research questions about water conservation

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Twenty‐five essential research questions to inform the protection and restoration of freshwater biodiversity

Meagan harper, hebah s. mejbel, dylan longert, robin abell, t. douglas beard, joseph r. bennett, stephanie m. carlson, william darwall, anthony dell, sami domisch, david dudgeon, jörg freyhof, ian harrison, kathy a. hughes, sonja c. jähnig, jonathan m. jeschke, richard lansdown, mark lintermans, abigail j. lynch, helen m. r. meredith, sanjay molur, julian d. olden, steve j. ormerod, harmony patricio, andrea j. reid, astrid schmidt‐kloiber, michele thieme, david tickner, eren turak, olaf l. f. weyl, steven j. cooke, aquatic conservation.

July 12, 2021

1. Freshwater biodiversity is declining at an unprecedented rate. Freshwater conservationists and environmental managers have enough evidence to demonstrate that action must not be delayed but have insufficient evidence to identify those actions that will be most effective in reversing the current trend. 2. Here, the focus is on identifying essential research topics that, if addressed, will contribute directly to restoring freshwater biodiversity through supporting ‘bending the curve’ actions (i.e. those actions leading to the recovery of freshwater biodiversity, not simply deceleration of the current downward trend). 3. The global freshwater research and management community was asked to identify unanswered research questions that could address knowledge gaps and barriers associated with ‘bending the curve’ actions. The resulting list was refined into six themes and 25 questions. 4. Although context-dependent and potentially limited in global reach, six overarching themes were identified: (i) learning from successes and failures; (ii) improving current practices; (iii) balancing resource needs; (iv) rethinking built environments; (v) reforming policy and investments; and (vi) enabling transformative change. 5. Bold, efficient, science-based actions are necessary to reverse biodiversity loss. We believe that conservation actions will be most effective when supported by sound evidence, and that research and action must complement one another. These questions are intended to guide global freshwater researchers and conservation practitioners, identify key projects and signal research needs to funders and governments. Our questions can act as springboards for multidisciplinary and multisectoral collaborations that will improve the management and restoration of freshwater biodiversity.

Harper, M., Mejbel, H. S., Longert, D., Abell, R., Beard, T. D., Bennett, J. R., … Cooke, S. J. (2021). Twenty‐five essential research questions to inform the protection and restoration of freshwater biodiversity. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. doi:10.1002/aqc.3634

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Research on ecosystem services of water conservation and soil retention: a bibliometric analysis

• Research Article
• Published: 08 September 2020
• Volume 28 , pages 2995–3007, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Sinuo Liu 1 ,
• Yin Lei 1 ,
• Jinsong Zhao 1 ,
• Shuxia Yu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3606-3639 1 &
• Ling Wang 1  

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Water conservation and soil retention are two essential regulating services that are closely related, and their relationship might produce synergies or trade-offs. Distinguishing the current status and evolution of research in this field could provide a scientific foundation for subsequent research. “Water conservation” and “soil retention” were selected as keywords for a search of Web of Science for publications during 1976–2018. A total of 4489 periodical articles were obtained. Using bibliometric and social network analysis tools, the scientific output performance, national research contributions, potential hot topics, and connections between keywords and the levels of cooperation between countries at different stages were explored to reveal the related development trends. The results showed that the literature on water conservation and soil retention increased rapidly, especially after 2008. The USA, China, and India were the most productive countries, and the USA, the UK, and Canada were the most influential countries regarding international cooperation. Agriculture, water resource utilization, water–soil erosion, and ecosystem services were closely related topics, and the connections between these topics have increased since 1998. In addition to sustainability, the response of water conservation and soil retention to global environmental change, such as water resource management, land use, and land conservation, are potential emerging research hotspots.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Professor Zhen Wang for his comments and suggestions on the revision of the manuscript.

This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2017YFC0505406) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41877070).

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Conceptualization: Shuxia Yu; methodology: Jinsong Zhao; formal analysis and investigation: Sinuo Liu, Yin Lei; writing—original draft preparation: Sinuo Liu; writing—review and editing: Sinuo Liu, Shuxia Yu, Ling Wang; funding acquisition: Shuxia Yu; data curation: Sinuo Liu, Yin Lei; validation: Sinuo Liu, Jinsong Zhao; supervision: Shuxia Yu, Ling Wang.

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Liu, S., Lei, Y., Zhao, J. et al. Research on ecosystem services of water conservation and soil retention: a bibliometric analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28 , 2995–3007 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10712-4

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10712-4

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The Impacts of Water Conservation Strategies on Water Use: Four Case Studies 1

We assessed impacts on water use achieved by implementation of controlled experiments relating to four water conservation strategies in four towns within the Ipswich watershed in Massachusetts. The strategies included (1) installation of weather-sensitive irrigation controller switches (WSICS) in residences and municipal athletic fields; (2) installation of rainwater harvesting systems in residences; (3) two outreach programs: (a) free home indoor water use audits and water fixture retrofit kits and (b) rebates for low-water-demand toilets and washing machines; and (4) soil amendments to improve soil moisture retention at a municipal athletic field. The goals of this study are to summarize the effectiveness of the four water conservation strategies and to introduce nonparametric statistical methods for evaluating the effectiveness of these conservation strategies in reducing water use. It was found that (1) the municipal WSICS significantly reduced water use; (2) residences with high irrigation demand were more likely than low water users to experience a substantial demand decrease when equipped with the WSICS; (3) rainwater harvesting provided substantial rainwater use, but these volumes were small relative to total domestic water use and relative to the natural fluctuations in domestic water use; (4) both the audits/retrofit and rebate programs resulted in significant water savings; and (5) a modeling approach showed potential water savings from soil amendments in ball fields.

Introduction

The Ipswich watershed, situated north of metropolitan Boston, MA, has experienced unnaturally low or no flows during some summer months in recent years owing in part, to increases in public water supplies ( Canfield et al. , 1999 ; Zarriello and Ries, 2000 ). The ongoing streamflow depletion has raised awareness of the importance of water demand management among the water authorities, and as a result, the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation (MDCR) launched a project, funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), in an attempt to identify and pilot strategies that could help restore instream flows to the Ipswich River. In coordination with four communities in the Ipswich watershed, four water conservation projects were designed to simultaneously meet immediate municipal needs and demonstrate innovative water conservation strategies that could be evaluated with real-world data. The four projects are (1) installation of weather-sensitive irrigation controller switches (WSICS) at residences and at municipal athletic fields, (2) installation of rainwater harvesting systems at residences, (3) town-administered programs to provide (a) home indoor water use audits and fixture retrofit kits and (b) rebates for low-water-demand toilets and washing machines, and (4) soil amendments to improve moisture retention and reduce water demand at a municipal athletic field.

The primary goal of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of four water conservation pilot strategies on water use. As is inherent to many small-scale pilots, the datasets for these demonstration projects tend to be small, variable, and exhibit nonnormal distributions. A secondary goal of this study is to demonstrate the application of mostly nonparametric statistical methods for their ability to enable sensible inferences to be drawn, in some cases, even from the very small samples.

Vickers (2001) has reviewed approaches relating to water conservation strategies for municipal, industrial, and residential uses. Hilaire et al. (2008) have summarized factors impacting the efficiency of water use in the urban landscape: water conservation strategies, landscape design, economic and noneconomic incentives, irrigation/water application and reuse technologies, and people-plants relationship. Most previous research on water conservation strategies involves price incentives. Literature on the price elasticity of water use – impact of water price on water demand – is so well developed that meta-analysis is now possible (e.g., see the meta-analysis of 64 previous studies by Dalhuisen et al. , 2003 ). A review of research relating to nonprice water conservation strategies, in which price incentives are not used, reveals fewer studies. We note three general approaches to nonprice water conservation research: (1) behavioral approaches, (2) retrospective analyses, and (3) controlled experiments. Examples of the first approach are provided by Corral-Verdugo and Frias-Armenta (2006) and others who have evaluated the impact of social norms (an understanding of the attitudes and behavior of others) on water conservation behavior. Similarly, Atwood et al. (2007) and others have identified the key behavioral, community, and other socioeconomic factors that impact water conservation, such as gender, environmental attitudes, and neighborhood features. Gilg and Barr (2006) have provided a review of research that summarizes behavioral attitudes toward water conservation. Most previous behavioral research on water conservation consists of controlled experimental designs based on a combination of surveys and multivariate statistical analyses.

A second approach to nonprice water conservation research involves a retrospective analysis of previous water use behavior using available data. For example, Kenney et al. (2004) showed the importance of water-use restrictions in reducing water demands during a drought experienced by eight Colorado cities. Most retrospective research on nonprice water conservation strategies has developed multivariate relationships for predicting residential water demand as a function of conservation efforts in addition to numerous other factors or explanatory variables. For example, some of the combinations of explanatory variables considered for predicting water demand, in addition to conservation efforts, include price, household appliances, landscape features, metering, and climate ( Bamezai, 1995 ); price, weather, and demographic characteristics ( Kenney et al. , 2008 ); price and public information ( Wang et al. , 1999 ; Smith and Wang, 2008 ); price, weather, household income, municipalities, public information, and education ( Michelsen et al. , 1999 ); price, public information, weather, household characteristics, water use restriction, and ration ( Renwick and Green, 2000 ); or price, public information, weather, household characteristics, use restriction, ration, and month ( Renwick and Archibald, 1998 ). For those cited studies, the demand elasticity in response to conservation efforts ranged from 0.03 to −4.51 for indoor strategies and 0 (unresponsive) to −4.81 for outdoor strategies.

On the other hand, the price elasticity of water demand reported in previous research on price approaches to water conservation varies. For example, Espey et al. (1997) found that price elasticity ranged from −0.02 to −0.75 for 75% of price elasticity estimates, whereas Brookshire et al. (2002) found estimates ranging from −0.11 to −1.59, and although Dalhuisen et al. (2003) concluded that price elasticity of water demand is relatively elastic, the authors cautioned that price elasticity varied depending on functional form selection, aggregation level, data characteristics, and estimation issues. In conclusion, these studies indicate that the effectiveness of both nonprice and price approaches varied drastically, thus we are unable to judge from previous research whether nonprice or price approaches are more effective. Moreover, Dalhuisen et al. (2003) has concluded that price elasticity in East United States is insignificant; therefore, in the context of our analysis, it is probably safe to view economic incentives to be relatively ineffective in comparison with other incentives considered here.

A third approach to nonprice water conservation research, and the approach used here, involves the use of controlled experiments combined with statistical methods. Here controlled experiments are performed with actual water conservation methods. For example, Karpiscak et al. (2001) estimated water savings by monitoring a water conservation demonstration house. The water savings reported by Karpiscak et al. (2001) , however, may not be an accurate response to a single water conservation strategy because the synergistic effects associated with multiple water conservation practices implemented inside the demonstration house were not considered. Buchberger and Wells (1996) monitored residential water demand at four households over a one-year period and used that information to develop stochastic models of residential water demands. Although their work did not deal directly with water conservation efforts, such research could provide important inputs to future water conservation strategies. Mayer et al. (2003 , 2004) and Ayres Associates (1996) have employed t -tests to assess water savings due to various water conservation strategies in an experimental group relative to a control group.

There are a few examples of the type of research performed here, in which designed experiments are used to evaluate the effectiveness of water conservation technologies and programs using hypothesis tests ( Ayres Associates, 1996 ; Mayer et al. , 2003 , 2004 ). Those studies employed traditional parametric statistical methods, and the applicability of the t -test used in these studies was not assessed by an investigation of probability distributions of the datasets. The researchers assumed that the data arose from a normal distribution without performing normality checks. Here, we are careful to confirm the suitability of statistical methods before their application to controlled experiments to assess the effectiveness of each of four independent water conservation strategies. We begin by providing an overview of the four conservation strategies considered and reviewing the statistical methods employed.

Methodologies

Design of water conservation strategies.

Four water conservation strategies designed to reduce water use were implemented in the Ipswich River watershed by MDCR, with funding from the USEPA. Due to the critical contribution of outdoor irrigation to the summertime streamflow deficit ( Ipswich River Watershed Action Plan, 2003 ), these water conservation strategies piloted and evaluated here have a strong emphasis on reducing lawn and athletic field irrigation. The installation of WSICS at residences and municipal athletic fields, the installation of rainwater harvesting systems, and the introduction of moisture-retaining soil amendments at an athletic field are all strategies designed to mitigate water withdrawals for irrigation purposes during the summer months. In addition, the home audit/retrofit and appliance rebate programs aim to mitigate withdrawals for indoor water use, year round. Each case study was designed in cooperation with one or more municipality in the watershed, based on an opportunistic assessment of water conservation needs and programmatic resources.

This section, along with Table 1 , summarizes the water savings hypothesis and evaluation design for each of the four demonstration projects. The WSICS are designed to only trigger an irrigation cycle when the soil moisture is low, as estimated from regional weather conditions and local rainfall. By delivering water optimally, such technology should reduce overall irrigation demand by eliminating extraneous cycles triggered by automatic timers that are insensitive to weather conditions. The rainwater harvesting systems store rainwater, providing a direct alternative to the use of public drinking water for nonpotable outdoor uses. We thereby anticipated that the systems would reduce demand on household public water consumption. The moisture-retaining soil amendments were designed to extend the time that moisture remains available to the turf roots within the soil. As a result, we anticipated that the field could tolerate reductions in irrigation volume without compromising turf health. The audit/retrofit program was anticipated to reduce water use in participating households by leading to the direct repair of leaks and the replacement of faucets and water fixtures with more efficient alternatives. The rebate program was anticipated to similarly reduce household water use by encouraging the conversion to water-efficient toilets and washing machines.

Summary of Evaluation Design for the Four Water Conservation Strategies

A summary of evaluation design for all four water conservation strategies is documented in Table 1 . This table includes the sample sizes associated with the control and experimental populations, the time periods associated with the installation and the pre- and postexperiment evaluations, the time periods excluded from the analysis, and a list of the confounding factors.

Statistical Methods

A wide range of statistical methods are considered due to the different experimental designs and nature of the four water conservation strategies, which were designed in accordance with towns’ specific needs and administrative abilities. Nonparametric statistical methods are often recommended over parametric methods ( Helsel and Hirsch, 2002 ) when sample sizes are limited and/or in cases when a probability distribution cannot be determined for the random variable of concern. Here, we used mostly nonparametric hypothesis tests, because most of the datasets were either too small and/or they violated various assumptions required for parametric hypothesis tests to be meaningful. We assumed, throughout our analyses, that the type I error probability α was 5%.

We used nonparametric confidence intervals for the true population median because the probability distributions of the original random variables could not be confirmed for small samples. Such confidence intervals for the true population median, shown in many subsequent figures, are used to assess whether the median estimated from one sample differs from the median estimated from another sample. Helsel and Hirsch (2002) suggested that the nonparametric interval for the median can be estimated using the binomial probability distribution. The probability of an observation being above or below the median is equal so that p = 0.5. For a sample size n , the cumulative probability p ( x ) of x observations exceeding the median is then

The lower bound of the interval can be estimated using the ( x + 1)th smallest observation, where x corresponds to p ( x ) = 0.025, which reflects a 2.5% probability in each tail of the distribution of x . The upper bound of the interval can be estimated using the ( n − x )th smallest observation. The resulting confidence intervals for the median reflect the distributions of the estimates of medians drawn from any dataset of length n . For cases where the sample sizes are large ( n > 20), one may use a normal approximation to the binomial distribution in Equation (1) leading to the rank corresponding to the lower bound of the interval estimate of:

and the upper bound of the interval estimate is the R u th smallest observation, where

and Z 0.025 = 1.96.

In some instances, we were able to employ hypothesis tests based on the assumption of a normal distribution. To check whether observations of a sample are normally distributed, the normal probability plot correlation coefficient (PPCC) was computed and checked against its critical value given in table 18.3.3 of Stedinger et al. (1993) . The normal quantiles were estimated using Blom's unbiased, plotting position for normal variates ( Stedinger et al. , 1993 ):

where i is the i th observation when ranked in ascending order.

The hypothesis tests used in this study, corresponding to the various types of comparisons, are documented in Table 2 . The sign test was chosen over the sign rank test and the paired rank-sum test because the latter two assume a symmetrical distribution of the observations and most of our datasets are asymmetrical.

The Hypothesis Tests Used in This Study Are Presented by Shaded Cells

Water Savings Associated With Water Conservation Strategies

The following sections summarize the effectiveness at reducing water demand of the four water conservation strategies.

Weather-Sensitive Irrigation Controller Switches

A total of 11 WSICS were evaluated on residential properties and 5 in municipal athletic fields. These devices (Weather Reach WR-7® by Irrisoft®, Logan, UT, USA) contain an on-site rain gage and receive continuous solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, and wind data from a regional weather station (town of Ipswich) via wireless transmission. Based on this information, the WSICS device is designed to deliver water only when needed by the landscape.

Residential WSICS

Approximately 150 residences in the town of Reading, MA, have exclusive outdoor water meters. Among this group, nine households that met our experimental group criteria had WSICS installed during the summer of 2005, and two during the following two summers. Criteria included continuous ownership and use of an automatic irrigation system since 2001. An additional 71 households with dedicated outdoor meters meeting these criteria were selected as the control group. For this analysis, quarterly outdoor water use records were obtained from the Reading Water Department for all households in the study from January 2001 through November 2007.

For the nine residences whose WSICS was installed in 2005, a single value representing historic (“pre”) water use (pre-experimental condition) was obtained by averaging the annual outdoor water use from 2001 to 2004, and a single value representing water use during the experimental period (“post”) was obtained by averaging the annual outdoor use from 2006 to 2007. Data from 2005 were excluded from the analysis due to this being a transitional year. Because a PPCC normality test determined that the control group was not well approximated by a normal distribution, the nonparametric rank-sum hypothesis test was used to compare the water use of both the control and experimental groups as shown in Figure 1 . There is no statistically significant difference between the water use of the control and experimental groups in either the “pre” or “post” periods, which can be seen visually in Figure 1 with the overlapping confidence intervals. However, a visual assessment of Figure 1 also suggests that the WSICS may have reduced the variability of water use among the experimental group, especially among high water users.

BoxPlots Comparing Annual Outdoor Water Use in the Control and Experimental Groups in Both the “Pre” (2001 to 2004) and “Post” (2006 to 2007) Periods.

Rank-sum tests applied to the rainfall records from a nearby water treatment plant suggest that typical total rainfall and number of days of rain between May 15 and October 15 (the approximate irrigation season) were statistically indistinguishable during the “pre” and “post” periods. Thus, we were comfortable calculating “savings” for each household by subtracting the “post” from the “pre” period water use. The results of a rank-sum test do not show that the water savings for households with the WSICS were different than for the control group. The large range associated with the confidence interval ( Figure 2 ) for the median of the experimental group is due to the small experimental sample size and large variation in response to the WSICS installation within the group. Nevertheless, Figure 2 illustrates that although the average household in the control group saw a drop in water demand of 3.27 m 3 /year between the two time periods, the average WSICS household saw a reduction of 40.69 m 3 /year. Although this difference is not statistically significant, it reflects the fact that households with high “pre” period water demand saw a large reduction in water use postinstallation. As shown in Figure 3 , when only the highest “pre” period water users (90th percentile; annual use >261.6 m 3 ) are included in the analysis, the water savings for the experimental group is significantly greater than the control group. These results suggest that households with high irrigation water demands are more likely to reduce their water use due to the WSICS installations. Our analysis also highlights the importance of increasing the sample size of the experimental group of households in any future studies.

BoxPlots Showing Water Savings During the “Post” Period Relative to the “Pre” Period, in Both Groups. For each household, this value represents “post” period water use subtracted from “pre” period water use. A value <0 implies more water was used during the “post” than “pre” period.

Comparison of the Annual Outdoor Water Savings Between the Control and Experimental Groups Among the 90th Percentile of “Pre” Period (2001 to 2004) Water Users (annual use >261.6 m 3 ).

Retrospective Analysis

A retrospective analysis of the WSICS compared actual outdoor water used by each experimental household in 2003 and 2004 to the estimated volume of water that would have been applied by the WSICS during that same period. This analysis required calculating the number of irrigation cycles that would have been triggered for each system, based on: (1) weather data from that period, (2) the algorithm used by the WSICS units to trigger irrigation cycles based on weather data, and (3) each system's individual “evapotranspiration (ET) threshold.” ET thresholds are used to set the tolerance for how much estimated ET should be allowed before an irrigation cycle is triggered to replenish the loss. The number of triggered irrigation cycles was then converted to a volume for each household by multiplying it by the appropriate per-cycle volume. The latter was determined at each residence by reading the water meter before and after a test irrigation cycle. This approach was only applied to 2003 and 2004 to coincide with the years for which the extensive weather data needed in the algorithm was available. A PPCC normality hypothesis test suggests that the nonparametric sign test is preferred over a parametric test for assessing the difference between the actual and simulated water uses. Although positive overall mean and median water savings (22.60 and 29.28 m 3 /household/year, respectively) are reported when comparing simulated with actual use, we conclude from the nonparametric sign test that the savings is not significantly different from zero, owing to the large variation in the small sample. When this analysis is applied only to water users with high actual water use (use >261.6 m 3 ), during the years their use exceeded this threshold, the average savings is statistically significant at 135.8 m 3 /household/year. However, this sample consisted only of one year of data for each of three households.

In summary, two approaches were used: (1) comparing outdoor water use in households where WSICS were installed to outdoor water use in control households, both prior to and after installation; and (2) the retrospective analysis, comparing actual water use to theoretical water use had the WSICS been installed in 2003 and 2004. Both approaches confirm that even though overall water savings for the experimental group is greater than that for the control group, the difference in the savings between the two groups was not statistically significant owing to the highly variable savings in the experimental group. WSICS were, however, likely to result in water savings when installed at residences with high outdoor water demands. Although we did not assess the efficiency of individual watering regimes prior to WSICS installation, the significant response to the systems among the highest water users suggests over-watering by these households prior to the WSICS installation, as WSICS systems are designed specifically to reduce unnecessary irrigation.

Municipal WSICS

In addition to residential WSICS, five municipal athletic fields across two municipalities (Reading and Middleton, MA) were equipped with WSICS in the summer of 2005. A retrospective analysis was conducted using the same methodology as described above for the residential participants. Hypothetical water use was derived by simulating irrigation triggers that would have been signaled by the WSICS, had they been installed during 2003 and 2004, using weather records from that period and each field's WSICS ET thresholds and irrigation cycle volumes. This simulated use was compared with actual water use for each of the five fields aggregated for 2003 and 2004 ( Figure 4 ). Theoretical water savings were obtained by subtracting simulated use from actual use for each field for each year. Nonparametric tests were used again due to a sample size of 10 (two years each, for five fields). The sign test indicates that a significant positive water savings would have resulted from the WSICS installations. A box plot of the theoretical water savings ( Figure 5 ) indicates that this statistically significant average savings was approximately 0.11 m 3 /m 2 /year (equal to 121,000 gallons/acre/year).

Actual Water Use (without WSICS) and Simulated Water Use (with WSICS) Aggregated for 2003 and 2004 for Each Ball Field.

Box Plot of Theoretical Water Savings (actual–simulated water use) for Each Ball Field, Each Year (2003 and 2004). Mean per-unit-area savings is 0.11 m 3 /m 2 per year (equal to 121,000 gallons/acre/year).

Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting systems are designed to capture runoff from rooftops and store the water for nonpotable uses, such as lawn and garden watering. One intent of such systems is to reduce demand on public water supplies by replacing potable water that would otherwise be used for these outdoor purposes. A total of 39 rainwater harvesting systems were installed on residential properties mid-April 2006 in the town of Wilmington, MA, based on a lottery among 150 interested households. The systems consist of a storage tank, a pressure pump to aid in water distribution, a spigot for a hose, and a water meter to measure flow pumped from the tanks. Two different sizes of storage tanks were installed: twenty-eight 0.76 m 3 (200-gallon) and eleven 3.03 m 3 (800-gallon) tanks. Two of the participants with 200-gallon tanks upgraded their storage capacity to 1.38 m 3 (365 gallons) and 2.27 m 3 (600 gallons), respectively, using their own funds. Except where otherwise noted, the households with upgraded systems were excluded from the analyses. The rainwater systems were in use during the summers of 2006 and 2007. Total rainwater use from the time each system was turned on in the spring to when it was decommissioned in the fall was recorded for each household for 2006 and 2007. The distribution of the rainwater use observations for both groups is well-approximated by a normal distribution. All households used the rainwater systems, and a two-sample Student's t hypothesis test on sample means indicates that those with 3.03 m 3 tanks used significantly more rainwater than those with 0.76 m 3 tanks ( Figure 6 ).

The Data and 95% Confidence Intervals for the Mean of the Total Rainwater Used From Both Sizes of Harvesting Systems During the Summer Watering Seasons of 2006 and 2007.

To assess whether the use of rainwater resulted in a decrease in domestic water use, domestic water use before and after the installation of the rainwater harvesting system was compared for each residential participant. The visual comparison of the domestic water use and the rainwater use in Figure 7 shows that the volumes of rainwater used were generally less than the fluctuation in domestic water use from year to year, making reductions in domestic water use due to rainwater difficult to discern. A rank-sum test confirmed that, regardless of the size of the tanks, rainwater systems could not be shown to impact summer domestic water use.

Comparison of Scale Between Household Domestic Water Use and Rainwater Use.

However, a written survey completed by all participants who attended a meeting at the conclusion of the study suggests qualitatively that rainwater was a frequent substitute for domestic water among the rainwater harvesting participants. The survey asked participants to allocate the proportion of the rainwater they used across seven usage activities (one category was defined flexibly as “other” to capture uncommon uses) and to state for each whether they would have used an equivalent or greater amount of domestic water for that purpose if they did not have access to stored rainwater. All respondents (19 of 37 households that were in the program; i.e., 50% of participants) estimated that at least some of their rainwater uses were direct substitutes for domestic water that they otherwise would have used for the same purpose.

Twenty-five households were able to provide estimates of the roof area contributing to their rainwater collection system. For each of these households, the total volume of rain falling on the contributing area was estimated by multiplying contributing area by daily rainfall depth recorded at a nearby facility for the days the system was in use. Rainfall capture efficiency was defined as the ratio of total volume of rainwater used relative to the total volume of rain that fell on the contributing roof area. Each household has a unique rainfall capture efficiency, based on the combined influences of system storage capacity, frequency of system use, and the pattern (distribution, intensity, etc.) of rainfall events. A rank-sum test of “rainfall capture efficiency” by system size ( Figure 8 ) suggests that, in 2007, households with 800-gallon systems had statistically higher efficiencies than those with 200-gallon systems, whereas in 2006 the two groups had statistically equivalent efficiencies. The efficiencies of both groups improved in 2007 relative to 2006, which might be explained by a difference in rainfall patterns between the two years or might indicate a learning curve as participants get used to system operation. As a final observation, the two households with modified systems (365- and 600-gallon systems) demonstrated a relatively high rainfall capture efficiency among all the study participants. A possible explanation is that the participants who took extra care to tailor their systems to their specific needs were able to increase their systems’ efficiency.

Rainfall Capture Efficiency in, 2006 and 2007. When the sample size n = 1, the interquartile box and confidence interval for the median cannot be determined.

Residential Audit/Retrofit and Water Conservation Appliances Rebates

As part of a town-wide water conservation plan, in September of 2003, the town of Reading, MA, began offering water customers free indoor water use audits and water saving retrofit devices tailor-made to the results of the audits. The town also began offering customers rebates for eligible water-efficient appliances (washing machines and toilets) purchased on or after July 1, 2003. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of these two programs at reducing town-wide water demand and the water demand of those households who chose to participate in either or both programs. Only winter water use data were evaluated to isolate indoor water use and eliminate the confounding effect of year-to-year weather variability on water use during the irrigation season.

Participating households were grouped into five mutually exclusive categories of participation: (1) audit/retrofit (AR), (2) audit/retrofit and any type of rebate(s) (AR&R), (3) rebate-toilet(s) (RT), (4) rebate-washing machines(s) (RW), and (5) rebate-toilet(s) and washing machine(s) (RT&W). Participants in the same category should not be interpreted to have exactly the same level of participation. For example, the numbers of low-flush toilets for any two households in the group RT may be different, and the number of retrofit devices installed among households in the group AR is variable. This variability did not hinder analysis, as the intent of the study was not to evaluate savings associated with individual technologies, but rather savings resulting from the programs as a whole, which naturally include varying levels of participation.

Quarterly water use records for the entire town were obtained from February 2001 through May 2007. To isolate indoor water use, only quarters that began on or after October 19 and ended on or before April 14 of any year were included in the analysis. For each household, records dated before the installation of a qualifying rebate device or date of audit are regarded as “pre” winter use, whereas those recorded after are “post” winter use. Savings was determined by subtracting the average of the “post” use records from the average of the “pre” use records. To control for factors other than participation in the water conservation program that might trigger a change in water use patterns, households that did not participate in any program were included in a control group. However, as participating households initiated their participation across different years during the study window, a single date could not be selected to separate “pre” and “post” time periods for the control group. Therefore, we analyzed the control group four times to coincide with the variable points of initiation for the participating households. Specifically, “pre” minus “post” water use was calculated for the control group using each of the following four pre v . post groupings of years: (1) 2001-2002 v . 2003-2007, (2) 2001-2003 v . 2004-2007, (3) 2001-2004 v . 2005-2007, and (4) 2001-2005 v . 2006-2007.

The normal PPCC hypothesis test results suggested that nonparametric hypothesis tests are preferred. Sign tests showed statistically significant winter water savings in each conservation program category except AR&R ( Figure 9 and Table 3a ). However, the AR&R households (those participating in both the audit/retrofit and rebate programs) did demonstrate the highest median and second-highest average savings among the categories. The small sample size of this group likely explains our inability to detect a statistically significant savings for this category. In contrast to the households participating in the conservation programs, the control group households showed no statistically significant changes in water use for any of the time frames defined.

(a) Sample Size, Mean and Median Water Savings for Each of the Five Participation Categories, (b) Participation Rates and Town-Wide Savings for Audit/Retrofit and Appliance Rebate Programs

Winter Water Savings Among the Five Different Water Conservation Treatment Categories and the Control Group, Analyzed Four Ways. Values <0 imply an increase in water use after installing a water conservation device or receipt of an audit and retrofit kit. The five treatment categories are: audit/retrofit (AR); audit/retrofit and any type of rebate(s) (AR&R); rebate-toilet(s) (RT); rebate-washing machines(s) (RW); and rebate-toilet(s) and washing machine(s) (RT&W).

To evaluate the effect of the two outreach programs on town-wide water use, the overall per-household median savings for participating at any level in either program was multiplied by the number of participating households ( Table 3b ). The town saved 3,950 m 3 /quarter as a result of implementing both programs. Town-wide participation rates are shown for each program and for those participating in both programs (number of participating households/number of households in town). Participation rates are an important factor in estimating the overall savings that another town might be able to achieve by implementing similar programs. However, it should be noted that Reading saw waves of new participation each time the town conducted concerted outreach efforts during the course of the programs. We can assume, then, that the participation rates observed in Reading are closely related to the particular level of outreach effort exerted by the town, and it follows that other towns might be able to increase participation rates with more intensive outreach efforts.

Soil Amendments in Ball Fields

A portion of an 8-acre municipal athletic field complex in the town of North Reading, MA, was redeveloped to maximize infiltration and minimize irrigation requirements and application of fertilizer and pesticides by employing the following techniques: (1) soil enhancement with zeolite, an additive that retains moisture and nutrients; (2) use of drought-resistant turf; and (3) installation of a WSICS (see section on Weather-Sensitive Irrigation Controller Switches). The adjacent field, which has identical solar orientation, drainage patterns, and original soil profile, received only the latter two treatments and was used as a control to evaluate the effectiveness of the zeolite additive.

The field manager progressively adjusted the WSICS ET thresholds for each field in order to identify the most conservative watering scheme that could still maintain healthy turf. These thresholds set the tolerance for how much estimated ET is allowed before an irrigation cycle is triggered. The optimal thresholds of the zeolite and control fields were found to be 0.89 cm (0.35 inches) and 0.64 cm (0.25 inches), respectively. These settings were used to simulate the number of irrigation cycles that the WSICS would have applied to each field over the five-year period from 2003 to 2007, using historic weather data (see Retrospective Analysis under Weather-Sensitive Irrigation Controller Switches for methodology). The number of cycles was then converted to a total annual volume, based on the respective per-cycle volumes measured for each field. Savings was defined by subtracting the total per-acre irrigation volume applied to the zeolite field from that applied to the control field, for each year. The optimum settings resulted in an estimated average annual per-unit-area savings of approximately 3.59 cm 3 /cm 2 (38,000 gallons/acre), or 37% ( Table 4 ). Such substantial savings suggest that zeolite soil amendments may prove to be a very effective means to reduce irrigation demands of athletic fields. However, these results are highly dependent on the optimal ET thresholds observed for each field, based on trial and error and field observation over the course of a few months. To further refine the expected savings achievable through zeolite soil amendments, optimal watering thresholds could be verified by the use of soil moisture sensors. Additionally, observations over a longer time period that encompass greater variability of weather patterns would help verify optimal ET thresholds and refine long-term savings estimates.

Simulated Irrigation Volumes Applied to Zeolite and Control Fields (2003 to 2007)

Conclusions

The overall goal of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of four water conservation pilot strategies on water use. As is inherent to many small-scale pilots, the datasets for these demonstration projects tend to be small, variable, and exhibit nonnormal distributions. A secondary goal of this study was to demonstrate the application of mostly nonparametric statistical methods for their ability to enable sensible inferences to be drawn, in some cases, even from the very small samples.

Statistical hypothesis tests combined with controlled water conservation experiments were used to evaluate water savings associated with four water conservation strategies implemented in communities in the Ipswich watershed in Massachusetts, designed for their combined ability to meet an immediate municipal need and pilot an innovative conservation strategy. Our review of the literature revealed that controlled water conservation experiments combined with nonparametric statistical analyses of the type performed here are not commonly reported. Instead, most previous research has focused on retrospective statistical analyses of water use as well as studies that sought to elucidate behavior and attitudes concerning various water conservation strategies. Our overall findings for each of the four water conservation programs are as follows:

• Weather-sensitive irrigation controller switches : Residential water use patterns were variably impacted by the addition of the WSICS, with some participants showing a decrease and others showing an increase in water use. The WSICS appeared to reduce the variability of water use among residential participants, most notably by causing a reduction in water use of the highest historical water users. Our findings underscore that initial water use patterns are likely to be a prominent factor in determining whether water use will increase or decrease after WSICS installation in a residential setting. Water users who rely on inefficient watering regimes, historically, are more likely to benefit from the WSICS, which may explain why the participants in our study with the highest historical water use showed large and statistically significant water savings after installing the WSICS. In contrast to the residential setting, WSICS installations at municipal athletic fields resulted in consistent reductions in water application, with an average savings of 0.11 m 3 /m 2 /year (121,000 gallons/acre/year). This suggests that, prior to installation of WSICS, ball fields in our study were more consistently overwatered than residential lawns. This is not surprising, given that towns generally require a high level of turf performance on their athletic fields but lack the staff to frequently adjust irrigation settings in response to weather (such as reducing irrigation volumes after or in anticipation of rain events). To ensure sufficient irrigation without frequent adjustments, systems are set to water frequently, regardless of need. Strict standards for turf performance and limited staff resources are common in municipal settings, suggesting that the savings observed at ball fields in this study are likely transferable to other ball field sites.
• Rainwater harvesting : Rainwater was used for outdoor purposes by all participants, and those with 3.03 m 3 systems (800 gallons) used significantly more than those with 0.76 m 3 systems (200 gallons). Annual volumes of rainwater used were small compared with domestic water use, and reductions in domestic water use as a result of substitution with rainwater could not be discerned amidst the background fluctuations in domestic water use from year to year. However, a participant survey suggested that for every household, at least some of the rainwater used was a direct substitute for domestic water that would have been used for the same purpose. Rainfall capture efficiency was measured as the ratio of rainwater used relative to the rain that fell on the contributing roof area during the months of system operation. Efficiency of both size systems improved in the program's second year, which may indicate different rainfall patterns between the two years or that there is a learning curve as participants got used to system operation. In the second year, the larger systems were more efficient than the smaller systems, whereas they were statistically equivalent the first year. A possible explanation is that as rainfall capture efficiency improves, the impact of system size becomes more pronounced. Two households that modified their systems’ size were among the most efficient, suggesting that efficiency may be improved by tailoring one's system to one's needs.
• Residential audit/retrofit and water conservation appliance rebates : Participation in two town-administered water conservation programs (a. free indoor water use audits and fixture retrofit kits; b. low flow toilet and washing machine rebates) was divided into five categories. Four resulted in modest but significant positive water savings averaging between 3.94 and 5.38 m 3 /quarter/household. Although the fifth participation category (participation in both programs) showed no statistically significant water savings, this group's median and mean savings were ranked the highest and second-highest, respectively, among all five categories. The finding of nonstatistically significant savings of this group appeared to result from the small sample size and large variation in water savings among the participants. In the first four years of program implementation, 9.2% of the town's households participated in one or both of the programs, resulting in an overall average savings of approximately 3,950 m 3 /quarter for the town.
• Soil amendments in ball field : The addition of a moisture and nutrient-retaining additive, zeolite, to the soil of a ball field resulted in healthy turf with less water applied than to an adjacent control field. Based on observed irrigation requirements, the zeolite material was estimated to save approximately 3.59 cm 3 /cm 2 /year (38,000 gallons/acre/year). This represents a reduction of 37% in irrigation volume, suggesting promising water savings from zeolite soil amendments.

Future research on all of the above strategies could be used to verify or refine the results reported here. To address the specific constraints encountered in this study, the following approaches are suggested. WSICS should be evaluated with larger residential sample sizes and include an assessment of historic irrigation efficiency. Additional size categories of rainwater harvesting systems should be evaluated for rainfall capture efficiency under a variety of rainfall conditions and further investigation should be made into the ability of such systems to reduce domestic water use. Town-administered water conservation programs such as Reading's should continue to be evaluated over longer time frames to better understand the long-term potential for savings among participating households and at the town level. Lastly, turf health on the soil-amended and control ball fields was determined by visual inspection. Future research should employ a more sophisticated method for comparing the turf health.

Acknowledgments

This article was developed under Cooperative Agreement No. WS-97117501 awarded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation (DCR). The views expressed in this document are solely those of the authors; not those of EPA or DCR. Neither EPA nor DCR endorses any products or commercial services mentioned in this publication.

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Water Conservation Tips

Learn how to reduce your water usage.

1994 was the year that federally mandated low-flow showerheads, faucets, and toilets started to appear on the scene in significant numbers. How can you conform to the standards and help increase energy efficiency in your home?

• On average, 10 gallons per day of your water footprint (or 14% of your indoor use) is lost to leaks. Short of installing new water-efficient fixtures, one of the easiest, most effective ways to cut your footprint is by repairing leaky faucets and toilets.
• If you use a low-flow showerhead, you can save 15 gallons of water during a 10-minute shower.
• Every time you shave minutes off your use of hot water, you also save energy and keep dollars in your pocket.
• It takes about 70 gallons of water to fill a bathtub, so showers are generally the more water-efficient way to bathe.
• All of those flushes can add up to nearly 20 gallons a day down the toilet. If you still have a standard toilet, which uses close to 3.5 gallons a flush, you can save by retrofitting or filling your tank with something that will displace some of that water, such as a brick.
• Most front-loading washing machines are energy- and water-efficient, using just over 20 gallons a load, while most top-loading machines, unless they are energy-efficient, use 40 gallons per load.
• Nearly 22% of indoor home water use comes from doing laundry. Save water by making sure to adjust the settings on your machine to the proper load size.
• Dishwashing is a relatively small part of your water footprint—less than 2% of indoor use—but there are always ways to conserve. Using a machine is actually more water efficient than hand washing, especially if you run full loads.
• Energy Star dishwashers use about 4 gallons of water per load, and even standard machines use only about 6 gallons. Hand washing generally uses about 20 gallons of water each time.

Yards and Pools

• Nearly 60% of a person's household water footprint can go toward lawn and garden maintenance.
• Climate counts—where you live plays a role in how much water you use, especially when it comes to tending to a yard.
• The average pool takes 22,000 gallons of water to fill, and if you don't cover it, hundreds of gallons of water per month can be lost due to evaporation.

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• The water it takes to produce the average American diet alone—approximately 1,000 gallons per person per day—is more than the global average water footprint of 900 gallons per person per day for diet, household use, transportation, energy, and the consumption of material goods.
• That quarter pounder is worth more than 30 average American showers. One of the easiest ways to slim your water footprint is to eat less meat and dairy. Another way is to choose grass-fed, rather than grain-fed, since it can take a lot of water to grow corn and other feed crops.
• A serving of poultry costs about 90 gallons of water to produce. There are also water costs embedded in the transportation of food (gasoline costs water to make). So, consider how far your food has to travel, and buy local to cut your water footprint.
• Pork costs water to produce, and traditional pork production—to make your sausage, bacon, and chops—has also been the cause of some water pollution, as pig waste runs into local water sources.
• On average, a vegan–a person who doesn't eat meat or dairy–may indirectly consume less than a person who eats dairy, though a new study calls this into question , as eating enough vegetables to generate the same energy as meat also takes a significant amount of water.
• A cup of coffee takes 55 gallons of water to make, with most of that H2O used to grow the coffee beans.

Transportation

• The water footprint of your per-day electricity use is based on state averages. If you use alternative energies such as wind and solar, your footprint could be less. (The use of biofuels, however, if they are heavily irrigated, could be another story.) You would also get points, or a footprint reduction, for using energy-star appliances and taking other energy-efficiency measures.
• Washing a car uses about 150 gallons of water, so by washing less frequently you can cut back your water use.
• A gallon of gasoline takes nearly 13 gallons of water to produce. Combine your errands, car pool to work, or take public transportation to reduce both your energy and water use.
• Flying from Los Angeles to San Francisco, about 700 miles round-trip, could cost you more than 9,000 gallons of water, or enough for almost 2,000 average dishwasher loads.
• A cross-country airplane trip (about 6,000 miles) could be worth more than 1,700 standard toilet flushes.
• Traveling from Chicago to Istanbul is just about 10,000 miles round trip, costing enough water to run electricity in the average American home for one person for more than five years.

Consumer Power

For hungry minds.

• According to recent reports, nearly 5% of all U.S. water withdrawals are used to fuel industry and the production of many of the material goods we stock up on weekly, monthly, and yearly.
• It takes about 100 gallons of water to grow and process a single pound of cotton, and the average American goes through about 35 pounds of new cotton material each year. Do you really need that additional T-shirt?
• One of the best ways to conserve water is to buy recycled goods, and to recycle your stuff when you’re done with it. Or, stick to buying only what you really need.
• The water required to create your laptop could wash nearly 70 loads of laundry in a standard machine.
• Recycling a pound of paper, less than the weight of your average newspaper, saves about 3.5 gallons of water. Buying recycled paper products saves water too, as it takes about six gallons of water to produce a dollar worth of paper.

Calculate Your Water Footprint

This tool helps calculate your water footprint based on how much water you use at home, for transportation, and as a consumer.

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Conservation and Restoration in the Oceans

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Marine ecosystems are home to much of our planet's biodiversity and provide numerous services, such as providing protein for human consumption and protecting many shorelines. The ocean is also critical to buffer against climate change impacts by absorbing carbon dioxide and heat. However, human activities such as overfishing, pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change are rapidly deteriorating marine ecosystems, necessitating urgent conservation and restoration initiatives on a global scale. Marine ecosystems are quickly deteriorating due to human activities, thus undermining their ability to maintain biodiversity and provide services. Initiatives for conserving and restoring marine ecosystems often face numerous challenges, including limited scientific understanding, technical constraints, jurisdictional complexities, and economic issues. The primary goal of this Research Topic is to amass scientific insights on marine conservation and restoration, explore innovative solutions to existing challenges, and pave the way for sustainable ocean ecosystems. The main purpose is to contribute to scientific knowledge that can aid the development of effective approaches, practices, and policies for ocean conservation and restoration. This Research Topic invites submissions on various topics including but not limited to: • Review and analysis of marine conservation and restoration projects. • Innovative methodologies and technologies for marine conservation and restoration. • Case studies examining successful or challenging marine conservation and restoration initiatives. • Research exploring the socio-economic implications of marine conservation and restoration. • Study of the role of marine protected areas in conservation and restoration. • Climate change impacts on marine restoration and conservation efforts. • Research on legal and policy frameworks and their effectiveness in marine conservation and restoration. • Discussions on stakeholder involvement in marine conservation and restoration initiatives.

Keywords : Marine Conservation, Marine Restoration, Climate Change, Ecosystem Services, Biodiversity, Marine Protected Areas

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December 30, 2021

15 Conservation Issues to Watch in 2022

Airborne DNA detection, pesticides and the revival of wetlands are on the radar of biodiversity protectors

By Mary Hoff & Ensia

A bicolored striped-sweat bee on a dahlia.

Ronda Brady/Getty Images

From  Ensia  (find the  original story here ); reprinted with permission.

November 29, 2021—It’s no secret that the diversity of life around us is plummeting fast. In 2020 alone, scientists declared  more than 100 species to be extinct . And that’s bad news not only for the creatures themselves, but for those of us (that would be all of us) who rely on them for food, to produce oxygen, to hold soil in place, to cleanse water, to beautify our world and so much more. According to the World Economic Forum, nature plays a key role in generating more than half of global GDP.

So, what can we do to reduce future harm? One big thing is to identify emerging threats and opportunities to protect biodiversity and proactively shape policies and actions to prevent harm early on. To this end, a group of scientists and conservation practitioners led by William Sutherland, professor of conservation biology at the University of Cambridge, each year creates and publishes a  “horizon scan” of global trends with impacts for biodiversity . Read on for this year’s top picks, and see our coverage of previous years’ horizon scans  here  or at the bottom of this page.

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Floating Solar

One of the big challenges for solar power is finding a place to put large arrays of photovoltaic panels. In recent years the notion of siting them on water rather than land has taken off dramatically, with more than 300 installations in place around the world today. The approach offers a number of benefits to biodiversity. For one, it saves land resources that might otherwise be covered with solar panels. It can reduce algal blooms on waterways. It can reduce the demand for other habitat-harming energy sources such as hydropower, and the evaporative cooling water offers makes the panels more efficient. All that said, still to be determined are the potential implications—positive and negative—for aquatic and marine ecosystems.

Energy Through the Air

Powerlines and the poles and towers that hold them are staples of civilization. Imagine being able to replace them with devices that transmit electricity through the air instead of along wires? That vision is closer to becoming reality, thanks to innovations in materials and in technologies that create and direct beams of energy—think wireless smartphone charging writ large. Deployment of long-distance wireless energy infrastructure could reduce the harms that conventional hardware pose to wildlife, such as collision risks for birds and bats. On the downside, it could also stimulate energy use and make it easier to live in remote locations, hastening the destruction or disruption of our planet’s few remaining untrammeled areas.

Soaring Satellites

Think human impacts on biodiversity are limited to the biosphere? Think again. More than 2,000 communications satellites currently orbit our planet, and with current plans, the total could reach 100,000 in the next 10 years. The process of deploying and decommissioning these extraplanetary objects can disrupt the stratospheric ozone layer; deposit aluminum in, and otherwise modify the chemical composition of, the upper atmosphere; and alters Earth’s albedo—its ability to reflect sunlight. These alterations in turn affect the amount and type of radiation that hits the surface of our planet. As satellite deployment soars, implications potentially loom large for climate, exposure to ultraviolet light and other conditions that affect the well-being of living things.

Nitrogen Boom?

The pursuit of alternative transportation fuels has taken many twists and turns, all with ancillary costs as well as benefits. Recent attention has turned to ammonia as a fuel for shipping. It can power fuel cells or engines. It has almost doubled the energy density of hydrogen, and poses fewer issues related to storage and transporting fuel to where it’s needed. The problem? Ammonia takes lots of energy to produce and can cause environmental harm if not burned completely. As interest in ammonia fuel grows, the authors warn against false claims of it being a “ zero carbon ” fuel and potential downsides, such as increased air pollution, that might accrue from its use.

Airborne DNA Detection

Increasingly sophisticated tools for detecting and identifying DNA are able to pinpoint the presence—or even past presence—of all kinds of organisms from bits of their genetic material floating through the air. This capability opens the door to a wide range of conservation-assisting endeavors, from characterizing the members of a particular ecological community, to locating rare or endangered species, to tracking the expansion of the range of invasive organisms, to nailing perpetrators of illegal wildlife trade. So-called “eDNA” biomonitoring is already in use for detecting the presence of microorganisms, plants and fungi, and it appears to be feasible for tracking some animals as well. As the technology expands, so likely will the applications to efforts to understand and protect biodiversity.

Refrigerant Redux

Widespread efforts have taken place in recent decades to reduce use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in air conditioners, refrigerators and other cooling systems due to their capacity to contribute to global warming. Unfortunately, one of the top kinds of replacement chemicals, hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) appear to have plenty of environmental issues of their own. As they decompose, HFOs form chemicals that pollute water and air. Some produce potent greenhouse gases. Environmental contamination with this long-lasting HFC substitute appears to on the rise. Unless regulation related to the deployment and decommissioning of refrigerants quickly and dramatically improves, we risk further contributing to climate change with a shift in practice intended to help reduce its risks.

Volcanoes, Meet Cement

Production of clinker, a key ingredient of cement, is bad for the climate and bad for biodiversity. It requires mining limestone, harming habitat for living things. And the process of turning limestone into clinker releases huge amounts of planet-warming carbon dioxide—both from the energy required to heat it up, and from the carbon dioxide limestone releases in the process.  Cement production  already is responsible for some 8% of global carbon dioxide emissions, and demand for cement is expected to grow. Using volcanic material in place of limestone could reduce greenhouse gas impact and would have additional benefit of possibly improving the ability of cement resist cracking. However, the authors write, we need to weight the environmental costs of mining and transporting volcanic material against the benefits of reducing limestone use.

Insecticide Whack-a-Mole

Neonicotinoids are a class of chemicals that kill insects by disabling their nervous systems. Used to control pests in agriculture, they have come under fire in recent years for threatening populations of bees and other desirable insects. As neonicotinoids have been banned in the European Union and elsewhere, other, similar-acting insecticides have emerged. These substitutes, including sulfoxaflor and flupyradifurone, appear also to harm bees and some other desirable insect species, potentially posing new threats to insect biodiversity.

Spreading Without Sex

Some insects and other invertebrates have evolved a novel solution to their “can’t find a date” problem: They can reproduce without sex. The process, known as parthenogenesis, allows them to make more of their species when mates are scarce or absent. It also dramatically enhances their ability to gain a foothold in new territory if accidentally introduced there. At least one invertebrate, the marbled crayfish, evolved the ability to reproduce asexually in captivity and is now spreading rapidly across Europe, Africa and Asia, carrying with it disease that harms native species. As we cultivate other invertebrates for food or hobbies, we raise the risk that something similar might happen with other species.

Plant-Forward Food

Animal agriculture is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, and “plant-forward” diets are gaining increased attention as a way to not only be healthier ourselves but to help our planet be healthier as well. China, for one, is taking it a step further: Rather than simply touting meals heavy on fruits and veggies, it has committed to cut its citizens’ meat consumption in half by 2030. Media campaigns and meat bans in some settings already have contributed to a decline in meat consumption, and the initiative has boosted innovations around  synthetic meats , with the country’s plant-based meat industry expected to grow 20–25% per year in the foreseeable future.

All Together Now

Volunteer groups, nonprofit organizations, small-town governments and other local entities can be a valuable source of support for people living in rural areas. It turns out they can be a valuable source of support for other living things, too. Globally, the number of social institutions has grown from half a million in 2000 to 8.5 million in 2020, providing support for sustainable management of some 300 million hectares (700 million acres) of forests, farmland and waterways. If this trend continues, it bodes well for biodiversity conservation as more lands are managed in ways that keep them—and the plants and animals that inhabit them—thriving.

Wetland Attitude Adjustment

The East Asian–Australasian Flyway, which extends along the eastern coast of Asia and Australia through New Zealand, is one of the top hot spots in the world for diversity and sheer numbers of waterfowl and other water-loving birds, including critically endangered species. With massive development underway in China—one of the top wetland-containing nations in the world—it’s also among the most threatened: In the past decade, many wetland areas have been transformed into farmland and cities. Recently, however, several changes are starting to shine an optimistic light. The United Nations has provided a new level of protection to highly significant wetlands in Korea and China by adding them to its roster of World Heritage Sites. And China itself has begun investing in protecting key wetlands. If this trend continues and other countries follow suit, it could spell welcome relief for water birds throughout much of eastern Asia and the western Pacific.

Mangrove Revival

The mangrove forests that coat coastlines in the tropics and subtropics harbor abundant plant and animal species that thrive at the intersection of land and sea. In past decades development has decimated many, destroying the biodiversity-nurturing and carbon-sequestering services they provide. But in recent years that tide has turned. Conservationists’ efforts to restore and preserve these rich habitats have helped reduce loss. In addition, these wetlands are also the accidental beneficiaries of other ecosystem changes: As inland forests are cut, erosion moves soil toward the coast where it can nurture new mangroves, and climate change is creating more of the warm habitat they need. Together, these changes have reduced mangrove loss to near zero, though local areas of depletion continue.

Tide Zone Tribulations

Intertidal zones—the portions of the ocean’s coast across which water advances and recedes with the tides—experience daily fluctuations in temperature, water level, salinity, physical disruption and predation. Now, they are seeing another variable: heat waves. Record temperatures in Pacific Northwest in June 2021 left mussels, clams, oysters, barnacles, sea stars, rockweed and more dead along thousands of miles of coastline. And that’s not all. Climate change threatens to change salinity of these complex and fragile ecosystems as well, as precipitation patterns change and polar ice melts. If this keeps up we’ll have more than a stinky mess: The complex ecosystems and the services they provide—stabilizing coasts, providing food, providing habitat, protecting water quality—will be fried, too.

Treasure—and Trouble?—Beneath the Seas

The seabed beneath Earth’s oceans harbors abundant bounties of precious metals and other mineable materials. New technologies have now made it possible to mine such materials, and one country, Nauru, recently announced plans to permit  deep-sea mining . This announcement means that the International Seabed Authority must either set up specific ocean mining regulations or commit to reviewing applications under established, more general United Nations conventions. Ocean mining may reduce pressure to disrupt land habitat—but it also opens the door to new assaults on unique deep-sea ecosystems and the living things they harbor.

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71 Research Questions

At IMCC2 in 2011, the SCB Marine Section developed a list of 71 research questions critical to the advancement of marine conservation. We encourage IMCC3 proposals that address one or more of these questions.

Table 1 . Full list of 71 questions

*These “71 important questions for the conservation of marine biodiversity” are part of a paper accepted for publication in SCB’s journal Conservation Biology (authored by Parsons, E.C.M., Favaro, B., Draheim, M., McCarthy, J.B., Aguirre, A.A., Bauer, A.L., Blight, L.K., Cigliano, J.A., Coleman, M.A., Côté, I.M., Fletcher, S., Foley, M.M., Jefferson, R., Jones, M.C., Kelaher, B.P., Lundquist, C.J., Nelson, A., Patterson, K., Walsh, L., Wright, A.J. and Sutherland, W.J.) The open-access paper can be viewed at:  http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12303/pdf

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20 questions about water conservation

By Deseret News , Joe Bauman staff writer

With the hot breath of Utah's fourth consecutive year of drought breathing down on the state, Utahns are preparing to survive another predicted summer of hot and dry weather and low precipitation.

And while water is currently in short supply, questions about how to best accomplish water conservation are anything but.

Wanting to help Utahns with answers, the Deseret News has collected a series of questions about the drought and conserving water and posed them to the experts for their responses.

Offering their best-guesses to our questions are Stephanie Duer, Salt Lake City's water conservation coordinator; Larry Anderson, director, Utah Division of Water Resources; Valerie Payne of the South Davis Sewer District; and Michele Hill, sales director for Tag-A-Long Expeditions, a river expeditions company based in Moab.

So let's play 20 Questions — Utah Drought 2002 Edition:

1. Should we take showers instead of baths? Reduce water use with our garbage disposals? Use an automatic dishwasher instead of doing dishes by hand?

Answer. Usually showers require less water than baths, comparing full-tub baths with short showers. Garbage disposals require water, but the bigger problem is transporting the garbage through the wastewater system, which uses even more. "That's why we ask people not to use the disposal," said Duer. Dishwashers aren't necessarily better than doing dishes by hand.

2. How often and how long should automated sprinklers be left running?

Answer. "It varies depending on your soil and the microclimate of your landscape," Duer said. The city and the Utah State University Extension Service, Logan, devised a watering schedule that should work.

"Basically, for May (water yards) approximately once every four days. For June, July and August, once ever three days, and for September, once ever six or seven days," Duer said. The amount to use should be half an inch of water per interval, which can be measured by placing a small can (tuna or pet food) on the lawn while the sprinklers operate. Generally, that's the amount of water applied to any one spot during about 20 minutes of watering.

3. Should outdoor drinking fountains be turned off?

Answer. Drinking fountains are a public service and should not be closed down. Some use artesian water, naturally under pressure, which is going to come out anyhow. But if other fountains are running and can be turned off when not used, Duer said, they should not be left running continuously.

4. What should I do if my neighbors, the local church, school, golf course, etc., is violating water conservation policies? Or wasting resources by watering mostly the road?

Answer. Call your individual water district or city. While Salt Lake City has no formal ordinance on this, a call to Duer's office at 483-6860 (if the offense is within Salt Lake City boundaries) will prompt a response that should result in the negligent user being contacted and made aware of the problem. You can expect similar responses by your water district or city officials.

5. Why is this being called a drought "crisis" when some old-timers remember worse water years? Is it partly due to increased development resulting in using more of a limited resource?

Answer. Yes, it's a crisis "primarily because of the level of our population (and increased development)," Duer explains. Water resources are finite. As Utah's population swells, the water pie is being sliced into smaller pieces to serve more people.

6. Is it true that when people start conserving the water, for example not flushing the toilet flushing as often, treatment districts have to pump fresh water into the sewer system just to keep it flowing?

Answer. "That wouldn't be very likely," said Payne of the South Davis Sewer District. Water from showers, baths, laundry and other cleaning goes into the system, too. That should be enough to keep everything moving.

7. What should I do if neighbors raid my outside water faucet? Can I get a faucet key to prevent this?

Answer. "My first advice would be talk to your neighbor," Duer said. "If someone needs assistance in some method of intervention, call me (or my equivalent in your city)," Duer said. She also suggests placing a lock on the outside faucet and not leaving the hose where neighbors can get to it easily.

8. Can or should I use a hose to clean up a spill on the sidewalk?

Answer. In most cases opt for the broom, Duer suggests.

9. Can I plant a garden?

Answer. Yes, but consider it a trade-off. If a flower garden, most flowers, shrubs and trees require less water than lawns. Some lawn space can be replaced by amenities such as a rock garden.

10. Will users of residential wells also face restrictions?

Answer. "There's always potential for that," Duer said. "As people depend on well water and as we enter on more critical phases of drought, groundwater levels will decline."

That could result in some restrictions. If the groundwater drops enough, the flow from wells could also be negatively affected.

11. Fact or fiction: How much of our water are Utah water districts selling to out-of-state entities?

Answer. "The answer is zero," said Anderson, director, Utah Division of Water Resources.

About 450,000 acre-feet of Utah's water rights in the Colorado River are not being used, he added. "It goes into filling Lake Powell." If lake water were dumped or happened to spill because the lake was too full — which is not likely anytime soon — some of Utah's water would flow to the states downstream, he said. Those states could then use it.

12. Should families with large backyard swimming pools be allowed to fill them?

Answer. People could consider other uses for the pool area this season, according to Duer.

13. Does this mean children also shouldn't use their hose-powered water slides in the afternoon?

Answer. Yes. "Maybe the best places for water recreation are public swimming pools and not backyard water recreation toys and pools," Duer said.

14. Should big recreational water users like water parks and golf courses be closed?

Answer. "I would say no," Duer said. These places provide important community recreation. "We might have to give up lush green roughs and see more native vegetation (at golf courses), and we need to make systems run more efficiently. But it's in the public interest to provide these recreational outlets."

15. Can I capture rainwater at home to save for personal use like gardens? Who can advise me on this?

Answer. "Sure," said Duer, who suggested checking the Internet for advice. She's not enthusiastic about use of this "gray water," however, because of the potential for bacterial growth and other contamination.

16. Do secondary water suppliers have meters on their systems? If not, should they add them?

Answer. Many secondary water systems are not metered because this type of water carries larger particles that tend to clog meters. If the drought worsens and people need to watch the use even more closely, meters might eventually become necessary.

17. If everybody is watering overnight, won't that reduce water pressure?

Answer. "To some extent, yes, but hopefully not everyone's over-watering, and not everyone's going to water on the same day," Duer said.

18. Utah Power had incentives last summer for customers who reduced power usage by a significant amount. Should this be done for water use?

Answer. "People want us to charge more to encourage conservation, yet they want us to give the money back if they conserve," Duer said. Salt Lake City is looking at other block rate schedules, but the way they are currently set up, summer peak-demand rates means water costs more than at other times.

Thus, the present monetary incentive to conserve is: "If someone uses less water, they're going to pay less," she said.

Most other water delivery systems in the state are set up in a similar manner.

19. Will river-runners suffer this year because the water is low?

Answer. For some guide services that use larger boats in certain places, the lower river flow this year will be a problem, said Hill, sales director for Tag-A-Long Expeditions, Moab. Hill, a river guide for 20 years, says Tag-A-Long uses smaller boats so she doesn't anticipate such troubles herself.

20. My lawn doesn't get enough water unless it is watered every third day. Once in four days isn't enough. By restricting my watering to odd or even days, instead of every three days, isn't that encouraging me to overwater?

Answer. Please see schedule listed with Question No. 2.

"That's why we're not having an odd-or-even-days restriction (in Salt Lake City)," said Duer, who is unable to comment on rules and restrictions being enforced by other cities.

Extra Credit: In a previous drought, a popular slogan was "If it's yellow, let it mellow; if it's if's brown, flush it down." Is that still good advice to follow in 2002?

Answer. "Using a low-flow toilet is good," Duer said. "(But) I'm not sure I'm ready to say not to flush. If you are renovating your bathroom, then install a low-flow toilet."

The Utah Division of Water Resources adds that an easy way to retrofit a wasteful older toilet is "simply place a water-resistant object, such as a plastic bottle, inside the tank." The gallons displaced could result in a big water savings.

"Modifying your toilet in such a manner should not adversely impact its operation," says the division's Internet site, "however, if it does, consider replacing it with a newer model."

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Home » Lifestyle » Green Homes » Water conservation projects: Tips to conserve water at home

Water conservation projects: Tips to conserve water at home

Water scarcity is one of the serious concerns for countries across the world. In 2019, Chennai made international headlines when the civic bodies declared ‘Day Zero’, as the city ran out of water and all the reservoirs dried up. A report by NITI Aayog, a government think-tank, said that if methods for water conservation in India were not adopted, another 20 cities including Bengaluru, Delhi and Hyderabad, would run out of groundwater in the next few years. The only solution to avoid this grim situation, is to adopt universal methods of water conservation , which could be replicated across households. Here is a detailed guide, for you to understand water conservation and what can you do at an individual level.

Table of Contents

To create awareness on the global water crisis, World Water Day is observed on March 22 every year. The theme for World Water Day 2023 is ‘accelerating the change to solve the water and sanitation crisis’, emphasising on the need for stern action to address the global water crisis.

See also about: leakage water

Water conservation projects and initiatives in India

The Ministry of Jal Shakti under the Indian government launched the Jal Shakti Abhiyan in 2019. It is a nation-wide water conservation campaign that aims at encouraging citizen participation to promote water conservation at the grassroot level. The project on water conservation was launched in two phases from July 1st 2019 to September 30th 2019 and from October 1st 2019 to November 30th 2019.

On the World Water Day, March 22nd 2021, the government launched the ‘Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch the Rain’ (JSA:CTR) with the theme ‘Catch the rain, Where it Falls When it Falls’. It covers rural and urban areas of all districts in India, during the pre-monsoon and monsoon period, up to 30th November 2021.

Under the campaign, the government focuses on creation/ maintenance of water conservation and rainwater harvesting structures, renovation of various traditional water bodies tanks, reuse and recharge of bore wells, watershed development and intensive afforestation.

See also: A guide to buying water tank for house

Jal Sanchay

The Jal Sanchay project was a water conservation initiative that was started in Nalanda district of Bihar. The water conservation project focused on constructing check dams, and desilting and renovating the irrigation system and traditional water bodies. It also involved increasing awareness about traditional water conservation and rainwater harvesting techniques aimed at maintaining the water table levels. The project also carried out with the support from local farmers and through campaigns.

In 2017, the project was selected for a national award for excellence under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme (MGNREGP).

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana

The Central Government’s Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) was launched in 2015-16, to improve the physical access of water on farm and expand cultivable area under assured irrigation. The programme focuses on improving on-farm water use efficiency and adopt sustainable water conservation practices.

Namami Gange Programme

The Namami Gange Programme is an Integrated Conservation Mission, a flagship programme’ by the Central government in June 2014 with budget of Rs 20,000 crore to aimed to achieve effective abatement of pollution, conservation and rejuvenation of National River Ganga. The key achievements in the programme are:

• Creating sewerage treatment capacity
• Creating river-front development
• River surface cleaning
• Bio-diversity conservation

See also: All about the MCGM water bill

Water conservation methods: Simple tips to save water at home

Ways to conserve water in kitchen.

Do not use running water for cleaning food items

Avoid using running water for cleaning vegetables. Instead, soak the vegetables in a bowl of water for some time and wash it later. Do not defrost frozen foods with running water. You can keep frozen things outside overnight, for defrosting them.

Use a washing-up bowl

Install a washing-up bowl in the kitchen sink for less consumption of water.

Switch to water-efficient appliances at home and office

When buying a dishwasher, select one with a ‘light-wash’ option. Use electric dishwasher only for full loads and shorter cycle.

Recycle wastewater

Reuse the wastewater from RO water purifiers for washing cars or watering your plants. You can also use this water for mopping or pre-rinse laundry. Do not drain the leftover water in water bottles. It can be used for watering plants or filling up water bowls for birds.

Turn off the water when cleaning the dishes

If you have to wash a few vessels by hand, turn off the water while you are not rinsing.

Close utensils when cooking meals

Cover the utensils and saucepans with lids. This will help minimise the consumption of water lost evaporated by heat while cooking. Fill the kettle or vessel with the amount of water required.

Ways to conserve water in bathroom

Take shorter showers

About 20 to 40 gallons of water is spent during a four-minute shower. Take shorter showers. A partly filled tub consume lesser water. You can also install water-saving showerheads and shower timers.

Turn off the tap when not in use

Turn off the water when you brush your teeth or shave. You can fill a glass of water before brushing and use the water to rinse your mouth. Apply short bursts of water for cleaning the razors while shaving.

Check for leaks in the toilet

Turn off the taps tightly after use. Water dripping from taps can cause wastage of up to 50 gallons of water or more in a day. Immediately repair any tap leakages.

Frequently check for leakages in the toilet flushing systems. This could be simply done by placing dye tablets or adding drops of food colouring into the tank and if colour appears in the bowl one hour later, your toilet is leaking.

Avoid using toilets as ashtray or wastebasket

Flushing a cigarette butt or tissue in the toilet results in the loss of five to seven gallons of water. Do not use the toilet to dispose of cigarette butt, tissues, etc.

Place a plastic bottle in the toilet tank

Keep an inch or two of sand or pebbles at the bottom of one litre bottle to weigh it down. You can place two bottles in bigger tanks. Fill the rest of the bottle with water and place it in the toilet tank, away from the operating mechanism. Typically, it may save five gallons of water or more daily.

Use optimum quantity of water for each laundry

Usually, 15 to 40 percent of water use in households comes from laundry. One can conserve water by adjusting the settings on the laundry machine to the proper load size to ensure the use of right amount of water.

Go for low-flush toilets

Install low-flush toilets that can minimise water consumption by up to 50%.

Go for automatic washing machine only for full loads

An automatic washer may consume up to 35 gallons per cycle.

Install water-efficient bathroom fittings

Install water-efficient showers and taps, to reduce water usage. Water-saving shower heads or flow restrictors can reduce shower flow up from up to five to ten gallons per minute to around three gallons per minute.

Install dual flush toilet systems in the house, which have two mechanisms to flush different amounts of water.

Rectify leaks in pipes, hoses faucets, or couplings

One may ignore water leakages outside the house, but they can result in the loss of a huge amount of water compared to water leaks inside the house, especially if the leaks happen on the main water line. Thus, it is important to identify such leaks and rectify them.

Ways to conserve water in garden and outdoors

Grow plants that consume less water

Choose to grow drought-resistant plants and trees in your home garden, which requires less water.

Deep-soak the lawn

An effective way to water your lawn is to let the water stay long enough and seep down to the roots. However, do not turn on and leave the sprinklers for the entire day. A light sprinkling may cause water to stay on the surface and evaporate, thus leading to wastage.

Make sure you do not over-water the soil as it cannot hold extra water. Avoid watering the lawns for a short duration every day. Instead you can do so every three to five days. Gardens or lawns need only 5 millimetres of water in a day during warm weather.

Save water while washing the car

Use a hose only to rinse off the soapy water or use a bucket of water instead of a continuous water flow.

Ask children not to play with the hose and sprinklers

Kids usually prefer playing in the garden under a hose or sprinkler during hot summers. However, it may lead to wastage of water.

Swimming pool covers

Use swimming pool covers, which will help minimise evaporation. This will also have warm pool water to cut down costs of water, energy and chemicals.

Ornamental water features

Avoid installing ornamental water features if they do not recycle the water.

Conservation of water resources at community level

Water saving techniques can be encouraged at the social and community level, which includes the municipal authorities and state governments. One can adopt popular strategies such as public outreach campaigns.

Methods of water conservation

Water conservation projects can be done anywhere and in any kind of structure. Here are different water conservation methods where major savings can be done, without much hassles:

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is a very effective method of conserving natural water and replenishing the groundwater level. In this method of conservation of water, the rain water is collected and allowed to percolate into a deep pit or a reservoir, so that it seeps down and improves the ground water table.

Farmers can contribute to the water management efforts using the drip irrigation method where plants are watered with the help of narrow tubes. This water is delivered directly at the base of the plant, thus conserving water.

How to harvest rainwater?

Under a rainwater harvesting project, artificially designed systems are deployed for the collection and storage of rainwater, as explained below:

• Catchment for collecting and storing rainwater
• A conveyance system for transporting the harvested rainwater to the recharge zone.
• Flushing out the first spell of rain
• Filtering the stored water to remove pollutants
• Tanks and recharge structures for storing filtered water

See also: Why water harvesting is the best way to end water shortages

Water metering

Another efficient way of cutting down water wastage is to install water meters and measure the amount of water that is being used in residential and commercial buildings. The volume of water that is used, is calculated and charged according to the price of water. Always monitor the water bills for unusually high usage. It can help detect any leakage.

Also read about DJB bill view : How to pay Delhi Jal Board water bills online in Delhi?

Grey water recycling

Greywater recycling is a method of saving used and waste water from kitchen sinks, washing machines and showers, which is then recycled for usage in toilets, for watering plants, etc. Unlike rainwater harvesting which relies on rainwater, greywater is surplus in volume. Environmentalists have demonstrated that the usage of this recycling system has reduced almost 70% of domestic water usage.

Also read: Bamboo house design and construction ideas for sustainable living

Efficient irrigation technology

Maintenance of lawns and gardens required large quantities of water. efficient outdoor irrigation technologies such as smart irrigation controllers are beneficial as they help conserve water. These irrigation controllers track factors such as precipitation or temperature and avoid over-watering the fields.  Moreover, you can further save water spray sprinklers that deliver water directly to plants as these are buried under the lawn.

Pressure reducing valves

A pressure reducing valve basically controls the amount of pressure in a hydraulic system. These valves ensure a pre-set level of water that is to be used. In this way, downstream components used in the water system last longer and water consumption is also reduced. This is a very efficient solution for water conservation in industrial, residential, commercial and institutional buildings.

See also: All about BWSSB

Water efficient bathroom accessories

Currently, the market is flooded with water-efficient toilet tanks, taps and shower heads that can cut water consumption by up to 60%. Innovations, such as change in spray patterns in taps and showers and increased pressure for flushing in toilets, are pushing the boundaries of water conservation, without compromising on usage habits.

See also: Ways in which citizens and housing societies can save water

Watershed Management

Watershed management involves the process of planning and organizing the use of land and other resources in a watershed to provide required goods and services without impacting the soil and water resources. The programme involves the multi-resource management involving all stakeholders within the watershed, to identify the resource issues and concerns of the watershed.

Insulated pipes

In most buildings, hot water return pipes remain uninsulated or not insulated correctly. Taps are kept open as one waits for hot water to flow from faucets or showers, which may result in wastage of water. The process of insulating piping and storage tanks for domestic hot water system helps in conservation of water. Insulating the pipes properly ensures immediately availability of hot water and when the tap is closed, it is supplied back to the plant, minimising the energy demand of the heating unit.

Water-saving technology for commercial spaces

There are many water-saving devices, which can be installed in commercial buildings. Some of the popular systems include:

• Waterless car washes
• Pressurised waterbrooms instead of a hose for cleaning sidewalks.
• X-ray film processor re-circulation systems
• Cooling tower conductivity controller
• Waterless urinals in bathrooms
• Advanced faucets like infrared or foot-operated taps. These devices help conserve water by using short bursts of water for rinsing in a kitchen or bathroom.
• Steam sterilisers, which are machines used for sterilisation process in hospitals and health care facilities
• Water to water heat exchangers

Different traditional methods of water conservation in India

Rapid urbanisation and water pollution have been severely impacting the quantity and quality of surface and groundwater in several parts of India. The country’s agricultural system is still largely dependent on rainfall. Given the changing rainfall patterns, the government has been considering the revival of traditional water conservation methods.

Some of them are listed below:

Talab or Bandhi

Talabs or pond are reservoirs to store water for drinking and household consumption. These ponds may be natural or manmade. A reservoir spread over less than five bighas is known as talab whereas a medium-sized lake is known as a bandhi.

Jhalaras were constructed for regular water supply for community use, religious rites, and royal ceremonies in the past. These are rectangular-shaped stepwells with tiered steps on three or four sides. The subterranean water seepage from a lake or an upstream reservoir gets collected in these stepwells.

Baolis were constructed by the ruling class for strategic, civic, or philanthropic purposes. These structures were open to people of all sections of the society. Baolis are stepwells that were beautifully designed with arches and motifs. The place where these baolis were located mainly determined their purposes. For instance, baolis on trade routes were used as resting spots while those located inside villages were for used for utilitarian purposes and social gatherings.

Kunds were built for the conservation of water and harvesting rainwater for drinking purposes, mainly in Gujarat and Rajasthan. It is basically a catchment area shaped like a saucer, sloping towards the circular underground well at the centre. Modern kunds are built with cement. In earlier days, they were covered in disinfectant lime and ash.

An example of traditional water conservation methods in India, Bawaris are stepwells that formed the earliest water storage networks in Rajasthan. They were uniquely designed to divert the minimum rainfall the region would receive to artificial tanks via canals constructed on hilly terrain in the city outskirts.

Taanka is among the traditional types of water conservation systems involving rainwater harvesting technique specific to the Thar desert region in Rajasthan. Taanka is a cylindrical paved underground pit, where rainwater flows from courtyards, rooftops and  artificially prepared catchments.

Nadis refer to village ponds where rainwater collects from neighbouring natural catchment areas. As these water bodies get water supply from irregular, torrential rainfall, they would witness quick siltation due to large amounts of sandy sediments deposited regularly.

Bamboo drip irrigation system

Among the different methods of water conservation in India, the system of bamboo drip irrigation has been practiced in northeastern parts of the country. It is an over 200-year-old technique developed by tribal farmers for irrigating terrace fields. In this system, water from perennial springs is transported using bamboo pipes.

Zings are water harvesting structures found in Ladakh. These are small tanks built to collect the melting glacier water. This one of the easiest water conservation and management methods in such mountainous regions. Water from the glacier is diverted to the tank through a network of guiding channels.

Tapping glacial waters coming from rivers and streams through surface water channels has been one of the oldest ways of water conservation in the hilly terrains of Himachal Pradesh. These channels are known as Kuhls widely used for irrigation of over 30,000 hectares of fields in the region. There are hundreds of Kuhls in the region.

This is one of the oldest water conservation practices in India. Jackwells are small pits used for harvesting rainwater. In earlier times, people in the low-lying regions of the Great Nicobar Islands constructed the structure using bamboo and logs of wood.

Water harvesting structures of Ramtek

One of the traditional save water projects and techniques is the Ramtek model in Maharashtra. The system uses a network of groundwater and surface water bodies where tanks connected by underground and surface canals form a link, from the foothills to the plains. Once water fills the tanks in the hills, it flows to the successive tanks.

Water conservation in other parts of India

Burhanpur in Madhya Pradesh has a network of well-connected water drainage and storage systems. Every fort in the region houses well-organised storage systems for conserving water. These forts served as a space for providing supplies during wars and movement outside were restricted. Thus, these structures helped in storage of water.

Dholavira in Gujarat is an historical site of the Indus Valley civilization. There are several lake-shaped storage reservoirs built to store surface water during the rainy months.

What is water conservation?

Simply put, water conservation is the technique of efficiently utilising water and cutting down its wastage or unnecessary usage. Since fresh, clean water is now considered a limited resource, water conservation has become important and imperative.

See also: All about penthouse

Water conservation: Why is it important?

An average utilises about 140 litres of water per day. Lack of water on a large scale can lead to serious water scarcity issues. Water conservation is important for several reasons:

• Water distribution is uneven and therefore, large parts of India remain deficient in rain, as well as groundwater.
• This unequal distribution across the country, makes most of the population face water scarcity.
• The requirement of water in urban areas is higher than the availability. Moreover, water conservation will ensure availability of clean for future generations. This can be done by ensuring that the consumption of freshwater from an ecosystem does not exceed its natural rate of renewal.
• Since rainfall in India is highly seasonal, water is required to irrigate crops. Water protects the ecosystem and wildlife.
• Moreover, conserving water also saves energy. That is, by using smart appliances which are water and energy-efficient, we can reduce water usage and save energy too. Energy is essential to filter, heat and pump water in households. Minimising water use can lead to reduction in carbon footprint.
• Water conservation also saves finances. Installing a water meter at home will enable use of less water, and lead to lesser charges levied by the water supply company.
• Lesser consumption of water will maintain more water in the environments and help sustain the wetland habitats for plants, wildlife and aquatic life. It is especially important during dry seasons.
• The extraction of freshwater from the icebergs has increased significantly in recent years. The demand for water has also gone up to a great extent, including the need for power supply water-based power generation.

Water conservation: A solution for water related problems

Several countries have been dealing with severe water shortages, mainly caused due to overpopulation. The depleting water tables, which is also caused by deforestation, has become a serious concern.

Global warming also has an impact by creating water shortages at some places and increasing the existing crisis at other places.

Compared to the developing countries, the more developed countries are able to tackle the problem and conserve water through various methods like recycling wastewater, desalinating seawater, building dams, importing food, utilising deep water aquifers, etc. Aforestation can aid water in penetrating the soil and replenish the water table.

Water conservation, mainly by reusing and recycling water, may be an effective solution to the problem. Nearly one fifth of a city’s water needs can be fulfilled through such methods. Many countries, including India, are reviving traditional water conservation practices.

Water conservation: Interesting facts

Water is a natural resource that is vital for the existence of life on earth. However, misuse and wastage of water have resulted in a water crisis affecting several parts of the world.

• Rainfall accounts for nearly 85% of water available in India. The remaining 15% comes from melting snow.
• The Indian government launched the ‘Namami Gange’ programme for the Ganges river basin as part of a major water rejuvenation plan.
• India’s water requirement is 1100 billion cubic meters per year.
• The agricultural industry accounts for 80% of the overall water consumption in the country.
• Water shortage also leads to income loss as many women spend about 150 million workdays per year carrying and fetching water.
• Nearly ten crore people use water having excessive fluoride levels.
• The population across the world has increased to over 6 billion people from 1900s. Hence, the consumption of water has also grown to 600%. Consequently, inadequate access to clean water has impacted the health of people.

Here are some facts on water you should know:

• There is a limited amount of water on earth. Based on the water cycle, the water that is available right now is repeatedly recycled.
• Nearly 97% of all water present on earth is salt water that is not suitable for drinking. About three percent of water is freshwater out of which only 0.5% is suited for drinking and the remaining is found in glaciers, atmosphere, soil, etc. that cannot be consumed.
• Plants are crucial for maintaining the ecosystem and require water for survival.
• The average human body of an adult contains 50 to 65 percent of water, while the percentage is higher in infants.
• Industries utilise large amounts of water as raw material for various purposes, including cleaning, heating, cooling, and generating electricity. Moreover, besides everyday activities like drinking, bathing, washing, etc., water is required for irrigation, dispersal of seeds and fruits, transport, and recreation.
• Since water has fluidity and solubility properties, it helps digestion, blood circulation in the body, and excretion. It helps regulate the body temperature through sweating.

Sources of water

About 97% of the water on earth is found in oceans and seas, and the remaining 3% comes from other water bodies such as lakes, rivers, ponds, etc. Besides, some amount of water is also present in the air.

NGOs working on water conservation in India

The government in India has taken several steps and projects to save water and implemented water conservation projects. In addition, nonprofit institutions are making significant contributions to water conservation in India. Some NGOs that have been promoting sustainable water conservation practices are mentioned below:

Tarun Bharat Sangh

Tarun Bharat Sangh is a non-profitable environmental NGO that aims to achieve water conservation objectives by involving the community at every stage of development work and adopting indigenous water harvesting methods. The NGO has revived ten rivers and transformed drought-prone areas spanning 10,000 sq km in Rajasthan, which is among the most water-deficient states in India.

SARA (Sustainable Alternatives for Rural Accord)

The organisation has led the ‘Swagrama’ programme and worked on the ground at various levels to understand and implement sustainable models. This project on water conservation is inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s dream project, ‘Village Swaraj’, and aims to achieve self-sustainable rural development.

Environmentalist Foundation of India

It is an environmental conservation group that focuses on wildlife conservation and restoration of freshwater habitats like lakes and ponds through scientific means. Some water conservation projects undertaken by the organisation include the restoration of the Kinhi-Gadegaon Reservoir in Maharashtra, Tirunelveli-Keezh Ambur Lake in Tamil Nadu and Navule Kere in Shivamogga, Karnataka.

Jal Bhagirathi Foundation

The NGO is leading efforts to tackle water scarcity in the Marwar region of Rajasthan, which among the most densely populated arid zones in the world. The NGO focuses on reviving and constructing rainwater harvesting structures to recharge groundwater. It is also supporting communities in building rainwater harvesting tanks or tankas.

Dreams Alive

The NGO has been supporting farmers across the delta region of Tamil Nadu by restoring ponds that are the primary water resource for households, irrigation, cattle, wild animals, etc. It is also focusing on improving the livelihood of farmers, by increasing ground-water levels and addressing water shortage.

What is water footprint and how to calculate it?

Water footprint is an environmental indicator that measures the amount of freshwater (in litres or cubic metres) that was used throughout the entire production chain of a consumer item or service. The concept of water footprint helps in understanding the impact of human activities.

Water footprint is measured basis of the following factors:

• Total consumption volume: Water print is connected with the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The greater the GDP, the bigger the water footprint.
• Consumption patterns: A country’s consumption patterns affect its water footprint and consumption of items that require a large amount of water for their production.
• Climate: In countries with high temperatures, crops require more water due to greater evaporation.
• Agricultural practices: Countries such as Thailand or Mali where agricultural performance is low, the water footprints are high.

Why is water conservation important?

Water conservation is important to ensure that future generations have access to fresh clean water.

Water conservation refers to saving water and reducing its unnecessary wastage.

What are the ways to conserve water?

One of the five easiest ways to conserve water at home is to turn off the tap when not in use, fix leaking pipes, use a mug instead of a tap for brushing teeth, utilise wastewater for watering plants, etc., and take shorter showers.

How can we conserve water in schools?

Schools can actively contribute to the conservation of water with the help of pupils and staff. One can start by creating an action plan which would involve a full water audit to identify all the areas of water consumption and the scope for reducing the usage of water.

What is the role of people in water conservation?

People take small measures to reduce the consumption of water at home. One can install water-efficient bathroom fittings and check for leaks.

How can we save water in public places?

Some simple steps to save water at public places include repairing leaking faucets, installing pressure-reducing valves and dual flush toilet systems, etc.

How can we spread awareness about water conservation?

Organising workshops, presentations and campaigns at community level are some ways to generated awareness on water conservation.

(With additional inputs from Surbhi Gupta)

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Harini is a content management professional with over 12 years of experience. She has contributed articles for various domains, including real estate, finance, health and travel insurance and e-governance. She has in-depth experience in writing well-researched articles on property trends, infrastructure, taxation, real estate projects and related topics. A Bachelor of Science with Honours in Physics, Harini prefers reading motivational books and keeping abreast of the latest developments in the real estate sector.

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167 Water Essay Topics & Research Questions about Water

Looking for a research title about water shortage, conservation, pollution, or treatment? Whatever your area of interest is, you will definitely find a good writing idea in this list of titles for water essays! Topics we’ve collected here are fresh, unique, and current. Go ahead and read them below!

🏆 Best Essay Topics on Water

💡 simple water essay titles, 👍 good water research topics & essay examples, 📌 easy water essay topics, 🎓 most interesting water topics for project, ❓ research questions about water.

• Water Accessibility and Quality
• The Water Cycle and the Impact of Human Activity on It
• How Access to Clean Water Influences the Problem of Poverty
• Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health
• Water in the Atmosphere
• Don’t Ship Air and Don’t Ship Water Strategies
• The Importance of Water for Body
• Water Pollution Causes, Effects and Solutions This essay seeks to examine the concept of water pollution, its causes, effects and solutions to water pollution. Water pollution takes place in various water bodies all over the world.
• Water Quality and Contamination Experiment Report This paper seeks to provide a detailed report on what should be done to ensure quality water for human consumption.
• Water and Soil Management Maintaining soil water balance has a long history and is practiced in many countries, arguing that human activities are threatening the quality of water and soil.
• The Environmental Impact of Bottled Water This paper examines the real situational effects on production of the bottled water to environmental degradation.
• Food and Water Security Management The purpose of this article is to evaluate the current methodologies for addressing food and water security issues and propose sustainable solutions based on scholarly evidence.
• Activation Energy for Viscous Flow of Water, Acetone, Toluene, and o-Xylene The aim of the research was to investigate the hypothesis that the activation energy of a substance depends on intermolecular forces that arise in this substance.
• New Evian Water Product and Customers Analysis As the new Evian water product is a more ecological option, customers concerned about the environment could also represent the client base of the product.
• Fiji Water Quality: Biology Lab Experiment Since Fiji water is among the popular brands in the US, it is essential to evaluate whether it is clean, that is, safe for human consumption.
• Cooling Water System Overview Water towers can reduce temperatures more than any other devices using air only to reject heat hence are more cost-effective.
• Garbage Pollution’s Impact on Air, Water and Land Garbage pollutes the planet, and to stop this adverse effect, the authorities’ involvement is needed. One solution lies in the plane of economics and politics.
• Impact of Food Waste and Water Use on Earth The paper explores how food waste and water use affect the food system and how agriculture affects the environment.
• Water Recycling: Why Is It Important? Different countries face varying challenges in as far as provision of clean water to its population is concerned depending with its economic development level and geographic location.
• Studying the Venturi Effect Through Water Flow Calculation The Venturi effect is of particular importance in fluid dynamics, characterizing the pressure drop of a fluid as it flows through narrow spaces.
• Benefits of Water Birth Overview Waterbirth remains to be a controversial approach. The studies examined in this paper provide some evidence for the benefits that waterbirth has.
• Glacéau Company: Vitamin Water Ethics The business practice of this paper is the production and sale of vitamin water by Glacéau in which the company states that the water being sold has been “enriched” with vitamins.
• “Erin Brockovich” Film and 2014 Flint Water Crisis This paper analyzes the movie “Erin Brockovich” and compares it with the current situation in Flint, which started in April 2014.
• Water Intake and Output: Mechanisms of Regulation For healthy function, the human body requires water balance as one of the key mechanisms, where the average daily water intake and output are relatively equal.
• Biogeochemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen, and Water The most common biogeochemical cycles are carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles. The purpose of this paper was to summarize these three cycles.
• Water Management in Sustainable Engineering The current essay demonstrates the significance of sustainable engineering on the example of wastewater treatment and consequent water reuse.
• Water Scarcity in the Middle East The Arab region has always had issues with the water supply but as the population continues to grow steadily, this issue has become even more alarming
• Analyzing the Use of Water in Danticat, Roumain, and Marshall The use of water in the three novels Roumain’s “Masters of the Dew,” Danticat’s “Krik? Krak!” and Paul’s “Praise Song for the Widow” has a symbolic meaning.
• The Issue of Food and Water Security The global issue for the analysis is food and water security. This is a topical problem nowadays, especially in light of climate change and population growth.
• Solutions for Food and Water Security Issue With many nations encountering food and water security problems, the consequences of such events have become global, giving rise to multiple outcomes this insecurity.
• Water Treatments and Maximum Plant Height The first research question was how different water treatments affect maximum plant height. The experiment involved 12 plants – 6 plants for each type of water.
• Water and Its Properties Water is the most abundant liquid on the universe comprising over 70% of earth’s composition. It exists in three forms namely liquid, solid, and gaseous states.
• Bottled Water Impacts on Environment As the use of bottled water continue to rise steadily around the world, many critics have focused on its impacts on the environment, economy and other social implications related to the use.
• Bottled Water Impact on Environment This paper seeks to amplify the need for regulation of the used water bottles. It is quite obvious that water bottles are the highest in a number of all bottles thrown away after use.
• The Problem of Water Scarcity The paper states that although the problem of scarcity of water is severe, it is crucial to take measures to solve it since they can improve the situation.
• Water Scarcity as Effect of Climate Change Climate change is the cause of variability in the water cycle, which also reduces the predictability of water availability, demand, and quality, aggravating water scarcity.
• Effects of Climate Variability on Water Resources, Food Security, and Human Health Evaluating the effects of climate variability on water, food, and health will help identify the areas for improvement and offer solutions to current environmental challenges.
• Study of Local Water Resources Quality This laboratory report aims to summarize the results obtained during the study oxygen consumption, BOD, and detecting dissolved suspended solids in Hong Kong water.
• Water Management and Ecology Issues The paper studies water management, its various implications and explains why this area is important on examples of environmental issues.
• Food and Water Security as Globalization Issues Globalization has several implications for the business environment, among which are the expanded access to resources, and the interdependence of international companies.
• The Problem of Environmental Pollution: Fresh Water One of the more important concerns that are fast becoming a major threat is pollution and no form of pollution seemed to be bigger than that of freshwater pollution.
• Basic Functions of Minerals and Water in the Body This paper discusses the functions and sources of minerals, the function of water in the body, and the general effect of dehydration on the body.
• Is Bottled Water Safe for Public Health? Bottled water is just water but is marketed in such a way that makes it appear as healthy because it is positioned as “bottles water is healthy”.
• Water Quality and Supply The main problem on the way to the solution of environmental issues is a violation of generally accepted rules.
• Virtual Water Trade and Savings in Agriculture This essay discusses the savings associated with virtual water trade in agriculture and touches on the effects of a shift to local agricultural production on global water savings.
• Water Quality Improvement for Global Health This proposal determines the necessity of water quality from the perspective of global health. The funding will be provided by the government and non-governmental organizations.
• All About Water: Problems and Solutions In addition to explaining water benefits, the paper has also shown that many people globally struggle with water shortages or exposure to contaminated water.
• Impact of Water Pollution: Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World Water is a source of life on Earth, and it is one of the very first needs of living beings. It is a vital resource for the development of the economic and social sectors.
• The High Heat Capacity of Water The heat capacity of water greatly affects the planet’s climate. At high temperatures, water absorbs heat, and when it gets colder, it gives it away.
• Land Usage and Water Quality in Saudi Arabia The effect of land use in Saudi Arabian water quality has intensified the region’s water crisis, causing economic, ecological, and social challenges.
• Multidisciplinary Approach to Water Pollution This paper shows how the multidisciplinary approach addresses water pollution as a public health issue. It is important to understand what the model entails.
• The Problem of Environmental Water Pollution This paper discusses a public health concern by explaining the causes of water pollution, how it affects human communities, and the possible strategies.
• Baxter Water Treatment Plants and Public Health The Baxter Water Treatment Plant is the largest water treatment facility in Philadelphia, supplying about 60 percent of the city’s drinking water.
• FIJI Water Company’s Success The business owners of FIJI Water embarked on a very active marketing campaign aimed at the promotion of the water, as well as the establishment and maintenance of FIJI Water’s brand.
• Human Energy Consumption and Water Power Human energy use is significantly low compared to natural energy flow. Waterpower is not significant in energy flow because it is renewable energy.
• Water Scarcity Due to Climate Change This paper focuses on the adverse impact that water scarcity has brought today with the view that water is the most valuable element in running critical processes.
• Fiji Water Case Study Analysis Brandon Miller aims to establish a business that is the distribution of Fiji water for Monroe and Wayne market areas.
• Dream Water Company’s Product Marketing The core product is the main benefit that the product brings to the consumer. For Dream Water, the core product is the medication against insomnia.
• “Bling H2O” Bottled Water in the Australian Market Bling H2O water is the world’s most expensive bottled water. The brand’s creator targeted to sell it to the celebrities who highly esteem their bottled water.
• Substances Influence on Water The objective of the experiment will be to find if the freezing rate of water changes when different substances are added.
• Aspects of Global Pollution of Water Global pollution of water resources has devasting effects on the environment that include the destruction of the ocean ecosystem and biodiversity.
• Water Pollution in the Florida State The researchers claimed that plastic pollution was caused by the tourists and citizens who live along the coastline and dumping from the industries.
• The Water Shortage Supply in Las Vegas The water shortage supply in Las Vegas is a major problem due to the city’s reliance on Lake Mead and Colorado Rivers, which are drying up due to droughts.
• Combating Arsenic Contamination in Water The well known fact is that water is the most valuable natural resource that exists and without which survival of life is impossible.
• Water Quality Assessment. Environmental Impact Maintaining good water quality is essential to human health; thus, the recent decades have outstandingly worsened the water across communities worldwide by pollution.
• First Nations Communities Water Resources Drinking water is by no means an infinite resource, but there are places in the world where women and children spend hours each day just to collect it.
• The Global Water Crisis: Issues and Solutions The water crisis has now been associated with the reduction in food quantity besides the scarcity of safe drinking water.
• Changes in the Global Water Cycle Changes in the climate brought about by global warming have a much bigger likelihood of impacting negatively on the global hydrological cycle.
• Water Sector Privatisation in Saudi Arabia The paper explores the decision by the Ministry of Water and Electricity in Saudi Arabia to form the National Water Company to facilitate the privatization process and oversee the regional operations.
• Green Infrastructure in Water Management This paper evaluates the utility of water management in urban areas from the aspect of perception and interpretation of green infrastructure in water management.
• Water Buffalo Days: Growing Up in Vietnam by Nhuong The book Water Buffalo Days: Growing Up in Vietnam by Nhuong tells the story of a young boy in a central village in Vietnam. The story presents unique characteristics of Vietnam society and culture.
• Agriculture, Water, and Food Security in Tanzania This paper evaluates the strategies applicable to the development and further maintenance of agriculture, water, and food security in Tanzania.
• Relocation of Solar Power System to Easy Life Water Ventures The paper states that having an effective power source will help the organization operate smoothly and sustainably and increase its reputation.
• Resolutions to Fight Water Scarcity The World Health Organization outlines water scarcity as a global crisis affecting more than 2.8 billion people.
• High-Quality Water Supply in the United States The American community has become more conscious about their health and general physical condition. Consequently, a high-quality water supply stays a priority in many households.
• Assessment: Dubai Electricity and Water Authority As a key component of Dubai’s economy, DEWA is critical in assisting the Emirate’s growth and transition to a zero-economy economy.
• Hyponatremia: How Much Water Do You Actually Need? Some schools, like Mississippi State, do hydration tests before each practice to ensure their players are adequately hydrated.
• Water Pollution and How to Address It A person must protect nature – in particular water resources. After all, the possibilities of water resources are not unlimited and sooner or later, they may end.
• Water Pollution: Effects and Treatment Pollution of water bodies is a serious hazard to humans and the aquatic ecology, and population growth is hastening climate change.
• Examining Solutions for Mitigating the Food and Water Security Issue Hunger, malnutrition, and decreased resource distribution manifest in communities having issues with food and water security, which decreases the well-being of individuals.
• Environment: There’s Something in the Water Environmental racism hurts the natural image of landscapes and negatively affects the atmosphere and reduces the quality and duration of life for minorities.
• Evaluation of Articles on Food and Water Security The two resources chosen for this discussion pertain to food and water security solutions. The scholarly source is visually distinct from the popular source due to its structure.
• The Clean Water Network Support Statement Fresh water has become one of the most valuable resources in the world, around which regional or even global wars may occur in the future.
• Global Societal Issue: Food and Water Security According to research, food and water security is a pertinent global problem in the current decade, with access to food and water becoming scarce in certain world regions.
• Climate Change and Accessibility to Safe Water The paper discusses climate change’s effect on water accessibility, providing graphs on water scarcity and freshwater use and resources.
• Exploring the Agenda for Fresh Water Supply in Remote Regions The fundamental thesis of this entire paper is that scientific and technological advances catalyze the development of technologies to deliver fresh water to remote areas of Texas.
• What Is Water-Related Terrorism and How to Cope With It? Water-related terrorism includes damaging government facilities, and since water resources are vital for human existence, it is profitable for terrorists to attack them.
• Lake Mattoon: Recreational Site and Water Reservoir Lake Mattoon remains one of Coles county’s best recreation sites and major water reservoirs; it is a big, man-made lake with lush green shores and big fish populations.
• Whirlpool in the Sea off the Coast of Scotland Near Ayrshire Due to Waste Water Stunning drone images near Lendalfoot in South Ayrshire captured a glimpse of a mammoth whirlpool off the Scottish west coast.
• Causes and Risks of Water Pollution The paper describes the effects of water pollution on human health from the perspective of existing findings on this topic and the assessment of information.
• Fresh Water Toxins: Serious Threat to Health This paper discusses fresh water toxins as a serious threat to health, analyzes Los Angeles drinking water, access to clean water and sanitation.
• Safe Drinking Water: Current Status and Recommendations The study proposes the usage of agricultural waste as a sustainable biosorbent for toxic metal ions removal from contaminated water.
• Essentials of Water in Supporting Biological Systems Water is essential in supporting the biological system in various ways; the properties of water help in understanding its importance.
• Underground Water Contamination in St. Louis Mo City In St. Louis Mo City of Missouri State, contamination of underground water is most likely and that is why the water supply is a subject to government policies.
• Twitter Campaign: Impact of Water Runoff Water runoff can cause flooding, which means property damage and mold formation in damp basements and more. This paper is a twitter campaign about the impact of water runoff.
• Water Pollution of New York City Rivers The aim of the analysis was to assess the effects of CSOs on water quality and the environment at different sites along the Harlem River.
• Water Cooling Tower Construction Site’s Problems The paper highlights three major problems at the construction site. They are security, scheduling, and safety problems.
• Recent Water Treatment and Production Developments This study attempts to investigate whether inorganic filters are more suitable for industrial and water treatment processes when compared to organic filters.
• Chemistry: Partitioning Coefficient of the Water The partitioning coefficient of the water solutions with of diuron, decadienal, atrazine, fluoranthene, and desethylatrazine compounds are calculated in accordance with the formula.
• Developing Suspension Carbon Nano-Tubes in Water This paper has discussed nano-tubes and suspension as well as stabilization which make use of Multi-Wall-Carbon-Nanotubes by the function of concentrated SDS.
• Is Bottled Water Dangerous for People and the Environment? The purpose of this paper is to discuss alternative perspectives on bottled water and whether it is dangerous for people and the planet.
• Pressurized Water Reactors: An Analysis The paper describes the operations of a Pressurised Water Reactors (PWR) plant in-depth, discusses the functions of PWR plants, their advantages and disadvantages.
• A Cartographic History of Water Infrastructure and Urbanism in Rome The freshwater available to the city was a huge cultural and economic boon to Roman citizens. Some of this ancient water infrastructure is operational to this day.
• Integrated Water Strategies From Website Water Recycling The website http://waterrecycling.com/ is a front-end of their company showing various services that the company offers in the field of water recycling.
• The Causes of Water Pollution Water pollution is a significant decrease in water resources’ quality due to the ingress of various chemicals and solid waste. The causes of pollution are related to human activities.
• Bottle Water Industry in Current Economic UK Climate The research question is whether bottled water is a necessity or a luxury with regard to the current economic climate in the United Kingdom.
• Political Ecology and Water Wars in Bolivia The given critical assessment will primarily focus on bringing a new perspective to the issue from the standpoint of political ecology.
• The Influence of Water on the Growth of Popcorn Plants The information from the study would aid farmers in identifying appropriate seasons to cultivate popcorn plants based on data of meteorological forecasts.
• Boiling Is a Process That Cools the Water This paper tells that bringing water to a boil while making tea is a progression that cools it since the process lessens the overall temperature.
• Water Conservation Practice in Olympia Olympia city has a comprehensive water conservation program that involves many projects. The city puts much effort into the conservation of water.
• Protecting the Current and Future Water Supply for Rio de Janiero In the current rate of use, as well as the consensus reached by the governing officials in Rio de Janeiro, there will be enough potable water until 2025.
• Water Conservation Practice in Houston From the treatment of wastewater to the reduction of the consumption of the same Houston is an epitome of the increasing need to conserve resources, especially water.
• Burning Issue of Water Pollution in Washington The problem of polluted drinking water in Washington should be solved immediately despite various obstacles, such as pressure for money, etc.
• Drinking-Water in Third World Countries The shortage of drinking water in countries of Third World and the public controversy, surrounding the issue, illustrates the validity of this thesis better then anything else.
• Water: An Often Overlooked Essential Element in Our Environment The freshwater required for growing food and livestock is also in great demand by the large numbers of inhabitants in the world’s cities and towns.
• Bottled Water: Environmental and Cultural Impact The consumption of bottled water has an impact on society. Appropriate strategies must be implemented to ensure that the hazards associated with bottled water are reduced.
• Bottled Water Status in the UK With the current economic climate in the UK, the issue of whether bottled water has become a luxury or a necessity.
• Underground Water Overdraft in Southern California In California, the overuse of underground water reserves and the resultant overexploitation (overdraft) led to a serious water resources deficit.
• Water and Soil Pollution: Effects on the Environment Water and soil pollution is the process of contaminating water and soil. In this project, we will investigate the apparent main pollutants of the Spring Mill Lake.
• Bottled Water: Culture and Environmental Impact Bottled water as a particular branch of industrial growth in countries throughout the world represents the source of environmental pollution.
• Alternative Energy Sources: A Collaborative Approach in Water Management With the increasingly high prices of gasoline in particular and fossil fuels in general there is a need to find an alternative source of energy.
• Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Effect on Water Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) constitute one of the largest groups of compounds that produce widespread organic environmental pollution posing a risk to marine biota
• Lack of Water in California as an Environmental Issue California can run out of water because of technological and social problems that affected the region. Defining water resources’ “development” is critically important.
• Potential Threats to Water Supplies in Ottawa The purpose of the research is to identify the distribution of threats to drinking water in the city and determine who might benefit and who might be harmed in the process.
• Water Quality in Savannah, Georgia The City of Savannah Water Supply and Treatment Department conducts numerous annual tests to ensure that drinking water in the region is safe for human consumption.
• Water Pollution Index of Batujai Reservoir, Central Lombok Regency-Indonesia Despite having 6% of the world’s water resources, Indonesia’s environmental policies have not only been raising concerns but also pushed the country to the brink of water crisis.
• Water Resources in Australia: Usage and Management Australia is one of the driest continents in the world. Various governmental and non-governmental institutions have teamed up to face the challenges facing people as far as water is concerned.
• Water Management in the “Flow” Documentary The documentary “Flow” discusses and describes two significant things that are preventing people from having access to freshwater.
• Water Sanitation Program in Saudi Arabia In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as the demand for water continues to increase without an equivalent increase in the supply, the level of hygiene may soon become a problem.
• Virtual Water Content and Global Water Savings The Virtual Water Content concept was the byproduct of discussions regarding the need to provide food in countries suffering from drought or plagued with perpetual water scarcity.
• Active Remediation Algorithm for Water Service in Flint The Active Remediation algorithm aims to inspect the water service in Flint, Michigan, and identify those lead pipes that need to be replaced by copper pipes.
• Water Savings and Virtual Trade in Agriculture Water trade in agriculture is not a practice that is unique to the modern generation. The practice was common long before the emergence of the Egyptian Empire.
• Virtual Water Trade of Agricultural Products Virtual water trade is a concept associated with globalization and the global economy. Its rise was motivated by growing water scarcity in arid areas around the world.
• Virtual Water Savings and Trade in Agriculture The idea of virtual water was initially created as a method for assessing how water-rare nations could offer food, clothing, and other water-intensive products to their residents.
• Environmental Legislation: Clean Water Act Clean Water Act determines water quality standards, serves as a basis for the enactment of pollution control programs, and regulates the presence of contaminants in surface water.
• Third-Party Logistics, Water Transportation, Pipelines Transportation plays a crucial role in today’s business world. This work shows the benefits and limitations of third-party logistics providers, water transportation, and pipelines.
• Water Quality and Contamination In this paper, carries out detailed experiments on the bottled and tap water available to consumers to establish whether it is worthwhile to purchase bottled water.
• Oil, Water and Corruption in Central Asian States The region of Central Asia has been a focus of the world’s political and economic attention due to its rich oil and gas resources. Corruption is the main curse of Central Asian states.
• Water Scarcity Issue and Environment The paper answers the question why to be worried about running out of drinking water even though the earth’s surface is mostly made of water.
• Environmental Studies: Water Recycling Different countries face varying challenges in as far as the provision of clean water to its population is concerned depending on its economic development level and geographic location.
• Water Pollution This essay seeks to examine the concept of water pollution, its causes, effects and solutions to water pollution.
• How Does Water Pollution Affect Human Health?
• Are Sports Drinks Better for Athletes Than Water?
• What Happens if You Don’t Filter Your Water?
• Can Game Theory Help to Mitigate Water Conflicts in the Syrdarya Basin?
• How Can We Reduce Water Scarcity?
• Are Water Filters Really That Important?
• How Much Water Do We Need to Feed the World?
• Why Is Water Important for Food Production?
• Can Markets Improve Water Allocation in Rural America?
• How Can We Reduce Water Consumption in Food Industry?
• Can Public Sector Reforms Improve the Efficiency of Public Water Utilities?
• What Are the Modern Technologies Used to Treat Water?
• How Does Water Pollution Affect Global Warming?
• Can Sea Water Generate Usable Energy?
• What Are the Steps Taken by the Government to Reduce Water Pollution?
• Can Sugar Help Lower the Freezing Point of Water?
• Do We Need More Laws to Control Water Pollution?
• Can the Global Community Successfully Confront the Global Water Shortage?
• What Is the Government Doing to Save Water?
• Can Virtual Water ‘Trade’ Reduce Water Scarcity in Semi-arid Countries?
• Does Urbanization Improve Industrial Water Consumption Efficiency?
• How Has Technology Helped Us Save Water?
• Does Piped Water Improve Household Welfare?
• Can Water Pollution Policy Be Efficient?
• How Does Green Infrastructure Improve Water Quality?

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Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "167 Water Essay Topics & Research Questions about Water." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/water-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "167 Water Essay Topics & Research Questions about Water." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/water-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Water were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 9, 2024 .