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Towards competence-based technical-vocational education and training in Ethiopia

Education and Learning Sciences

Research output : Thesis › internal PhD, WU

In the human development effort, different countries are underscoring the role of technical-vocational education and training (TVET) in providing relevant knowledge and skills to improve productivity, increase access to employment opportunities and raise the standard of living. It is in recognition of this that, in all Ethiopian educational development endeavors, TVET has been considered to play a key role to tackle the country’s socio-economic underdevelopment through knowledgeable and skillful manpower. Since its introduction in 1941, TVET has been guided by different policies and strategies adopted by successive governments who came to power at different times. This thesis investigates how TVET has reached the current stage of its development in Ethiopia and the challenges encountered in implementing a competence-based system aimed at improving present and future TVET practices. Within this broad aim, the thesis looks into the historical pathways TVET in Ethiopia has passed through time, teachers’ involvement in policy and curriculum development and implementation, the extent to which TVET programs are competence-based (‘competentiveness’) and TVET teachers’ training and professional development. A mix of methods (quantitative and qualitative) was employed and data were collected through questionnaires, interview and documents.Four Polytechnic TVET colleges in Addis Ababa, TVET teachers, students and employed TVET graduates, teacher training teachers and students were involved.

The research findings showed that TVET development lacked consistent and stable policy direction, greatly influenced by government ideology. Competence-based TVET was implemented under severe challenges which include lack of adequately prepared teachers and resources, frequent curricula changes, lack of employers cooperation, discontent of teachers and administrators, etc. The competence-based approach was implemented without extensive deliberations and understanding by TVET teachers in which teachers participation was minimal. Positive correlation between TVET teachers’ participation in educational reform and perception towards TVET system was observed. Thought teachers, students and graduates observed competence-based education and training (CBET) principles in the Ethiopian TVET system, competence-based TVET is not performing well with regard to the practical dimensions of CBET (mainly the “how” aspect) in accordance with the principles of competence-based education. In a positively perceived work environment, ‘competentiveness’ of a TVET programs and employed TVET graduates’ workplace performance was observed. The TVET teacher training programs lack alignment (coherence) with competence-based TVET curriculum in terms of curriculum design and practices. The delivery is predominantly teacher-centered: more lecture oriented with less opportunity for students self and group reflection; student assessment was norm-referenced, not individual competence assessment. Though teachers believe that teacher professional development (TPD) enhances their professional growth, the practices were not in line with their belief; the personal initiative of TVET teachers to undertake TPD activities was minimal; no systematic professional development plan exists in TVET colleges, more traditional approaches in which TVET teachers’ engagement in research has almost been ignored.

Inconsistency in educational policymaking (unstable policy direction) hampered a consensus-based, national education system including TVET, structuring of TVET starting from the scratch. TVET is implemented without a strong foundation – administratively and manpower and materials/facilities (lack well-crafted implementation strategy), more a product of political than of collective decisions. From the study it appears that lacking proper alignment with employment capacity of the economy is a systemic problem of the TVET system. Enforcement of TVET strategy on TVET teachers and administrators without understanding the new competence-based education, which affected their perception. TVET teachers regarded as implementers of a decision rather than having a stake in the issue, affecting their actions and training outcome. Competence-based education and training (CBET) is practiced in TVET but the instruction and practical components lack alignment with CBET principles (no strong learning environments). Though it requires further evidence, the positive relationship between ‘competentiveness’ of a TVET program and graduates’ job performance found in this study supports the assertion that CBET bridges the gap between classroom learning and labor market reality. Because TVET teacher training programs are not aligned with TVET curriculum and teachers professional needs, it is difficult to say that TVET teachers are well prepared in terms of CBET requirement. In TVET teacher training programs, competence development focused instructional practices are not well fostered in practice. TVET teachers TPD activities are more conventional, not aligned with CBET and teachers’ needs.

A number of recommendations are forwarded to improve the implementation of competence-based TVET which have policy implications for future development of TVET and practical interventions to be taken to improve the implementation of competence-based TVET in its different dimensions.

vocational training
competency based education
competences
training courses
technical training
east africa

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Training Social Sciences 100%
Teacher Education Social Sciences 32%
Education Social Sciences 22%
Teachers Social Sciences 20%
Policy Social Sciences 12%
Graduates Social Sciences 10%
Educational Organization Social Sciences 10%
Students Social Sciences 7%

Projects per year

Towards Competence-based Technical-Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Ethiopia

Mulder, M., Noroozi, O. , Wesselink, R. & Solomon, H.

1/03/10 → 18/10/16

Project : PhD

Training 100%
Teacher Education 32%
Education 22%
Teachers 20%

T1 - Towards competence-based technical-vocational education and training in Ethiopia

AU - Solomon, Getachew Habtamu

N1 - WU thesis 6474 Includes bibliographic references. - With summary in English

PY - 2016/10/18

Y1 - 2016/10/18

N2 - In the human development effort, different countries are underscoring the role of technical-vocational education and training (TVET) in providing relevant knowledge and skills to improve productivity, increase access to employment opportunities and raise the standard of living. It is in recognition of this that, in all Ethiopian educational development endeavors, TVET has been considered to play a key role to tackle the country’s socio-economic underdevelopment through knowledgeable and skillful manpower. Since its introduction in 1941, TVET has been guided by different policies and strategies adopted by successive governments who came to power at different times. This thesis investigates how TVET has reached the current stage of its development in Ethiopia and the challenges encountered in implementing a competence-based system aimed at improving present and future TVET practices. Within this broad aim, the thesis looks into the historical pathways TVET in Ethiopia has passed through time, teachers’ involvement in policy and curriculum development and implementation, the extent to which TVET programs are competence-based (‘competentiveness’) and TVET teachers’ training and professional development. A mix of methods (quantitative and qualitative) was employed and data were collected through questionnaires, interview and documents.Four Polytechnic TVET colleges in Addis Ababa, TVET teachers, students and employed TVET graduates, teacher training teachers and students were involved. The research findings showed that TVET development lacked consistent and stable policy direction, greatly influenced by government ideology. Competence-based TVET was implemented under severe challenges which include lack of adequately prepared teachers and resources, frequent curricula changes, lack of employers cooperation, discontent of teachers and administrators, etc. The competence-based approach was implemented without extensive deliberations and understanding by TVET teachers in which teachers participation was minimal. Positive correlation between TVET teachers’ participation in educational reform and perception towards TVET system was observed. Thought teachers, students and graduates observed competence-based education and training (CBET) principles in the Ethiopian TVET system, competence-based TVET is not performing well with regard to the practical dimensions of CBET (mainly the “how” aspect) in accordance with the principles of competence-based education. In a positively perceived work environment, ‘competentiveness’ of a TVET programs and employed TVET graduates’ workplace performance was observed. The TVET teacher training programs lack alignment (coherence) with competence-based TVET curriculum in terms of curriculum design and practices. The delivery is predominantly teacher-centered: more lecture oriented with less opportunity for students self and group reflection; student assessment was norm-referenced, not individual competence assessment. Though teachers believe that teacher professional development (TPD) enhances their professional growth, the practices were not in line with their belief; the personal initiative of TVET teachers to undertake TPD activities was minimal; no systematic professional development plan exists in TVET colleges, more traditional approaches in which TVET teachers’ engagement in research has almost been ignored. Inconsistency in educational policymaking (unstable policy direction) hampered a consensus-based, national education system including TVET, structuring of TVET starting from the scratch. TVET is implemented without a strong foundation – administratively and manpower and materials/facilities (lack well-crafted implementation strategy), more a product of political than of collective decisions. From the study it appears that lacking proper alignment with employment capacity of the economy is a systemic problem of the TVET system. Enforcement of TVET strategy on TVET teachers and administrators without understanding the new competence-based education, which affected their perception. TVET teachers regarded as implementers of a decision rather than having a stake in the issue, affecting their actions and training outcome. Competence-based education and training (CBET) is practiced in TVET but the instruction and practical components lack alignment with CBET principles (no strong learning environments). Though it requires further evidence, the positive relationship between ‘competentiveness’ of a TVET program and graduates’ job performance found in this study supports the assertion that CBET bridges the gap between classroom learning and labor market reality. Because TVET teacher training programs are not aligned with TVET curriculum and teachers professional needs, it is difficult to say that TVET teachers are well prepared in terms of CBET requirement. In TVET teacher training programs, competence development focused instructional practices are not well fostered in practice. TVET teachers TPD activities are more conventional, not aligned with CBET and teachers’ needs. A number of recommendations are forwarded to improve the implementation of competence-based TVET which have policy implications for future development of TVET and practical interventions to be taken to improve the implementation of competence-based TVET in its different dimensions.

AB - In the human development effort, different countries are underscoring the role of technical-vocational education and training (TVET) in providing relevant knowledge and skills to improve productivity, increase access to employment opportunities and raise the standard of living. It is in recognition of this that, in all Ethiopian educational development endeavors, TVET has been considered to play a key role to tackle the country’s socio-economic underdevelopment through knowledgeable and skillful manpower. Since its introduction in 1941, TVET has been guided by different policies and strategies adopted by successive governments who came to power at different times. This thesis investigates how TVET has reached the current stage of its development in Ethiopia and the challenges encountered in implementing a competence-based system aimed at improving present and future TVET practices. Within this broad aim, the thesis looks into the historical pathways TVET in Ethiopia has passed through time, teachers’ involvement in policy and curriculum development and implementation, the extent to which TVET programs are competence-based (‘competentiveness’) and TVET teachers’ training and professional development. A mix of methods (quantitative and qualitative) was employed and data were collected through questionnaires, interview and documents.Four Polytechnic TVET colleges in Addis Ababa, TVET teachers, students and employed TVET graduates, teacher training teachers and students were involved. The research findings showed that TVET development lacked consistent and stable policy direction, greatly influenced by government ideology. Competence-based TVET was implemented under severe challenges which include lack of adequately prepared teachers and resources, frequent curricula changes, lack of employers cooperation, discontent of teachers and administrators, etc. The competence-based approach was implemented without extensive deliberations and understanding by TVET teachers in which teachers participation was minimal. Positive correlation between TVET teachers’ participation in educational reform and perception towards TVET system was observed. Thought teachers, students and graduates observed competence-based education and training (CBET) principles in the Ethiopian TVET system, competence-based TVET is not performing well with regard to the practical dimensions of CBET (mainly the “how” aspect) in accordance with the principles of competence-based education. In a positively perceived work environment, ‘competentiveness’ of a TVET programs and employed TVET graduates’ workplace performance was observed. The TVET teacher training programs lack alignment (coherence) with competence-based TVET curriculum in terms of curriculum design and practices. The delivery is predominantly teacher-centered: more lecture oriented with less opportunity for students self and group reflection; student assessment was norm-referenced, not individual competence assessment. Though teachers believe that teacher professional development (TPD) enhances their professional growth, the practices were not in line with their belief; the personal initiative of TVET teachers to undertake TPD activities was minimal; no systematic professional development plan exists in TVET colleges, more traditional approaches in which TVET teachers’ engagement in research has almost been ignored. Inconsistency in educational policymaking (unstable policy direction) hampered a consensus-based, national education system including TVET, structuring of TVET starting from the scratch. TVET is implemented without a strong foundation – administratively and manpower and materials/facilities (lack well-crafted implementation strategy), more a product of political than of collective decisions. From the study it appears that lacking proper alignment with employment capacity of the economy is a systemic problem of the TVET system. Enforcement of TVET strategy on TVET teachers and administrators without understanding the new competence-based education, which affected their perception. TVET teachers regarded as implementers of a decision rather than having a stake in the issue, affecting their actions and training outcome. Competence-based education and training (CBET) is practiced in TVET but the instruction and practical components lack alignment with CBET principles (no strong learning environments). Though it requires further evidence, the positive relationship between ‘competentiveness’ of a TVET program and graduates’ job performance found in this study supports the assertion that CBET bridges the gap between classroom learning and labor market reality. Because TVET teacher training programs are not aligned with TVET curriculum and teachers professional needs, it is difficult to say that TVET teachers are well prepared in terms of CBET requirement. In TVET teacher training programs, competence development focused instructional practices are not well fostered in practice. TVET teachers TPD activities are more conventional, not aligned with CBET and teachers’ needs. A number of recommendations are forwarded to improve the implementation of competence-based TVET which have policy implications for future development of TVET and practical interventions to be taken to improve the implementation of competence-based TVET in its different dimensions.

KW - vocational training

KW - competency based education

KW - competences

KW - training

KW - training courses

KW - education

KW - technical training

KW - ethiopia

KW - east africa

KW - beroepsopleiding

KW - vaardigheidsonderwijs

KW - bevoegdheden

KW - opleiding

KW - scholingscursussen

KW - onderwijs

KW - technische opleiding

KW - ethiopië

KW - oost-afrika

UR - https://edepot.wur.nl/388252

U2 - 10.18174/388252

DO - 10.18174/388252

M3 - internal PhD, WU

SN - 9789462579002

PB - Wageningen University

CY - Wageningen

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Competency based education and training in technical education problems and perspective

The article presents a discussion of the challenges faced by the Technical Entrepreneurial Vocational Education and Training (TEVET) system in Malawi as it attempts to provide quality technical education. The study involved 40 instructors, 8 principals, 3 TEVET center managers, the TEVETA1 head of Training, and the Directorate from the Ministry of Education Science and Technology. The findings show lack of clarity on and differences between the objective of Competence Based Education and Training (CBET) as viewed by TEVETA and that viewed by training providers instructors and students. Furthermore findings show that CBET widens the already existing disconnection being what the student achieves at the end of technical education and the employer’s expectation. This paper argues that TEVETA should prioritise the desired purpose of broadening access and implementation of CBET, address training providers and learners attitude towards new approaches, and empower training providers with necessary resources and human capacity to effectively achieve the quality technical education and CBET envisioned by the TEVET of the system

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Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is known to be an education system for confronting economic and development challenges. The role of TVET extends to addressing challenges of youth in accessing education, training and employment. This research aimed at assessing the impact of TVET programmes on youth vulnerability in Malawi. The research explored the effectiveness of TVET programmes in achieving its intended goals. Using secondary data, a systematic approach was taken to identify published and unpublished literature on youth vulnerability and TVET programmes. Through the literature, characteristics of vulnerable youth and outcomes of TVET programmes were identified. An in-depth analysis framework was used for assessing the identified issues. It has been established through this study that TVET programmes present possible opportunities for the youth to attain education, training and employment through skills and knowledge for various trades the programme offers. However, this opportunity is hindered by challenges related to access, quality and relevance of TVET. Addressing these challenges requires TVET programmes to show awareness of social, economic, cultural and political factors that influence its implementation. The research has also revealed that positive outcomes of TVET programmes may improve quality of life and reduce youth vulnerability to poverty. However, this is a long term effect of effective TVET programme implementation.

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CBET as a Theory of Non-Learning

First Online: 20 April 2017

Cite this chapter

John Preston 2

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Competence-based education and training (CBET) has an extensive history from its origins in teacher education and its application to vocational areas through to the contemporary situation where it is applied throughout the education system, including Higher Education (HE). The philosophical routes of CBET are also traced through Taylorism and behaviourism. It is argued that all manifestations of CBET are concerned with the assessment of a performed behaviour. CBET is not a human theory of learning as it is does not have a theory of mechanisms (bodily, mental, spiritual, relational) through which learning occurs, is digital (rather than analog) and does not consider causality.

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Preston, J. (2017). CBET as a Theory of Non-Learning. In: Competence Based Education and Training (CBET) and the End of Human Learning. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55110-4_2

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Certified Biomedical Equipment Technician (CBET)

Generally, candidates 4 desiring for this certification may work for medical device manufacturers, hospitals, clinics, home healthcare providers, medical device repair companies, regulatory bodies/agencies, and software manufacturers – such as EMR or device integration providers.

CBET candidates typically perform some of the following duties on a daily basis:

Test and calibrate medical devices (preventive maintenance)
Troubleshoot medical devices in a clinical setting and/or bench/depot setting (corrective maintenance)
Manufacture software, parts or devices for use in patient care
Ensure compliance with all regulatory processes necessary (i.e. CMS, FDA GMP, etc.
Manage medical software/hardware systems (i.e. PACS Administrator, Integration Specialist, Alarm Management, RTLS Systems, etc.)
Perform corrective and preventive maintenance on steam systems
Educate the proper use, care and maintenance of medical devices
Review technical manuals
Document any and all maintenance and repairs and maintain records of maintenance activities
Troubleshoot medical device networks

Candidate Eligibility

Eligibility.

Associate degree or higher in biomedical equipment technology program and two years’ fulltime BMET work experience; OR
Completion of a U.S. military biomedical equipment technology program and two years’ fulltime BMET work experience; OR
Associate degree or higher in electronics technology and three years’ full-time BMET work experience; OR
Four years’ full-time BMET work experience.

Applicants desiring full certification, but do not yet meet the eligibility requirements (as listed above), may apply through candidate status. Successful candidates are given five years to meet the minimum eligibility requirements and be awarded full certification. To test as a candidate for any of the certifications, an applicant must meet ONE of the following minimum eligibility requirements as of the application deadline:

Associate degree or higher in biomedical equipment technology program; OR
Completion of a U.S. military biomedical equipment technology program; OR
Associate degree or higher in electronics technology and one-year full-time BMET work experience; OR
Two years of full-time BMET work experience.
Understand the functions, abnormal functions, and interactions of the physiological systems (e.g., Respiratory, Gastrointestinal, Nervous, Circulatory, Musculoskeletal, Endocrine).
Identify components and function of the major organs (Heart, Lungs, Liver, Kidneys, Brain, Gallbladder, Pancreas, Skin, Blood).
Understand and apply foundational electronic theories as they apply to voltage, resistance, current, resistors, active and passive devices, transducers, capacitors, and inductors including the utilization of schematics.
Understand the purpose and usage of various power conditioning, distribution, and storage systems (Transformers, Batteries).
Understand and apply protective standards and regulation for protected data (HITECH, Medical Device Data Systems [MDDS], IEC 80001 – Application of Risk Management for IT Networks, Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act [HIPAA], Manufacturer Disclosure Statement for Medical Device Security, Digital Millennium Copyright Act [DMCA]).
Identify and troubleshoot PC hardware and networking components (wired and wireless) with use of appropriate diagnostic tools (e.g., cable tracers, cable testers, PING).
Understand the interrelatedness of computer applications.
Understand and apply the fundamentals of network configuration.
Understand physiological concepts as applicable to healthcare technology (e.g., PEEP sphygmomanometer, manometer, Korotkoff sounds, Einthoven’s triangle, 10-20-10 EEG pattern).
Understand normal function, use, and underlying technology of test equipment (electrical safety analyzer, defibrillator analyzer, electro surgical analyzer, physiologic simulators, DVM, meters).
Understand normal function and underlying technology of monitoring systems (e.g., EtCO2, ECG, EEG, non-invasive blood pressure, invasive blood pressure, pulse oximetry, fetal monitor, respiration).
Understand normal function and underlying technology of laboratory equipment (e.g., centrifuges, water baths, analyzers, cryostats, microtomes).
Understand normal function and underlying technology of imaging devices (e.g., Ultrasound, Radiographic/Fluoroscopy).
Understand normal function and underlying technology of diagnostic equipment (e.g., otoscope, ophthalmoscope, audiometer, uroflow meter).
Understand normal function and underlying technology of infusion equipment (e.g., feeding pumps, infusion devices, syringe pumps, PCA pumps).
Understand normal function and underlying technology of life support equipment (e.g., defibrillators, anesthesia machines, ventilators, balloon pumps, external pacemakers).
Understand normal function and underlying technology of therapeutic equipment (e.g., infant warmers, ultrasound therapy, hypo/hyperthermia, aspirators, SCD, Bilirubin light.
Identify and resolve fault conditions of modules/subsystems including power supplies.
Prioritize repairs of medical devices based on level of risk and/or urgency.
Differentiate between a device error and a use error (User Training, Applications) to determine appropriate action.
Differentiate between an issue with a localized monitoring device on a network and a systemwide problem. 18
Identify the fault conditions and apply appropriate corrective action for monitoring systems (EtCO2, ECG, EEG, non-invasive blood pressure, invasive blood pressure, pulse oximetry, fetal monitor, respiration).
Identify the fault conditions and apply appropriate corrective action for laboratory equipment (Centrifuges, Water Baths, Analyzers, cryostats, microtomes).
Identify the fault conditions and apply appropriate corrective action for diagnostic equipment (otoscope, ophthalmoscope, audiometer, uroflow meter).
Identify the fault conditions and apply appropriate corrective action for infusion equipment (feeding pumps, infusion devices, syringe pumps, PCA pumps).
Identify the fault conditions and apply appropriate corrective action for therapeutic equipment (infant warmers, ultrasound therapy, hypo/hyperthermia, aspirators, SCD, Bilirubin light, defibrillators, external pacemakers).
Identify the fault conditions and apply appropriate corrective action for operating room equipment (electro surgical generators, video equipment, tourniquets, sterilizers, warmers).
Understand and apply NFPA99 to the use of medical equipment.
Interpret information from safety data sheets, apply PPE, and identify standard hazard symbolism and signage.
Identify blood-borne pathogen hazards, follow universal precautions, and determine appropriate infection control procedures.
Apply expectations from relevant accrediting organizations (Joint Commission, DNV, CMS, etc.) as applicable to healthcare environments.

The CBET exam is a three-hour closed book exam consisting of 165 multiple choice questions.

Candidates will have access to a simple calculator during the exam. Cell phones, iPads or other electronic devices that have internet capabilities or cameras are not allowed into the testing room.

Candidate performance on the exam is evaluated using a criterion-referenced method. This is a method where candidates are evaluated against a predetermined standard (cut score) rather than relative to each other. Your peers, the ACI Board, and its committees set this standard by evaluating the difficulty of each test question against the expectations for what an entrylevel professional should know and be able to do. They use a common method for evaluating items and determining the passing standard (modified Angoff method).

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The Basics of Passing the CBET Exam

Dec 12, 2009 | CBET Exam | 0 |

With the fall CBET testing date recently past, now is the time to begin preparation to become a certified biomedical equipment technician (CBET). But how does one begin the journey to obtain this career goal? This article will highlight several aspects you may be aware of but are definitely worth repeating. First, we will look at study habits that may help you and begin a general overview of what anyone preparing for the test should know. By no means are the suggestions at the end of the article inclusive of the entire knowledge bank needed to pass the exam, but they are an excellent beginning.

To begin with, it has been my experience that most exam takers do not start the preparation process early enough to give themselves a fair shot at passing the exam. Personally, if I were beginning the process again I would start by visiting AAMI’s site ( www.aami.org/certification/exam.html ), where you can begin your plan of attack by reviewing all the resources AAMI has to offer for certification seekers. One of the best pieces of advice I have found on this Web site is to begin your study process at least 3 months before the test date. It may sound like a long time, but with work, family, and all the different entities vying for your time, the test date will be upon you before you know it. I have known many successful test takers starting even further out than the 3-month period recommended by AAMI. It is much better to start studying early and slowly build your pace to the testing date.

Develop a Formula

Before you begin the study process, you may want to consider using a formula for your studies. A proven study technique such as the SQ3R method may be helpful. SQ3R stands for survey, question, read, recite, and review. Educational studies have proven this study technique to aid in transferring information into long-term memory. The “survey” refers to looking over a chapter to be studied to see such things as headers or different sections on the topic. By surveying the information you should form “questions” about the material that you will be looking to answer during the next phase of the study session. “Read” is just that—read the material and see if you can answer your questions. When you finish the reading, “recite” the information or answers to the previously asked questions. Lastly, you will want to “review” the information on a fairly regular schedule to help transfer the material into your long-term memory.

Other study techniques that may be used are to set a certain schedule for your studies. Let’s say you are just beginning your studies. You may want to dedicate 1 hour, 2 days per week to reviewing material you know will be on the test, such as electronics or anatomy and physiology. You should attempt to set up the same time each week for study, and you should also pick a place to perform your study. Try to keep your format the same week to week. As you get closer to the testing date, I would suggest you keep increasing your time spent on reviewing material but use the same place for each study period. It is also a good idea to dedicate the time of study to be without any distractions, so turn off the television, the cell phone, and the iPod, and give yourself the benefit of this dedicated time. However, I have seen education studies that suggest that playing very soft baroque, classical music in the background will aid in transferring information into long-term memory. This should make sense to everyone reading this because most everyone will hear a song from time to time and it will spark a memory from long ago. Music, just like color or smell, can trigger the memory, so use these triggers to help in the study process. Again, educational research shows these techniques will help in retaining information.

Regarding study materials, I would suggest you begin with the pamphlet that is on the AAMI Web site. Here you will find a breakdown of the test by percentages of questions from each category, such as safety, electronics, etc. For study material, you should be able to use many of your old text books such as your electronics; anatomy and physiology; safety and standards, such as NFPA 99 or AAMI’s Electrical Safety Manual; and, of course, a good intro to biomedical equipment technology book, such as Carr/Brown’s Introduction to Biomedical Equipment Technology or the newer book by Les Atles, A Practicum for Biomedical Engineering & Management Issues .

Using the test breakdown pamphlet provided on AAMI’s Web page and the information provided here would be an excellent beginning to your study for the CBET exam. Instead of going into great detail on each subject here, I will list some basic information and you should ask yourself, “Do I know much about this topic?” My guess is anyone passing the exam would be able to write a page or more on each topic listed and how it is related to medical equipment and the human body.

No Way Around It

The following are what I consider “must” study areas:

Mathematics— Know scientific notation, how to handle exponents in math, how to handle fractions such as add, divide, multiply, etc. Be comfortable with basic algebra such as solving for x, and be familiar with conversions, such as Celsius to Fahrenheit.

Electronics— You should be comfortable with series/parallel circuits, especially how these types of circuits affect current and voltage. You should brush up on RC, RL, and RLC circuits, and especially ELI the ICE man, and how these all pertain to capacitive reactance and inductive reactance. If you are not familiar or cannot remember any of this, break out the old electronics books or use the new resource—Google it. You would also want to brush up on transistors, especially the common emitter configuration, Darlington pairs, cascaded amps, and the FET family of transistors—especially their schematic symbols. Op amps will definitely be on the exam with several questions pertaining to op amp circuits and operation. You should know information such as frequency response, the different configurations of op amp circuits to perform different tasks and properties such as virtual ground, and the six properties of op amps and why those properties lend themselves to be used in instrumentation circuits.

On the digital side on electronics, make sure you know all the basic gates and how to write a truth table for each. Flip flops will also be on the test. Make sure you know how to handle flip flops and especially things such as JK flip flops, edge triggering, synchronous, asynchronous operations, etc. Make sure you can convert binary to hex or octal and back because you will be asked to use this information on the test. You may even get a question about resolution of a 4-bit A/D converter; make sure you know how to do this.

Anatomy and Physiology— These questions are very tough to study for because there is so much material that questions could be drawn from. I would review all body systems, but know that most questions are not going to be about bones, etc. Stay more focused on what bones do, such as produce blood cells. On the muscle system, make sure you know about tendons and ligaments and their function, such as connecting bone or muscle. Several questions may come from the nervous system, so be familiar with axioms, dendrites, and afferent and efferent nerves, along with CNS, PNS, and what is controlled by these two systems.

In the cardiovascular system you should know complete blood flow in the body and the heart. Be aware these questions may be very specific, such as what valve is where and is it a tricuspid valve or a semilunar valve? When you study blood flow, make sure you are aware that blood flows away from the heart in arteries and to the heart in veins. Arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood; this holds true in every instance except the pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein—and this question is very likely to be asked. Make sure you know percentages of blood constituents such as the formed elements like red blood cells, white blood cells, what percentage of blood is plasma along with the pH of blood. Not only venous blood but also arterial blood as well, because they do have slightly different pH levels. You will also see several questions about the endocrine system, so know your endocrine system glands, where they are located, and what hormones they produce.

This is just a very small portion of what needs to be studied to prepare yourself for the CBET exam, but this is a good start in your journey. In my next article I will provide other “must” study areas about the actual medical equipment. Until next time, start studying!!

Review Questions

The normal range for pH in arterial blood is____?
7.00 to 7.25
7.25 to 7.35
7.35 to 7.45
7.45 to 7.55

See the answer

Which of the following has the most effect in the regulation of blood pH?
Renal system
Respiratory system
Endocrine system
Chemical buffers
The kidneys regulate the amount of____in the blood.
HCO 3 –
None of the above
Which of the following would be a normal pCO2 measurement?

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March 27, 2015

I. INTRODUCTION

Ii. enhancement of energy transfer by ion trapping and saturation of cbet involving iaw breakup, iii. saturation of cbet involving electron dynamics through exciation of oblique fsrs in seed beam, iv. scaling of cbet with beam average intensity and beam crossing area, v. discussion of pic simulation modality, vi. summary, acknowledgments, saturation of cross-beam energy transfer for multispeckled laser beams involving both ion and electron dynamics.

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L. Yin , B. J. Albright , D. J. Stark , W. D. Nystrom , R. F. Bird , K. J. Bowers; Saturation of cross-beam energy transfer for multispeckled laser beams involving both ion and electron dynamics. Phys. Plasmas 1 August 2019; 26 (8): 082708. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5111334

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The nonlinear saturation of crossed-beam energy transfer (CBET) for multispeckled laser beams crossing at arbitrary angles is examined using vector particle-in-cell simulations. CBET is found to saturate on fast (∼10s of picosecond) time scales involving ion trapping and excitation of oblique forward stimulated Raman scattering (FSRS). Ion trapping reduces wave damping and speckle interaction increases wave coherence length, together enhancing energy transfer; ion acoustic wave (IAW) breakup in the direction transverse to the wavenumber increases wave damping and contributes to CBET saturation. The seed beam can become unstable to oblique FSRS, which leads to beam deflection at a large angle and a frequency downshift (by the plasma frequency). FSRS saturates on fast ∼picosecond time scales by electron plasma wave self-focusing, leading to enhanced side-loss hot electrons with energy exceeding 300 keV. This may contribute to fuel preheat but FSRS can be mitigated by the presence of a density gradient. Such growth of FSRS contributes to the saturation of CBET. Scaling simulations show that CBET, as well as FSRS and hot electrons, increases with beam average intensity, beam diameter, and crossing area, but that CBET is limited by the excitation of FSRS and IAW breakups in addition to pump depletion. FSRS deflects the seed beam energy by greater than 40% of the incident beam energy and puts a few percent of the incident beam energy into hot electrons. FSRS limits the efficacy of CBET for symmetry tuning at late stages in the implosion and may account for a large portion of the “missing energy” in implosions that use gas-filled hohlraums.

Laser-plasma interaction (LPI) constrains the ability to achieve ignition in inertial confinement fusion (ICF) experiments. At present, ignition in experiments with gas-filled hohlraums is hampered by insufficient energy to the fusion target and low-mode asymmetry in implosions, which prevent achieving ignition conditions in the DT fuel. 1,2 As hohlraum gas pressure is increased, LPI increases and results in drive energy loss, degradation of implosion symmetry, and fuel preheat. A particular LPI, cross-beam energy transfer (CBET), is the process by which energy from overlapping laser beams is transferred from the higher to the lower frequency beam through the excitation of resonant ion acoustic waves (IAWs). 3,4 At the National Ignition Facility (NIF), CBET has been employed to tune the hohlraum-driven capsule implosion symmetry by applying a wavelength separation between cones of laser beams. 5,6 However, the successful use of CBET for the symmetry tuning is limited by a lack of a predictive model, in part, because of the complex, nonlinear optics of the large-scale speckled laser beams. Inline CBET models implemented in radiation-hydrodynamic (rad-hydro) codes 7–9 rely on the linear theory and may not capture the complex, nonlinear physics of CBET at relevant length and time scales. Common approximations include treating light as plane waves (speckle effects neglected), using steady-state coupled-wave equations in the strong damping limit (advection of plasma waves neglected), using a paraxial approximation (limited light propagation angles) or a fluid treatment (kinetic effects neglected). Moreover, the transport of LPI hot electrons, which may cause direct or indirect preheat, is neglected or, at best, treated with ad hoc sources in rad-hydro codes. Thermal transport and LPI are intimately coupled, necessitating identifying the governing nonlinear physics and implementing LPI physics models of such in ICF design codes. 10

In this work, we apply large-scale kinetic plasma simulations and analytic theory to understand the complex, nonlinear dynamics of CBET relevant to inertial fusion experiments to include effects of laser speckle geometry, beam crossing angle, nonlinear wave-particle interactions, and secondary instabilities, e.g., forward stimulated Raman scattering (FSRS) missing in prior studies. This requires the use of simulations capable of treating both ions and electrons kinetically and spanning ion and electron time scales at realistic (100s of micrometer to millimeter-scale) system sizes. We model CBET in pump and seed laser beams crossing at angle Θ, using two-dimensional (2D) Vector Particle-In-Cell (VPIC) 11–13 simulations. The frequency and wavenumber matching conditions satisfy ω = ω p − ω s and k = k p − k s , where subscripts “p” and “s” stand for pump and seed, respectively, and ω and k are for the IAW. In general, the phase speed of the IAW v ph = ( ω − k · V ) / k ⁠ , where V is the plasma flow velocity. In the presence of plasma flow, CBET can also occur between monochromatic beams. 14 We assume no plasma flow in this work and instead apply a difference in frequency of the crossing laser beams to match the frequency of an IAW (obtained based on the linear theory) propagating in the downward − z ̂ direction (see Fig. 1 ), effectively transforming to the plasma reference frame.

FIG. 1. Simulations of energy transfer from pump to seed laser beam crossing with Iave = 3.0 × 1014 W/cm2 at angle Θ, as illustrated in the top frame. The middle three frames show the laser field Ey at a nonlinear stage at t = 11.8 ps for Θ = 47.1°, 30.9°, and 15.3°, corresponding to IAW wavenumbers (kλD)IAW = 0.3, 0.2, and 0.1. The lower frame displays the seed beam energy gain as a function of time for Θ = 47.1°, 30.9°, and 15.3° by the solid black, blue, and red curves, respectively; overlaid with corresponding colors are the energy lost in the pump beam shown by the dash-dot curves.

Simulations of energy transfer from pump to seed laser beam crossing with I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 at angle Θ, as illustrated in the top frame. The middle three frames show the laser field E y at a nonlinear stage at t = 11.8 ps for Θ = 47.1°, 30.9°, and 15.3°, corresponding to IAW wavenumbers ( kλ D ) IAW = 0.3, 0.2, and 0.1. The lower frame displays the seed beam energy gain as a function of time for Θ = 47.1°, 30.9°, and 15.3° by the solid black, blue, and red curves, respectively; overlaid with corresponding colors are the energy lost in the pump beam shown by the dash-dot curves.

The simulation domain is in the ( x , z ) plane. The pump laser has wavelength λ 0 = 351 nm and an average intensity I ave and has a flat-top pulse shape temporally. The laser polarization is in the y direction, and its field E y is specified at x = 0 in a manner that approximates a Gaussian random field (see Refs. 15 and 16 for a description), which, in vacuum, creates a random distribution of F/8 speckles with characteristic width 1.2 Fλ 0 = 3.4 μ m and length 2 πF 2 λ 0 = 141 μ m. [Similar multispeckled laser beams have been used to successfully model Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) observed in the Raman amplification experiments 17 and the NIF experiments. 15 ]

The plasma has a uniform density n e / n cr = 0.04, where n cr is the critical density, and electron (He 2+ ion) temperature T e = 3 keV ( T i = T e /4), relevant to experiments with gas-filled hohlraums. 18,19 The majority of the simulations use 512 particles per cell, and the cell size is 1.2 (or 1.7) λ D × 1.2 λ D in the x and z directions, respectively. Absorbing boundary conditions are used for the fields, and “Maxwellian refluxing” boundary conditions are used for the particles: When a particle encounters a boundary, it is destroyed and a new particle is injected with a velocity sampled randomly from a Maxwellian distribution at a fixed temperature equal to the initial plasma temperature.

We consider three crossing angles Θ at 47.1°, 30.9°, and 15.3°, corresponding to IAW wavenumbers ( k λ D ) I AW = 0.3 , 0.2 , 0.1 ⁠ , frequencies ω IAW / ω pe = 0.006, 0.004, 0.002, damping rates | I m ( ω ) / R e ( ω ) | I AW = 0.043 , 0.040 , 0.038 ⁠ , and wave phase speeds v ph / v th,i = 3.37, 3.43, 3.46, respectively.

Figure 1 shows VPIC simulations of energy transfer from pump to seed laser beam crossing at angle Θ, as illustrated in the top frame, involving resonant interaction with IAW. The middle three frames show the speckled pump and seed laser field E y at a nonlinear stage with the three angles Θ = 47.1°, 30.9°, and 15.3° at an average beam intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , comparable to those attained in the NIF experiments. The pump and seed beam diameters are 80 μ m, and the simulation domain sizes are 350 × 298, 370 × 218, and 400 × 147 μ m in x and z , for Θ = 47.1°, 30.9°, and 15.3°, respectively. (In terms of the characteristic size of the speckles, a pump/seed beam of 80 μ m beam diameter and 400 μ m length has 24 speckle widths and ∼2.8 speckle lengths and comprises ∼67 speckles in total.) The lower frame shows energy transfer (the seed beam energy gain) as a function of time for Θ = 47.1°, 30.9°, and 15.3° by the solid black, blue, and red curves, respectively. Overlaid with the corresponding colors are the energy lost in the pump beam shown by the dash-dot curves.

Here, the seed beam energy gain and the energy lost in the pump beam are calculated as follows: FFT diagnostics of E y ( z , t ) data are obtained at the left and right boundaries as functions of z and time t . Because of the pointing of the pump and seed beams, the projections of their wavenumber in the z direction are − k z and + k z , respectively. This allows us to measure the time-integrated power | E y ( ω , k z ) | 2 in the pump and seed beams at the boundaries and obtain the percentage of the energy gain in the seed beam and the energy lost in the pump beam.

In the absence of secondary instabilities, one would expect that the energy gained by the seed beam is comparable to the energy lost by the pump beam. However, after gaining energy, the seed beam can become unstable to FSRS, which can, in turn, transfer the seed beam energy into the energy of electron plasma waves (EPWs) and hot electrons, as well as deflect the beam and cause beam energy to leave the simulation domain through the upper boundary. This is the case for the simulation with Θ = 15.3°, where the energy lost in the pump beam (shown by the red dash-dot curve in the bottom frame in Fig. 1 ) is greater than the seed beam energy gain (the red solid curve). CBET involving FSRS is a common feature of the dynamics and will be discussed in detail in Sec. III . From these simulations, energy transfer from pump to seed beam is significant (above 60%). The transfer begins immediately after two laser beams intersect and CBET saturates on a fast (∼10s of picosecond) time scale, in contrast to the CBET saturation dynamics by stochastic ion heating examined previously 20 (on ns time scale).

NIF laser beams comprise a large number of overlapping speckles, and retaining the speckled nature of the beams in their modeling is important for a variety of reasons. First of all, beam deflection from ponderomotive effects is expected to be different in speckled beams than in plane wave beams. 21 In addition, LPI-driven waves, hot electrons, and ions that initiate in strong speckles can seed and enhance the growth of LPI in neighboring speckles by reducing damping. 16,22 Thus, speckle interaction can lead to nonlocal coupling that may enhance or saturate energy transfer, necessitating simulations of multispeckled beams to understand nonlinear CBET in a realistic NIF setting. Indeed, in contrast with multispeckled CBET, we modeled two F/8 beams crossing at peak intensity I 0 = 3.0 × 10 15 W/cm 2 . In this case, the overlapping region is small and thus the energy transfer is only 13.6%. Our simulations show that the energy transfer depends on several factors, including beam overlapping area, beam average intensity, and the IAW damping rate (depending on the electron-to-ion temperature ratio and the beam crossing angle), which we discuss in Secs. IV and V .

In the remainder of this paper, we will consider the specific case Θ = 47.1° with ( kλ D ) IAW = 0.3 and examine the IAW dynamics (Sec. II ) and electron response (Sec. III ) in CBET. We will assess the scaling of not only the amount of energy transfer between beams but also other key physics, including beam deflection and hot electron generation that may be important to capsule preheat. Sections V and VI provide a discussion and summary, respectively.

We discuss results from simulations for the case of Θ = 47.1° with ( kλ D ) IAW = 0.3 which have a spatial domain size of 500 × 360 μ m in x and z , and pump and seed laser beam diameters 140 μ m. In terms of the characteristic sizes of the speckles, the pump and seed beams have ∼40 speckle widths and ∼4 speckle lengths (∼160 speckles in total).

Figure 2 shows the key ion dynamics at pump and seed beam intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 with a seed energy gain at about 80% (shown in Fig. 5 ). In the upper left frame, the laser field E y is at time t = 11.8 ps at a nonlinear stage of the interaction where the enhanced field in the seed beam and the depletion of the pump beam are seen. The IAW structure as represented in the ion velocity V z i is shown in the upper right frame in the beam overlapping region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper left frame. Around higher intensity speckles, the IAW amplitudes are larger. IAW in the beam overlapping region exhibits coherent structures at an early time, which breaks up in the x ̂ direction transverse to the wave propagation along ( ⁠ − z ̂ ⁠ ) at a late time, as shown in the middle right frames. Both frames are shown for the region indicated by the dashed rectangular box in the upper right frame. The lower right frame is the time-integrated IAW power spectrum | E z ( k z ) | 2 vs k z λ D (obtained through a lineout at x = 250 μ m), showing the primary wave at k z λ D = −0.3 and its second harmonic. With ( k λ D ) I AW = 0.3 ⁠ , we expect ion trapping in the overlapping region. Indeed, ion trapping is commonly seen in simulations, shown by the 2D f i ( v x , v z ) and 1D reduced f i ( v z ) (integrated over v x ) ion velocity space distributions in the middle left frame at the selected spatial region, as indicated by the white circle in the upper right frame (the dotted curve in the inset is the initial Maxwellian distribution as a reference). In the lower left frame, resonant ions are trapped in large-amplitude IAW (with bounce periods τ B ∼ 4 ps, consistent with estimates from bounce frequency ω B = ZekE / m i ⁠ ) and detrap as they pass through the dashed region where the IAWs break up. The IAW breakup may be caused by ion trapped particle modulational instability (TPMI) and subsequent self-focusing, similar to the dynamics of trapped electrons in Langmuir waves. 23 Ion trapping reduces wave damping and speckle interaction increases wave coherence length to ∼10 μ m or larger (much larger than the speckle width of ∼3 μ m), together enhancing energy transfer. Damping increases as the IAW breaks up and contributes to CBET saturation in a manner similar to stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) saturation in solitary speckles. 24–26 IAW harmonic generation is present and may also contribute to the CBET saturation, although the IAW spectral power in the second harmonic peak is an order of magnitude lower than that of the primary IAW.

FIG. 2. Key ion dynamics from CBET simulation at Θ = 47.1° and intensity Iave = 3.0 × 1014 W/cm2. Upper left frame: Laser field Ey at a nonlinear stage of CBET showing the enhanced field in the seed beam and the depleted pump beam. Upper right frame: IAW structure represented in the ion velocity Vzi in the beam overlapping region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper left frame. Middle right frames: Coherent IAW structures at early times and IAW breakup in the direction (x̂) transverse to the wave propagation (ẑ) at late times, as shown for the region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper right frame. Middle left frame: Ion trapping shown by the 2D f i(vx, vz) and 1D reduced f i(vz) ion velocity space distributions for the selected spatial region indicated by the white circle in the upper right frame; the dotted curve in the inset indicates the initial Maxwellian distribution. Lower left frame: Selected ion orbits passing through the dashed region at t = 27 ps, where the transverse IAW breakup and detrapping occur; trajectories begin at the top of the panel and travel toward −z. Colors indicate z velocity and show a bounce oscillation about the IAW phase velocity until detrapping occurs. Lower right frame: Time-integrated IAW power spectrum |Ez(kz)|2 vs kzλD showing the primary wave at kzλD = −0.3 and its second harmonic.

Key ion dynamics from CBET simulation at Θ = 47.1° and intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 . Upper left frame: Laser field E y at a nonlinear stage of CBET showing the enhanced field in the seed beam and the depleted pump beam. Upper right frame: IAW structure represented in the ion velocity V z i in the beam overlapping region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper left frame. Middle right frames: Coherent IAW structures at early times and IAW breakup in the direction ( ⁠ x ̂ ⁠ ) transverse to the wave propagation ( ⁠ z ̂ ⁠ ) at late times, as shown for the region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper right frame. Middle left frame: Ion trapping shown by the 2D f i ( v x , v z ) and 1D reduced f i ( v z ) ion velocity space distributions for the selected spatial region indicated by the white circle in the upper right frame; the dotted curve in the inset indicates the initial Maxwellian distribution. Lower left frame: Selected ion orbits passing through the dashed region at t = 27 ps, where the transverse IAW breakup and detrapping occur; trajectories begin at the top of the panel and travel toward − z . Colors indicate z velocity and show a bounce oscillation about the IAW phase velocity until detrapping occurs. Lower right frame: Time-integrated IAW power spectrum | E z ( k z ) | 2 vs k z λ D showing the primary wave at k z λ D = −0.3 and its second harmonic.

Results from additional simulations in Sec. IV show that ion trapping is observed at intensity I ave exceeding 1.0 × 10 13 W/cm 2 and IAW breakup is observed for CBET at intensity I ave > 1.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 .

Provided that the density scale length in a plasma is sufficiently long and/or the beam intensity is sufficiently high, CBET can involve electron dynamics through the excitation of oblique FSRS in the seed beam. This is of particular concern after energy transfer, when the intensity of the seed beam may exceed the threshold of the FSRS instability given the expected gradients in plasma conditions in typical ICF hohlraums, as inferred from HYDRA simulations of gas-filled hohlraums. 25

To illustrate the electron dynamics and the physics of FSRS in the absence of CBET, we consider a solitary, speckled beam at a high average intensity as representing a seed beam that has received energy from the pump beam through CBET. The top left frame in Fig. 3 is from a simulation of FSRS in seed beam with intensity I ave = 6.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 . The spatial size of the simulation is 500 × 360 μ m in x and z with the laser beam diameters 140 μ m; the angle between the laser beam and x ̂ is 23.5°, showing the oblique nature of FSRS light (seen in the structure in the E y field) indicated by wavenumber k 1 ; here, k 0 is the wavenumber of the seed beam. The wavenumber matching is illustrated in the inset in the middle left frame where k 0 , k 1 , and k are for the seed beam, the FSRS light, and the daughter EPW, respectively. The angle between k 1 and k 0 is ϕ , and the angle between k and k 0 is θ . From the simulation, the scattered FSRS light wavenumber k 1 occurs at an angle ϕ ≃ 37 ° with respect to the seed beam wavenumber k 0 and k 0 λ D = 0.375, k 1 λ D = 0.29. To test that the angle of FSRS is not related to the speckle geometry, we also performed a simulation with a plane wave beam at the same intensity and found an identical scattering angle for the FSRS light.

FIG. 3. Simulation of FSRS dynamics in a laser beam with intensity Iave = 6.0 × 1014 W/cm2 (the angle between the seed beam and x̂ is 23.5°) and linear theory solutions. Top left frame: Laser field Ey at a nonlinear stage showing the oblique FSRS light indicated by wavenumber k1; k0 is the wavenumber of the laser light. The inset in the middle left frame indicates the wavenumber matching for FSRS, where k0, k1, and k are for the laser beam, the FSRS light, and the daughter EPW, respectively. The angle between k1 and k0 is ϕ, and the angle between k and k0 is θ. Top right frame: Time-integrated light wave power spectrum |Ey(ω)|2 vs frequency ω/ωpe obtained at the right boundary with z < 0, showing the dominant FSRS spectrum component peaking at frequency ω/ωpe ∼ 3.93 (the spectral component near frequency ω/ωpe ∼ 5.0 is the seed laser light). Middle right frame: Laser transmission through the right boundary (black curve) and deflection due to FSRS through the upper boundary (red) normalized to the incident beam energy at the left boundary. Bottom right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectrum as a function of energy (red curve) existing through simulation boundaries (the black curve is the initial Maxwellian for comparison). Middle and lower left frames: The linear theory solutions for FSRS daughter EPW k, and real (solid black curve) and imaginary components of wave frequency (dashed red curve) as a function of the angle θ.

Simulation of FSRS dynamics in a laser beam with intensity I ave = 6.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 (the angle between the seed beam and x ̂ is 23.5°) and linear theory solutions. Top left frame: Laser field E y at a nonlinear stage showing the oblique FSRS light indicated by wavenumber k 1 ; k 0 is the wavenumber of the laser light. The inset in the middle left frame indicates the wavenumber matching for FSRS, where k 0 , k 1 , and k are for the laser beam, the FSRS light, and the daughter EPW, respectively. The angle between k 1 and k 0 is ϕ , and the angle between k and k 0 is θ . Top right frame: Time-integrated light wave power spectrum | E y ( ω ) | 2 vs frequency ω / ω pe obtained at the right boundary with z < 0, showing the dominant FSRS spectrum component peaking at frequency ω / ω pe ∼ 3.93 (the spectral component near frequency ω / ω pe ∼ 5.0 is the seed laser light). Middle right frame: Laser transmission through the right boundary (black curve) and deflection due to FSRS through the upper boundary (red) normalized to the incident beam energy at the left boundary. Bottom right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectrum as a function of energy (red curve) existing through simulation boundaries (the black curve is the initial Maxwellian for comparison). Middle and lower left frames: The linear theory solutions for FSRS daughter EPW k , and real (solid black curve) and imaginary components of wave frequency (dashed red curve) as a function of the angle θ .

FSRS grows at this large oblique angle with respect to the seed beam and leads to beam deflection and a frequency downshift by approximately ω pe . In the absence of FSRS, the laser beam exits the right boundary through the region with z > 0; however, FSRS causes a fraction of the beam to exit the right boundary through the region with z < 0. The time-integrated light wave power spectrum | E y ( ω ) | 2 as a function of frequency ω / ω pe obtained at the right boundary with z < 0 is shown in the top right frame where the dominant spectral component is from the FSRS peaking at frequency ω / ω pe ∼ 3.93 (the spectral component near frequency ω / ω pe ∼ 5.0 is the seed laser light). The center-right frame shows laser transmission through the right boundary (black curve) and significant deflection resulting from FSRS through the upper boundary (red) normalized to the incident beam energy at the left boundary. FSRS generates EPW waves and hot electrons, some of which exit the simulation domain. Indeed, the time-integrated spectrum of FSRS hot electrons exiting through simulation boundaries can be measured as a function of energy, as shown by the red curve in the bottom right frame (the black curve is the initial Maxwellian for comparison).

The angle of propagation of the obliquely propagating FSRS scattered light waves can be obtained through the linear theory for our plasma conditions. Taking I ave = 6 × 10 14 W/cm 2 (quiver velocity v os = eE 0 / m e ω 0 = 0.096 v th,e ) and following Refs. 27 and 28 , we obtain linearized, coupled-wave equations for scattered light and electron and ion responses and note that FSRS occurs for wavenumbers k when the daughter light wave is nearly resonant, i.e., ( ω − ω 0 ) 2 − | k − k 0 | 2 c 2 − ω pe 2 = 0 for ω ≈ ω ek = ( ω pe 2 + 3 k 2 v th , e 2 ) 1 / 2 ⁠ , the Bohm-Gross frequency. The dispersion relation has the form

where the plasma dielectric is

χ j ( ω , k ) = ζ ′ / ( 2 k 2 λ Dj 2 ) are the Vlasov susceptibilities from plasma species j , ζ j ( ω , k ) ≡ Z ′ [ ω / ( 2 k ) v th , j ] ⁠ , Z ′ denotes the derivative of the plasma dispersion function 29 with respect to its argument, ω ± ≡ ω ± ω 0 , and k ± ≡ k ± k 0 ⁠ . For high frequency plasma response, we neglect the ion response and, for finite ω pe / ω 0 , ignore the up-shifted mode, leaving a dispersion relation

which we solve numerically for ω as a function of θ .

The middle and lower left frames in Fig. 3 show the linear theory solutions for the wavenumber k and the real (solid black curve) and imaginary components of the resonant wave frequency (dashed red curve) as a function of the angle θ . FSRS daughter EPWs grow over a narrow range of θ with peak growth rate ω / ω pe = 7.2 × 10 −4 occurring at 51°, corresponding to the scattered light angle of ±37° and EPW wavenumber ( k λ D ) E PW = 0.2 ⁠ . These angles, together with the wavenumber and frequency, match those obtained from our simulations, confirming that the FSRS dynamics are indeed at play.

Having explained the FSRS and electron dynamics in an isolated laser beam, we now discuss their role in CBET. Figure 4 shows the FSRS and electron dynamics from the simulation of CBET at beam crossing angle Θ = 47.1° and intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 . In this simulation, the spatial domain size is 500 × 360 μ m in x and z , and pump and seed laser beam diameters of 140 μ m. The seed energy gain in this case is 80% (shown in Fig. 5 ). The laser field E y at a nonlinear stage in the dynamics (upper left frame) shows an enhanced field in the seed beam and a depleted pump beam (the same as in the upper left frame in Fig. 2 ). At intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , FSRS grows to large amplitude away from the overlapping region. In the upper right frame, FSRS daughter EPWs in E z in the region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper left frame show propagation at angles θ ∼ ±50° with respect to the seed beam. The presence of the two oblique EPW is evident in the modification of the electron velocity distribution f e ( v x , v z ) shown in the lower left frame for the spatial location indicated by the white circle in the upper right frame.

FIG. 4. FSRS and electron dynamics from CBET simulation at beam crossing angle Θ = 47.1° and intensity Iave = 3.0 × 1014 W/cm2. Upper left frame: Laser field Ey at time t = 11.8 ps at a nonlinear stage showing the enhanced field in the seed beam and the depleted pump beam. Upper right frame: FSRS daughter EPWs in Ez in the region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper left frame, showing EPW propagation at two directions at angle θ ∼ ±50° with respect to the seed beam. Middle frames: Coherent structures in EPW initially and its self-focusing occurring on the fast picosecond time scale, shown for the region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper right frame. Lower left frame: Modification of the electron velocity distribution fe(vx, vz) by the two oblique EPWs for the spatial location indicated by the white circle in the upper right frame. The lower right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra measured at the simulation boundaries from simulation with a uniform plasma density (red curve) and from simulation with a density gradient along the x direction, showing the suppression of FSRS hot electrons (green curve); for comparison, the black curve indicates the initial Maxwellian distribution.

FSRS and electron dynamics from CBET simulation at beam crossing angle Θ = 47.1° and intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 . Upper left frame: Laser field E y at time t = 11.8 ps at a nonlinear stage showing the enhanced field in the seed beam and the depleted pump beam. Upper right frame: FSRS daughter EPWs in E z in the region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper left frame, showing EPW propagation at two directions at angle θ ∼ ±50° with respect to the seed beam. Middle frames: Coherent structures in EPW initially and its self-focusing occurring on the fast picosecond time scale, shown for the region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper right frame. Lower left frame: Modification of the electron velocity distribution f e ( v x , v z ) by the two oblique EPWs for the spatial location indicated by the white circle in the upper right frame. The lower right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra measured at the simulation boundaries from simulation with a uniform plasma density (red curve) and from simulation with a density gradient along the x direction, showing the suppression of FSRS hot electrons (green curve); for comparison, the black curve indicates the initial Maxwellian distribution.

FIG. 5. Scaling of CBET and FSRS with laser beam crossing area and intensity. Upper left frame: Seed energy gain as a function of time at intensity Iave = 3.0× 1014 W/cm2 comparing the pump and seed beam diameters of 80 μm (dotted curve) and 140 μm (solid curve), respectively. Middle left frame: Seed energy gain as a function of time for beam diameter 140 μm at intensity Iave = 1.0, 5.0 × 1013 W/cm2 (dot light-blue and blue curves, respectively), and 1.0, 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 × 1014 W/cm2 (dot, dash, dash-dot, and solid black curves, respectively); the dash-dot orange curve is for Iave = 3.0 × 1014 W/cm2 in the presence of a density gradient. Middle right frame: Seed beam deflection, which measures the percentage of energy transmitted through the upper boundary divided by the total incident energy in the pump and seed beam, at intensity Iave = 5.0 × 1013 W/cm2 (dot blue curve), and 1.0, 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 × 1014 W/cm2 (dot, dash, dash-dot, and solid black curves, respectively); the green curve is for laser propagation in vacuum, shown as a reference for geometrical effects; the dash-dot orange curve is for Iave = 3.0 × 1014 W/cm2 with the density gradient. Lower left frame: Total hot electron energy, which measures the energy in the FSRS hot electrons summed over the simulation domain and that left the simulation boundary divided by the total incident energy in the pump and seed beam for intensities Iave = 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 × 1014 W/cm2 (dash, dash-dot, and solid black curves, respectively), and for Iave = 3.0 × 1014 W/cm2 with the density gradient (dash-dot orange curve). Lower right frame: The time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra measured at the simulation boundaries from simulations with a uniform plasma density at Iave = 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 × 1014 W/cm2 (green, blue, and red curves, respectively) and from simulation at Iave = 3.0 × 1014 W/cm2 but with the density gradient (dashed orange curve). Upper right frame: Schematic of the hohlraum illustrating the possibility of the oblique FSRS light generated at the laser entrance hole which may introduce a low-mode asymmetry to the capsule implosion.

Scaling of CBET and FSRS with laser beam crossing area and intensity. Upper left frame: Seed energy gain as a function of time at intensity I ave = 3.0× 10 14 W/cm 2 comparing the pump and seed beam diameters of 80 μ m (dotted curve) and 140 μ m (solid curve), respectively. Middle left frame: Seed energy gain as a function of time for beam diameter 140 μ m at intensity I ave = 1.0, 5.0 × 10 13 W/cm 2 (dot light-blue and blue curves, respectively), and 1.0, 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 (dot, dash, dash-dot, and solid black curves, respectively); the dash-dot orange curve is for I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 in the presence of a density gradient. Middle right frame: Seed beam deflection, which measures the percentage of energy transmitted through the upper boundary divided by the total incident energy in the pump and seed beam, at intensity I ave = 5.0 × 10 13 W/cm 2 (dot blue curve), and 1.0, 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 (dot, dash, dash-dot, and solid black curves, respectively); the green curve is for laser propagation in vacuum, shown as a reference for geometrical effects; the dash-dot orange curve is for I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 with the density gradient. Lower left frame: Total hot electron energy, which measures the energy in the FSRS hot electrons summed over the simulation domain and that left the simulation boundary divided by the total incident energy in the pump and seed beam for intensities I ave = 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 (dash, dash-dot, and solid black curves, respectively), and for I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 with the density gradient (dash-dot orange curve). Lower right frame: The time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra measured at the simulation boundaries from simulations with a uniform plasma density at I ave = 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 (green, blue, and red curves, respectively) and from simulation at I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 but with the density gradient (dashed orange curve). Upper right frame: Schematic of the hohlraum illustrating the possibility of the oblique FSRS light generated at the laser entrance hole which may introduce a low-mode asymmetry to the capsule implosion.

EPW exhibits coherent structures initially but breaks up in the direction transverse to the wave propagation as a result of EPW self-focusing similar to the dynamics found in backscatter SRS (BSRS), 24,30–32 as shown in the middle frames for the region outlined by the dashed rectangular box in the upper right frame. FSRS saturates by EPW self-focusing on fast (picosecond) time scales, which are much faster than those for IAW breakup. EPW self-focusing leads to side-loss hot electrons as shown in the lower right frame by the time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra measured at the simulation boundaries (the red curve; the initial Maxwellian distribution is shown in black for comparison) with hot electron energy exceeding 300 keV.

The FSRS and hot electrons can be mitigated by the presence of plasma density gradients, which reduces the interaction length 33 over which the three waves in FSRS can resonantly interact. In the simulation, a linear density gradient along the x direction suppresses forward FSRS and hot electrons. The plasma density increases by δn e / n cr = 0.02 from x = 0 to 500 μ m ( n e / n cr = 0.04 at the center of the x domain). A significant reduction of FSRS hot electrons is observed at intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , as shown by the green curve in the hot electron spectrum in the lower right frame.

In this section, we examine the energy transfer for different beam diameters together with the ion and electron dynamics for a range of laser intensities in simulations with a spatial size 500 × 360 μ m in x and z and Θ = 47.1°. (Note that the laser in our simulation is treated as a linearly polarized, speckled beam. The laser beams on the NIF, on the other hand, employ polarization smoothing and thus are roughly comparable to those with an intensity double that of a linearly polarized beam.) Figure 5 shows the scaling of CBET and FSRS with laser beam crossing area and intensity. In the upper left frame, the seed energy gain as a function of time at intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 is shown, comparing results for pump and seed beam diameters of 80 μ m (dotted curve) and 140 μ m (solid curve), respectively. Here, the seed energy gain is calculated from the time-integrated Poynting flux for the seed beam exiting the upper and right boundaries with z ≥ 0 divided by the incident seed beam flux on the left boundary (for z ≤ 0). The FSRS scattered light exiting through the right boundary with z < 0 is not accounted for, and the amount of energy transfer can be taken as the lower bound. This is an alternative method of calculating CBET, different from the FFT diagnostics used for the results in Fig. 1 . We will compare the two methods of calculating CBET in Sec. V . Results indicate that CBET increases with beam diameter and crossing area.

The middle left frame shows the seed energy gain as a function of time for beam diameter 140 μ m at intensities I ave = 1.0 × 10 13 W/cm 2 and 5.0 × 10 13 W/cm 2 (dotted light and dark blue curves, respectively), and 1.0, 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 (dot, dash, dash-dot, and solid black curves, respectively). CBET increases with beam intensity I ave . However, as intensity increases from I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 to 4.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , CBET is limited by the excitation of FSRS and IAW breakups in addition to pump depletion, resulting in a smaller difference between the solid and the dash-dot curves. In fact, the dip in the black solid curve after t ∼ 5 ps results from the presence of FSRS. Also, at the higher laser beam intensity, FSRS can occur in the beam overlapping region from both pump and seed beams, weakening the beam intensity and contributing to the saturation of CBET.

In order to assess the energy carried by the FSRS light in the seed beam, we consider the seed beam deflection, which indicates the percentage of energy transmitted through the upper boundary in the seed beam divided by the total incident energy in the pump and seed beam. The middle right frame shows the seed beam deflection as a function of time at various intensities. The green curve is for laser propagation in vacuum, showing ∼5% transmission through the upper boundary due to geometrical effects; the blue and black dotted curves show deflections at intensities I ave = 5.0 × 10 13 and 1.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , respectively, arising from laser ponderomotive effects in the presence of speckles; the dashed, dash-dot, and solid curves are for intensities I ave = 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , respectively, showing deflection mainly by the excitation of the FSRS instability. Note that the “seed beam deflection” presented here does not include the beam deflection by FSRS through the right boundary. As a consequence, the total deflected energy may be as much as twice the amount shown. Apparently, FSRS in the seed beam deflects a significant fraction of the total incident beam energy.

The lower left frame shows the total hot electron energy, which measures the energy in the FSRS hot electrons summed over the simulation domain and of those that have left the simulation boundary divided by the total incident energy in the pump and seed beam, for intensities I ave = 1.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , and 4.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 (dashed, dash-dot, and solid black curves, respectively). These results indicate that the FSRS hot electron energy increases with intensity, leading to 2% to 8% of the incident beam energy going into FSRS hot electrons. The lower right frame shows the time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra measured at the simulation boundaries at intensities I ave = 1.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , and 4.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 (green, blue, and red curves, respectively).

From our CBET simulations at the spatial scale and beam diameter presented in this section, the intensity threshold for FSRS is found to be I ave ∼1.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 . However, FSRS, beam deflection, and hot electron generation can be mitigated by introducing a plasma density gradient along the x ̂ direction, and here we used a linear density gradient with δn e / n cr = 0.02 over the simulation domain. This leads to a modest increase in the seed beam energy gain, a modest decrease in the amount of seed beam deflection, and more significant decreases in the total hot electron energy and the number of hot electrons in the tail of the distribution functions for intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 shown by the dash-dot orange curves in the four lower frames.

These results demonstrated that significant amounts of energy may be carried out in the beam deflection and hot electrons. This may account for a portion of the missing energy inferred from discrepancies in measured and calculated bang times and other quantities in previous ICF designs. 34–36 Also, as shown by the schematic of the hohlraum in the upper right frame, the oblique FSRS light generated at the laser entrance hole (LEH) may introduce a low-mode asymmetry to the capsule implosion. Thus, FSRS appears to limit the efficacy of CBET for symmetry tuning at the late stages of the implosion.

In this section, we consider the manner in which the PIC simulations are run, including the numbers of particles per cell, the spatial resolution of simulations of CBET, and FSRS and electron dynamics in the absence of CBET. We examine further the effects of pump depletion, binary collisions, and electron-to-ion temperature ratios, together with CBET at larger spatial scale.

Sensitivities of CBET simulation results to the numbers of particles per cell and spatial resolution at Θ = 47.1° and I ave = 3.0× 10 14 W/cm 2 are examined in Fig. 6 for run 1 (black curves) and run 2 (red curves) at nominal spatial resolution with 512 and 2048 particles per cell per species, respectively, and run 3 (green curves) at doubled resolution in each direction with 512 particles per cell per species. These simulations have a spatial domain size of 500 × 360 μ m in x and z , and pump and seed laser beam diameters 140 μ m. Shown from the left to right frames are the seed energy gain, pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (solid curves), FSRS hot electron energy in simulation domain (dashed curved), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), the total hot electron energy (solid curves), and the time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries. (The percentage of the hot electron energy is defined in the same way as in Fig. 5 .) While the ion and electron dynamics are found to be similar in the three simulations with the same processes of IAW breakup and EPW self-focusing, some differences are seen in the quantitative comparisons in the figure, resulting from statistical fluctuations from IAW and EPW interacting with the tail populations of the ion and electron distributions.

FIG. 6. Sensitivity of CBET simulation results on the number of particles per cell and spatial resolution for run 1 (black curves) and run 2 (red curves) at a nominal spatial resolution with 512 and 2048 particles per cell per species, respectively, and run 3 (green curves) at doubled resolution in each direction with 512 particles per cell per species. Left frame: Seed energy gain. Middle left frame: Pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (solid curves). Middle right frame: FSRS hot electron energy in the simulation domain (dashed curved), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), and the total hot electron energy (solid curves). Right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries.

Sensitivity of CBET simulation results on the number of particles per cell and spatial resolution for run 1 (black curves) and run 2 (red curves) at a nominal spatial resolution with 512 and 2048 particles per cell per species, respectively, and run 3 (green curves) at doubled resolution in each direction with 512 particles per cell per species. Left frame: Seed energy gain. Middle left frame: Pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (solid curves). Middle right frame: FSRS hot electron energy in the simulation domain (dashed curved), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), and the total hot electron energy (solid curves). Right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries.

At a nominal spatial resolution, the sensitivity of FSRS and the electron dynamics on the number of particles per cell in the absence of CBET have also been examined. Figure 7 shows results from simulations of the seed beam at intensity I ave = 6.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 (the angle between the seed beam and x ̂ is 23.5°) for runs 4 and 5 with 512 (black curves) and 4000 (red curves) particles per cell per species, respectively (the simulations have a spatial domain size of 500 × 360 μ m in x and z , and laser beam diameters 140 μ m). Shown from left to right are the seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves), seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (solid curves), the FSRS hot electron energy within the simulation domain (dashed curves), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), the total hot electron energy (solid curves), and the time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries. We find the same linear and nonlinear EPW and electron dynamics in the two simulations. Differences are seen in the quantitative comparisons in the figure, again, resulting from statistical fluctuations from EPW interacting with tail portions of the electron distributions.

FIG. 7. Sensitivity of FSRS and the electron dynamics in the absence of CBET on the number of particles per cell at a nominal spatial resolution for runs 4 and 5 with 512 (black curves) and 4000 (red curves) particles per cell per species, respectively. Left frame: Seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (solid curves). Middle frame: FSRS hot electron energy in the simulation domain (dashed curved), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), and the total hot electron energy (solid curves). Right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries.

Sensitivity of FSRS and the electron dynamics in the absence of CBET on the number of particles per cell at a nominal spatial resolution for runs 4 and 5 with 512 (black curves) and 4000 (red curves) particles per cell per species, respectively. Left frame: Seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (solid curves). Middle frame: FSRS hot electron energy in the simulation domain (dashed curved), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), and the total hot electron energy (solid curves). Right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries.

Our simulation results also indicate that Langmuir decay instability (LDI) of the FSRS daughter EPW also occurs in CBET and seed-beam-only simulations. For ( k λ D ) E PW = 0.2 ⁠ , the corresponding LDI daughter IAW has ( k λ D ) I AW ∼ 0.4 and wavenumber at an angle 14.8° with z ̂ ⁠ . FFT diagnostics | E z ( ω , k z ) | 2 show a spectral component near k z λ D ∼ cos ( 14.8 ° ) = 0.38 consistent with the LDI process.

Effects of pump depletion are apparent in simulations shown in Secs. II – IV where the pump and seed beams have the same beam diameter. Here, we further examine the effects of different beam diameters on pump deletion. Figure 8 shows simulations at intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 for run 6 with a 140 μ m beam diameter for pump and seed beams (solid curves), run 7 with an 80 μ m beam diameter for pump and seed beams (upper left frame and dotted curves), and run 8 with an 80 μ m beam diameter for the pump and a 140 μ m beam diameter for the seed beam (upper middle frame and dashed curves). These simulations have a spatial domain size of 500 × 360 μ m in x and z , and laser beam diameters of 140 μ m. Shown in the upper right and the lower frames are the seed energy gain, the pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (black curves), seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (red curves), total FSRS hot electron energy, and time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries. Note that no seed beam deflection occurs through the upper boundary for run 7 because of the small beam diameter. It is seen from the upper right frame comparing results from runs 6 and 7 (the same results are shown previously in the upper left frame in Fig. 5 ) that the seed beam energy gain indeed increases, as expected, with beam overlapping area. However, this process saturates, eventually, through pump depletion. Runs 7 and 8 have the same pump beam diameters but different seed beam diameters. After the pump beam interacts with the first 80 μ m width of the seed beam, the remaining portion of the seed beam in run 8 intersects with a pump beam at a depleted power and intensity. As a consequence, while increasing the seed beam diameter increases the net amount of energy transferred between the beams and enhances the energy in FSRS hot electrons, it does not do so linearly with the seed beam diameter, as seen by the percentages of the seed energy gain and beam deflection in runs 7 and 8.

FIG. 8. Effects of pump depletion from simulations for run 6 with a 140 μm beam diameter for pump and seed beams (solid curves), run 7 with an 80 μm beam diameter for pump and seed beams (upper left frame and dotted curves), and run 8 with an 80 μm beam diameter for the pump and a 140 μm beam diameter for the seed beam (upper middle frame and dashed curves). Upper right frame: Seed energy gain. Lower left frame: Pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (black curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (red curves); note that no seed beam energy is deflected through the upper boundary for run 7 due to the small beam diameter. Lower middle right frame: Total FSRS hot electron energy. Lower right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries.

Effects of pump depletion from simulations for run 6 with a 140 μ m beam diameter for pump and seed beams (solid curves), run 7 with an 80 μ m beam diameter for pump and seed beams (upper left frame and dotted curves), and run 8 with an 80 μ m beam diameter for the pump and a 140 μ m beam diameter for the seed beam (upper middle frame and dashed curves). Upper right frame: Seed energy gain. Lower left frame: Pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (black curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (red curves); note that no seed beam energy is deflected through the upper boundary for run 7 due to the small beam diameter. Lower middle right frame: Total FSRS hot electron energy. Lower right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries.

Collisional effects are known to modify the particle distribution functions, the Landau damping rates, and the instability thresholds, especially with a high-Z component. 37,38 In our present study of He 2+ ion plasma, collisional effects are not expected to play a significant role at the density of a few percent n cr and kiloelectron volt temperature. However, a higher electron-to-ion temperature ratio is expected to decrease the IAW damping rate. Effects of binary collisions and electron-to-ion temperature ratios are examined in Fig. 9 from simulations at intensity I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 with pump and seed beam diameters of 140 μ m and T e / T i = 4 for runs 9 (collisionless, black curves) and 10 (collisional, red curves), and run 11 (collisionless, green curves) with T e / T i = 2. These simulations have a spatial domain size of 500 × 360 μ m in x and z . Shown from the left to the right are the seed energy gain, pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves), seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (solid curves), the FSRS hot electron energy in the simulation domain (dashed curved), the hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), the total hot electron energy (solid curves), and the time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries. It is estimated that the rate of collisions is low with fewer than one collision per picosecond for self- and cross-species collisions. Indeed, collisions do not lead to significant changes in the seed energy gain, seed beam deflection, and the ion and electron dynamics. However, collisional heating of electrons in the laser field is observed, as indicated by the electron energy in the simulation domain by the dashed red curve. Since the IAW linear damping rate increases by a factor of 3.4 as T e / T i changes from 4 to 2, reducing the temperature ratio leads to more significant effects on the seed energy gain, seed beam deflection, and the FSRS hot electron energy.

FIG. 9. Effects of binary collisions and electron-to-ion temperature ratio variation from simulations with Te/Ti = 4 for runs 9 (collisionless, black curves) and 10 (collisional, red curves), and run 11 (collisionless, green curves) with Te/Ti = 2. Left frame: Seed energy gain. Left middle frame: Pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (solid curves). Right middle frame: FSRS hot electron energy in the simulation domain (dashed curved), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), and the total hot electron energy (solid curves). Right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries.

Effects of binary collisions and electron-to-ion temperature ratio variation from simulations with T e / T i = 4 for runs 9 (collisionless, black curves) and 10 (collisional, red curves), and run 11 (collisionless, green curves) with T e / T i = 2. Left frame: Seed energy gain. Left middle frame: Pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (solid curves). Right middle frame: FSRS hot electron energy in the simulation domain (dashed curved), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), and the total hot electron energy (solid curves). Right frame: Time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries.

In the NIF experiments with gas-filled hohlraums, the beam overlapping region can be on the order of 500 μ m, 39 larger than the size considered in our simulations presented so far. While we showed above that reducing the electron-to-ion temperature ratio affects the energy gain, the larger cross-beam region for the NIF experiments is expected to enhance the energy transfer. Here, we examine a case of CBET at I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 with the pump and seed beam diameters of 280 μ m and T e / T i = 2. The simulation has a spatial domain size of 830 × 640 μ m in x and z ; in terms of the characteristic size of the speckles, a pump/seed beam of 280 μ m beam diameter and 900 μ m length has 80 speckle widths and ∼6.4 speckle lengths and is composed of ∼512 speckles in total. The results are shown in Fig. 10 in the top frame, displaying the enhanced field in the seed beam and the depleted pump beam, and by the green curves in the lower four frames for the seed energy gain, pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (the solid curves in the same frame labeled “transmission”), the FSRS hot electron energy in simulation domain (dashed curved), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), the total hot electron energy (solid curves), and the time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries. The black curves are from the simulation at the same intensity with diameter 140 μ m and T e / T i = 4 (run 9 in Fig. 9 ) shown as a comparison. These results confirm that under conditions for larger IAW damping ( T e / T i = 2), the energy gain of the seed beam and the seed beam deflection and hot electrons generated by FSRS remain significant at the scale lengths encountered in the NIF experiments.

FIG. 10. Simulation of CBET at the pump and seed beam diameters of 280 μm and Te/Ti = 2 (top frames and the green curves). Shown from the top to bottom frames are pump and seed field Ey, seed energy gain, pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (the solid curves in the same frame), the FSRS hot electron energy in the simulation domain (dashed curved), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), the total hot electron energy (solid curves), and the time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries. The black curves are from the simulation at the same intensity with diameter 140 μm and Te/Ti = 4 (run 9 in Fig. 9) shown as a comparison.

Simulation of CBET at the pump and seed beam diameters of 280 μ m and T e / T i = 2 (top frames and the green curves). Shown from the top to bottom frames are pump and seed field E y , seed energy gain, pump and seed laser transmission through the right boundary (dash-dot curves) and seed beam deflection through the upper boundary (the solid curves in the same frame), the FSRS hot electron energy in the simulation domain (dashed curved), hot electron energy exiting the simulation boundaries (dotted curves), the total hot electron energy (solid curves), and the time-integrated FSRS hot electron spectra exiting the boundaries. The black curves are from the simulation at the same intensity with diameter 140 μ m and T e / T i = 4 (run 9 in Fig. 9 ) shown as a comparison.

Finally, we discuss the two methods of calculating the energy transfer employed in our study. In Fig. 11 , a comparison is made for the energy transfer diagnostics using FFT data on the boundaries (triangles) and using Poynting flux at the boundaries (solid curves) for a simulation with Θ = 47.1°, I ave = 3.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 , pump and seed laser beam diameters of 140 μ m, T e / T i = 4, and a spatial domain size of 380 × 360 μ m in x and z . The black triangles and the green curve are for the energy lost in the pump beam, whereas the red triangles and the blue curve are for the seed beam energy gain. Note that the smaller domain size in x (instead of the 500 μ m length used in the majority of the simulations) reduces the FSRS amplification. As a consequence, FSRS is not significant in this case, and the energy lost by the pump beam is comparable to the energy gained by the seed beam. These results show that the two simulation diagnostics provide similar results.

FIG. 11. Comparison of energy transfer diagnostics using FFT data on the boundaries (triangles) and using Poynting flux data at the boundaries (solid curves). The black triangles and the green curve are for the energy lost in the pump beam, while the red triangles and the blue curve are for the seed beam energy gain.

Comparison of energy transfer diagnostics using FFT data on the boundaries (triangles) and using Poynting flux data at the boundaries (solid curves). The black triangles and the green curve are for the energy lost in the pump beam, while the red triangles and the blue curve are for the seed beam energy gain.

Large-scale 2D VPIC simulations and analytic theory have been employed to examine the nonlinear dynamics of CBET in speckled laser beams involving both ion and electron kinetic responses under conditions relevant to inertial fusion experiments. Specifically, we discussed in detail the excitation of FSRS in the seed beam, the resulting beam deflection and hot electron production, and the nonlinear evolution of IAW and FSRS daughter EPW on the growth and saturation of the instabilities.

We found that energy transfer begins immediately after two laser beams intersect and CBET saturates on a fast (∼10s of picosecond) time scale, in contrast to the CBET saturation dynamics on a nanosecond time scale by stochastic ion heating examined previously. 20 In the beam crossing region, ion trapping reduces wave damping and enhances energy transfer. IAW exhibits coherent structures at early times but breaks up in the direction transverse to the wave propagation at late times, leading to increased wave damping and contributing to CBET saturation (similar to the SBS saturation found in solitary speckles 24–26 ). Ion trapping is observed at intensity I ave exceeding 1.0 × 10 13 W/cm 2 , and IAW breakup is observed at intensity I ave > 1.0 × 10 14 W/cm 2 for the cases examined.

In our simulations, FSRS can occur at large oblique angles with respect to the seed beam, and the FSRS daughter EPWs modify the electron distribution function, leading to hot electrons with energy exceeding 300 keV. Such growth of FSRS contributes to the saturation of CBET. The angles of propagation for FSRS light wave and daughter EPW, together with the wavenumber and frequency, agree with those obtained from the linear theory. Previously, FSRS has been observed in experiments using the NOVA laser. 40,41 The beam deflection caused by FSRS found in our simulations is much more dramatic than that from ponderomotive effects in speckled laser beams. 21 EPW exhibits coherent structures initially but breaks up in the direction transverse to the wave propagation as a result of EPW self-focusing similar to the dynamics found in backscatter SRS (BSRS). 24,30–32 FSRS saturates by EPW self-focusing on fast (picosecond) time scales, leading to side-loss of hot electrons from speckles. The intensity threshold for FSRS is found to be I ave ∼ 1.5 × 10 14 W/cm 2 from simulations at the spatial scales and beam diameters considered.

Scaling simulations show that CBET, as well as FSRS and hot electrons, increases with beam average intensity, beam diameter, and crossing area, but that CBET is limited by the excitation of FSRS and IAW breakup in addition to pump depletion. The energy transfer depends sensitively on beam overlapping area, beam average intensity, and the IAW damping rate (electron-to-ion temperature ratio). However, in contrast to the case of high-Z ions, 37,38 CBET is insensitive to the collisional effects for the parameters examined. We have also shown that the FSRS and hot electrons can be mitigated by the presence of a density gradient.

FSRS in the seed beam deflects a significant fraction of the total incident beam energy (∼40%) and leads to 2%–8% of the incident beam energy going into FSRS hot electrons for the cases considered. These results may account for a significant portion of the missing energy inferred in previous ICF experiments. 34–36 Also, the oblique FSRS light generated at the laser entrance hole could introduce a low-mode asymmetry to the capsule implosion and may limit the efficacy of CBET for tuning implosion symmetry at the late stages of the implosion.

FSRS hot electrons could be a source of m-band preheat in the hohlraum walls. 15 Preliminary Monte Carlo electron transport calculations indicate that FSRS generated hot electrons are largely unable to penetrate the capsule to directly preheat the DT fuel during implosion, however. Transport modeling from inferred CBET onto inner beams and the consequent hot electron generation suggests that 10s of kiloJoule of FSRS hot electrons may reach the gold walls with an average energy greater than 60 kJ. Such electrons could drive enhanced Au m-band radiation and preheat the fuel during the main pulse.

FSRS is expected at the laser and plasma conditions encountered in the laser entrance hole (LEH) for NIF indirect-drive experiments, where plasma density is low, of the order of a few percent of the critical density as considered in this work. As the laser beam propagates through the fill plasma to the hohlraum wall, the density increases, the damping rate for BSRS decreases, and BSRS takes over as the dominant scattering process. 25

Another setting where the interplay between CBET and FSRS may be important is in the recently demonstrated beam combiner concept. 42,43 In this concept, high fluence and high energy laser beams can be achieved through the use of CBET to amplify a seed pulse by a passage through a collection of overlapping pump beams. Unless the plasma conditions are such that FSRS is damped heavily or steps are taken to mediate the onset of FSRS (e.g., through the use of a low-density background foam with engineered density gradients), the achievable energies and beam powers may be limited and undesirable, and oblique scattering of the beam could ensue.

In our simulations, we have assumed that the laser speckle pattern is fixed throughout the duration of our simulations. On the NIF, however, smoothing by spectral dispersion (SSD) 44 provides a characteristic laser speckle decorrelation time of t corr ∼ (45 GHz) −1 ∼ 22 ps. A preliminary study including a broadband source with this decorrelation time indicates little effect of this bandwidth on electron dynamics. In principle, ion dynamics could be affected by SSD at this bandwidth. However, it is not clear to what degree ion dynamics would be affected by SSD at this bandwidth (the decorrelation time is approximately the duration of our simulations). We plan to present a more comprehensive study of SSD on the ion time scale dynamics of CBET in future work. In addition to the instability-induced beam deflection, hydrodynamic response to a plasma flow could also deflect the beam, 14,45–47 which has not been included in this study. We intend to consider this in future work. We have considered here a simplified geometry containing at most two overlapping speckled laser beams. Indirectly driven ICF experiments on the NIF involve up to 96 beams overlapping in regions of the laser entrance hole, leading to a very complex, possibly nonlinear coupling among laser beams and the possibility of collective amplification of common plasma modes. 48 The nonlinear effects of these large numbers of overlapping beams would be an interesting topic of further study, one which may be illuminated by current and future Top9 CBET experiments at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics facility. Finally, we note that the angle of the daughter FSRS scattered light relative to the seed beam depends on the plasma density. This could provide an experimental technique for inferring the electron density in the overlap region under conditions of minimal plasma flow. Note that the oblique FSRS discussed in our work appears to be different from (though, may be, related to in some limiting cases) the convective Raman side-scatter, 49 which involves the generation of Raman rays propagating in a direction orthogonal to a plasma density gradient. In contrast, FSRS may occur in plasma media without a density gradient, and the angle of the scattered light is a function of the plasma density.

This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by the Triad National Security, LLC Los Alamos National Laboratory, and was supported by the LANL Directed Research and Development (LDRD) Program and the LANL Office of Experimental Sciences Inertial Confinement Fusion program. The authors acknowledge discussions with Dr. D. S. Montgomery, Dr. J. C. Fernández, Dr. J. L. Kline, Dr. W. Kruer, Dr. W. Rozmus, and Dr. R. K. Kirkwood. VPIC simulations were run on ASC Cielo supercomputer under Capability Class Computing and on the LANL Institutional Computing Clusters.

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THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

The Sangguniang Kabataan or Youth Council is the governing body of the youth

assembly of every barangay. The Katipunan ng Kabataan is an assembly of youths in every

barangay whose primary objective is to enhance the social, political, economic, cultural,

intellectual, moral, spiritual, and physical development of the youth in the country. The creation

of this body is by virtue of the 1987 Constitution as also elucidated in R. A. 7160 or otherwise

known as the Local Government Code. Further, through these laws the Commission on Election

is hereby authourized to conduct an election held every four years from the assumption of office.

In addition, the Sangguniang Kabataan is the quintessential example of child participation

in local governance and because of its indespensible involvement in societal matters; the

Sangguniang Kabataan was also involved in cooperating and undertaking Peace and Order

Projects in the locality.

It is a testament to the Philippine Government recognition of the potential of children and

youth to contribute to national development. The Philippines has always placed paramount

importance on the significant role of the youth in nation building. In 1870, Philippines National

Hero Jose Rizal , in his message “ to the Filipino youth” called the youth “ the hope of the

Fatherland” and exhorted them to break free from the shackles that their hearts and minds so that

they may soar to the heavens and attain their aspiration (Wilson 1998).

However, the Sangguinang Kabataan, which was envisioned as a venue to develop the

next generation of leaders, received criticisms for its alleged flaws and failure to respond to the

needs of the sector it represents.

It is believed that the level of satisfaction on the performance of Sangguniang Kabataan

Officials can be seen in a dedicative systematic and proper implementation of the programs as

the basic services needed by the body politics. In addition, researchers want to find out the level

of the Sangguniang Kabataan officials in rendering public service, as promised during their hot

Background of the Study

The Sangguniang Kabataan is the lowest system of governing body concerning for the

youth. It was established so that the youth will have an opportunity to become a leader of our

country and so that they can practice leadership to their subordinates.

It also initiates policies, programs and projects for the development of the youth in their

respected political territories as stated in Chapter II.

The main focus of this study is to determine the youth’s satisfaction on the Sangguniang

Kabataan Officials Participation in the Implementation of Undertaking Development and Peace

and Order Projects in Signal Village Taguig City.

Conceptual Framework of the Study

Undertaking Development and Peace and Order Projects

Youth’s Level of

Satisfaction

Youth of Signal Village, Taguig City

Sangguniang

Kabataan Officials

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the study.

The conceptual framework is featuring the interaction of the component parts in the three

rectangular figures and the frame box as they interrelate in the sudy.

The outer rectangle in clockwise form shows that the services are in continuous process

of development and is not static. In order to succeed a higher level of adequacy, efficiency and

Satisfaction it must inevitably undertake a process of development. The constant shifting needs

of the Sangguniang Kabataan Electorate and their expectations of the Sangguniang Kabataan

Officials make the latter move in never ending cycle and process of planning, implementing and

evaluating.

The middle rectangle represents the Sangguniang Kabataan Electorate of Signal Village,

Taguig City as the focal point of the services. They are the one who asses the Projects of the

Sangguniang Kabataan Officials based on their satisfaction level.

The core or innermost rectangle features the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials where the

essence of the services such as Development projects and Peace and Order, they perform their

duties and how the Youth of the Signal Village, Taguig City Benefit from their Projects.

In the right box you will see the Youth’s level of satisfaction on the two services of the

Sangguniang Kabataan Officials of Signal Village, Taguig City. The arrows coming from the

Youth Levels of Satisfaction show their response to the undertaking Development and Peace and

Order Project as well as the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials.

Profile of the Respondents according to:

1.1 Gender a. Male, and;b. Female

1.2 Projectsa. Undertaking Developmentb. Peace and Order

Distributed Survey Questionnaire to the respondents were collected to determine the level of Satisfaction on the Participation in the Implementation of the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials’ on the duties and Projects as implemented by R.A 7160.

Research Paradigm

The first box shows the Input which contains the profile of the respondents according to

their gender and the Projects to be assessed by the youths where Sangguniang Kabataan

Participated.

The second box is the Process that the researchers used by means of evaluating the

Participation of the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials in Signal Village Taguig City or their

functions and duties imposed by the Local Government Code R.A. 7160. And the last box is the

Output or the Result gathered from the collected data.

The level of Satisfaction of the respondents as to the Sangguniang Kabataan Offcials’ participation in the implementation on the Undertaking Development Projects was generally satisfied and as to the Peace and Order Projects was generally fair.

There is no significant difference between the levels of Satisfaction of the Sanggunianang Kabataan Officials in the Undertaking Development Projects while there is a significant difference in Implementing Peace and Order

Statement of the Problem

The study intends to get the level of satisfaction of the Youths’ in Signal Village, Taguig

City about the delivering of projects and services of Sangguniang Kabataan Officials

Specifically, it tries to seek answers the following sub-problems:

1. What is the profile of the respondents by gender?

2. What is the respondent’s level of satisfaction on the participation of Sangguniang Kabataan

Officials in the implementation of the undertaking development projects on the following

1.2 political

1.3 economic

1.4 cultural

1.5 intellectual

1.7 spiritual

1.8 physical

3. What is the respondent’s level of satisfaction on the participation of Sangguinang Kabataan

Officials’ in the implementation of peace and order projects?

4. Is there a significant difference between the level of satisfaction of the respondents, as to

Sangguniang Kabataan Officials participation in implementation of undertaking development

projects and peace and order projects, when grouped by gender?

NULL HYPOTHESIS

There is no significant difference on the level of Satisfaction of Sangguniang Kabataan in

terms of undertaking development when the Respondents were grouped by Gender, while

there is a significant difference between the Satisfaction level of the respondents as to the

participation of the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials in Peace and Order Projects when they

were grouped by gender

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study is significant to the following:

Youths, this study is significant to them in knowing the total level of their satisfaction in

todays Sangguniang Kabataan projects, it is also important to them in knowing the Projects, main

functions, and powers of the Sangguniang Kabataan in the locality.

Youth Leaders, this research work will be helpful to them, to know their level of

Participation on the duties that they were assigned by law, through youth’s evaluation and be

made aware into it so as to rectify the same for the benefit of the youth in the locality.

Local Officials, this study will help to know the condition of relationship of Sangguniang

Kabataan Officials and the youth of said barangay, it is also helpful to determine the system of

the Sangguniaang Kabataan in barangay, further, this study will serve as a parameter on what

project of Sangguniang Kabataan needs the additional cooperation of local officials.

State Legislators, the study will determine the effectiveness of Sangguniaang Kabataan

Officials, and the study may serve as a guideline for them to be informed whether the

Sangguniang Kabataan or Youth Council must be abolished or not. It may also serve as a guide

for them in legislating laws for the development of Undertaking Projects and Peace and Order

projects for the youth. As well as other projects that youth will link themselves into it to avoid

themselves indulging to unnecessary activity/ies.

Community, this study will help the entire population of the Philippines to be more

aware in today’s condition of Sangguniang Kabataan. This study is very important simply

because it is the personal right to know all the events happening in the Government. The

constitution cited about that the right of the people to information on matters of public concerns

shall be recognized. Access to official records and documents and papers pertaining to official

acts, transactions, or decisions, as well as to government research date used as basis for policy

development, shall be afforded to the citizens, subject to the limitation as may be provided by

law. It is important because they will also know the importance and function of the Sangguniang

Kabataan Officials in the locality.

Students, it will serve as an informative knowledge to them in knowing the condition of

todays Sangguniang Kabataan projects. It will help them to know the primary function and duties

of the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials in the locality.

Faculty Members, as their duties in curving the youths behavior, intellectual and

personality this study will serve as a total or reference on thesis lecture to the results of the study

that the youths of today still trying their best in order to change the world into a better one.

Future Researchers, this study will serve as a baseline data for their future studies.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

This study is limited to the level of satisfaction of youths’ as may be measured by the

survey questions on the satisfaction in undertaking development projects and peace and order

projects. The sources of the data is the youth, ranging from 15 to 17 years old of Signal Village,

Taguig City, as the required age vote bracket of the Republic Act 7160 also known as the “ Local

Government Code.”

This study aims to determine the Level of Satisfaction of youths in Signal Village Taguig

City on how they perceived the performance of the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials in the

implementation of the undertaking development and peace and order projects. The respondents

in this study are confined to the youth of the Sangguniang Kabataan of Signal Village Taguig

DEFINITION OF TERMS

The following terms are both theoritically and operationally defined as used in the

context of the study so as to have clear and easiest understandng into it, to wit:

Barangay - it refers to a community consists of not less than 2000 inhabitants in the

urbanized cities in MMA or Metropolitan Manila Area. (Local government code 1991).

Development - the act, process, or result of developing, the state of being developed, a

developed tract of land; especially, one with houses built on it.

Level of Satisfaction – is the degree of being satisfied in something, someone etc. As

perceived by a certain individual.

Local government unit - it refers to the cities, municipalities, provinces, and barangay

who are responsible to implement programs.

Nation-building - refers to the process of constructing or structuring a national identity

using the power of the state. This process aims at the unification of the people within the state so

that it remains politically stable and viable in the long run. Nation-building can involve the use

of propaganda or major infrastructure development to foster social harmony and economic

Officials - is someone who holds an office (function or mandate, regardless whether it

carries an actual working space with it) in an organization or government and participates in the

exercise of authority (either his own or that of his superior and/or employer, public or legally

Participation – is the act of sharing in the activities of a group; involvement, involution,

engagement. An action taken by a group of people, an engagement by contract involving

financial obligation; the act of intervening, the condition of sharing in common with others

Peace and Order Projects - Peace is a state of tranquility while order is a group of

people united in a formal way, it is a project that the main concern is to maintain tranquility,

peacefulness and orderliness in the society.

Projects - a proposal of something to be done, plan scheme, or especial work or research.

Project is an assignment given to a student which generally requires a larger amount of effort

than normal homework assignments. They can range anywhere from simple written projects to

elaborate and well-constructed Science Fair Projects.

Promulgate resolutions - Sangguniang Kabataan also involves in decision making and

approving projects in the barangay, for the purpose of enhancing community projects.

Public Funds - budget of the community; derive from the levied taxes collected from the

people within the purpose of developing the operational motive of the government; such as

infrastructure, basic services, health and peace and order etc.

Residents - are the person who resides in a certain place, the people living in a place for

some continuous period of time.

Sangguniang Kabataan - is a youth legislature in every local village or community. It

also initiates policies, programs and projects for the development of youth in their respective

political territories.

Satisfaction - the payment through penance of the temporal punishment incurred by a

sin, reparation for sin that meets the demands of divine justice, fulfillment of a need or want, the

quality or state of being satisfied, a source or means of enjoyment, compensation for a loss or

injury, the discharge of a legal obligation or claim, convinced assurance or certainty proved to

the satisfaction of the court.

Services - the occupation or conditions of a servant employment especial public

employer ready to serve or cooperate with one. Also a term usually used to mean services

provided by government to its citizens, either directly (through the public sector) or by financing

private provision of services. The term is associated with a social consensus (usually expressed

through democratic elections) that certain services should be available to all, regardless of

income. Even where public services is neither publicly provided nor publicly financed, for social

and political reasons they are usually subject to regulation going beyond that applying to most

economic sectors. Public services are also a course that can be studied at college and/or

university. These courses can lead entry in to the: police, ambulance and fire services. It is also

an alternative term for civil service.

Undertaking Development Projects - a state of doing, creating, initiating Development

Projects primarily in enhancing individual’s personality aspects like: Intellectual, Political,

Moral, Physical, Spiritual, Economical, Cultural, and Social.

Vital role - is a socially expected behavior. Performing substantial participation above

personal interest as an act of a highly spirited citizen of the country.

Youth - is the period from infancy or childhood to maturity, "This world demands the

qualities of youth: not a time of life but a state of mind, a temper of the will, a quality of

imagination, a predominance of courage over timidity, of the appetite for adventure over the life

of ease. (Merriam Webster)

REVIEW OF CONCEPTUAL LITERATURE AND RELATED STUDY

This chapter deals with review of conceptual literature and related studies are

indispensable in the formulation of the study.

Conceptual Literature

(Philippine Constitution, 1987) Section 13, Article II states that the state recognizes the

vital role of the Youth in nation-building and shall promote and protect their physical, moral,

spiritual, intellectual and social well-being. It shall inculcate in the youth patriotism and

nationalism and encourage their involvement in public and civic affairs.

Moreover, the Katipunan ng Kabataan is an assembly of youths in every barangay whose

primary objective is to enhance the social, political, economic, cultural, intellectual, moral,

spiritual and physical development of the youth in the country.

Under (Republic Act No. 9164, 2002) an act providing for synchronized barangay and

sangguniang kabataan elections, amending Republic Act No. 7160, as amended, otherwise

known as the "Local Government Code of 1991", and for other purposes. Section 423 provides

the creation and Election that there shall be in every barangay a Sangguniang Kabataan to be

composed of a chairman, seven members, a secretary and a treasurer. The Sangguniang Kabataan

or youth council is the governing body of the youth assembly or Katipunan ng Kabataan of every

barangay. They are elected by the members of, the Katipunan ng Kabataan in elections

conducted by the Commission on Elections (COMELEC). The powers and functions of the

Sanggunlang Kabataan are to promulgate resolutions necessary to carry out the objectives of the

youth in the barangay, in accordance with applicable provisions of the Code; Initiate programs

designed to enhance the social, political, economic, cultural, and intellectual, moral, spiritual and

physical development of the members; Hold fund raising activities, the proceeds of which shall

be tax exempt and shall accrue to the Sangguniang Kabataan general fund; Create such bodies or

committees necessary to effectively carry out its programs and activities; Submit annual end-of-

term reports to the Sangguniang Barangay on their projects and activities; Consult and

coordinate with all youth organizations in the barangay for policy formulation and program

implementation; Coordinate with the Presidential Council for Youths (PCYA) and other National

Government Agencies (NGA) concerned fur the implementation of youth development projects

and programs at the national level; and Exercise such other powers and perform such other duties

and functions as the Sangguniang Barangay may determine or delegate or as may be prescribed

by law or ordinance.

On the contrary, the creation of the Youth Council in international concept, (International

Youth Council, 2008) in Europe there is a consolidated tradition of representative youth

platforms at Pan-regional, National and local level. At European level the European Youth

Forum constitutes the platform which gathers more than 93 National Youth Council and

International Non-Governmental Youth Organizations. It's a non-governmental structure which

serves its members and applies the principles of democratic representation, transparency through

its internal democratic system. At the Institutional level, the Council of Europe has a specific co-

managed system to run its youth sector. Governmental and non-Governmental representative co-

decide upon the priorities of the youth program of the institution and they also co-manage the

activities which are run in two youth centers in Strasbourg and Budapest. The Youth

Constituency is called "Advisory Council on Youth" (AC) beside the co-decision mechanism

internal to the Directorate for Youth and Sport has the possibility to advise the Institution on any

matter which affect young people and which is tackled by Council of Europe. At National level

there are National Youth Councils which are similar structures to the European Youth Forum and

often there are regional and local council which adopts various kinds of constituencies and

organizations case by case an example of which is the Parliament.

In the United States and Canada, youth councils have been formed by nonprofit

organizations and at all levels of government. Many cities, including Boston, Los Angeles, San

Francisco, Chicago, Miami, Dallas, and Seattle, have active youth councils that inform city

government decision-making. For instance, the Los Angeles Youth Council is sponsored by the

Commission for Children Youth and their Families. Prior to being established as a program of

this commission, it was operated as Mayor Tom Bradley's Youth Advisory Board. This Youth

Council is currently working on creating a citywide Youth Policy. Several state-level

government agencies and legislatures have created youth councils, including Washington,

Maine, Louisiana, New Mexico, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. Maine's council was the

first statewide youth council created in the US, and the others were created soon after that. In the

United States there are several forms of youth councils. They include youth advisory councils,

which provide input and feedback regarding adult-driven decision-making; youth research

councils that are responsible for assessment and evaluation of youth and community programs,

and; youth action councils which are designed to either be youth/adult partnerships or youth-led

activities that are youth-driven and generally, youth-focused.

While in (United Methodist News Service, 2004) Barangay Youth Council is the

governing body of the Youth Assembly that is organized in every barangay, which is the smallest

unit of local government in the Philippines. Its primary objective is to enhance the development

of the youth in the country. The Council promulgates resolutions necessary to carry out the

objectives of the youth. Among the activities initiated by Councils around the country are tree

planting, clean-up drives for rivers and lakes, waste segregation, and the like. Involvement in

these activities has helped promote environment consciousness among the youth in the

Philippines.

As to arguments on the issues, (Torralba, 2008) "No!" to Sangguniang Kabataan abolition

more youth wants to be a part of nation building According to Sen. Aquilino Pimentel, the

Sangguniang Kabataan Council or SK must be abolished because it is no longer serving its

function. Most SK leaders have ignored their duties. The primary reason is they are always in

school, not in the council. And worst is, he said, the Sangguinaing Kabataan Leaders have

committed corrupt practices by being tempted of the funds provided to them. If you notice your

son or daughter being always active in school or community activities, being a student leader, a

member of your community’s youth club or maybe, an SK councilor, do not make them

discontinue what they love to do. Who knows, your son or daughter might be the next future

leader of our country.

The number one strong points of Sangunniang Kabataan are preparing youth leadership

and develop them into a high-quality leader in the future. The youth is the hope of the future.

Another point is their participation in the community. Most youth today are active in community

and they need a leader who can guide them. And most importantly, the lessons being taught in

Sanguniang Kabataan such as value of accountability, responsibility, honesty and creativity,

must be instilled in the minds of these youth leaders.

However, the potentials of the Sanguniang Kabataan are not being attended to. Their

program resulted in projects only like sports-related projects, infrastructure development,

environmental protection and other projects. The Sanguniang Kabataan lacking in budget and the

government neglected in providing the needs of the Sanguniang Kabataan.

If only the government support them, provide them their needs, especially budget,

provide venues for them to tackle their part in local programs and meetings, give them a seat in

Local Government Unit to voice out their concerns, these youth leaders can change into

noteworthy members of the community and the country. But the most important thing the

government must do is listen to them because they mostly rely on government. And also, the

government should be a role model for them. Despite these, the Sanguniang Kabataan remains a

major part in the country’s political system. If the government will abolish the Sangguinaing

Kabataan, it looks like our future honest leaders can no longer lead and it will not serve the best

interest of the youth and the people. It will not protect them from the negative influences of

politics, but would destroy an only one of its kind system which is a great prospect for the youth.

Give the youth leaders a chance to prove that they can make a change because their message is

loud and clear: They want to be a part of nation building!

However, according to the Point of view of (Pimentel Jr, 2008,) he is in favor of

abolishing the Sangguniang Kabataan (SK) because of the general observation that it is no longer

serving its purpose as a training ground for youth leaders. Pimentel, however, said an alternative

mechanism should be created to continue youth representation in local government units

(LGUs). He cited persistent reports that SK officials in various barangays have neglected their

duties as the SK chairmen and other officials are oftentimes not around in their respective towns

because they are studying in colleges and universities in Metro Manila and elsewhere. But the

worst cases are the SK leaders who commit corrupt practices, unable to resist the temptation to

which they are exposed to in handling public funds that are entrusted to them.

Related Study

In the survey conducted by Social Weather Station (SWS) 2007, shows the response of a

sampling of the city's populace regarding Local Governance and other concerns. Results of the

survey show that citizens of Iriga gave a net satisfaction rating of +23% to the services of local

government employees.

The survey also shows that Mayor Madelaine Alfelor-Gazmen tops the least of most

trusted official with a net rating of +78%. Next in the list are local barangay officials and the

Sangguniang Kabataan with +67, City Council with +59% and Police Officials with +50%.

According to (Nations Children’s Fund 2007) in the study entitled: The Impact of Youth

Participationin the Local Government Process The Sangguniang KabataanExperience , the key

findings of the study was that the Sangguiniang Kabataan’s performance for the past ten years

has been generally weak. This is especially true in terms of coming up with legislations,

promoting the development of young people, submitting reports and holding consultations with

their constituents.

On the other hand, the study also discovered notable strengths of the Sangguniang

Kabataan, including its tremendous potential to develop the next generation of leaders, engage

the youth in the community and teach them accountability, honesty and creativity. The study

revealed that Sangguinaing Kabataan officials learned to source alternative funding when their

budgets were not sufficient. They also gained skills in consulting and coordinating with various

national and local government units and non-government organizations to improve their

performance.

These findings led to the conclusion that the potentials of the Sangguniang Kabataan are

not being maximized, resulting in projects that are largely limited to sports, infrastructure

development and environmental protection. Best practices showed that while negative

perceptions and inherent weaknesses weigh it down, the Sangguniang Kabataan has great

potential to become a true venue for youth participation in governance. Giving the youth a seat in

local governments, providing them with a budget mandated by law, listening to them and

providing venues for them to meaningfully take part in shaping local policies and programs

could transform young people into significant members of the community.

As cited in the study of (Balanon, 2007) in Panabo, Davao, the youth can lead, but they

can lead more effectively with the cooperation and support of concerned organizations. The

youth learned about culinary arts, basic electronics, and food and beverage/housekeeping

through the Hotel and Restaurant Services (HRS) Livelihood Program initiated by the

Sangguining Kabataan chairperson of Barangay San Fernando and conducted in cooperation

with TESDA, and the Davao Services Cooperative Federation (DASCOFED), a local Non

Governmental Organization in Panabo City.

This was the second in a series of livelihood training workshops San Fernando

Sangguiniang Kabataan conducted. The venue provided a stepping stone for the youth to find

jobs. One of the participants became the chief cook of a popular bakeshop in Digos City in

Davao del Sur, while another found employment in a four-star hotel in Davao City. One of the

participants landed work in Japan, while another returned to school. The Sangguiniang Kabataan

is planning its next round of livelihood programs which will be on basic physical therapy,

refrigeration and soap-making.

Presentation, Interpretation, and Analysis of Data

This Chapter shows the Presentation, Interpretation, and Analysis of the Data related to the

problem stated in chapter I.

Problem no. 1: What is the profile of the respondents by gender?

Respondent’s Level of Satisfaction on the Participation of Sangguniang Kabataan

Officials in Undertaking Development Projects on the Following variables.

Undertaking

Development

Projects Male V.I Female V.I GWM

Physical 3.7 S 3.52 S 3.61

Moral 3.6 S 3.77 S 3.69

Political 3.8 S 3.54 S 3.67

Economical 3.68 S 3.56 S 3.62

Cultural 3.53 S 3.10 S 3.32

Intellectual 3.58 S 3.36 S 3.47

Social 3.63 S 3.62 S 3.63

Spiritual 3.33 S 3.32 S 3.33

As shown in table 2 on the Undertaking Development Projects of Sangguniang Kabataan

in Signal Village, Taguig City on all phases above written, respondents perceived a level of

satisfaction. However, phases above were being ranked on their general weighted mean. The

rank one under Undertaking Development Projects is moral aspect with a general weighted mean

of 3.69. The second in rank is political aspect with general weighted mean of 3.67, and the least

in rank is cultural aspect with a general weighted mean of 3.32. As the least dominant aspects

among the undertaking development projects may be found out that there is no sufficient budget

being allocated to, or if not being neglected, to this program as observed that there were

numerous populations of out of school youth to nurture their skills and talents through theatrical

activity. According to the Katipunan ng Kabataan, the Sangguniang Kabataan primary objectives

is to enhance the Social, Political, Economical, Cultural, Intellectual, Moral, Spiritual and

Physical development projects of the youth in the country.

In addition (Toralba 2008,) says the Sangguniang Kabataan has a lack of budget in which

the Government neglected the needs of the Youths. Because of the lack of financial support

coming from the Government the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials must create or choose some

other way to provide the needs of their projects and can still give the basic services to their youth

even when the Government can not give funds to them

Problem no. 2: What is the respondent’s level of satisfaction on the participation of

Sangguniang Kabataan Officials in the implementation of undertaking development

Level of Satisfaction on the Participation of Sangguniang Kabataan Officials in the

Implementation of Undertaking Development Projects

Gender Phy V.I Mor V.I Pol V.I Eco V.I Cul V.I Int V.I Soc V.I Spr V.I

Male 3.7 S 3.6 S 3.8 S 3.69 S 3.53 S 3.58 S 3.63 S 3.33 S

Female 3.52 S 3.77 S 3.57 S 3.56 S 3.10 S 3.36 S 3.62 S 3.32 S

Table 3 shows, the Undertaking Development Projects of the Sangguniang Kabataan in

Signal Village, Taguig City in terms of Physical Project had a perceived satisfied level of

satisfaction. It shows that the total weighted mean for male respondent in the Physical Projects is

3.7 and for the female is 3.52 which are both interpreted as Satisfied. It shows that the physical

project in Signal Village, Taguig City delivered by the Sangguniang Kabataan is still effective; it

affirms one of the major purposes of Sangguniang Kabataan enhancing Physical Development

Project as stated in power and functions of Sangguniang Kabataan, the language of the Local

Government Code, R.A. 7160.

In the Moral Project both male and female had a satisfied level of satisfaction. The total

weighted mean for the male respondent is 3.6, while female were 3.77. It is right to say that high

morality when always practice in all dealings of human activity there will always be a good

effect that it may give to human life and more so to the government. In the study of (Nation

Children’s Fund) that the Sangguniang Kabataan of Signal Village, Taguig City must fucos only

on the moral, political, social projects but also to the least dominant projects such as intellectual,

spiritual and cultural projects.

In the Political Project, the total weighted mean for male respondent is 3.8, while 3.57 for

female which are both interpreted as Satisfied. Enhancing the Political development projects for

the youth is one the most important because the youths are the future leaders of the society so

that for now the youths should be trained well with inculcating morality, nationalism and honest

to have a strong foundation for the future. In the theory expressed by (Wilson, 1998) it is a

testament to the Philippine Government recognition of the potential of children and youth to

contribute to the national development. The Philippines has always place paramount importance

on the significant role of the youth in nation building.

In the Economical Project, the total weighted mean for male respondent is 3.68 and 3.56 for

female which are both interpreted as satisfied. Economics can stand with support of the youth

through patronizing Philippine products. As cited in the study of (Balanon, 2007) in Panabo,

Davao, the youth can lead but they can lead more effectively with the cooperation and support of

concern organizations. The youth blearned about culinary arts, basic electronics and food and

beverage/housekeeping through the Hotel and Restaurant Services (HRS) Livelihood Program

initiated by the Sangguniang Kabataan chairperson of Barangay San Fernando and conducted in

cooperation with TESDA, and the Davoa Services Cooperative Federation (DASCOPED), a

local Non-Governmental Organization in Panabo City.

In The Cultural Projects, the weighted mean for male respondent is 3.53 and for female

respondent are 3.10 rated as satisfied.

As cited by (Balonan 2007) the youth can lead, but they can lead more with the

cooperation and support of the concerned organizations. Therefore if the Sangguniang Kabataan

Officials has a lack of Satisfaction on the Cultural Program the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials

must cooperate with the other Cultural cooperation so that they will have higher level of

Satisfaction to the Cultural Projects.

In Intellectual Projects, the total weighted mean of 3.58 for male respondent, while 3.36

for female respondents which are both interpreted as satisfied. Intetellectual aspect is the faculty

of human rationality. The development of youths intellectual mind can make a country more

progressive because high literacy rate and educated men, less to poverty. Hence, this project

must be given primary consideration as a priority project and must be funded.

In Social Projects, the total weighted mean for male respondent is 3.63 and 3.62 for the

female respondents which are both interpreted as satisfied. It means that plain level of

satisfaction of the respondents on the said projects connote that priority on the allocation of

funds to implement it, may be used in not so important projects. Sociability promotes unity and

support in the community e.g., the Sangguniang Kabataan promotes clean and green projects for

the youth as well as for the community, consulting and coordination with all youth organizations

in the Barangay for policy formulation and program implementation. As stressed in (United

Methodist News Service, 2004) that the Barangay Council is the governing body of the youth

assembly that is organized in every barangay, which is the smallest local government in the

Philippines. Its primary objective is to enhance the development of the youth in the country. The

council promulgates resolution necessary to carry out the objectives of the youth. Among the

activities initiated by the councils around the country are tree planting, clean-up drives for rivers

and lakes, waste segregation, and the like. Involvement in these activities has helped promote

environment consciousness among the youth in the Philippines.

In the Spiritual Projects, the total weighted mean for a male respondent is 3.33, for

female respondent is 3.32 which are both interpreted as satisfied. Effort of the local youth

officials must be doubled in the implementation of spiritual projects, as it is believed that it will

promote high level of spiritual lifestyle and may likewise make a high level of morality

necessary to nation’s progress.

Problem no. 3: What is the respondent’s level of satisfaction on the participation of

Sangguinang Kabataan Officials in the implementation of peace and order projects?

Table 4Respondent’s Level of Satisfaction on the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials

Participation on Implementation of Peace and Order Projects By Gender, Average and Ranking

Peace and Order Projects Male Female Average

1. The SK Promotes Security of the Community 2.95 2.98 2.92

2. The SK Implements policy about “No P.C 2.59 3.02 2.81

Gaming during class hours.

3. The SK Reduces the Crime rate of their Community. 2.94 3.03 2.99

4. The SK Implements Curfew Hours 2.91 2.97 2.9

5. The SK is the Peace keeper in terms of Conflicts in their 2.99 3.38 3.19

Constituents.

6. The SK is allowing large budget for Peace and order. 3.17 3.35 3.26

7. The SK is vigilant in maintaining the peace and Order 2.83 3.39 3.11

During election.

8. The SK Promotes Anti-Drugs Campaign in the Community. 3.27 3.57 3.42

9. The SK Discourages fraternity and sorority especially among 3.4 3.56 3.48

The youths.

10. The SK promotes orderliness to the community. 3.35 3.65 3.5

Table 4 shows the level of satisfaction of the respondents about Sangguniang Kabataan

officials in implementation of peace and order projects by gender; average and rank had got the

Fair level of Satisfaction. In the item number 10 above as to the Sangguniang Kabataan promotes

orderliness in the community the computed mean was 3.35 which interpreted as satisfied got the

highest level of satisfaction. While with regards on item number 2 above, the Sangguniang

Kabataan officials on implementing the policy about no PC gaming during class hours on the

students got the computed weighted mean of 2.59 which interpreted as Fair, means the lowest

level of satisfaction. On item number 5 the Sangguniang Kabataan Officals are being the peace

keeper in terms of conflicts in the community, got the computed weighted mean of 2.99 which

interpreted as Fair was in between of the two aforementioned items of implementing peace and

order projects of Sangguniang Kabataan. The least items under the implementation of peace and

order projects is the policy about No PC Gaming during class hours should be given more focus

and emphasis because it may be the proximate cause of having fair satisfied answer to peace and

order projects that can be interpreted in another way as not satisfactory but not highly

unsatisfactory.

Respondent’s Level of Satisfaction on the Sangguniang Kabataan OfficialsParticipation on

Implementation of Peace and Order Projects when Grouped by Gender

Male Female

Peace and Order Projects X VI X VI

1. The SK promotes security of the community. 2.95 Fair 2.98 Fair

2. The SK implement policy about no PC gaming

during class hours to the students2.59 Fair 3.02 Fair

3. The SK reduces the crime rate of their

community.2.94 Fair 3.03 Fair

4. The Sk implements curfew hours. 2.91 Fair 2.97 Fair

5. The SK is the peace keeper in terms of conflicts

in their constituents.2.99 Fair 3.38 Satisfied

6. The SK is allowing large budget for peace and

order.3.17 Satisfied 3.35 Satisfied

7. The SK is vigilant in maintaining the peace and

order during election2.83 Fair 3.39 Satisfied

8. The Sk promotes anti-drugs campaign in the

community.3.27 Satisfied 3.57 Satisfied

9. The SK discourages fraternity and sorority 3.4 Fair 3.56 Satisfied

especially among the youths.

10. Th SK promotes orderliness to the community 3.35 Satisfied 3.65 Satisfied

Total 3.04 Fair 3.29 Fair

Table 5 pointed out the respondent’s answer on the participation of the Sangguniang

Kabataan Officials in the implementation of peace and order projects. It is shown that male

respondents got a total weighted mean of 3.04 classified as fair participation, while women

respondents got a total weighted mean of 3.29 that means also as verbally interpreted as fair. In

this connection, the focal point is that Sangguniang Kabataan Officils are not much participative

in the implementation of Peace and Order Projects.

GENDER SOC Rs POL Rp ECO Re CUL Rc INT Ri MOR Rm SPR Rs PHY Rp

MALE 3.63 4 3.8 1 3.68 7 3.53 7 3.58 6 3.61 5 3.33 8 3.7 2

FEMALE 3.62 2 3.54 4 3.56 8 3.10 8 3.56 6 3.77 1 3.32 7 3.52 5

TOTAL 6 5 15 15 12 6 15 7

Problem no. 4.1: Difference in the respondent’s level of satisfaction on the

Sangguniang Kabataan participation in the implementation of undertaking development

projects when grouped by gender.

Respondent’s Level of Satisfaction on the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials

Participation in the Implementation of Undertaking Development Projects when grouped

Since then computed value of 10.67 is lesser than the tabular value of 14.067 at 0.05

level with the degree of freedom of 7, then the hypothesis that there is no significant difference

in the level of satisfaction of the respondents as to the Sangguiniang Kabataan participation in

the undertaking development project when respondents are grouped by gender is accepted.

Problem no. 4.2: Difference in the respondent’s level of Satisfaction on the participation of

the Sangguniang Kabataan Officials on Implemetation of Peace and Order Projects by

Respondent’s Difference on Level of Satisfaction on the participation of Sangguniang Kabataan Officials in the Implemtation of Peace and Order Projects by Gender.

Peace and Order Projects Male Female

1. The SK Promotes Security of the Community 2.95 2.98

2.The SK Implements policy about “No P.C gaming during c lass hours to

the SK students.2.59 3.02

3. The SK Reduces the Crime rate of their Community. 2.94 3.03

4. The SK Implements Curfew Hours 2.91 2.97

5. The SK is the Peace keeper in terms of Conflicts in their Constituents. 2.99 3.38

6. The SK is allowing large budget for Peace and order. 3.17 3.35

7. The SK is vigilant in maintaining the peace and Order during election. 2.83 3.39

8. The SK Promotes Anti-Drugs Campaign in the Community.. 3.27 3.57

9. The SK Discourages fraternity and sorority especially among the youths. 3.4 3.56

10. The SK promotes orderliness to the community. 3.35 3.65

Tcv = -2.271 3.04 3.29

Ttv = 1.734=

Since the t – computed value of –2.27l is beyond than the t tabular value of 1.734 at 0.05

level; of significant, the research hypothesis is rejected which means that there is a significant

difference between the satisfaction level of the respondent as to the participation of the

Sangguiniang Kabataan officials in the peace and order projects when these respondents are

grouped by gender.

Postpricinger Thesis- FINAL FINAL

NSF & CBET Highlight 2011

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