, Classical Studies, Music (for the History of Music element of this subject) and History of Art. History is an essay-based subject, so it’s also useful for any other essay-based degrees, such as English.

Foreign Languages

It’s essential to have at least one language at A-level if you want to study any foreign language at university, but they come in useful for other subjects even if they’re not required. If you’re looking to study part of your course abroad, you may also be required to have an A-level in the language spoken in that country. Modern Languages are also helpful for English Language and/or Literature degrees, and, though not a requirement, they can come in useful for a number of other degrees simply because they give you access to scholarship in other languages, which often isn’t available in translation.

Classical Civilisations

Not many schools offer this subject, so you’re not required to have studied it in order to get onto a course in a related subject, such as Ancient and Modern History, Classics or Classical Archaeology. However, if your school does offer it, and you’re thinking of doing one of these subjects, it would certainly provide a useful foundation upon which to build at university. It would also be a relevant A-level to have if you want to study any History degree, though it wouldn’t be essential. As an essay-based subject, it will stand you in good stead for any humanities degree.

Latin and/or Greek

Again, not all schools offer these subjects, so they probably won’t be essential to get onto a Classics course of some kind at university; most will offer ab initio courses for those without them. However, if you don’t have either of these subjects and you intend to pursue one or other of these languages as part of a Classics course at university, you might have to attend a Latin or Greek summer school the summer before you go to university to get you up to speed. Latin or Greek would also be a useful additional language for those wishing to study English or Modern Languages, and it may also prove useful background to History or Ancient History degrees.

A-level art is either essential or highly recommended for studying an Art-based degree, such as Fine Art , History of Art or Art and Design. It’s a subject that involves making use of your creativity, so you may also find the skills you learn in A-level Art useful for other creative degree subjects, such as Music or Drama.

A-level Music is essential if you want to do a Music degree, and you’ll also need to be proficient in at least one musical instrument. Grade VII would be an absolute minimum, but you’re likely to be competing with students who play at Grade VIII level and above. If piano isn’t your main instrument, it will also be very useful to have Grade V or above in piano in addition to your other instrument.

If you’re not sure what you want to study at university yet

Up to now, this article has more or less assumed that you have a rough idea of what you’re going to be studying in the long term. We’ll end with a few words of advice for those of you who currently have no idea what you might want to study at university, so that you can ensure you don’t rule out too many potential choices. In cases like these, your best bet is to keep your options open by taking a mix of humanities and science A-level subjects. If possible, choose at least two ‘ facilitating subjects ’, as these are the subjects most often required, and are the most widely respected. They’re summarised here as:

• English Literature
• Languages (Classical and Modern)

To demonstrate as many skills as possible, and keep as many possible course options available to you as you can, try to choose A-levels that each demonstrate different talents rather than choosing two or more that are closely related, such as Maths and Physics. To give you an example, you could choose English Literature, a Foreign Language and Chemistry at A-level with an AS-level in Mathematics. This would demonstrate your essay-writing and linguistic abilities as well as giving you strong scientific skills with two subjects that are frequently required for science degrees. It’s also advisable to pick subjects towards which you feel a natural interest, as you’ll find it easier to succeed in subjects you’re genuinely curious about.

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2024 WAEC: Geography 1, 2 & 3 – (Essay), (Objective) (Practicals) – How to Pass the Exam Today

The West African Examinations Council (WAEC) Geography exams are a pivotal part of the assessment for students across West Africa.

Excelling in these exams requires not only a good grasp of geographical concepts but also strategic preparation. This article aims to guide students on how to effectively prepare for the Geography 1 (Essay), 2 (Objective), and 3 (Practicals) papers and answer some of the most frequently asked questions.

Understanding the WAEC Geography Exam Structure

The WAEC Geography examination is divided into three parts:

• Geography 1 : This is the essay section where students are required to write detailed responses to questions.
• Geography 2 : This consists of objective questions that test a wide range of topics.
• Geography 3 : This section involves practical work, often including map reading and analysis.

Frequently Asked Questions

How can i effectively prepare for the waec geography exam.

Study Tips :

• Focus on Map Reading : Develop your skills in map interpretation and analysis.
• Understand Geographical Concepts : Ensure you have a solid understanding of physical and human geography.
• Use Past Questions : Practice with past exam papers to familiarize yourself with the question format.

Resources :

• Geography Textbooks : Use them for in-depth study of topics.
• Past Questions : These are invaluable for understanding the exam format and types of questions asked.
• Maps and Atlases : Essential for practicing map reading and analysis.

What Are the Key Topics to Focus On?

• Physical Geography : Study landforms, climate, vegetation, and soils.
• Human Geography : Focus on population, urbanization, economic activities, and environmental management.
• Map Work : Practice skills such as distance calculation, gradient determination, and interpretation of topographical maps.

How Can I Manage My Time During the Exam?

• Read All Questions Carefully : Before answering, ensure you understand what each question is asking.
• Allocate Time Wisely : Spend more time on questions that carry more marks.
• Practice With Timers : Use past questions and time yourself to improve your speed and accuracy.

Study Plan for Success

• Create a Study Schedule : Allocate specific times for studying geography and stick to it.
• Set Achievable Goals : Break down your study material into manageable sections.
• Stay Consistent : Regular study sessions will help reinforce your knowledge and improve retention.

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War of the Wordle: New York Times in legal row with geography-based spinoff

Worldle is ‘creating confusion’ for consumers, the newspaper claims, article bookmarked.

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The New York Times is taking legal action against an app it claims is too similar to their hit online game Wordle .

In the filing, the newspaper giant, who purchased the Wordle in 2022, claims the geography-based game Worldle is deliberately “creating confusion” among consumers.

In Worldle, which was created by software developer Kory McDonald, players are presented with a silhouette image and have six guesses to figure out what country it is.

Meanwhile, in Wordle, players have six attempts to guess a five letter word, with feedback on correct, incorrect, and misplaced letters.

The New York Times claims McDonald has attempted to take advantage of the “enormous goodwill” associated with their brand.

However, McDonald has said he will fight the lawsuit because there are numerous other games who also have similar titles.

“There’s a whole industry of [dot]LE games,” he told the BBC. “Wordle is about words, Worldle is about the world, Flaggle is about flags.”

In March, The New York Times filed several Digital Millennium Copyright Act, or DMCA, takedown notices to developers of Wordle-inspired games.

The notices cited infringement on the Times’ ownership of the Wordle name, as well as its look and feel — such as the layout and colour scheme of green, grey and yellow tiles.

A New York Times Co. spokesperson said the company has no issue with people creating similar word games that do not infringe its Wordle "trademarks or copyrighted gameplay."

But the company took action against one user on software developer platform GitHub who created a “Wordle clone” project that included instructions on how to create “a knock-off version” of Wordle, and against others who shared his code.

"As a result, hundreds of websites began popping up with knock-off ‘Wordle’ games that used The Times’ ‘Wordle’ trademark and copyrighted gameplay without authorization or permission,” the spokesperson said.

GitHub gave the user an opportunity to alter the code and remove Wordle references, the spokesperson added, but he declined.

Software engineer Josh Wardle created Wordle and made it public back in 2021. In January 2022, he sold the daily puzzle game to the Times for a reported seven-figure sum.

The game rose in popularity becoming a viral sensation that inspired other games like “ Heardle ," the music version of Wordle, where you guess a song name within six listens, and “Queerdle," which uses words associated with the queer community.

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The Significance and Legacy of the Goddess of Wisdom

This essay about the concept of wisdom explores its significance across various cultures and epochs. It highlights the influence of the Goddess of Wisdom in ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, and Hinduism, where deities like Athena, Minerva, Seshat, and Saraswati symbolized intellectual clarity, strategic thinking, and justice. The essay also examines how these goddesses’ legacies shape modern conceptions of wisdom, education, and ethical governance, emphasizing their continued relevance in literature, popular culture, and contemporary discourse.

How it works

The concept of wisdom has always been esteemed across diverse human cultures, transcending both geography and epochs. Central to many ancient traditions is the reverence for deities who embody wisdom, guiding societies through their principles and practices. Among these divine figures, the Goddess of Wisdom stands out, representing not only intellectual clarity but also the virtues of strategic thinking, justice, and profound knowledge. The significance and legacy of the Goddess of Wisdom are extensive and varied, deeply influencing cultural narratives, ethical frameworks, and even political institutions across civilizations.

In ancient Greece, the Goddess of Wisdom, Athena, was a multifaceted deity whose influence touched numerous aspects of Greek life. Born from the forehead of Zeus, she symbolized the birth of wisdom and strategic warfare. Unlike Ares, the god of war known for his brutal and chaotic nature, Athena represented a more rational and strategic approach to conflict. Her guidance was sought in matters of war and peace, underscoring the belief that wisdom was essential for both.

Athena’s legacy is evident in the city of Athens, which was named in her honor. The Parthenon, her temple on the Acropolis, stands as a testament to her enduring significance. This architectural marvel served not only as a place of worship but also as a symbol of Athenian democracy and cultural supremacy. Athena’s attributes, including the owl (a symbol of knowledge) and the olive tree (representing peace and prosperity), became emblematic of Athenian values.

Similarly, in Roman mythology, the Goddess of Wisdom was venerated as Minerva. Adapted from the Etruscan deity Menrva, Minerva was a virgin goddess of wisdom, strategic warfare, and the arts. The Romans saw her as a key figure in education and statecraft, reflecting their admiration for Greek culture and their desire to emulate its intellectual achievements. Minerva’s influence extended to various aspects of Roman society, from schools and libraries to military strategies and political philosophies.

Beyond the Greco-Roman world, the significance of the Goddess of Wisdom is found in other cultures as well. In ancient Egypt, the goddess Seshat was revered as the deity of wisdom, knowledge, and writing. Often depicted with a stylus and a palm stem (symbolizing time), Seshat was the divine scribe and record-keeper, highlighting the importance of literacy and historical memory in Egyptian civilization.

In Hinduism, Saraswati is the Goddess of Wisdom, learning, and the arts. Her depiction with a veena (a musical instrument), a book, and a swan signifies the integration of knowledge, art, and discernment. Saraswati’s influence is profound in the Indian subcontinent, where she is worshipped by students, artists, and scholars alike. Her festival, Vasant Panchami, marks the celebration of knowledge and learning, illustrating her enduring impact on educational and cultural practices.

The legacy of these goddesses extends into contemporary times, shaping modern conceptions of wisdom and education. The ancient association of wisdom with feminine divinity challenges patriarchal narratives that have often marginalized women’s intellectual contributions. By venerating female deities of wisdom, ancient societies acknowledged the intrinsic value of feminine insight and strategic acumen.

Moreover, the principles embodied by these goddesses continue to resonate in modern contexts. The emphasis on strategic thinking, ethical governance, and the pursuit of knowledge remains central to contemporary discourse. Educational institutions, philosophical inquiries, and even political strategies are often guided by these timeless principles, reflecting the enduring legacy of the Goddess of Wisdom.

In literature and popular culture, the archetype of the wise woman persists, drawing from these ancient deities. Characters inspired by Athena, Minerva, Saraswati, and Seshat populate novels, films, and other media, serving as mentors, strategists, and paragons of wisdom. These portrayals reinforce the cultural importance of wisdom and the recognition that true knowledge encompasses both intellectual rigor and ethical considerations.

In addition, the Goddess of Wisdom’s attributes—such as the owl, the olive tree, and the musical instrument—have become universal symbols of knowledge, peace, and artistic excellence. These symbols transcend their original cultural contexts, finding relevance in various modern settings, from educational logos to peace initiatives and artistic endeavors.

The veneration of the Goddess of Wisdom also underscores the integral role of myth and symbolism in shaping human consciousness. Through myths and legends, societies have conveyed complex ideas about wisdom, justice, and strategic thought, making these concepts accessible and memorable. The stories of Athena’s guidance in the Trojan War, Minerva’s influence on Roman law, Saraswati’s inspiration to artists and scholars, and Seshat’s meticulous record-keeping serve as powerful narratives that continue to inspire and instruct.

In conclusion, the significance and legacy of the Goddess of Wisdom are profound and far-reaching. These deities embody the virtues of knowledge, strategic thinking, and ethical governance, influencing ancient civilizations and leaving an indelible mark on modern society. Through their enduring presence in cultural symbols, educational values, and popular narratives, the Goddess of Wisdom continues to inspire the pursuit of knowledge and the application of wisdom in all facets of life.

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The Significance and Legacy of the Goddess of Wisdom. (2024, May 28). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/the-significance-and-legacy-of-the-goddess-of-wisdom/

"The Significance and Legacy of the Goddess of Wisdom." PapersOwl.com , 28 May 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/the-significance-and-legacy-of-the-goddess-of-wisdom/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Significance and Legacy of the Goddess of Wisdom . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-significance-and-legacy-of-the-goddess-of-wisdom/ [Accessed: 31 May. 2024]

"The Significance and Legacy of the Goddess of Wisdom." PapersOwl.com, May 28, 2024. Accessed May 31, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/the-significance-and-legacy-of-the-goddess-of-wisdom/

"The Significance and Legacy of the Goddess of Wisdom," PapersOwl.com , 28-May-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-significance-and-legacy-of-the-goddess-of-wisdom/. [Accessed: 31-May-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Significance and Legacy of the Goddess of Wisdom . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-significance-and-legacy-of-the-goddess-of-wisdom/ [Accessed: 31-May-2024]

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