what is a case study in ap research

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Advanced Placement (AP)

AP Research is a class introduced by the College Board as a part of its new AP Capstone program. But what does it really involve? How can you do well?

In this article, I'll provide an overview of AP Research and give you some more information about whether you should take it and how you can be successful in the class.

What Is AP Research?

AP Research is the second course that students take in the AP Capstone program . It comes after AP Seminar.

If you take AP Seminar and AP Research, you will earn an AP Research and Seminar Certificate, and if you take both classes in addition to four other AP courses and exams, you will earn an AP Capstone Diploma. This program is very new (the College Board rolled out the full version in the fall of 2014), but you will most likely benefit from it in the college application process when schools see the types of advanced assignments you've completed in these research-focused classes.

In AP Research, students are encouraged to explore a topic or problem that interests them and design, plan, and conduct a year-long research project centered around it. The class represents the culmination of skills that students learn in AP Seminar, which include effectively analyzing sources, formulating coherent arguments backed up by evidence, and examining issues from differing points of view. Smaller research projects in AP Seminar will prepare you for the large-scale research project you will undertake in AP Research.

What Exactly Will You Do in AP Research?

AP Research consists entirely of a year-long research project. The end product is a 4000-5000 word academic paper and a 15-20 minute presentation with an oral defense. You will also be expected to compile the materials you used in your research into a portfolio. This piece of work is similar to a thesis project, so it’s good preparation for college academics. Topics for the research project are usually relatively open, but arguments for and against solutions to major problems in society tend to be the main focus. For example, you might investigate whether the government should invest more resources in finding and supporting sustainable energy sources.

In your academic paper, you will be expected to:

Introduce and contextualize your research question and your initial thoughts and hypotheses about it. In the case of my example, the research question might be "Should the government devote more resources to sustainable energy projects?" You would reflect on the question briefly here and share your initial uninformed opinions before diving into any research.

Review previous ideas and works on the subject and their arguments and perspectives. This is where you would address arguments for and against the adoption of policies to promote the use of sustainable energy. This section lays the groundwork for your arguments in later sections of the paper.

Explain your research method and why you approached the question this way. Here, you would discuss how you went about compiling sources for your research and how you collected the information. This lends credibility to your argument in the next section.

Present your findings and interpret their significance in connection to your research question. In this section, you would lay out your argument based on the evidence you discovered through your research. In the example, your argument might be that we should devote more resources to sustainable energy projects because the long term consequences of continuing to use non-renewable energy sources will be extremely dire. You could support this argument with research that you touched on in previous sections.

Discuss the implications and limitations of your findings and reflect on the process. This is where you would talk about any qualifiers related to your argument in the previous section. If you can't be absolutely sure of a conclusion that you drew or there is some speculation involved, you would go over those potential limitations. You would also talk about what your findings mean in a larger context.

Talk about potential next steps on the issue in view of these findings. Basically, this is the "so what?" section. This is where you would present your ideas for what practical steps the world might take based on your research. In the example, this could be something like providing better tax incentives for businesses that use renewable energy sources or rearranging money in the government's budget in a specific way so that more of it goes towards clean energy projects.

Provide a complete bibliography. This is pretty self-explanatory. You'll need to cite all your sources correctly and make sure that they're trustworthy.

After you turn in your paper, you will also deliver a 15-20 minute presentation to a panel of teachers in whatever format works best for your research. You'll be asked to give a defense of your findings after your presentation. Your AP Research teacher and two panel members chosen by your teacher will ask you three or four questions about your work, and you'll have to answer them based on your research. 

Should You Take AP Research?

First of all, you can only take AP Research if you take AP Seminar beforehand. Make sure you plan out your classes carefully if you want to end up in this class!

If you are looking to earn the AP Research and Seminar Certificate or the AP Capstone Diploma, you will need to take this class. Keep in mind that for the Capstone Diploma you’ll also need to take four more AP classes and exams.

Some colleges will offer you credit for taking these classes or will allow you to place out of introductory courses that are required for other students. This can make things a little easier on you during your freshman year.

You’ll also be better prepared for college academics if you take AP Research. You will already be familiar with the process of collecting research and using it to formulate an opinion on a topic. When you're assigned your first research paper, you’ll know exactly where to start.

Aside from those benefits, AP Research can be a fun way to explore a topic that genuinely interests you. You'll have a ton of freedom when it comes to choosing your topic, so you can explore almost any idea that you find compelling. AP Research is a good choice for students who are looking for a way to enrich their high school experience with independent research and enroll in competitive college programs.

How Can You Do Well in AP Research?

In AP Research, the most important rule for doing well is to avoid falling behind! ;Since your entire grade rests on one long-term project, you will need to make sure that you are diligent about staying on task throughout the year. It’s tempting to procrastinate when it seems like you have such a long time to complete the project, but you won’t get the most out of your research if you don’t spread out your work. You want to avoid turning in a sub-par project that you don’t believe in because you ran out of time.

I would also suggest that you finish doing all of your research before you start writing any part of your paper. It's hard to write a cohesive argument when you're adding to it piece by piece as you go along. It's best to compile all the information you need first, figure out your argument based on the evidence, and then start structuring your paper around it. This might seem obvious, but sometimes with these types of projects it's tempting to start working on the part that you actually have to turn in before you've fully explored all the background information.

In a related point, you should be flexible and accept that you may need to reframe your research question. You never know what dead ends you might hit or how you might need to change your project as you learn more about your topic. The best way to plan for these scenarios is to start your research early. The highest-quality projects will be those that adapt to new findings over time. You will have to defend your work, so you should be sure that you believe in the point of view that you’re selling and that it's backed up by solid evidence.

Finally, you should choose a research question that fascinates you. Working on a research project for a whole year can get tedious, and you don't want to be completely sick of your topic after a couple of months. Talk to your teacher about your interests so that you can work together to find a viable research question that will hold your focus.

AP Research is the second class in the AP Capstone program after AP Seminar. It's similar to an independent study class and consists entirely of one year-long research project on a topic of your choice. You will write a research paper summarizing your findings and then give an oral presentation followed by a defense of your argument.

AP Research can be a useful class for students who want to be well-prepared for college-level assignments. It's a great way to hone your skills in effectively conducting research and formulating arguments based on evidence. It also might be a nice break from your other classes because of the level of freedom it provides to students. It's an opportunity to learn more about nearly any topic or question that intrigues you!

What's Next?

Not sure if you can take AP Research at your school? Consult this article for a list of all the high schools that offer the AP Capstone program.

You should also take at this article for a detailed guide to which AP classes you should take in general.

If you're on the fence about AP classes in general, check out this article for more information on how AP classes and exams might benefit you.

Samantha is a blog content writer for PrepScholar. Her goal is to help students adopt a less stressful view of standardized testing and other academic challenges through her articles. Samantha is also passionate about art and graduated with honors from Dartmouth College as a Studio Art major in 2014. In high school, she earned a 2400 on the SAT, 5's on all seven of her AP tests, and was named a National Merit Scholar.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

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Houston’s flood problems offer lessons for cities trying to adapt to a changing climate

Professor Emeritus of Climate and Space Sciences and Engineering, University of Michigan

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Scenes from the Houston area looked like the aftermath of a hurricane in early May after a series of powerful storms flooded highways and neighborhoods and sent rivers over their banks north of the city.

Hundreds of people had to be rescued from homes, rooftops and cars, according to The Associated Press. Huntsville registered nearly 20 inches of rain from April 29 to May 4, 2024.

Floods are complex events, and they are about more than just heavy rain. Each community has its own unique geography and climate that can exacerbate flooding. On top of those risks, extreme downpours are becoming more common as global temperatures rise.

I work with a center at the University of Michigan that helps communities turn climate knowledge into projects that can reduce the harm of future climate disasters. Flooding events like the Houston area experienced provide case studies that can help cities everywhere manage the increasing risk.

Flood risks are rising

The first thing recent floods tell us is that the climate is changing.

In the past, it might have made sense to consider a flood a rare and random event – communities could just build back. But the statistical distribution of weather events and natural disasters is shifting.

What might have been a 1-in-500-years event may become a 1-in-100-years event , on the way to becoming a 1-in-50-years event. When Hurricane Harvey hit Texas in 2017, it delivered Houston’s third 500-year flood in the span of three years.

Basic physics points to the rising risks: Global greenhouse gas emissions are increasing global average temperatures. Warming leads to increasing precipitation and more intense downpours, and increased flood potential, particularly when storms hit on already saturated ground.

Communities aren’t prepared

Recent floods are also revealing vulnerabilities in how communities are designed and managed.

Pavement is a major contributor to urban flooding, because water cannot be absorbed and it runs off quickly. The Houston area’s frequent flooding illustrates the risks. Its impervious surfaces expanded by 386 square miles between 1997 and 2017, according to data collected by Rice University . More streets, parking lots and buildings meant more standing water with fewer places for rainwater to sink in.

If the infrastructure is well designed and maintained, flood damage can be greatly reduced. However, increasingly, researchers have found that the engineering specifications for drainage pipes and other infrastructure are no longer adequate to handle the increasing severity of storms and amounts of precipitation. This can lead to roads being washed out and communities being cut off . Failures in maintaining infrastructure, such as levees and storm drains, are a common contributor to flooding.

In the Houston area, reservoirs are also an essential part of flood management, and many were at capacity from persistent rain. This forced managers to release more water when the storms hit.

For a coastal metropolis such as the Houston-Galveston area, rapidly rising sea levels can also reduce the downstream capacity to manage water. These different factors compound to increase flooding risk and highlight the need to not only move water but to find safe places to store it.

The increasing risks affect not only engineering standards, but zoning laws that govern where homes can be built and building codes that describe minimum standards for safety, as well as permitting and environmental regulations.

By addressing these issues now, communities can anticipate and avoid damage rather than only reacting when it’s too late.

Four lessons from case studies

The many effects associated with flooding show why a holistic approach to planning for climate change is necessary, and what communities can learn from one another. For example, case studies show that:

Floods can damage resources that are essential in flood recovery, such as roads, bridges and hospitals . Considering future risks when determining where and how to build these resources enhances the ability to recover from future disasters . Jackson, Mississippi’s water treatment plant was knocked offline by flooding in 2022, leaving people without safe running water. Houston’s Texas Medical Center famously prepared to manage future flooding by installing floodgates, elevating backup generators and taking other steps after heavy damage during Tropical Storm Allison in 2001.

Flood damage does not occur in isolation. Downpours can trigger mudslides , make sewers more vulnerable and turn manufacturing facilities into toxic contamination risks . These can become broad-scale dangers, extending far beyond individual communities.

It is difficult for an individual or a community to take on even the technical aspects of flood preparation alone – there is too much interconnectedness. Protective measures like levees or channels might protect one neighborhood but worsen the flood risk downstream . Planners should identify the appropriate regional scale, such as the entire drainage basin of a creek or river, and form important relationships early in the planning process.

Natural disasters and the ways communities respond to them can also amplify disparities in wealth and resources. Social justice and ethical considerations need to be brought into planning at the beginning.

Learning to manage complexity

In communities that my colleagues and I have worked with , we have found an increasing awareness of the challenges of climate change and rising flood risks.

In most cases, local officials’ initial instinct has been to protect property and persist without changing where people live. However, that might only buy time for some areas before people will have little option but to move .

When they examine their vulnerabilities, many of these communities have started to recognize the interconnectedness of zoning, storm drains and parks that can absorb runoff, for example. They also begin to see the importance of engaging regional stakeholders to avoid fragmented efforts to adapt that could worsen conditions for neighboring areas.

This is an updated version of an article originally published Aug. 25, 2022 .

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Coffee & quality case study #1: angel reach, brief : may. 14, 2024.

This first Coffee & Quality Case Study focuses on Angel Reach, a nonprofit working with young people aging out of the foster care system and/or at risk of homelessness. The study seeks to understand the predictors and prerequisites of clients successfully completing Angel Reach's programming.

The Kinder Institute for Urban Research and United Way of Greater Houston created a program called Coffee & Quality Case Study that works with designated United Way organizations to 1) identify ways to build and bolster the organization's current data-collecting practices and 2) use data to understand and improve program outcomes. The first Coffee & Quality Case Study focused on Angel Reach , a nonprofit working with young people aging out of the foster care system and/or at risk of homelessness.

The United Way, the Kinder Institute and Angel Reach codesigned and codeveloped a series of research questions to help explore and better understand:

• Who are the clients entering Angel Reach's program?
• How are clients progressing over time and who is likely to be retained?
• How should Angel Reach apply the study's findings to practice?

The data used in this study were collected by Angel Reach from 2020 to 2023. They included information on clients' demographics, personal goals, and scores on a 12-item matrix identifying their needs in child care, education, employment, finances, food, health care, legal, mental health, shelter, substance abuse, support network and transportation/mobility.

Findings and lessons learned were also shared during a webinar hosted by the three organizations.

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Big Idea 1 Overview: Question and Explore

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written by Dylan Black

Identifying a problem or issue and developing a question about it

written by Zaina Siddiqi

Finding and organizing the information you need to answer the question

Evaluating the sources of information you use

Looking at the problem or issue from different perspectives

Unit 2 – Understand & Analyze

Big Idea 2 Overview: Understand and Analyze

written by Minna Chow

Reading critically for a purpose

Explaining and analyzing the line of reasoning of an argument

Evaluating the evidence an author uses to support their argument

Assessing potential resolutions, conclusions, or solutions raised by an argument

Unit 3 – Evaluate Multiple Perspectives

Big Idea 3 Overview: Evaluate Multiple Perspectives

Identifying, comparing, and interpreting different perspectives on, or arguments about, an issue

Evaluating objections, implications, and limitations of different perspectives or arguments

Unit 4 – Synthesize Ideas

Big Idea 4 Overview: Synthesize Ideas

Formulating a well-reasoned argument

17 min read

Using data and information from various sources to develop and support an argument

Linking evidence to claims

Offering resolutions, conclusions, or solutions based on evidence

Unit 5 – Team, Transform, & Transmit

Big Idea 5 Overview: Team, Transform, and Transmit

Planning, producing, and revising a research paper while considering audience, context, and purpose

Presenting an argument for context, purpose, and/or audience

11 min read

Reflecting on one’s own and others’ writing, thinking, and creative processes

Additional Resources

The academic paper.

Master the academic paper in AP Research: writing the literature review & discussion & analysis & conclusion, institutional review board, topic of inquiry, types of research methods (quantitative & qualitative), ethical experimentation, confidentiality, voluntary participation, bibliography, citation styles, imitations, and much more!

Academic Paper: Introduction

Academic Paper: Methodology

Academic Paper: Literature Review

Academic Paper: Discussion and Analysis

Academic Paper: Conclusion

Academic Paper: Bibliography and Citation Styles

Study Tools

2024 AP Research Exam Guide

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Frequently Asked Questions

Is AP Research Hard? Is AP Research Worth Taking?

What is AP Research and How Do I Find a Topic of Inquiry?

How Can I Get a 5 in AP Research?

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From Good to Great in Puerto Rico

Taking pedagogical practices to the next level, the challenge, insight + courage + action, developing a high-quality spanish literacy program.

Vimenti School in San Juan, Puerto Rico, is a dual language K-6 school, serving 274 students with 36 teachers. The school is a two-generation project committed to the economic development of families and whose mission is the eradication of child poverty in Puerto Rico. Since the pandemic’s interruptions, Vimenti has focused primarily on strengthening language skills in students’ first language—Spanish. The school’s leaders knew that getting instruction right was critical for their students, as a strong academic foundation is a key factor in ensuring young people have multiple pathways to thriving lives and careers.   

While there was potential and readiness for change, the school faced a challenge: How could they elevate teacher practice in Spanish language arts and empower students to become proficient readers, writers, and thinkers in their native language?  

Multilingual learners do best when teachers celebrate the linguistic and cultural assets that they bring to the classroom. With that in mind, Vimenti leaders wanted to provide their teachers with concrete models of what high-quality teaching and learning looks like in Spanish. In 2023, they brought in TNTP’s signature in-service teacher professional development program, Good to Great , which strengthens teacher practice by centering high-quality instructional materials and leading teachers through carefully structured cycles of planning, teaching, and reflection. Since 2015, TNTP has led this program with over 700 teachers in 12 states, focusing on multiple subjects and grade-bands and a range of student populations.  

Working closely with the leadership team at Vimenti, TNTP began with an analysis of the school’s current instructional landscape for Spanish language arts. This important step helped us better understand the learning environment, the teachers, and the students. Based on that deeper awareness, TNTP created a tailored approach that would coach educators on how they could better meet their students’ needs. The customized professional development and teaching intensive program consisted of three core components:  

1.  School Landscape Analysis – Listening and Learning:

• Led focus groups with teachers   
• Conducted classroom observations   
• Completed a curriculum audit   
• Met with school leaders  

2.  Professional Development:

• Co-constructed an instructional vision
• Built deep understanding of teacher identities
• Focused on pedagogical practices of close reading and daily writing, effective question sequences and lesson internalization  

3. Teaching Intensive:

• K-6 teachers implemented one week of lessons during their morning reading block.  
• Every afternoon teachers participated in reflection and planning sessions to analyze student work and prepare for the next day’s instruction.  

We invited educators to dive deeply into the importance of high expectations and grade-appropriate assignments for their students. During the one-week teaching intensive, Vimenti teachers spent the morning reading blocks implementing lessons and devoted the afternoons to reflection and planning sessions.  

From Developing Lessons to Lessons Learned

The TNTP team developed grade-appropriate lessons for teachers to implement, offered intensive professional development, accompanied them during their instruction, and facilitated guided reflection of student achievement so they could successfully plan for the next day’s instruction. Seeing students succeed showed Vimenti teachers what their students were capable of, and in turn, raised teachers’ own expectations for how they must structure instruction to boost academic achievement.  

Had I seen a [close reading] question like this… I am 95% sure I would have said ‘skip that one, you will not be able to answer it’… but exposing them was good and led to great results.”” — Third-grade teacher, Vimenti School  

Higher Teacher Expectations Lead to Increased Student Engagement

When we compared classroom observation data between the first and last observations, the results were dramatic. The percentage of students responsible for thinking in the classroom jumped to 75 percent, a stark contrast from initial observations where this was only observed sparingly if at all. Similarly, work requiring students to use textual details to demonstrate understanding saw similar gains. The percentage of teachers indicating high expectations for their students also increased from 50 percent to 67 percent after the one-week teaching institute.   

Following the institute, one second-grade teacher shared, “[Students] are more capable than we give them credit for… you realize that they could do it… we put limitations on them ourselves.”  

Teachers weren’t the only ones recognizing this mindset shift. We started and ended the program by administering student surveys, to ensure students had a voice in evaluating their academic experiences. Student sentiment improved over the week, with more students reporting that their teachers’ higher expectations encouraged them to do their best in class. Blending high expectations, solid instruction, and grade-level content, including culturally relevant texts, had begun to unlock immense potential for both students and teachers.  

Through our customized professional learning experience, TNTP created opportunities for Vimenti’s teachers to jumpstart instructional improvement and challenge their expectations of what their students could achieve. Teachers could see the immediate impact of their instructional improvements in real time, and with coaching support, began to shift the ownership of the learning process to their students. In just one week, students wrote significantly longer responses to questions, included more evidence from the text in their answers, and dove into more complex topics, demonstrating a deeper understanding of the texts.    

In partnership with school leaders, we ensured Vimenti’s teachers worked with high-quality, culturally relevant texts that were on the appropriate grade level for their students, empowering them to focus on accelerating learning for students, rather than on struggling to catch up from pandemic setbacks. Overall, Vimenti’s teachers and students had the chance to discover and develop new identities for themselves as educators and learners. The strong results give us confidence that the Good to Great summer institute catalyzed a continuous improvement cycle that will have an ongoing impact for Vimenti students.   

Contact us to learn more about how Good to Great can strengthen instruction in your school system.  

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Case Study | May 14, 2024

Good to Great en Puerto Rico

TNTP ofreció desarrollo profesional a docentes de Español de nivel elemental en San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Blog Post | May 8, 2024

Innovative Educator Prep Program Centers HQIM and Research-Based Teaching Methods

A community college sees increased enrollment in training programs for new teachers and facilitates social mobility by embedding HQIM in their curricula.

Blog Post | April 29, 2024

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Ednovate, a network of six high schools in California, coordinates support for multilingual learners by prioritizing their input and involving leadership.

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TNTP’s Insight surveys show that strategies for retaining teachers can be low-cost and as simple as offering positive feedback and asking them to stay.

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Building a New Foundation with High-Quality Instructional Materials

New Jersey’s Passaic Public Schools and TNTP revamp curriculum with strategic selection of bilingual HQIM and see fast results in student mastery of grade-level standards.

Imali Ariyarathne, seventh-grade teacher at Langston Hughes Academy, introduces her students to the captivating world of science.

TNTP is the nation’s leading research, policy, and consulting organization dedicated to transforming America’s public education system, so that every generation thrives.

Today, we work side-by-side with educators, system leaders, and communities across 39 states and over 6,000 districts nationwide to reach ambitious goals for student success.

Yet the possibilities we imagine push far beyond the walls of school and the education field alone. We are catalyzing a movement across sectors to create multiple pathways for young people to achieve academic, economic, and social mobility.

Up to 40pc of mental health conditions are linked to child abuse and neglect, study finds

In 1996, Ange McAuley was just 11 years old when ABC's Four Corners profiled her family living on Brisbane's outskirts.

At the time her mother was pregnant with her sixth child and her father had long ago moved back to Perth.

WARNING: This story contains details that may be distressing to some readers.

It was a story about child protection and the program was profiling the role of community volunteers helping her mother, who had been in and out of mental health wards.

Ange was the eldest and it fell to her to get her younger siblings ready for school.

By the time the new baby arrived, she would stay home and change nappies.

"It was pretty crazy back then — I wasn't going to school a lot," she said.

By that age she was already holding a secret — she'd been sexually abused at age six by her stepfather, who would later be convicted of the crime.

"Back in the nineties, a lot of people kept stuff hidden and it wasn't spoken about outside of the family," she said.

"I've carried all these big burdens that weren't even mine. Sexual abuse happened to me. I didn't ask for it."

She says the trauma triggered a lifetime of mental health problems from substance abuse and self-harm as a teen, right through to post-natal depression.

Hidden source of our mental health crisis

A new study from the University of Sydney's Matilda Centre has established just how much Australia's mental health crisis can be traced back to this kind of childhood abuse and neglect.

The research has found that childhood maltreatment is responsible for up to 41 per cent of common mental health conditions including anxiety, depression, substance abuse, self-harm and suicide attempts.

The research, which draws on a 2023 meta-analysis of 34 research studies covering 54,000 people, found maltreatment accounted for 41 per cent of suicide attempts in Australia, 35 per cent of self-harm cases and 21 per cent of depression episodes.

It defined childhood maltreatment as physical, sexual, emotional abuse, emotional or physical neglect and domestic violence before the age of 18.

Lead researcher Lucy Grummitt said it is the first piece of work to quantify the direct impact of child abuse on long-term mental health. 

It found if childhood maltreatment was eradicated it would avert more than 1.8 million cases of depression, anxiety and substance use disorders.

"It shows just how many people in Australia are suffering from mental health conditions that are potentially preventable," she said.

Dr Grummitt said they found in the year 2023 child maltreatment in Australia accounted for 66,143 years of life lost and 118,493 years lived with disability because of the associated mental health conditions.

"We know that when a child is exposed to this level of stress or trauma, it does trigger a lot of changes in the brain and body," Dr Grummitt said.

"Things like altering the body's stress response will make a child hyper-vigilant to threat. It can lead to difficulties with emotion regulation, being able to cope with difficult emotions."

While some areas of maltreatment are trending down, figures from the landmark Australian child maltreatment study last year show rising rates of sexual abuse by adolescents and emotional abuse.

That study found more than one in three females and one in seven males aged 16 to 24 had experienced childhood sexual abuse.

Dr Grummit says childhood trauma can affect how the brain processes emotions once children become teens.

"It could be teenagers struggling to really cope with difficult emotions and certainly trauma can play a huge role in causing those difficult emotions," she said.

Mental health scars emerge early

For Ange, the trauma of her early years first showed itself in adolescence when she started acting out — she remembers punching walls and cars, binge drinking and using drugs.

"I would get angry and just scream," she said.

"I used to talk back to the teachers. I didn't finish school. Mum kicked me out a lot as a teenager. I was back and forth between mum and dad's."

By the time she disclosed her abuse, she was self-harming and at one point tried to take her own life.

"I was just done," she said.

"I was sick of having to get up every day. I didn't want to do it anymore."

Later on, she would have inappropriate relationships with much older men and suffered from depression, including post-natal depression.

"It's definitely affected relationships, it's affected my friendships, it's affected my intimate relationships," she said.

"Flashbacks can come in at the most inappropriate times — you're back in that moment and you feel guilt and shame.

"I feel like it's held me back a lot."

Calls for mental health 'immunisation'

Dr Grummitt said childhood abuse and neglect should be treated as a national public health priority.

In Australia, suicide is the leading cause of death for young people. 

"It's critical that we are investing in prevention rather than putting all our investments into treatment of mental health problems," she said.

Her team has suggested child development and mental health check-ins become a regular feature across a person's lifetime and have proposed a mental health "immunisation schedule".

Chief executive of mental health charity Prevention United, Stephen Carbone, said they estimate that less than 1 per cent of mental health funding goes toward prevention.

"There's been a big steady increase in per capita funding for mental health over the last 30 years but that hasn't translated into reductions," Dr Carbone, a GP, said. 

"You're not going to be able to prevent mental health conditions unless you start to tackle some of these big causes, in particular child maltreatment."

He said most of Australia's child protection system was about reacting to problems rather than trying to prevent them.

"If you're not tackling the upstream risk factors or putting in place protective factors you just keep getting more and more young people experiencing problems and services being overwhelmed," he said.

Now a mother of two teens herself, Ange says she wants to break the cycle and has been going to therapy regularly to help identify and avoid destructive patterns that she's seen herself fall into.

"I love my girls so much and I want better for them."

• X (formerly Twitter)

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Research: Negotiating Is Unlikely to Jeopardize Your Job Offer

• Einav Hart,
• Julia Bear,
• Zhiying (Bella) Ren

A series of seven studies found that candidates have more power than they assume.

Job seekers worry about negotiating an offer for many reasons, including the worst-case scenario that the offer will be rescinded. Across a series of seven studies, researchers found that these fears are consistently exaggerated: Candidates think they are much more likely to jeopardize a deal than managers report they are. This fear can lead candidates to avoid negotiating altogether. The authors explore two reasons driving this fear and offer research-backed advice on how anxious candidates can approach job negotiations.

Imagine that you just received a job offer for a position you are excited about. Now what? You might consider negotiating for a higher salary, job flexibility, or other benefits , but you’re apprehensive. You can’t help thinking: What if I don’t get what I ask for? Or, in the worst-case scenario, what if the hiring manager decides to withdraw the offer?

• Einav Hart is an assistant professor of management at George Mason University’s Costello College of Business, and a visiting scholar at the Wharton School. Her research interests include conflict management, negotiations, and organizational behavior.
• Julia Bear is a professor of organizational behavior at the College of Business at Stony Brook University (SUNY). Her research interests include the influence of gender on negotiation, as well as understanding gender gaps in organizations more broadly.
• Zhiying (Bella) Ren is a doctoral student at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Her research focuses on conversational dynamics in organizations and negotiations.

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