barriers to women's empowerment in pakistan essay

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Published: 06 July 2021

Determinants of women’s empowerment in Pakistan: evidence from Demographic and Health Surveys, 2012–13 and 2017–18

Safdar Abbas 1 ,
Noman Isaac 1 ,
Munir Zia 1 ,
Rubeena Zakar 2 &
Florian Fischer ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4388-1245 3 , 4

BMC Public Health volume 21 , Article number: 1328 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Women’s empowerment has always remained a contested issue in the complex socio-demographic and cultural milieu of Pakistani society. Women are ranked lower than men on all vital human development indicators. Therefore, studying various determinants of women’s empowerment is urgently needed in the Pakistani context.

The study empirically operationalized the concept of women’s empowerment and investigated its determinants through representative secondary data taken from the Pakistan Demographic and Health Surveys among women at reproductive age (15–49 years) in 2012–13 ( n = 13,558) and 2017–18 ( n = 15,068). The study used simple binary logistic and multivariable regression analyses.

The results of the binary logistic regression highlighted that almost all of the selected demographic, economic, social, and access to information variables were significantly associated with women’s empowerment ( p < 0.05) in both PDHS datasets. In the multivariable regression analysis, the adjusted odds ratios highlighted that reproductive-age women in higher age groups having children, with a higher level of education and wealth index, involved in skilled work, who were the head of household, and had access to information were reported to be more empowered.

Results of the multivariable regression analysis conducted separately for two empowerment indicators (decision-making and ownership) corroborated the findings of the one indicator of women empowerment, except where ownership did not appear to be significantly associated with number of children and sex of household head in both data sets (2012–13 and 2017–18).

Conclusions

A number of social, economic, demographic, familial, and information-exposure factors determine women’s empowerment. The study proposes some evidence-based policy options to improve the status of women in Pakistan.

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Women’s empowerment per se involves the creation of an environment within which women can make strategic life choices and decisions in a given context [ 1 ]. The concept is so broad that measuring it has always been problematic. Following from this conundrum, various studies have developed different conceptualisation schemes and indicators to measure the complex idea [ 2 ]. For instance, women’s empowerment depends upon cultural values, the social position, and life opportunities of a woman [ 3 ]. Women’s empowerment can take place on three dimensions, which are at the micro-level (individual), meso-level (beliefs and actions in relation to relevant others), and macro-level (outcomes in the broader, societal context) [ 4 ]. Furthermore, women’s empowerment could be characterized in four major domains: socio-cultural, economic, education, and health [ 5 ]. While differences exist in measuring the concept of empowerment, similarities can be found in the available literature. In this regard, the main themes frequently used to conceptualize women’s empowerment are household decision-making, economic decision-making, control over resources, and physical mobility [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].

From this point of departure, the present study attempts to identify and understand various determinants of women’s empowerment in Pakistani society with the help of representative data from Demographic and Health Surveys. Investigating women’s empowerment in Pakistan is important, because of the male dominance and gender gaps which are hindering the progress of women to take an active part in development in Pakistani society [ 10 ]. Furthermore, empowerment is a strong determinant for healthcare decision-making as well as of physical and mental health in females [ 11 ].

Because women’s empowerment is an idea that acknowledges a woman’s control over her own life and personal decisions, it has a strong grounding in human rights propositions [ 1 ]. Moreover, women constitute almost half the world’s population; hence, women’s empowerment is the key factor in achieving the highest levels of desirable development [ 12 ].

Despite the widespread acclamation of women’s empowerment and the major role of women in the development process, their status is not equal to that of men across most countries of the world [ 13 ]. In many parts of the world, women are in a disadvantaged position, and hence most of the time ranked below their male counterparts in the social hierarchy [ 14 ]. This disadvantaged position can well be understood through the glaring differences between men and women with respect to many human-rights, cultural, economic, and social indicators. For instance, globally, women spend two to ten times more hours than men on unpaid care work [ 15 ]. Similarly, of all the illiterate and poor people across the world, women constitute 65 and 70% respectively [ 16 ]. It is reported that only 1% of the world’s total assets are held in women’s names [ 17 ]. Moreover, data also indicates that 70% of the 1.3 billion people living in extreme poverty are women or girls [ 18 ]. Owing to these conditions, women enjoy substantially lower status than men [ 15 ].

Although gender-based discrimination is a global issue, Pakistan needs special attention in terms of women’s empowerment [ 19 ]. Pakistani society, in both its normative and existential order, is hierarchical in nature and exhibits unequal power relations between men and women, whereby women are placed under men [ 20 ]. The existence of significant gender disparities makes it a non-egalitarian society where gender equality and women’s emancipation appear a faraway goal [ 21 ]. In this context, the low level of women’s empowerment is a factual issue in Pakistan as the country is ranked almost at the bottom of the Gender Gap Index – 151st of 153 studied countries [ 22 ]. Similarly, in 2019, the Human Development Index value for females was lower than for males (0.464 vs. 0.622) in the country [ 23 ].

The gender disparity highlighted by these measures can be clearly observed through the evidence at hand. For instance, Pakistan has a very low rate of female labour-force participation compared to their male counterparts (25% vs. 82%) [ 24 ]. In addition, adult women had less secondary-school education than males (26.7% vs. 47.3%) [ 23 ]. Concomitantly, low educational opportunities and poor educational achievement lead to low empowerment among women, particularly those who live in remote areas of the country [ 25 , 26 ]. The situation is further exacerbated when female parliamentarians in Pakistan appear to be bound by patriarchal beliefs and practices when they could realize empowerment. In such circumstances, the notion of empowerment in Pakistan appears to be only theoretical without any sense of practical embodiment [ 27 ].

Against this backdrop of a persistently bleak situation for women’s empowerment in the country, the government of Pakistan has launched some targeted actions, such as the National Policy of Development and Empowerment in 2002, which aimed to improve the economic, social, and political empowerment of women. Additionally, the number of seats reserved for women in both the Senate and the National and Provincial Assemblies has also been increased. Nevertheless, women in Pakistan are still subjected to unequal power relations, and are less authorized to make decisions about their own lives [ 28 ]. The country stands among the lowest in the world in terms of women’s empowerment, even though almost half its population is made up of women, and empowering them could improve the overall well-being of society. There is a paucity of literature empirically conceptualising women’s empowerment and its determinants in Pakistan. For that reason, we have adapted the framework developed by Mahmud et al. [ 8 ], which conceptualizes women’s empowerment as a dynamic and multi-dimensional process. By the same token, the framework of the present study encompasses four major determinants: demographic, economic, social, and information-exposure factors. Likewise, it denotes two major dimensions of women empowerment, which are decision-making and ownership. Decision-making involves decisions about healthcare, economic affairs, and mobility issues. Ownership includes the ownership of house and land. Conceptualizing the determinants and dimensions of women’s empowerment with empirical and representative data is the unique aspect of the study, which adds to the body of knowledge. The theoretical framework used to explain the link between the determinants and dimensions of women’s empowerment is given in Fig. 1 . The results of the present study help to present policy implications for enhancing women’s status in Pakistan.

Conceptualization of determinants and dimensions of women’s empowerment

This study is based on secondary data from the two nationally representative Pakistan Demographic and Health Surveys (PDHSs) 2012–13 and 2017–18 [ 29 ]. These are the third and fourth such surveys conducted as part of the MEASURE DHS International Series, whose sample was selected with the help of the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. The present study used the secondary data of PDHS 2012–13 and 2017–18, drawn by two-stage stratified sample design, consisting of 13,558 and 15,068 currently ever-married women aged 15–49 years, respectively. Both PDHSs deployed a cross-sectional study design with the primary objective to provide up-dated estimates on basic demographic, health, and domestic violence indicators. The present study used data from the woman’s questionnaire.

Variables: definitions and construction

In this study, we drew variables from the PDHS data sets of 2012–13 and 2017–18 available in SPSS format. In this regard, women’s empowerment was assessed using two variables, on decision-making and ownership. To measure decision-making, we computed four variables, concerning decision-making about: “spending money husband earns”, “major household purchases”, “women’s healthcare”, and “visiting family or relatives”. Each of these four decision-making variables had six response categories; namely: “respondent alone” coded as 1, “respondent and husband/partner” coded as 2, “respondent and other person” coded as 3, “husband/partner alone” coded as 4, “someone else” coded as 5, and “other/family elders” coded as 6. For each of the four decision-making variables, data was categorized as women “not involved in decision-making”, recoded as “0”, when the woman was not involved in decision-making at all, and “involved in decision-making”, recoded as “1”, when the woman was involved in any of the four variables of decision-making. Subsequently, all the four recoded variables were computed into one variable of “decision-making” with dichotomous categories of “No” coded “0” and “Yes” coded “1” for any kind of involvement in decision-making.

Women’s ownership of property was computed using two variables: a woman “owns a house alone or jointly” and/or “owns land alone or jointly”. We computed these variables into one variable and recoded “0” if a woman did not own a house/land, alone or jointly, and “1” if she did own a house/land, alone or jointly. The two variables “decision-making” and “ownership” were computed into one variable, i.e. “women’s empowerment”, and recoded into two response categories: “not empowered” coded as “0” if the woman was not at all involved in household decision-making and did not possess a house/land, and “empowered” as “1” if the woman was involved in decision-making and/or owned a house/land. This variable was used as the dependent variable in the regression analysis with the various independent variables concerning demographic, economic, and social status, along with access to information. A separate multivariable regression analysis was also conducted to see the associations between independent variables and both indicators for women’s empowerment, which are 1) decision-making and 2) ownership.

The present study used independent variables related to socio-demographic characteristics (age, area of residence, and sex of household head), economic (wealth index, women’s paid work, women’s earnings, and women’s occupation) as well as social factors (number of children, women’s education, and husband’s education) and access to information (frequency of watching TV, frequency of listening to radio, and frequency of reading newspapers).

The wealth index is a composite measure of a household’s cumulative living standard. It is calculated using easy-to-collect data and allows to distribute into wealth quintiles. The wealth index was measured using monthly income and household possessions, which are total value of household assets, availability of household items such as a car or refrigerator, value of dwelling, and other civic facilities, including access to safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, and dwelling characteristics. Employment status was assessed during the previous 12 months and afterwards dichotomized into “paid” and “unpaid” work categories.

We created a new variable: “access to information”, by computing three categorical variables: “frequency of watching TV”, “frequency of listening to radio”, and “frequency of reading newspapers”. Responses were categorized as “0” if women had “no access” to any source, and “1” if women had access to at least one source of information either daily, weekly, or occasionally. Two separate copies of SPSS files (2012–13 and 2017–18) were generated consisting of all recoded and computed variables to run requisite analyses.

Data analysis

The data were analysed by using SPSS 21. Descriptive statistics were performed. We ran a simple binary logistic regression analysis to examine the association between women’s empowerment and each of the independent variables in turn. After running the simple binary logistic regression for calculating odds ratios (OR), we applied multivariable logistic regression to predict the dependent variables through independent variables, while adjusting for region, income, and employment. Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) have been calculated. We tested for multicollinearity.

Sample characteristics

The results from the two datasets, taken from PDHS 2012–13 and PDHS 2017–18, corroborated each other. The mean age of the respondents was almost the same in 2012–13 and 2017–18 (32.7 vs. 32.1 years). Similarly, the majority of ever-married women had children. In nearly all households, males were indicated as the household head (91.5% in 2012–13 and 89.0% in 2017–18). The results indicated that there was a slight improvement in education, with 56.2% being uneducated in 2012–13, reducing to 50.6% in 2017–18. The data revealed that more than three-quarters of women during both 2012–13 and 2017–18 had not done any paid work during the previous 12 months (78.0% vs. 84.6%). Among the total responses about earnings (2243 in 2012–13 and 1866 in 2017–18), only 18.1 and 17.0% of working women, respectively, were earning more than their husbands. Just over two-thirds (67.9%) of women had no access to sources of information (such as TV, radio, or newspapers) in 2012–13, and this figure had increased to 80.6% in 2017–18 (Table 1 ).

Decision-making, ownership, and empowerment

Decision-making about healthcare showed mixed results, with almost half of the women (48.1% in 2012–13 and 48.2% in 2017–18) being involved in this domain of decision-making. In both 2012–13 and 2017–18, around half of the women (47.1% vs. 46.4%) were involved in decision-making about visiting family or relatives. Likewise, in 2012–13 and 2017–18, more than half of women (56.9% vs. 58.5%) were not involved in decision-making about large household purchases. Comparably, not being involved in decision-making regarding spending the money earned by their husband was a little higher in 2012–13 than in 2017–18 (59.7% vs. 50.2%). The vast majority of women did not own a house or land in either 2012–13 or 2017–18 (82.3% vs. 82.6%). Thus, the data indicates that more than half of the women in 2012–13 and 2017–18 were reported as not being empowered (58.4% vs. 53.2%) (Table 2 ).

Simple binary logistic regression

We used simple binary logistic regression to find the prediction for each of the independent variables on the dependent variable in both datasets. It was found that the likelihood of empowerment increased with an increase in the woman’s age. Similarly, in relation to the wealth index, the likelihood of empowerment was highest for the richest women. Likewise, the data also highlighted that women earning more than their husbands were more likely to be empowered than those earning less (OR = 2.00, 95% CI: 1.59–2.52 in 2012–13; OR = 1.64, 95% CI: 0.66–4.04 in 2017–18). The data indicated that women with higher education were more empowered (OR = 2.20, 95% CI: 1.97–2.45 in 2012–13; OR = 1.69, 95% CI: 1.44–1.99 in 2017–18) than women with no or less education. The simple binary logistic regression also showed that almost all of the predictor variables were significantly associated ( p < 0.05) with women’s empowerment (Table 3 ).

Multivariable logistic regression analysis

The results of multivariable logistic regression model indicated that, after adjustment, almost all of the predictor variables were significantly associated with “decision-making” and most of predictor variables with “ownership”. Data indicated that women in the higher age group (45–49) were more involved in decision-making (AOR = 4.51, 95% CI: 2.31–9.26 in 2012–13; AOR = 3.72, 95% CI: 2.01–6.91 in 2017–18) and had ownership (AOR = 1.20, 95% CI: 0.94–1.52 in 2012–13; AOR = 3.72, 95% CI: 2.01–6.91 in 2017–18) compared to their counterparts. Females as household heads showed a significant association with decision-making (AOR = 2.09, 95% CI: 1.79–2.44 in 2012–13; AOR = 2.52, 95% CI: 2.21–2.87 in 2017–18) but it did not appear to be significantly associated with ownership in both data sets. Likewise, the number of children had a significant association with decision-making but not with ownership. Data also revealed that higher education of women was significantly associated with decision-making (AOR = 2.01, 95% CI: 1.73–2.34 in 2012–13; AOR = 2.23, 95% CI: 1.91–2.61 in 2017–18) and ownership (AOR = 1.51, 95% CI: 1.26–1.80 in 2012–13; AOR = 2.08, 95% CI: 1.48–2.91 in 2017–18). Access to information also appeared to be associated with decision-making and ownership (Table 4 ).

Furthermore, the results of the multivariable logistic regression model with dependent variable of “women empowerment” indicated that, after adjustment, almost all of the predictor variables were significantly associated with women’s empowerment. It was revealed that women’s empowerment increased if a woman was the head of household (AOR = 2.18, 95% CI: 1.89–2.53 in 2012–13; AOR = 2.46, 95% CI: 2.16–2.81 in 2017–18). Similarly, 2012–13 data indicated that women living in urban areas were 1.18 (95% CI: 1.08–1.29) times more likely to be empowered than those living in rural areas. The likelihood of women with children were more empowered than women with no children. The data indicated that women with 4–6 children were most likely to be empowered (AOR = 1.90, 95% CI: 1.63–2.22 in 2012–13; AOR = 1.17, 95% CI: 1.01–1.36 in 2017–18). The results highlighted a significant association between occupation and women’s empowerment, wherein women in both skilled and unskilled employment were more likely to be empowered than unemployed women.

Access to information was positively associated with women’s empowerment. The husband’s education and women’s empowerment did not appear to be significantly associated in the adjusted odds ratio model, although a husband with higher education was significantly associated in the binary logistic regression (Table 5 ).

The results of this study reveal that almost all of the predictor variables are significantly associated with decision-making and most of these with ownership. Furthermore, results indicate that women’s empowerment is well predicted by demographic, economic, social, and information-exposure factors. It was noted that women having higher education, living in urban areas, and having access to information were more likely to be empowered. Likewise, women belonging to older age group, being the head of household, earning more than their husbands, involved in paid work, belonging to the rich class, and having children, were more likely to be empowered.

The results highlighted a significant association between a woman’s age and her empowerment, i.e. women’s empowerment increased with increasing age. These results are also supported by various other studies conducted in South Asia, including Nepal [ 30 ], Bangladesh [ 31 ], and India [ 32 ]. One of the reasons identified for this trend in age and empowerment is attributed to power relations within the household [ 33 ]. In the case of Pakistan, marriages are usually arranged at a young age – almost half of all women are married before the age of 20 years [ 34 ]. In this context, childbearing, particularly before the age of 18 years, is detrimental to mother and child, due not only to adverse reproductive health outcomes but also to social adjustments [ 35 ]. These women are mostly deprived of the opportunity to pursue other activities, such as schooling or employment [ 36 ].

Women’s place of residence was also significantly associated with empowerment. Similar to previous studies, the results highlighted that women living in urban areas were more empowered than their rural counterparts [ 37 , 38 ]. Poverty-stricken rural women face a lack of economic opportunities and independence that pushes them another step away from decision-making [ 39 ].

The findings highlighted women’s education as a very strong predictor of empowerment. Since education enhances empowerment through increased skills, self-confidence, and knowledge [ 40 , 41 ], and improves employment opportunities, as well as bringing income and healthcare-seeking mobility [ 42 ], highly educated women were found to be more empowered than those with low or no education. Arguably, housewifery is an expected gender role for women in Pakistan that diminishes educational opportunities for many young girls, particularly in rural areas [ 43 , 44 ]. The study’s findings revealed that education of both spouses has a significant association with women’s empowerment [ 45 ]. By the same token, higher levels of education for both spouses result in more egalitarian decision-making within the household [ 46 ].

One of the most important results was the significant association between number of children and empowerment. Women with children, as compared to women without children, were more empowered, with the most highly empowered being those who had 4–6 children. The DHS data for Namibia and Zambia also highlight similar trends [ 47 ]. Similarly, DHS from Zimbabwe highlights a positive association between the number of male children and women’s empowerment [ 48 ]. Although the number of children, especially male ones, may solidify familial bonds and bring out a rather empowered guardian of her children aspect in a mother’s personality, it certainly cannot be taken as a policy outlook of empowerment in the same way as education, employment, and political participation.

Women’s empowerment increased consistently with increasing household wealth index. Similar results have also been reported from various other Southeast Asian countries, including Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Timor-Leste [ 31 ]. In Pakistan, women stand low on the wealth index because their rights to inheritance and the ownership and management of property are poorly realized [ 28 , 49 ]. Concomitantly, research indicates that women’s access to property and household resources does not guarantee empowerment; rather, it is control over those resources – ownership – that empowers women [ 50 ].

In the case of inheritance of property, Muslim countries, including Pakistan and Muslim-dominated areas of various other countries, enshrine the Islamic law of inheritance (Sharia) alongside the state laws [ 51 ]. Nonetheless, as in Pakistan, woman’s right to inheritance is poorly realized in the majority of the most populous Muslim countries/communities. This is mainly due to patriarchal customs and socio-cultural dynamics that give preference to men over women. Against the given backdrop, there is a dire need to introduce legal reforms, accompanied by viable administrative actions, across the Muslim countries, and particularly in Pakistan. Such an affirmative action could help to reduce gender-based discrimination and improve a range of socio-economic outcomes for women [ 52 , 53 ].

Additionally, women’s productive employment is abysmally low, particularly in white-collar jobs and in rural areas [ 54 ]. Mostly, women are engaged in the informal economy, which usually does not allow them to play an equal role with men to add to their family’s wealth [ 55 ]. Moreover, women in the bottom strata of society struggle merely to cope with their sheer poverty and to manage their subsistence [ 56 ]. There is a strong need to enforce existing laws of ownership and inheritance and devise policies that encourage women’s employment.

According to the study results, women’s paid work had a positive and significant association with empowerment. Women involved in paid work were more likely to be empowered within the household than women with no paid work. The study’s findings also revealed that women working as skilled labourers and in managerial positions were the most empowered. These findings are supported by numerous studies, including DHS data from various Southeast Asian countries [ 31 , 57 ]. The greater empowerment of skilled working women can be attributed to their greater freedom of movement and financial independence [ 58 ].

By contrast, women who undertake unpaid work as part of sharing or shouldering responsibilities are usually neither recognized by their family nor considered as a contribution to the household or state economy [ 59 ]. In this context, the “gender-disaggregated analysis of impact of the budget on time use” is one of the tools of “gender responsive budgeting” (GRB), which stipulates that time spent by women in so-called “unpaid work” is considered in budgetary policy analysis [ 60 ]. In this context, in a society like Pakistan, where the work done by women is mostly taken for granted and not accounted for, there is a need to adopt GRB in order to elevate women’s status.

Women residing in female-headed households were more likely to be empowered than their counterparts dwelling in male-headed households. A study conducted with rural Nigerian women showed similar results [ 61 ]. Likewise, another study using data from the Pakistan Integrated Household Survey established that women living in female-headed households were more empowered than those living in male-headed households, mostly owing to their greater participation in household decision-making [ 62 ]. A woman-headed household does not imply the absence of men or their support in the household. The literature indicates that the involvement of both men and women in household decision-making contributes to the improved wellbeing of both the household and society [ 63 ].

The findings of this study establish an association between women’s access to information and empowerment within the household. It was noted that women having access to various information sources, including radio, television, and newspapers, were more likely to be empowered than women with no access to information. Nonetheless, women’s access to information in Pakistan is typically very low compared to that of their male counterparts. In principle, women with more information can be better aware of household needs and contribute more positively to household decision-making for the welfare of their family, particularly children [ 22 ]. Hence, information is a potent ingredient in ensuring women’s greater awareness and participation in public affairs [ 64 ].

The limitation that applies to this study is due to its cross-sectional design, which does not allow for causal conclusions. However, temporality can be established between women’s empowerment and various factors examined here. A further limitation is that data was assessed by interviewers, where socially desirable answers given by the women could lead to bias. Future studies may involve collection of primary qualitative data on the issue to draw a comparative picture of the present study.

This study provides useful insights into women’s empowerment and its various determinants within Pakistan. The results are drawn from a large, and hence generalisable, body of data, which consistently predicts a significant association between the studied demographic, economic, familial, and information-exposure factors, and women’s empowerment. The results of the present study suggest the importance of enforcing policies to restrict girl-child marriages, which adversely affect girls’ reproductive health and social well-being. The feminized poverty in Pakistan also needs to be alleviated through targeted action, particularly in rural areas where women’s access to information, employment, and inheritance is mostly denied. Women’s education and employment are the areas identified as requiring gender-based equal opportunities initiatives through a policy to enhance the socioeconomic status of women and achieve development at the national scale. Therefore, greater efforts are required to improve women’s access to employment and educational opportunities. There is also an urgent need to use mass communication and education campaigns to change community norms and values that discriminate against women. These campaigns must convey the potential contribution of women to the overall welfare of both their families and the wider society.

Availability of data and materials

The present study used raw data of the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2012–13 and 2017–18. The data that support the findings of this study are freely available from Measure DHS to authors upon submission of request.

Abbreviations

Adjusted odds ratio

Confidence interval

Demographic and Health Survey

Gender Responsive Budgeting

Islamabad Capital Territory

Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey

Statistical Package for Social Sciences

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Acknowledgments

We acknowledge support from the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the Open Access Publication Fund of Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin.

This research received no supporting funds from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sector. Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

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SA and RZ conceptualized the study. SA led the analysis, interpretation of the study findings, and manuscript writing. SA, NI, MZ, RZ and FF contributed to data analysis. SA drafted the manuscript; NI, MZ, RZ and FF revised it critically for important intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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Abbas, S., Isaac, N., Zia, M. et al. Determinants of women’s empowerment in Pakistan: evidence from Demographic and Health Surveys, 2012–13 and 2017–18. BMC Public Health 21 , 1328 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11376-6

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11376-6

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Determinants of women’s empowerment in Pakistan: evidence from Demographic and Health Surveys, 2012–13 and 2017–18

Safdar abbas.

1 Department of Sociology, Institute of Social & Cultural Studies, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

Noman Isaac

Rubeena zakar.

2 Department of Public Health, Institute of Social & Cultural Studies, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

Florian Fischer

3 Institute of Public Health, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany

4 Institute of Gerontological Health Services and Nursing Research, Ravensburg-Weingarten University of Applied Sciences, Weingarten, Germany

Associated Data

Conclusions

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12889_2021_11376_Fig1_HTML.jpg

Conceptualization of determinants and dimensions of women’s empowerment

Variables: definitions and construction

Data analysis

Sample characteristics

Sample characteristics (n = 13,558 in PDHS 2012–13 and n = 15,068 in PDHS 2017–18)

a Standard deviation + 8.54; Mean 32.69 for 2012–13 / Standard deviation + 8.43; Mean 32.11 for 2017–18

b including separated, divorced and widowed women

Decision-making, ownership, and empowerment

Decision-making, ownership, and empowerment at household (n = 13,558 in PDHS 2012 – 13 and n = 15,068 in PDHS 2017 – 18)

Simple binary logistic regression

Simple binary logistic regression analysis of factors associated with women empowerment (n = 13,558 in PDHS 2012 – 13 and n = 15,068 in PDHS 2017 – 18)

OR = Odds ratio, CI = Confidence interval (*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001)

Multivariable logistic regression analysis

Multivariable logistic regression of factors associated with decision-making and ownership (n = 13,558 in PDHS 2012 – 13 and n = 15,068 in PDHS 2017 – 18)

Multivariable logistic regression of factors associated with women empowerment (n = 13,558 in PDHS 2012 – 13 and n = 15,068 in PDHS 2017 – 18)

Note: All these variables were adjusted for region, income, and employment to perform multivariable logistic regression analysis to obtain adjusted odds ratios. AOR = Adjusted odds ratio, CI = Confidence interval (*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001)

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge support from the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the Open Access Publication Fund of Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin.

Abbreviations

Authors’ contributions.

This research received no supporting funds from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sector. Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

Availability of data and materials

Declarations.

The research used publicly available secondary data from two waves of PDHS. Hence, ethical approval was not required. Written informed consent was obtained from participants.

Not applicable.

The authors declare no conflict of interest. FF serves on the Editorial Board of BMC Public Health as Associate Editor.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Safdar Abbas, Email: moc.liamg@scsinosaer .

Noman Isaac, Email: [email protected] .

Munir Zia, Email: moc.liamg@rinumoar .

Rubeena Zakar, Email: moc.liamtoh@994aneebur .

Florian Fischer, Email: [email protected] .

UN Women HQ
Asia and the Pacific

National Report on the Status of Women in Pakistan - A Summary

In seeking to uphold its international and national commitments on gender equality and women’s empowerment (GEWE), limited availability and analysis of comprehensive gender disaggregated data remain key gaps that hinder quality reporting as well as priority setting and decision-making. To address this gap, the National Gender Data Portal (NGDP) was established in 2021 by the National Commission on the Status of Women in collaboration with UN Women Pakistan. It is the first effort to consolidate gender data at a national level using digital tools, triangulating data from various official sources. This data will be used to publish periodic reports on the status of women, which will be instrumental for analyzing trends and reviewing progress, and, most importantly, formulating evidence-based policies and programmes to advance the gender equality agenda in the country.

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Women’s Empowerment in Pakistan: Its Dimensions and Determinants

Published: 15 November 2017
Volume 140 , pages 755–775, ( 2018 )

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Naeem Akram ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9314-8164 1

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On the eve of the twenty-first century, due to continuing male dominance there exists widespread discrimination and gender gaps in Pakistani society which are hindering the progress of women to take an active part in development. It is common perception in development literature that countries can get considerable benefits for growth and economic development if women become more empowered. The present study while using the data of Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS) 2012–2013 tried to explore the factors that can play important role in empowering the women in Pakistan. In this regard, descriptive and correlation analysis, Logit, and Ordered Logit models have been estimated. It has been found that age, living in urban areas, education of women, participation in paid job, ownership of assets, wealth index of the household, number of sons and daughters alive and use of electronic media have positive relationships with different empowerment dimensions. However, age of household head, size of family and being relative of the husband has negative relationships with empowerment indicators. Husband’s education and use of print media have insignificant relationship with the women’s empowerment.

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Akram, N. Women’s Empowerment in Pakistan: Its Dimensions and Determinants. Soc Indic Res 140 , 755–775 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1793-z

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Womenomics: Women powering the economy of Pakistan

March 12, 2021.

Women globally are moving into a growing space as innovators, entrepreneurs, startup founders, techies, businesswomen, as well as home-based workers. From their existing roles in traditional economic sectors of agriculture, health, education etc., women are now making inroads in the Fourth Industrial Revolution to drive global and regional knowledge economies of scale.

The idea of women as drivers of a nation's economy can be understood by ‘Womenomics’ – a term coined by Kathy Matsui, strategist at Goldman Sachs, and launched by Japan’s Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in 2013 to stimulate his country’s economic growth and promote gender equality in the workforce.

Womenomics is not just a good social move, it is also good for business: USD 12 trillion could be added to the global GDP by 2025 by advancing women’s equality. Yet, while women’s control of investible wealth is on the rise, major barriers continue to prevent achieving SDG Goal 5 of Gender Equality in developing economies like Pakistan. At the global level, women currently represent 38.8 percent of the global labour force, and just 20 percent in Pakistan.

Inequality in opportunity and in working Pakistan’s barriers against women’s economic empowerment generally include lack of gender-sensitive policies, income inequality, attitudes/harassment at workplaces, and stereotypes defining women’s role in society. For those already stepping into the workforce, however, additional barriers include a lack of gendered infrastructure at workplaces, gender pay gaps, limited mobility, scarcity of public toilets, denial/discrimination of professional development and leadership opportunities, job security, and other occupational hazards.

For Womenomics to become a reality in Pakistan, both traditional and emerging occupational barriers need to be structurally and systemically addressed.

Out of the only 13.5 million (20 percent) women taking part in Pakistan’s labour force, seven million women working in agriculture fall under the category of contributing family workers and remain unrecognized and unpaid. The gap between men and women’s earnings has also increased. In 2018-2019, women earned just 18 percent of what men earned. Cultural expectations must also be addressed, as they contribute to women’s ‘time poverty’. For example, women in Pakistan spend nearly 10 times the hours as men in unpaid care work.

Meanwhile, in all too many households, women are compelled to give all their earnings to their family and have no financial independence or freedom to spend as they choose. This perpetuates a vicious cycle of silent exploitation and abuse – one where women are made to be completely dependent upon male family members for good.

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Women Empowerment in Pakistan: Challenges and Progress

Current Affairs , Essays, Outlines
May 28, 2023
Noshin Bashir

Table of Contents

Women Empowerment: A Key to Societal Progress

Women empowerment refers to the process of granting women equal rights, opportunities, and privileges as men, and enabling them to participate fully in all spheres of life, including social, economic, and political domains. It involves empowering women to make decisions, pursue their goals, and achieve their full potential, without any discrimination based on gender. Women empowerment is not only a fundamental human right but also a critical factor for societal progress and development. It plays a pivotal role in creating a more inclusive, just, and sustainable society.

Historically, women have faced numerous challenges and discrimination, including gender-based violence, limited access to education and healthcare, unequal pay, and lack of representation in decision-making processes. However, over the years, there has been significant progress in promoting women empowerment worldwide, including legal reforms, policy interventions, and awareness campaigns. Women’s empowerment has been recognized as a crucial driver of economic growth, poverty reduction, and social stability.

Why Women Empowerment is compulsory

Economically empowering women is essential for achieving sustainable development. Women constitute a significant portion of the global workforce, and their contribution to the economy is substantial. Studies have shown that gender equality in the workplace leads to increased productivity, innovation, and competitiveness. When women have access to economic resources, such as land, credit, and employment opportunities, they can invest in education, health, and nutrition for themselves and their families. This has a ripple effect on society, as empowered women are more likely to raise healthier and educated children, break the cycle of poverty, and contribute to the overall well-being of their communities.

Women Empowerment in Pakistan

Women empowerment is a pressing issue in Pakistan, a country with a patriarchal social structure where gender discrimination and violence against women are pervasive. However, in recent years, there has been significant progress in promoting women’s empowerment in various spheres of life, including economic, educational, and political domains. Despite the challenges, empowering women in Pakistan is crucial for achieving gender equality, social development, and sustainable progress.

Challenges of Women Empowerment in Pakistan

Women empowerment in Pakistan faces numerous challenges, hindering the progress towards achieving gender equality and creating an inclusive society. These challenges include:

Limited Access to Education: Access to quality education remains a challenge for many girls and women in Pakistan. Cultural and socio-economic factors often lead to lower enrollment rates for girls, particularly in rural areas. Factors such as poverty, child marriages, and lack of infrastructure contribute to limited educational opportunities, hampering women’s empowerment.
Patriarchal Societal Norms: Pakistan has a deeply ingrained patriarchal social structure, where traditional gender roles and norms perpetuate gender inequality. Women are expected to prioritize their roles as wives and mothers, limiting their access to education, economic opportunities, and decision-making positions. Challenging and changing these deeply-rooted norms is a significant challenge.
Gender-Based Violence: Gender-based violence, including domestic violence, sexual harassment, and honor killings, remains a pervasive issue in Pakistan. Cultural norms, weak implementation of laws, and societal attitudes contribute to the perpetuation of violence against women. Fear of repercussions and stigma often discourage women from reporting incidents, making it challenging to address and eradicate gender-based violence effectively.
Economic Disparities: Women in Pakistan face significant barriers in accessing economic resources and opportunities. Limited job prospects, gender wage gaps, and discrimination in the workplace create obstacles for women’s economic empowerment. Lack of access to credit, land, and financial resources further restricts their ability to start businesses or engage in income-generating activities.
Limited Political Representation: Women’s political participation and representation in decision-making processes are relatively low in Pakistan. Cultural and societal barriers, lack of support within political parties, and limited access to political resources hinder women’s ability to actively participate in politics. The absence of women’s voices in decision-making spheres limits the effectiveness of policies and programs aimed at women’s empowerment.
Lack of Legal Protection: Although legal frameworks exist to protect women’s rights in Pakistan, implementation and enforcement remain weak. Limited awareness of existing laws, corruption, and inadequate access to justice prevent women from seeking legal remedies and redress for gender-based discrimination, violence, and other violations of their rights.
Access to Healthcare and Family Planning: Women’s access to quality healthcare services, including reproductive healthcare and family planning, remains a challenge in Pakistan. Cultural and religious taboos, lack of awareness, and limited availability of services hinder women’s ability to make informed choices regarding their reproductive health and family planning.
Media Representation: Media plays a significant role in shaping public perceptions and attitudes. However, in Pakistan, media often reinforces gender stereotypes, objectifies women, and perpetuates harmful narratives. The portrayal of women in a limited and stereotypical manner hampers efforts towards gender equality and women’s empowerment.

How to Address these Challenges

Addressing women empowerment in Pakistan requires a multi-faceted approach involving various stakeholders, including the government, civil society organizations, private sector, and individuals. It requires long-term commitment, sustained efforts, and a holistic approach. By addressing the systemic barriers, promoting gender equality, and empowering women, Pakistan can foster an inclusive society that benefits from the full participation and contributions of women. Here are some key strategies to promote women empowerment in Pakistan:

Access to Quality Education: Efforts should be made to ensure equal access to quality education for girls and women. This involves eliminating barriers such as gender stereotypes, poverty, and cultural norms that discourage girls’ education. Providing safe and inclusive learning environments, promoting girls’ enrollment, and improving the quality of education are essential steps towards empowering women through education.
Gender-responsive Legislation and Policies: The government should enact and enforce laws that protect women’s rights, eliminate discrimination, and promote gender equality. This includes laws addressing gender-based violence, equal pay, access to education, and political representation. Policies should be designed to address the specific needs and challenges faced by women in Pakistan.
Economic Empowerment: Initiatives should be implemented to promote women’s economic empowerment. This includes providing training and skill development programs to enhance women’s employability, creating job opportunities, promoting entrepreneurship, and ensuring equal pay and equal access to resources, credit, and markets. Microfinance programs and vocational training initiatives can play a vital role in enabling women to start and sustain their businesses.
Political Empowerment: Efforts should be made to increase women’s political participation and representation. This includes introducing gender quotas or reserved seats for women in legislative bodies, promoting women’s leadership development programs, and creating an enabling environment for women to engage in politics. Encouraging political parties to adopt inclusive policies and ensuring women’s voices are heard in decision-making processes are vital for women’s political empowerment.
Ending Gender-Based Violence: Addressing gender-based violence requires a comprehensive approach. This involves raising awareness about women’s rights and the importance of gender equality, implementing effective laws and regulations to protect women, and providing support services for survivors of violence. Collaboration between law enforcement agencies, judicial systems, and civil society organizations is essential to ensure the implementation of laws and effective responses to gender-based violence.
Health and Reproductive Rights: Access to quality healthcare services, including reproductive healthcare and family planning, is crucial for women’s empowerment. Comprehensive reproductive health services should be made available and accessible, along with education and awareness campaigns to promote women’s reproductive rights and empower them to make informed choices about their health and well-being.
Gender Sensitization and Awareness: Comprehensive gender sensitization programs should be integrated into educational curricula, workplaces, and communities to challenge harmful gender norms and attitudes. Awareness campaigns should target both men and women to promote gender equality and women’s rights, fostering a culture of respect and equality.
Media and Cultural Transformation: Media plays a significant role in shaping public perceptions and attitudes. Efforts should be made to promote gender-sensitive and positive portrayals of women in the media. Media campaigns and public awareness initiatives can challenge stereotypes, highlight women’s achievements, and promote gender equality.
Collaborative Partnerships: Effective collaboration among government agencies, civil society organizations, private sector entities, and individuals is crucial for the success of women empowerment initiatives. Partnerships should be forged to share resources, expertise, and experiences to amplify the impact of interventions and create sustainable change.

Women empowerment is a fundamental human right and a critical factor for societal progress. It is essential for achieving sustainable development, reducing poverty, and promoting social justice. By addressing the challenges that hinder women’s progress, promoting gender equality, and ensuring equal opportunities, Pakistan can unleash the full potential of its women and create a more inclusive and prosperous society.

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Women’s Economic Participation and Empowerment

Pakistan’s newly launched ‘Women’s Economic Participation and Empowerment - Status Report 2016’ emphasizes the complex and multifaceted concept of women’s economic empowerment and status of Pakistani women to different dimensions and determinants of economic participation.

The report highlights specific aspects of women’s economic empowerment and recommends a concerted effort to improve women’s access, opportunities and capabilities in order for them to participate as full economic actors in development and growth.

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Women economic empowerment is key to Pakistan's development

Blog 13 Mar 2023 Women's Economic Empowerment and Inclusive Growth

Increasing women's participation in Pakistan's labour force is beneficial to both economic growth and gender equality. Policy interventions must identify and alleviate barriers to women's participation by improving access to finance, enhancing digital literacy, and addressing mobility challenges.

The lack of women's participation in Pakistan's economy is both a gender equity and developmental concern. The economic case for focusing on women's economic empowerment is clear: if their participation was at par with men, Pakistan's GDP could increase by 60% by 2025. Another estimate suggests that closing the gender gap in labour force participation could lead to a one-off 30% boost in GDP.

Globally, women form 38.8% of the labour force, but just around 20% in Pakistan, one of the lowest in South Asia. In fact, Pakistan fares poorly on all gender-related indicators. The Global Gender Gap Index Report 2022 ranked Pakistan at 145 out of 156 countries in terms of women's economic participation and opportunity, at 135 for women's educational attainment, 143 for women's health and survival, and at 95 for political empowerment. The Global Wage Report 2018-19 by International Labour Organization estimated the gender pay gap variation between men and women at 34%. Pakistan also shows the largest gender gaps amongst electrical democracies in voter turn-out, with men being 20% more likely to vote.

The constraints to women’s participation have been discussed and documented at length . These range from the lack of a conducive policy support (such as lack of workplace regulation, maternity leave laws, access to credit and finance) to patriarchal mindsets and social norms that limit women’s mobility and choice to work, including concerns of mobility and access to transport, and the burden of unpaid care and domestic work.

How are researchers helping to find solutions to enhancing women’s empowerment ? The research community is now sharing findings from on going and completed work that is providing a substantive policymaking direction. We look at some recent IGC research and draw a list of the most compelling policy messages.

1. Investing in gender equality can help build resilience to future shocks.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the climate change crisis is affecting women and deepening gender inequalities within Pakistan. Even when the exposure to a hazard is the same for all, levels of vulnerability, access to resources, and coping skills can greatly vary across genders. This highlights the need to reduce gender gaps and protect women from future shocks as women remain more vulnerable to the adverse impacts of health and economic shocks.

A recent IGC project examined evidence from Pakistan to understand the developmental and poverty outcomes of female labour force participation, particularly in low-income and vulnerable households, and especially in the face of shocks. Findings suggested that if the challenges to female workforce participation are addressed, then developmental and productivity benefits could accumulate at a national level. However, the notion of disaster resilience is still considered largely gender-neutral in Pakistan. The COVID-19 pandemic showed that Pakistani women remained less likely to receive vital information on health safety due to lower levels of education and a l ow er likelihood of own ing a mobile phone or having internet access. The pandemic exacerbated these disparities , with a larger proportion of women than men being pushed into extreme poverty.

2. Unlocking women's productivity requires a policy intervention on multiple fronts.

Constraints to female entrepreneurship are not just financial . Women need soft skills and training to engage in sustainable economic activity. A recent study tested if low-cost and less intensive training to create aspiration s and d esire to set goals for the future could help women micro-entrepreneurs. The study found that such interventions had an immediate short-term impact on hard work and perseverance.

Women also face constraints in their ability to market their products and identify marketplaces. They require digital skills and access to markets to be better equipped to conduct business-related activities. An ongoing study by researchers based at University of Delaware is looking at the impact of digital skills training on female labour force participation. The intervention is aimed at women enrolled in skills training centres situated across Punjab, Pakistan.

3. Women that are interested in work may face barriers in their job search.

An area that has received less er policy attention is the job search process . Data from a study in Pakistan reveals differences in how men and women search for jobs, and provides insight into the difficulties women face in labour market participation. These findings indicate that a key obstruction faced by women in their job search is due to their lack of access to networks that can provide information about job vacancies. Potential policy solutions to address such barriers can include organising women collectives for networking , and the creation of opportunities for firms to share job postings outside of their networks.

4. Men and women face different mobility challenges.

Women’s mobility is a real concern in a society that discourages close physical contact between opposite genders. This constrains their choices to participate in the labour force, continue their education, or engage in other independent activities. Women’s mobility is not just limited by the lack of infrastructure but also by women’s agency. A recent study looked at how migration, urbanisation, and the perceived threat or the threat of violence and harassment shapes women’s agency and mobility and determine s their access to the market, economic opportunities, and the public sphere in an urban South Asian context. It found that in an urban context, women’s mobility is affected by distinct patriarchal norms within communities, geographic and spatial anxieties due to migrant status and histories of conflict. This study suggests a differentiated employment strategy concerning women’s economic participation, underpinned by social policy that is context-specific and sensitive to the needs of local communities.

5. Inclusiveness in growth demands women's voices are heard.

States' effectiveness in responding to women's needs in service delivery is greatly influenced by voter turnout inequality during elections. Ongoing research by academics based at Yale University is helping to uncover the drivers of the gender gap in voter turnout in the Pakistani context. This research looks at the sub-national variation in voting patterns of women and tries to understand what explains the gap. So far, evidence suggests that weak engagement between political parties and women voters may be an important factor explaining low female electoral participation in urban centres. Women's political participation is also found to be lower in big cities with greater exposure to political violence.

IGC Pakistan is working directly with Pakistani policymakers to equip them with knowledge and evidence to support their decision-making and design reforms. Pakistani policymakers are also showing a growing commitment to the agenda of women’s empowerment. With more evidence on what works, Pakistan can make progress in empowering millions of women, lifting them and their households out of poverty.

Where are the women voters? Insights from Pakistan’s 2024 elections

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Women Empowerment in Pakistan

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Status of Women Empowerment in Pakistan

Areeba Fatima
February 11, 2024
Current Affairs , Daily Write-Ups , Featured , Opinions , Pakistani Society , Women Related Issues

Status of Women Empowerment in Pakistan | Daily Writeups | Opinions

The following article, “ Status of Women Empowerment in Pakistan “ , is written by Areeba Fatima , a student of Sir Syed Kazim Ali . Moreover, the article is written on the same pattern, taught by Sir to his students, scoring the highest marks in compulsory subjects for years. Sir Kazim has uploaded his students’ solved past paper questions so other thousands of aspirants can understand how to crack a topic or question, how to write relevantly, what coherence is, and how to include and connect ideas, opinions, and suggestions to score the maximum.

Women empowerment is not just a mere concept; it is the key to unlocking the full potential of half of the world’s population. The world cannot progress and prosper if women are not given equal opportunities and rights as men. Although women have been suppressed and oppressed for centuries under the guise of patriarchal and stereotypical norms of society, countries across the globe have realized the importance of women’s empowerment. They are taking measures to provide equal autonomy to women in economic and political decision-making. However, developing countries like Pakistan still have a long way to go regarding women’s empowerment. Pakistan ranks 145 out of 146 countries on the Global Gender Gap Report 2022, which is alarming and unacceptable. Women in Pakistan face numerous obstacles to availing their due rights, and it is the country’s responsibility to help them break free from these obstacles and empower them.

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Talking about women’s empowerment, it is a multidimensional concept encompassing various aspects, including social, psychological, economic, political, cultural, religious, personal, and emotional dimensions. It is not just about equal access to material resources such as land, money, and job opportunities. Still, it is also about ensuring women’s representation in political and decision-making bodies, granting them fundamental rights, the freedom to make choices in life, and equal access to health facilities. Empowering women is not just about achieving gender equality but is also instrumental in promoting a better economy, society, and nation. Women’s empowerment can lead to sustainable economic development, social prosperity, and, ultimately, the progress of the entire world. Therefore, we must work towards women’s empowerment and provide them with equal opportunities and rights to unleash their full potential.

Moving ahead, the status of Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (GEWE) in Pakistan has evolved gradually, considering their significant contribution to sustainable socio-economic development. However, much more needs to be done to empower women in all sectors, as the situation of women’s empowerment is deplorable. To explain, a snapshot of the status of women’s empowerment in Pakistan is given below. To begin with, women’s right to healthcare and well-being is frequently confronted with a myriad of socio-cultural factors in Pakistan. Specifically, women face particular constraints in accessing women-specific healthcare services that negatively impinge upon women’s health and physical well-being. Moreover, the health issues in Pakistan range from the highest maternal mortality rate among women to the burgeoning cases of breast cancer and iron deficiency. According to the United Nations report, 48 per cent of women in Pakistan have no say in their health matters. This shows that Pakistani women face barriers to accessing the healthcare system and are more prone to diseases like anaemia, depression, and hepatitis, which ultimately results in the lack of awareness, limited access to diagnostic facilities and cultural barriers, the highest mortality among women in the world.It indicates that many women in Pakistan give birth at home without proper medical supervision and with limited access to healthcare centres and diagnostic facilities, which makes women more vulnerable to maternal mortality.

Likewise, Pakistan’s social protection systems often fall short of effectively reaching and empowering women with regional and geographic disparities in poverty levels persisting nationwide, significantly increasing multi-dimensional poverty in rural areas. Moreover, as per the Multi-Dimensional Poverty Index (MPI), various deprivations in three domains: education, health, and living standards are the main hurdles to women’s empowerment in Pakistan. It is evident from the report of the Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund that three-quarters of Pakistan’s absolute poor populace are women and girls. For every four Pakistanis in poverty, three are women or girls. This shows that the women in Pakistan face magnitudes of disparities in the form of educational inequality and the lack of access to assets, rights, and decision-making, which makes them the more significant victims of poverty.

Adding more to it, many girls and women in Pakistan cannot exercise their right to education owing to socially embedded obstacles and restrictions. In fact, patriarchal tenets are rooted in its local customs, restricting women’s education and literacy rate. Despite the introduction of several governmental education policies- The National Education Policy (NEP) 2017- the country has been facing challenges in addressing these issues and achieving universal primary education. As per the Global Gender Gap Index 2022, Pakistan ranks 135 out of 146 countries, scoring 0.825 in educational attainment. So, it is evident that an astounding gender gap exists in educational attainment in which socio-cultural barriers play a crucial role in terms of gender differences. Therefore, these issues continue to hinder the development of human capital in the country, which is essential for growth and progress.

Besides, Pakistan women’s participation in the formal sector has remained stagnant over the past decades, prevailing economic disempowerment of women, ultimately making its performance lag behind others in the region. Although Pakistan has seen improvement in the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) of women in the past twenty years, the pace of progress of LFPR is stagnating, making it stand well below the global percentage. According to the report of the Gender Gap Index 2022, Pakistan ranks 145 out of 146 countries in women’s economic participation and opportunities. This illustrates the gloomy picture of socio-cultural and religious restrictions on women regarding their economic and financial empowerment, in turn limiting them from developing their full potential, enhancing their agency, and contributing to the development of the nation.

Similarly, despite the guarantees by Pakistan’s Constitution, women are underrepresented at all levels of decision-making in political life, which is the fundamental prerequisite for women’s empowerment and gender equity. Moreover, women’s participation in the political sphere is hindered due to the low levels of literacy, patriarchal mindset, structural barriers against involvement in political activities, and harassment in the public sphere. According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union, Pakistan ranks low at 115 out of 190 countries in terms of the representation of women, which highlights the systemic and socio-cultural challenges to women’s political participation . This shows that gender biases and prejudices against women candidates in male-dominated power dynamics of national politics continue to exclude women from playing an active role in public life.

Last but not least, women’s access to safe justice and support has always been an issue of grave concern in Pakistan, with unique social and institutional barriers to finding suitable solutions to their legal problems. Specifically, informal justice systems are still used to deal with crimes, civil disputes, and family matters in the country, as most people do not have access to the formal justice system. Similarly, due to gender discrimination, social stigmas, procedural and structural flaws, and the lack of knowledge of their rights, women still have been facing deplorably low rates of conviction for Violence against Women and Girls (VAWG) crimes. Pakistan ranks 129 out of 140 countries worldwide in the Rule of Law Index 2022 due to the weak implementation of laws and a lack of awareness among women- the survivors of violence. Undoubtedly, widely accepted patriarchal norms also limit women’s ability to acknowledge being harassed in the workplace and recognize most forms of violence as a violation of their human rights; therefore, they do not report such crimes.

Nonetheless, the government has introduced several schemes and policies that are intended to empower women, ensure gender equality, and allocate budget for women under its annual development programmes. To illustrate, the Sehat Sahulat and Benazir Income Support Programme are the most significant social protection initiatives that ensure protection through a safety net, graduating the most vulnerable women from poverty. In the same way, the Domestic Violence Bill (2008), the Protection against Harassment of Women at the Workplace Act (2010), and the establishment of gender-based violence courts are planned to protect women from violence by establishing a helpline for legal advice. Moreover, several government ministries are concerned with formulating policies and laws to meet the needs of women, ensuring that women’s interests and needs are adequately represented in public policy formulation. Furthermore, civil society and organizations have designed multiple plans to empower women through awareness-raising campaigns.

However, the country can also formulate multi-dimensional strategies to empower women and address women’s issues on a deeper level so that they can take their rightful place as equal members of society. A few suggestions are listed below to address the remaining barriers to women’s empowerment.

First, there is a dire need to implement previously passed laws effectively to strengthen women’s socio-psychological and politico-economic rights. For this purpose, interlinking the legislative formulation with effective enforcement through strengthening the state apparatus and capacity-building of women should be adopted like other developed countries where women enjoy equal rights as men . In particular, Belgium, known for medieval towns, is the best example of a nation known for working hard on gender equality. It has implemented robust laws and policies to eliminate gender discrimination and ensure equal opportunities for men and women, fostering an environment where women thrive. In the same way, Pakistan should also guarantee the proper and timely implementation of women’s protection laws so that every Pakistani woman is empowered with all her rights to live a healthy and productive life with dignity, equality, and safety.

Next, the government should also draft new legislation for the legal empowerment of women and free legal assistance, enforcement of protective laws, and surveillance of women-specific crimes. Moreover, free legal aid cells should be established in all the High Courts, District Courts, and Sessions Courts to provide free legal aid to women. Meanwhile, campaigns should also be launched to promote awareness of women’s rights and support systems that can enable access to legal redress. Specifically, Canada is the glaring example and a front-runner in championing women’s rights. The country has comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and policies that address gender-based violence and social discrimination, actively working towards dismantling barriers that hinder gender equality. This shows that Pakistan can also break the remaining barriers to women’s empowerment by adopting women’s legal protection laws and appointing ombudspersons at the federal and provincial levels to enforce laws.

In a critical diagnosis, women in Pakistan continue to face a series of challenges in empowerment despite the country’s tremendous journey in gender equality and equity. There are several policies and laws for women’s empowerment and rights that remain unheard of and unimplemented due to social, structural, and procedural barriers, the lack of educational and economic opportunities, and the lack of women’s trust in the justice system. Moreover, the lack of awareness about legal rights and social protection against harassment and any type of violence continues to haunt gender equality and women empowerment in Pakistan. These indicators have become a cause for concern as the potential of almost half of the population remains unrealized, making the country’s performance lag behind others in the region.

In conclusion, the state of women’s empowerment in Pakistan is miserable, as women cannot exercise their right to education, political participation, and economic independence. Moreover, the patriarchal tenets of society, regressive social norms, limited mobility and decision-making, and violence against women limit them from developing their full potential, enhancing their agency, and legal empowerment. However, the government has tried to adopt multi-dimensional strategies to ensure women’s empowerment and gender equality, like the Benazir Income Support Programme, the establishment of Violence courts, and protection against harassment. But still, there is a need to adopt more pragmatic measures to break the remaining barriers to women’s empowerment. Similarly, by implementing previously passed laws and drafting legislation for women’s legal empowerment, the country can empower its women, which is critical for its development and progress.

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Essay on Women Empowerment | Importance, Barriers & Solutions

Women’s empowerment is the most crucial issue of the world. The women rights, equality, and importance is the need of the hour. Gender equality and women’s freedom is the proven guarantee of collective societal progress.

Read here best selected short and long essays on women empowerment, meaning the purpose and importance of empowerment. The detailed essay and article include women empowerment in the 21st century with an outline, introduction, conclusion, points, quotes, and outline.

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Women Empowerment Speeches| Importance, Issues, threats

The women empowerment is the road towards success and prosperity for the modern world. The freedom and empowerment of women in line with existing fair cultural practices with modesty and justice, is the real thing, that the developing world needs to adopt. The following speech on importance and need of women empowerment is the sure way ahead .

(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); class=”wp-block-heading”> Essay on Women Empowerment; Importance, Barriers, and solutions

Women Empowerment is known for improving the status of women in society. Especially educating women so that they become financially independent and become able to live sound and happy life. Eradication of gender discrimination is another name of Women Empowerment.

Importance of Women Empowerment

Women Empowerment is very necessary for the progress and prosperity of the nation. There is too much gender discrimination in our society. Women can become useful members of society when their rights to education, health, safety, jobs, etc are protected.

Discrimination is a barrier to achieve sustainable development. If women will be left behind it will become very difficult to prosper socially and economically. It is very important to eliminate gender differences in the stability and prosperity of a nation.

A society caught in gender inequality and other divisions can not be a fair society. Women Empowerment gives dignity to women in society. When women get their rights they work with men and contribute a lot in the prosperity and growth of the nation.

It creates an equal and healthy society. An educated and self-dependent woman can help when a family is caught in crisis. An educated and empowered woman can fulfill her primary responsibilities effectively like the nutrition of children at home. She can look for their education and good management of household activities.

It is recently declared that there are some societies where women are treated worse than animals. They are entirely deprived of their basic rights and are subjected to live the life of slavery.

Specially India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and some African countries are those countries where women suffer from birth to death. Their rights are not given to them. They are bound to live the life of slavery. More importantly, women in almost all backward countries are deprived of quality education.

They were illiterate and uneducated are treated very badly. Until and unless they are not provided a good education they won’t be able to stand with men in society and won’t be able to exercise their basic rights.

Since long it has become a trend to subjugate women. They have been subjected to several atrocities and several sorts of injustices at the hands of men. Domestic violence is on the rise. They are considered inferior to men at homes.

In our crippled society where there is no justice to the oppressed community, how women are treated fairly and equally. It is only when the women enjoy equal powers and opportunities the nation then will progress.

Mother’s lap is the first institution of a child. Indeed the lap of a mother is the very place where the moral, ethical, religious and social education of a child starts. Mother’s lap is the best Alma mater for every child. If a mother will not be educated she won’t be able to discharge her duties diligently and effectively.

Women are the real architects of society. Women are strong and brave and they can do what a man can do. They can help to build our society strong. If they will not be treated well our society will never improve. As someone has rightly said that “ It is vain to expect virtue from women, till they are to some degree independent of men”.

Barriers to Women Empowerment

Numerous factors hinder women Empowerment. Some of the barriers are enlisted below.

1. Age-old traditions, few orthodox beliefs, and societal norms. Women are termed to live within four walls of the house. They are not permitted for education and employment.

2. Sexual harassment at workplaces.

3. There is a pay disparity in societies. Women are paid less as compared to men.

4. Child and early marriage also hinder women to empower themselves. She is caged after marriage.

5. Criminal assaults and injustice with women in rural areas. They don’t enjoy liberty and freedom.

Some Practical Solution for Women Empowerment

The promotion of girl child education is the sole solution to Women Empowerment. An educated woman can take care of herself and can take effective care of the needs of the family. Educated women are the backbone of the nation.

They can educate their kids at home. They can help run the system of the family smoothly. It is very important to safeguard the basic needs of women.

Education is the most vital factor to empower women. The quality and sound education can help women to lead a good life. The education of girl child must be made mandatory to make women empowered and strong enough to face the challenges of life.

Special efforts must be made to educate girls and women so that they actively participate in the progress of the nation. There is a need for skill development programs to empower women so that they work and elevate their standing in society.

All civic societies are must work together to safeguard the interests and rights of women. Women are not provided with basic health care and health facilities. They must be given proper health care to ensure their lives.

What is the importance of women’s empowerment in India?

In common sense it is understood that women’s empowerment is to empower women and self dependent, but in India, a women are being tortured and raped here women empowerment means to improve their position in power structure of the society

What are the 5 types of empowerment?

Here are the 5 types of women empowerment

Physiological.
Educational.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

women’s empowerment involves empowering women to make strategic decisions in their lives and take charge of their lives in a more direct and positive way.

According to Keshab Chandra Mandal, there are five categories of female empowerment: 1. social 2. educational 3. economic 4. political 5. psychological.

Empowering Indian women to overcome situations of this type is important for ensuring their contributions as independent citizens in Indian society.

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Speech On Women Empowerment | Importance & Advantages

Today's Paper | May 20, 2024

Ppaf, ncsw join hands for women empowerment.

ISLAMABAD: The Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF) and the National Commission on the Status of Women (NCSW) have joined hands for gender equality and women economic empowerment.

This alliance reflects a joint effort to harness the potential of women as catalysts for change.

A Letter of Intent (LOI) to this effect was signed by CEO PPAF Nadir Gul Barech and NCSW Chairperson Ms Nilofar Bakhtiar. The ceremony was attended by the representatives from academia, media, and civil society organisations.

Through this partnership, PPAF and NCSW will initiate a series of programmes aimed at advancing women’s social and economic empowerment safeguarding their constitutional and fundamental human rights.

The initiatives include advocacy efforts with the Women’s Parliamentary Caucus to promote gender-equal policies, as well as inter-ministerial dialogues to address barriers hindering women’s participation in economic development.

Additionally, both organisations collectively aimed at taking forward the initiatives of partner organisation Dukhtaran-i-Pakistan across the country. It was agreed that collaborative research initiatives with academia and research institutions will explore avenues for women’s involvement in poverty reduction, economic growth, digitalization, participatory development, and climate change response.

CEO PPAF Nadir Gul Barech highlighted the transformative power of collective action in empowering women and creating a more equitable society. He expressed profound optimism about the partnership’s potential to catalyze tangible change, enriching the lives of women across Pakistan and nurturing a future defined by equal opportunities and prospects for exploring their hidden potential.

Nadir Gul also shared that since inception, PPAF has established linkages and partnerships with civil society organisations, community-based organisations and engaged with international donors to serve the most marginalised communities in Pakistan.

Till date PPAF has formed 94,000 women’s community institutions to promote leadership skills in community women, helping them to contribute towards conflict resolution and peacebuilding.

To ensure women’s economic empowerment and build sustainable livelihoods, the organisation has provided 128,400 productive assets, 125 matching grants to small and medium enterprises (SMEs), 1,738,000 interest-free loans, and vocational and enterprise development training to 222,000 women, he further added.

Chairperson Nilofar Bakhtiar praised the collaboration as a landmark in promoting gender equality in Pakistan which is a prerequisite for achieving sustainable development goals and creating a tolerant and peaceful society.

She emphasised the importance of collaborative efforts to create an enabling environment for women to contribute to an economically stable Pakistan.

Published in Dawn, May 16th, 2024

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PDF Women Empowerment in Pakistan: A Comparative Critical Analysis of
women empowerment in context with current legislations implemented in Pakistan for effective participation of female folk in the development of the country. The study discusses the reasons for low participation of female workers in the development process of the country, highlights the impact of
Determinants of women's empowerment in Pakistan: evidence from
Women's empowerment has always remained a contested issue in the complex socio-demographic and cultural milieu of Pakistani society. Women are ranked lower than men on all vital human development indicators. Therefore, studying various determinants of women's empowerment is urgently needed in the Pakistani context. The study empirically operationalized the concept of women's empowerment ...
Determinants of women's empowerment in Pakistan: evidence from
The study empirically operationalized the concept of women's empowerment and investigated its determinants through representative secondary data taken from the Pakistan Demographic and Health Surveys among women at reproductive age (15-49 years) in 2012-13 (n = 13,558) and 2017-18 (n = 15,068). The study used simple binary logistic and ...
PDF The Status of Women in Pakistan, 2023
on gender equality and women's empowerment (GEWE). To address the date gap, the National Gender Data Portal (NGDP) was established in 2021 by the National Commission on the Status of Women in collaboration with UN Women Pakistan . The NGDP is the first effort to consolidate gender data at a national level using digital tools, that
PDF Women's Empowerment in Pakistan
Women's Empowerment in Pakistan v Women's empowerment is a complex, multi-dimensional, fluid and emerging concept within feminism and development literature. It has economic, political, social, cultural, religious, personal, psychological and emotional elements. Empowerment appears to be context-specific and has multiple determinants.
Women's Empowerment in Pakistan: Its Dimensions and Determinants
In recent times, women's empowerment got considerable popularity in development literature worldwide. The women's empowerment is considered as a pathway to reduce the child and infant mortality through mother's education & health and it enhances economic growth through female labour participation (Akram et al. 2011).In view of the all-important role of gender equality in economic ...
National Report on the Status of Women in Pakistan
26. Publishing entity/ies: United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women) This summary report encapsulates the consolidated data from the first National Report on the Status of Women in Pakistan in 2023, providing a snapshot of the situation of women on key themes related to Gender Equality and Women Empowerment.
PDF Women's Empowerment in Pakistan: Its Dimensions and Determinants
Most of the respondent women do not work (81%) only 15% work for cash and remaining 4% work but they do not get any monetary benefit. Table is also suggestive of the fact that only 5% of women in Pakistan read newspaper daily or weekly. However, around 46% of women listen to radio or watch TV daily or weekly.
Womenomics: Women powering the economy of Pakistan
At the global level, women currently represent 38.8 percent of the global labour force, and just 20 percent in Pakistan. Inequality in opportunity and in working Pakistan's barriers against women's economic empowerment generally include lack of gender-sensitive policies, income inequality, attitudes/harassment at workplaces, and stereotypes ...
Women's Empowerment in Pakistan: Dissection of Paradoxical Depth
Rauf, Sarwat (2022) "Women's Empowerment in Pakistan: Dissection of Paradoxical Depth," Journal of International Women's Studies: Vol. 24: Iss. 1, Article 30. This item is available as part of Virtual Commons, the open-access institutional repository of Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts.
Barriers to Women's Educational Empowerment in Pakistan: A Descriptive
This research paper presents and seeks the cultural barrier in women empowerment in Pakistan. The data used in present study was taken from the sample of married working women of Multan through ...
Women Empowerment in Pakistan: Challenges and Progress
The absence of women's voices in decision-making spheres limits the effectiveness of policies and programs aimed at women's empowerment. Lack of Legal Protection: Although legal frameworks exist to protect women's rights in Pakistan, implementation and enforcement remain weak. Limited awareness of existing laws, corruption, and inadequate ...
PDF Political Challenges of Women Empowerment in Pakistan
Political Challenges of Women Empowerment in Pakistan Mahgul Ghafoor1, Dr.Kamal Haider2 1 ... is focused to explore into the causes for slow leadership growth of women and the barriers faced by them in rising to the higher levels of Political organizational hierarchy. Since 1947, women's participation in politics is ...
[PDF] Socio-Economic Empowerment of Women in Pakistan; Evidences from
Empowering women and promoting gender equality has always been the major priorities throughout the globe. However Pakistani women still living in quagmire of centuries old patriarchal system and traditions which barricade their socio-economic and political empowerment. The present study examine the perceptions of local women and working staff and measured the impact of Local Supportive ...
Women's Economic Participation and Empowerment
Pakistan's newly launched 'Women's Economic Participation and Empowerment - Status Report 2016' emphasizes the complex and multifaceted concept of women's economic empowerment and status of Pakistani women to different dimensions and determinants of economic participation. The report highlights specific aspects of women's economic empowerment and recommends a concerted effort to ...
Women economic empowerment is key to Pakistan's development
The lack of women's participation in Pakistan's economy is both a gender equity and developmental concern. The economic case for focusing on women's economic empowerment is clear: if their participation was at par with men, Pakistan's GDP could increase by 60% by 2025. Another estimate suggests that closing the gender gap in labour force participation could lead to a one-off 30% boost in GDP.
Women Empowerment in Pakistan: [Essay Example], 502 words
Get original essay. According to the latest statistics, the current female population in Pakistan is 49.2 % whereas women participation in labour force is only 28%. Clearly, this ratio is extremely low. Women empowerment can play marvellous role in the economic development of Pakistan and that's not possible without women employment.
Status of Women Empowerment in Pakistan
But still, there is a need to adopt more pragmatic measures to break the remaining barriers to women's empowerment. Similarly, by implementing previously passed laws and drafting legislation for women's legal empowerment, the country can empower its women, which is critical for its development and progress. CSS Solved Past Papers' Essays
Essay on Women Empowerment
The women empowerment is the road towards success and prosperity for the modern world. The freedom and empowerment of women in line with existing fair cultural practices with modesty and justice, is the real thing, that the developing world needs to adopt. The following speech on importance and need of women empowerment is the sure way ahead .
PPAF, NCSW join hands for women empowerment
To ensure women's economic empowerment and build sustainable livelihoods, the organisation has provided 128,400 productive assets, 125 matching grants to small and medium enterprises (SMEs ...

Determinants of women’s empowerment in Pakistan: evidence from Demographic and Health Surveys, 2012–13 and 2017–18

Conclusions

Variables: definitions and construction

Data analysis

Sample characteristics

Decision-making, ownership, and empowerment

Simple binary logistic regression

Multivariable logistic regression analysis

Availability of data and materials

Abbreviations

Acknowledgments

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Determinants of women’s empowerment in Pakistan: evidence from Demographic and Health Surveys, 2012–13 and 2017–18

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Variables: definitions and construction

Data analysis

Sample characteristics

Decision-making, ownership, and empowerment

Simple binary logistic regression

Multivariable logistic regression analysis

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Abbreviations

Availability of data and materials

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Women’s Empowerment in Pakistan: Its Dimensions and Determinants

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Women economic empowerment is key to Pakistan's development

1. Investing in gender equality can help build resilience to future shocks.

2. Unlocking women's productivity requires a policy intervention on multiple fronts.

3. Women that are interested in work may face barriers in their job search.

4. Men and women face different mobility challenges.

5. Inclusiveness in growth demands women's voices are heard.

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