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Expatriate Assignments

In Growth Markets to Soar

The number of short-term and long-term assignments is expected to almost double during the next three years, according to Ernst & Young’s Global Mobility Effectiveness Survey 2012.

Companies are having trouble retaining those employees, however, once they gain the experience abroad and return home. Within two years of returning home, 11 percent of the employees resign and move on to other companies, the survey found. African companies lose 26 percent of returning employees within two years of repatriation, compared with 12 percent for North American corporations. European organizations lose 11 percent, and South American businesses and Asia-Pacific companies each lose 10 percent.

According to survey respondents, their top global mobility challenges are tax compliance, immigration, and compensation and benefits.

“To meet the many challenges that organizations face, it is essential that talent management and global mobility are integrated,” says Dina Pyron, Ernst & Young’s global mobility leader. “Growth is the primary goal for many organizations, and it is essential to use your best talent to stay ahead of the pack.”

Bias Found Against Unemployed In 2011, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission began investigating employers’ refusal to hire unemployed applicants as a potential form of discrimination.

Researchers from California State University in San Marcos and Kennesaw State University in Kennesaw, Ga., say they have the first empirical evidence of a stigma or bias against unemployed job candidates that increases the longer they are unemployed.

“Candidates unemployed for 18 months were viewed as less qualified and would be less likely to be granted an interview and hired than those unemployed for six or 12 months at all ages studied,” the researchers wrote. “There is a stigma associated with being unemployed for a long duration of time despite the fact that many individuals have become unemployed solely due to adverse economic conditions.”

The study found that volunteer work reduces this stigma, increasing the likelihood of those unemployed candidates being interviewed or hired. The volunteer work didn’t have to be work-related to have a positive effect, the researchers found.

Performing volunteer work enhanced a candidate’s attractiveness in the study because the candidate was perceived to have desirable personal attributes, such as good citizenship, rather than because of perceptions of job qualifications or skills, they found.

The study involved 270 college students judging fictitious resumes. The applicants varied by the duration of their unemployment, their age and their volunteer work. The study was conducted by Ted H. Shore, professor of management and marketing at California State University, and Armen Tashchian, professor of marketing and professional sales at Kennesaw State University.

The author is a senior writer for HR Magazine.

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Essentials of Expatriate Assignment Support Policies

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Expatriate Management (Best Practice Tips)

Anne morris.

• 11 April 2020

IN THIS SECTION

Managing expatriates is a multi-stage process, where each stage can be crucial to the overall success of an overseas assignment for your business, as well as the individual assignee, on both a personal and professional basis.

The following guide looks at best practice for employers when deploying individuals overseas, including some important practical tips for expatriate management, from preparation through to repatriation.

Preparing expatriates for an overseas assignment

The management of overseas assignments can be a complex process for employers and HR personnel to get right, especially when trying to balance the cost of an assignment within the shifting demands of the global business environment against the individual needs of the expatriate.

By thoroughly preparing in advance of the assignment, and by properly investing in the necessary processes from the outset, you can help to minimise wasted expenditure and unnecessary costs at a later date. This can also help to avoid any loss of revenue, and even the potential loss of top global talent from within your organisation, resulting from a failed assignment.

The level of preparation required in the expatriate management process can vary depending on the nature and length of the overseas assignment, the location of the assignment, the number of assignees involved and the individual personal circumstances of each assignee.

In broad terms, however, your pre-assignment expatriate management process should include the following.

A comprehensive assessment of the nature and length of the overseas assignment needed to meet your business objectives, having regard to the flexibility offered by various different types of assignment, from business trips to permanent relocation. This process should also be carried out in the context of any prospective candidates, their level of experience and their personal circumstances. For the novice expatriate, the option of commuter and short-term assignments may be a sensible starting point.

The provision of an adequate compensation package to adequately incentivise prospective overseas assignees, attracting the best available candidates. This should include a suitable salary that matches or exceeds the typical salary that an employee would get paid in their home country for doing the same job, together with relocation costs and a cost of living allowance to reflect any additional daily expenditure in the host location.

Implement a thorough selection and vetting procedure for prospective assignees, ensuring they are suitably qualified and capable of undertaking the assignment in question. Each assignment will present its own unique challenges and demands, so you will need to match the right person to the job, having regard to the individual needs of the assignee in the context of the specific assignment and host location. This could include formal and informal assessments of their capabilities, career aspirations, physical and mental wellbeing, and whether they are emotionally equipped to withstand any cultural adjustment.

A full assessment of any travel and legal risks prior to deployment tailored to the specific assignment, the host destination and the individual assignee(s), ensuring that you fully research the country and region in which the assignee will be working. You should also keep abreast of any imminent changes that may affect the assignment or assignee prior to their deployment.

A pre-deployment programme of training and education for overseas assignees and their families, where applicable, about the host destination. This could include cross-cultural training and language classes, as well practical information about the region or city in terms of transport, education, recreation, healthcare services, and any safety and security issues. For those travelling to high-risk destinations this should also include security briefings and training on hostile environment awareness.

Supporting expatriates during an overseas assignment

Even with thorough preparation prior to the start of an overseas assignment and through to deployment, the provision of ongoing support for an expatriate during the lifecycle of their assignment can be key to its’ overall success.

A human-centric approach should be taken to expatriate management, where absent the right personal and professional support for your overseas assignees and their families whilst abroad, this could seriously affect the outcome.

The level of support required can again vary depending on the nature and length of the overseas assignment, its’ location t, the number of assignees involved and the personal circumstances of each assignee.

In broad terms, however, your active-assignment expatriate management process should include the following:

The provision of an ongoing benefit and support program to help assignees and their families integrate into their host destination. This could include local support, where you could consider outsourcing this role to a specialist who can help novice expats to settle into their new surroundings and signpost them to different services. You should also provide key HR contacts back home to address any personal or professional problems, or in the event of an emergency.

Ensure a positive employee experience, where psychological wellbeing and happiness while on an overseas assignment is strongly linked to expatriate success. This could include the use of informal introductions, employee-centric activities and social networking events on the assignee’s arrival in the host destination to help them integrate with their new work colleagues and other ex-pat families within your organisation.

Maintaining regular contact with your overseas assignees, ensuring effective coordination between management and HR, as well as any local support team in the host destination. Through clear communication you can help to pre-empt any problems that may lead to job dissatisfaction or difficulties with cultural integration. This can also help assignees to keep abreast of any workplace changes and not feel disconnected or isolated.

The provision of quality healthcare for maintaining the physical and mental health of your employees and their families. You should ensure that you opt for an international health insurance plan that offers the assistance and protection your assignee’s may need, including access to a 24-hour helpline that can be used to answer any medical or security questions, or facilitate the provision of emergency assistance, at a time when an assignee’s usual points of contact would not be available.

Remain fully informed of any risk factors that may impact on the assignment, where even relatively safe destinations can quickly become high-risk regions due to health, safety, security, political or social reasons. You should also be able to effectively communicate any such changes and important information to assignees working remotely, especially in relation to health and safety.

The effective use of technology, including data and analytics tools to make informed management decisions in respect of overseas assignments, from cost control to key performance indicators. Further, by providing overseas assignees with the right equipment and devices to do their job can help to maximise productivity, monitor their progress and even measure the assignee experience. This should include the provision of secure wireless networks, good connectivity and up-to-date software.

Making provision for expatriates following an overseas assignment

Having successfully completed an overseas assignment, this is not the end of the process for either you or the expatriate. The repatriation process, even though this is the last step in the expatriation lifecycle, can be just as challenging as the deployment process. In many cases this will involve a process of practical, mental and emotional readjustment for the assignee, as well as their families.

The level of support required for expatriates following an overseas assignment can vary depending on how long an assignee has spent abroad, the extent of any family ties back home and the nature of any role that they will be returning to.

In broad terms, however, your post-assignment expatriate management process should include the following:

The provision of an adequate repatriation package to adequately incentivise overseas assignees to return home to work for your organisation. This should include the potential for career progression or a suitably senior role to return to home to, ensuring that you retain your top talent and benefit from their overseas experience.

The provision of other initiatives to alleviate the risk of losing key employees, including a suitable relocation package following a long-term overseas assignment to enable an employee to easily move back to the UK. The issue of costs must always be balanced against the need to retain talent to ensure the continuity and success of your business for the future. Given their international experience, expatriates are open to being headhunted by your competitors, so the cost of financial incentives must be weighed against the risk of losing them altogether.

The use of debriefing interviews to capture lessons learned from the overseas assignment, making the most of any invaluable insight and new industry knowledge the assignee has gained from their experience abroad. This will help you to develop your business back in the UK and stay ahead of your competitors. This will also give you the opportunity to explore any career aspirations and potential options available to your assignee, as well as the possibility of any future overseas assignments.

Practical tips for effective expatriate management

Although statistically there can be a high failure rate for overseas assignments, the risk of an unsuccessful assignment can be minimised by applying the following practical tips to the expatriate management process:

• Carefully consider the assignment in the context of your business goals, including the nature of the assignment and number of assignees needed Offer adequate compensation packages to attract the best available candidates, including relocation and costs of living allowances.
• Implement a thorough selection and vetting procedure for prospective assignees, ensuring they are suitably qualified and capable of undertaking the assignment in question in the host destination.
• Thoroughly research the host destination for any travel and security risks, keeping abreast of any imminent changes that may affect the assignment or assignee.
• Thoroughly prepare your assignee for deployment through a programme of pre-deployment training, including their families where applicable Invest in an ongoing benefit and support program to help assignees and their families integrate into their host destination.
• Encourage a positive employee experience through the use of informal introductions with ex-pat families, employee-centric activities and social networking events on the assignee’s arrival in the host destination.
• Maintain regular contact with your overseas assignee to help pre-empt any problems and avoid any feelings of isolation.
• Remain up-to-date with any changes in the host destination that may affect the assignment or assignee.
• Provide adequate healthcare, including access to a 24-hour helpline and the provision of emergency assistance where needed.
• Provide adequate equipment and up-to-date ways of increasing productivity, monitoring performance and staying connected.
• Provide adequate repatriation packages to incentivise assignees to return to work for you, including the potential for career progression or a suitably senior role, as well as any necessary relocation package.
• Utilise debriefing interviews to capture lessons learned from the overseas assignment and explore potential career options available to the expatriate, including the possibility of further overseas assignments.

Need assistance?

Seeking expert advice in expatriate management is often money well spent. The cost of sending employees abroad can already be significant, but the risk of losing that investment through either a failed assignment or loss of the assignee altogether from within your organisation should be weighed in the balance.

Getting it right can result in an increase in revenue, the retention of talent and the ability to repeat the process successfully time and time again.

DavidsonMorris are employer solutions lawyers with specialist experience in global mobility and supporting businesses with their international workforce needs. For advice and help with your expat management, speak to us .

Expatriate  management  FAQs

What is expatriate in hrm.

Expatriate in Human Resource Management (HRM), commonly shortened to expat, is someone living in a country different to their own for the purposes of undertaking a short or long-term overseas work assignment. This can include employees sent to manage a new office or set up a new location.

How do you manage an expatriate employee?

Managing an expatriate employee is a multi-stage process, where each stage can be crucial to the overall success of an overseas assignment for both your business and the individual assignee. Effective expatriate management should run throughout the lifecycle of an assignment, from pre-deployment preparation through to repatriation when the employee returns back home.

How do you manage expatriate failure?

In instances where an expatriate is inadequately prepared for a short or long-term overseas assignment, or where the language and cultural differences cannot be overcome, this can often lead to early repatriation. By providing support on a personal and professional level both prior to, during and after the assignment, the risk of expatriate failure can be minimised.

Last updated: 11 April 2020

Founder and Managing Director Anne Morris is a fully qualified solicitor and trusted adviser to large corporates through to SMEs, providing strategic immigration and global mobility advice to support employers with UK operations to meet their workforce needs through corporate immigration.

She is a recognised by Legal 500 and Chambers as a legal expert and delivers Board-level advice on business migration and compliance risk management as well as overseeing the firm’s development of new client propositions and delivery of cost and time efficient processing of applications.

Anne is an active public speaker, immigration commentator , and immigration policy contributor and regularly hosts training sessions for employers and HR professionals

• Anne Morris https://www.davidsonmorris.com/author/anne/ Work Rights for Migrants with UK Visas
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About DavidsonMorris

As employer solutions lawyers, DavidsonMorris offers a complete and cost-effective capability to meet employers’ needs across UK immigration and employment law, HR and global mobility .

Led by Anne Morris, one of the UK’s preeminent immigration lawyers, and with rankings in The Legal 500 and Chambers & Partners , we’re a multi-disciplinary team helping organisations to meet their people objectives, while reducing legal risk and nurturing workforce relations.

Legal Disclaimer

The matters contained in this article are intended to be for general information purposes only. This article does not constitute legal advice, nor is it a complete or authoritative statement of the law, and should not be treated as such. Whilst every effort is made to ensure that the information is correct at the time of writing, no warranty, express or implied, is given as to its accuracy and no liability is accepted for any error or omission. Before acting on any of the information contained herein, expert legal advice should be sought.

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Resources for International Citizens and Expatriates

• Understanding and Preventing Expat Failure

You will first recruit potential expat candidates, select the best, provide pre-departure training and send them off to their new homes. They will, in time, return to HQ more agile and experienced than before, revealing you for the thoughtful, sage professional you are.

Easy, right?  Except that, as in life, the smooth path of expatriation is littered with unforeseen obstacles. The costs of failure, and the risks, are in fact considerably higher for expat workers than for traditional employees. So much so that the topic of expat failure is arguably the very foundation of expatriate research.

In this article, we examine some of the traditional causes of expatriate failure, as well as a series of recommendations to reduce the risk.

Also Read: 5 Common Problems Faced by Expatriates

Understanding Expat Failure

Early expatriate scholars labeled any early end to an assignment as an expat failure. Yet later studies recognized that assignments might end for a variety of reasons, some of which can be positive. Consider, for instance, that one of your recently assigned expatriates returns home early to accept a promotion. For you and the employee, that represents not a failure but a success.

Alternatively, the expatriate may return home early to accept a position with the competition. For you, this is indeed a bad look. For the employee, however, it’s a sweet victory. If the expat return is due to a change in corporate strategy, this may signal failure to the uprooted expat, but not necessarily for the organization. By contrast, both parties are likely to view the assignment as a failure if the expat is recalled home due to poor performance.

Expat & Employer Expectations

A broader definition, therefore, holds that expat failure occurs when they fail to meet employer expectations. As has been noted, failure may result if the expatriate is recalled for poor performance or departs for a better offer with a competitor. But even those assignments performed to their bitter end may be failures if the employee does not meet organizational objectives or performs below expectations.

Failure can even result after the assignment ends. Companies often anticipate that returning expatriates, with their international know-how, will prove a boon to their home organization. Indeed, many are appointed to international assignments to groom them for future leadership positions. Yet, in a significant loss on investment, studies show that around one-quarter of expatriate employees leave their employers within two years of their return – often for better jobs elsewhere or due to dissatisfaction with their reintegration to the home office.

The High Cost of Expatriate Failure

The exact failure rate is hard to specify given all of these possible causes, and scholars offering estimates have faced criticism from their more data-driven peers. Yet, consider the warning signs reported in one study. The authors found that over two-thirds of expatriates experienced stress relating to their job performance within their first four months on assignment. Another two-thirds reported concerns about their relationship with their new boss. At the 8-month mark, the situation had improved somewhat, but around half were still expressing concerns.

Organizational Consequences of Expat Failure

The consequences to the organization of such failures are notable, including costs estimated at $1.2 million per expatriate. This hefty price tag comes from the boost to salary that is typically needed to incentivize employees to go abroad. There are also relocation fees, cost of living adjustments, pre-departure training and orientation, and more. Organizations pay for the failures of international staff through loss of reputation with clients and customers. Similarly, other employees may hesitate to accept international assignments when observing their expat co-workers’ shortcomings.

Consequences for an Expatriate

Arguably, an expat experiences an even higher cost of failure than the organization, with failure imposing psychological costs as well as professional and financial burdens. Because expatriates are often chosen precisely because they are among the organization’s best domestic performers, these historic high achievers may be particularly unsuited to handle the stress of failure.

A study from 2007 showed that 45% of the expatriates in their study reported feeling “overwhelmed” with overwork.  Also notable is that 51% felt more overworked than at home. Nearly 50% worked 50 or more hours each week. Outside of the academic research sphere, 2022 research by Cigna Global shows similar issues, with 89% of respondents indicating they were “always on” for work and 98% reporting symptoms of burnout.

Other studies suggest that unsuccessful expatriates may experience losses of self-esteem, confidence, professional reputation, motivation, and a reduced appetite for any future international assignments – even when the causes for failure were beyond their control.

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Expat Failure: What it (Usually) Isn’t

So, what are the causes of expat failure? It may be tempting to assume that job skills are the main determinant of expat success and that the lack thereof is the main cause of expat failure. In fact, skills are the primary characteristic that many organizations use to select expats. And ensuring a match between an expatriate’s skills and the needed on-assignment skills is important, as is providing expatriates with the role clarity needed to understand what is expected of them.

Yet studies suggest that failure is rarely a matter of insufficient or mismatching skills. The reason? Expatriates tend to perform tasks abroad that are similar to those they were performing at home.

Expat Failure: What it (Often) Is

Instead, the leading risk of expat failure is difficulty adjusting to the new culture, family stress and simple overload of responsibility. (For more detail on this, read How to Become an Expat – Successfully .) The greater the cultural difference between an expatriate’s home country and the host country, the more significant these challenges are likely to be.

Challenges also arise for many expats and their families when foreign national communities are small or local communities are insular and unwelcoming. These environments can cause difficulty for expatriates in making new friends or feeling a part of the community.

Pre-Departure Training

Extensive pre-departure training provides a ready solution for these issues. But some organizations neglect to provide any pre-departure training. Others fail to realize its full benefits by offering simplistic or outdated seminars. In addition, studies show time and again the importance of well-adjusted spouses and children. This emphasizes the importance of including family members in certain pre-departure training and orientation.

Expatriates may also have the right technical skills to succeed but the wrong social skills or personality traits. For instance, more outgoing, charismatic and ambitious employees tend to adjust better to their host environments. In addition, employees’ patience, curiosity and openness to new experiences are particularly important in the international context. Unsurprisingly, prior international experience also predicts future success. Thus, selecting the right employee is a key step in the expatriate process.

Support from Management

Finally, employees expect heightened support from their organizations when going on international assignments. When expats feel unsupported, they may lose their motivation to perform or seek alternative employment.

Expat expectations include workplace features such as salary hikes and improved benefits, improved professional opportunities and performance management systems adapted to the international assignment. Furthermore, support may be needed to ensure that the expatriate stays well connected to HQ and that opportunities for professional advancement remain or improve once on international assignments.  In addition, however, expected support may include non-work needs, such as helping staff members to find a new home or a spouse find a new job.

From Expatriate Failure to Expatriate Success

The risk of expatriate failure is, consequently, a real risk bearing down on both employer and employee. And yet, the research is clear that expatriates offer significant benefits to their employers, from connecting HQ with distant offices to sharing best practices and equitably distributing top talent. The challenge and opportunity for HR professionals, then, is to leverage such opportunities while minimizing risks.

How to do this? Through careful attention to all stages of the expatriate management process. From employee selection to pre-departure training and preparation to ongoing support throughout the assignment and on return, HR professionals can set expats up for success.

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About the Author

Dr. Thomas J. Bussen, with a Doctorate of Business Administration, JD, and MBA, is an Assistant Teaching Professor at Miami University’s Farmer School of Business, and a former professor at the African Leadership University and the American University of Central Asia.  He is the author of several books, including Shaping the Global Leader and Compliance Management: A How-to Guide . His latest book, Enlightened Self-Interest: Individualism, Community and the Common Good, makes the case for a more inclusive and equitable professional mindset and is expected for release in 2023 with Georgetown University Press.

Sources and Further Reading

Kraimer, M. L., Shaffer, M. A., & Bolino, M. C. (2009). The influence of expatriate and repatriate experiences on career advancement and repatriate retention.  Human Resource Management: Published in Cooperation with the School of Business Administration, The University of Michigan and in alliance with the Society of Human Resources Management ,  48 (1), 27-47.

Lazarova, M., & Caligiuri, P. (2001). Retaining repatriates: The role of organizational support practices.  Journal of world business ,  36 (4), 389-401.

Mesmer-Magnus, J. R., & Viswesvaran, C. (2007). Expatriate management: A review and directions for research in expatriate selection, training, and repatriation.  Handbook of research in international human resource management , 197-220.

Suutari, V., & Brewster, C. (2001). Expatriate management practices and perceived relevance: Evidence from Finnish expatriates.  Personnel Review .

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Enhancing expatriates’ assignments success: the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation and performance

• Open access
• Published: 20 July 2020
• Volume 41 , pages 4291–4311, ( 2022 )

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• Ilaria Setti 1 ,
• Valentina Sommovigo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9273-5706 1 &
• Piergiorgio Argentero 1  

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Today’s increasingly global marketplace is resulting in more organizations sending employees to work outside their home countries as expatriates. Consequently, identifying factors influencing expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment at work and performance has become an increasingly important issue for both researchers and firms. Drawing on Kim et al. ( 2008 ), this study examines the critical elements to expatriate success, which are the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adjustment at work, and assignment-specific performance. One-hundred and fifty-one expatriates working within the energy sector, who were mainly located in the Middle East completed questionnaires, investigating: cultural intelligence ( Cultural Intelligence Scale ), cross-cultural adjustment ( Expatriate Adjustment Scale ), performance (Expatriate Contextual/Managerial Performance Skills ), cultural distance (Kogut and Singh’ index), length of staying in the host country and international work experience. Findings indicated that the four cultural intelligence components were directly and indirectly (through cross-cultural adjustment at work) associated with performance. The positive relationship between motivational cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adjustment at work was stronger when cultural distance was low, when expatriates were at the beginning of a new international assignment, and when they had lower experience. Organizations can greatly benefit from hiring cross-culturally intelligent expatriates for international assignments, providing their employees with pre-departure training programs aimed at increasing cultural intelligence, and giving them organizational resources and logistical help to support them.

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Introduction

As globalization of trade encourages multinational corporations (MNCs) to operate in different geographic environments (Sambasivan et al. 2013 ), talent mobility has become one of the key channels through which to develop global organizations’ competitive advantages (Tarique and Schuler 2010 ). This requires the presence of a cross-culturally competent workforce that can manage overseas subsidiaries and liaise with foreign affiliates (Froese and Peltokorpi 2011 ). In this context, expatriates are considered as invaluable assets by MNCs (Wu and Ang 2011 ). Consequently, there have been numerous calls in psychology (e.g., Mol et al. 2005 ) for more research aimed at identifying the psychological factors driving expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment and performance.

In this context, cultural intelligence (CQ) represents an interesting variable since it is a malleable capability which can be developed through cross-cultural experiences (Chao et al. 2017 ) and specific trainings (Leung et al. 2014 ). CQ is defined as “an individual’s competence to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse settings” (Ang and Van Dyne 2008 , p. 3). CQ is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct which includes four main components: metacognitive CQ (i.e., cultural awareness), cognitive CQ (i.e., cultural knowledge), motivational CQ (i.e., motivation and self-efficacy in functioning in diverse cultural settings), and behavioural CQ (i.e., adoption of appropriate behaviours during cross-cultural interactions). Scholars have called for more research on the CQ dimensions (Ang et al. 2011 ) as the four CQ components have been differently associated with specific intercultural effectiveness outcomes (see Rockstuhl and Van Dyne 2018 for a review).

This study responds to this call by analysing the relationships between specific CQ dimensions, cross-cultural adjustment (CCA; i.e., psychological comfort in a foreign country; Black and Gregersen 1999 ) at work and assignment-specific performance. This latter construct, which refers to the ability to accomplish certain assignment specific tasks (e.g., replacement planning; Caligiuri 1997 ), was chosen in this paper as main dependent variable because successfully executing assignment-specific duties is frequently the main constituent of success, which is evaluated by the home office (Earley and Ang 2003 ). Aside from performance, this study focused on work CCA, namely the extent to which expatriates become psychologically comfortable handling assignment duties and meeting performance expectations (Chen et al. 2010 ; Shaffer et al. 2006 ). Work CCA is one of the three dimensions of CCA, together with general (i.e., general living conditions) and interaction (i.e., interactions with locals) components (Black et al. 1991 ). This paper concentrated on work CCA as it is more predictive of performance than the other CCA dimensions (Chew et al. 2019 ).

The role of overall CQ as a meaningful antecedent of overall CCA (e.g., Chen et al. 2014 ; Rockstuhl and Van Dyne 2018 ) and job performance (e.g., Malek and Budhwar 2013 ; Ramalu et al. 2012 ) has been identified, whereas the literature on the role of the four CQ facets in facilitating work CCA is less consistent (e.g., Ott and Michailova 2018a , 2018b ). The literature on the effect of CQ on performance indicates an intricate association between the variables, the relevance of the specific CQ dimensions, and the role of work CCA in this association (ibidem). Thus, while some researchers found a direct positive CQ-performance association (e.g., Chen et al. 2011 ; Lee et al. 2013 ), there is also evidence that the impact of CQ on performance may be mediated by work CCA (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ; Lee et al. 2013 ).

Additionally, a closer look to the literature on the boundary conditions under which specific CQ dimensions may enhance work CCA and, in turn, assignment-specific performance reveal numerous gaps. To fil this gap, this study aimed to analyse how and when specific CQ facets were more - or less - likely to facilitate assignment-specific performance. To this end, this paper concentrated on cultural distance (CD, i.e., the extent to which the culture of destination differs from expatriates’ home country on various values; Shenkar 2001 ), length of stay in the host country and work international experience. Indeed, although some studies analysed the moderating role of CD in the relationships between various individual features and outcomes in the expatriation area (e.g., Chen et al. 2010 ; Zhang 2013 ), the research on the effect of CD on the association between CQ dimensions and work CCA remains limited. Moreover, even though some studies demonstrated that the length of residence in the local country influenced both CQ (e.g., Li et al. 2013 ) and CCA (e.g., Ramalu et al. 2010 ), no previous research, to the best of our knowledge, has investigated the enhancing effect of length of stay on the association between specific CQ assets and work CCA. Furthermore, though some investigations showed that work experience played a moderating role in the CQ-CCA relationship (e.g., Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ), no study, to our knowledge, has considered the moderated mediated effect of the four CQ dimensions and work experience - through work CCA - on assignment-specific performance.

Therefore, our research questions are as follows: do the four CQ dimensions directly and indirectly, through work CCA, impact on assignment-specific performance? And what are the effects of CD, length of stay in the host country and previous international experience with regard to this? In answering these questions, this paper drew on Kim et al. ( 2008 ) which presented, for the first time, propositions that delineated the relationships between CQ, CCA and performance analysing them together, so that scholars and practitioners could reach a better understanding of each of these. The authors proposed that overall CQ – conceptualized as the result of its four components – would be directly and indirectly, through each of the three dimensions of CCA, associated with overall performance. Additionally, the authors suggested that the CQ-CCA relationship would be positively moderated by CD, so that such relationship would be stronger when CD would be greater.

The main contribution of the present work is to extend this model by analysing whether specific dimensions of CQ – rather than overall CQ - were related to assignment-specific performance – rather than overall performance. Moreover, this research moves an important step forward in the expatriate literature as it identifies, beyond CD – as proposed by the model - other understudied boundary conditions for CQ effects (i.e., work experience and length of stay in the host country).

In doing so, the study was undertaken on the relatively under-investigated population of expatriates working within the energy sector in the Middle East for several reasons. First, some Middle East countries, such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE), have experienced unprecedented growth over the past years (Bealer and Bhanugopan 2014 ). Second, such nations remain relevant economic hubs in the Middle Eastern region, that attract numerous expatriates from Western countries (ibidem), especially within the energy sector (Finaccord 2018 ). For instance, in 2017 Saudi Arabia hosted the largest number of expatriates, whereas in the UAE expatriates constituted the 87.8% of the total population (ibidem). Nevertheless, only a few studies have concentrated on this population. Third, since most of our research respondents were from Latin America, the subsequent national cultural dissimilarities were likely to result in significant CCA difficulties. Thereby, we contribute to literature surrounding organizational behaviour and psychology as well as international human resource management.

In the next section, we provide theoretical arguments for the reasons why each of the four CQ dimensions might be uniquely posited to contribute to expatriates’ assignment-specific performance and work CCA. We describe each component in more detail, and we give rationale for the mediating role of work CCA. Subsequently, we present conceptual logic for our proposed effects of CD, length of stay in the host country and international work experience in the association between specific CQ components and work CCA. After that, we present the sample investigated and the methodology adopted. Then, we report the results and discuss our findings. Finally, we present theoretical and managerial implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research as well as conclusion.

The Relationship between CQ Dimensions and Expatriates’ Assignment-Specific Performance

The construct of CQ attracted ever-increasing attention since other existing formulations of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence (EQ) or social intelligence (SI), do not provide a comprehensive explanation in culturally diverse situations (Groves and Feyerherm 2011 ). Indeed, both EQ and SI are culture bound, such that although these two forms of intelligence may enable individuals to better understand social situations, this does not turn automatically into successful CCA (Caputo et al. 2018 ). Thus, individuals who have high EQ and SI in one culture may not easily adapt to cross-cultural interactions due to misinterpretations of culture-specific situational cues. Conversely, CQ is culture free and regards a general array of abilities particularly relevant on settings characterized by cultural diversity.

Drawing on Kim et al. ( 2008 ), CQ is related to expatriates’ performance, such that culturally intelligent expatriates may successfully function across cultural settings. We present below conceptual logic for our proposed relationships for each of the CQ dimensions with performance, describing each component in more detail.

Meta-cognitive CQ refers to an individual’s level of conscious cultural awareness of - and control over - cognitions during cross-cultural interactions. Self-awareness and cognitive flexibility can promote expatriates’ performance by facilitating their understanding of culturally appropriate role expectations (Ang et al. 2007 ). Indeed, individuals high in meta-cognitive CQ are better at adjusting their existing knowledge to meet changing environmental demands (ibidem). Thus, they can compensate for cognitive capability when previously acquired knowledge is unreliable, avoiding potential problems. Additionally, in unpredictable situations, their meta-cognitive skills provide them with a means by which supplement the lack of overt cues (Fernandez-Duque et al. 2000 ). This may stimulate the adoption of effective solutions to perform well (Tobias and Everson 2002 ). Meta-cognitive CQ may also facilitate expatriates’ performance by enhancing intercultural creative collaboration (Chua et al. 2012 ), conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ), decision-making and task performance (Ang et al. 2007 ) as well as knowledge transfer from headquarters to subsidiaries (Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 1a: meta-cognitive CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

Cognitive CQ refers to an individual’s general knowledge of norms, practices, and conventions in foreign countries gained from personal experiences and education (Ang et al. 2007 ). Expatriates high in cognitive CQ possess sophisticated mental maps of culture, which allow them to anticipate similarities and differences across cultures (Brislin et al. 2006 ). As a result, they may perform well in foreign workplaces because their in-depth knowledge about diverse cultures enables them to reach a greater understanding of cultural expectations. Additionally, such knowledge leads them to adopt culturally appropriate behaviours by facilitating decision-making, cultural judgment (Ang et al. 2007 ), intercultural negotiation (Groves et al. 2015 ), conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ) and knowledge transfer from headquarters to subsidiaries (Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). Thereby, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 1b: cognitive CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

Motivational CQ refers to individual’s ability to direct attention to understand cultural diversity and maintain energy concentrated on learning about - and operating in - new cultural settings, even when situations are challenging (Ang et al. 2007 ). Expatriates high in motivational CQ are motivated intrinsically and by their efficient beliefs of adaptive capabilities to interact with colleagues from different backgrounds (Templer et al. 2006 ). As a result, they may direct their energy toward learning role expectations, positively coping with problems, and striving to address challenges. Motivational CQ may also facilitate expatriates’ performance by easing intercultural collaboration and negotiation (Chua et al. 2012 ), communication effectiveness (Presbitero and Quita 2017 ), integrative information behaviours (Imai and Gelfand 2010 ), and conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ). Therefore, we formulated the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1c: motivational CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

Behavioural CQ reflects the individual’s ability to communicate in a culturally sensitive way and exhibit culturally appropriate (verbal and non-verbal) behaviours when interacting with people from other cultures (Ang et al. 2007 ). This involves having a wide repertoire of overt behavioural responses which fits to a variety of cross-cultural situations, in addition to using culturally appropriate words, body language and conversation style (ibidem). Expatriates high in behavioural CQ can choose appropriate verbal and physical actions when interacting with locals (Ang and Van Dyne 2008 ). This behavioural flexibility may help them to enact culturally appropriate role-related behaviours and meet assignment-specific expectations (ibidem). This may reduce miscommunications and enhance performance (Ng et al. 2012 ; Rose et al. 2010 ). Accordingly, behavioural flexibility was positively related to task performance within intercultural environments (e.g., Chen et al. 2011 ), conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ), and intercultural negotiation effectiveness (Groves et al. 2015 ). Then, we hypothesized the following:

Hypothesis 1d: behavioural CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

The Relationship between CQ Dimensions and Expatriate Adjustment at Work

In line with Kim et al. ( 2008 ), culturally intelligent individuals are better able to adjust to the host country because they are more likely to gain appropriate emotional and informational support through interactions with locals. Then, CQ represents an important factor driving expatriate CCA which may explain individual dissimilarities in adapting to foreign contexts. We provide below theoretical arguments for the reasons why each of the CQ facets might be uniquely positioned to contribute to work CCA.

To date, relatively little research has been conducted to analyse the relationship between meta-cognitive CQ and work CCA, producing mixed results. Indeed, whereas some investigations have found that meta-cognitive CQ exerts a positive influence on work CCA (e.g., Lin et al. 2012 ; Guðmundsdóttir 2015 ), other studies have revealed a nonsignificant effect (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2015 ; Jyoti et al. 2015 ). Expatriates high in meta-cognitive CQ tend to reflect on cultural dissimilarities before a cross-cultural interaction and develop action plans for how they will interact with locals. This planning prompts cultural learning, problem-solving and interactions with host colleagues, which may reduce uncertainties related to expatriation and, then, facilitate work CCA (Earley and Ang 2003 ; Earley et al. 2006 ). Thus, we proposed the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2a: metacognitive CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

Whereas some studies have identified a positive influence of cognitive CQ on work CCA (e.g., Konanahalli et al. 2014 ), other investigations revealed a non-significant association between the two constructs (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2015 ). Expatriates high in cognitive CQ have a greater understanding of cross-cultural differences (Brislin et al. 2006 ): they are better able to use their cultural knowledge in making decisions and thinking strategically to overcome transition problems. This, in turn, may improve their ability to adjust to the new workplace (Van Dyne et al. 2012 ). Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 2b: cognitive CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

Expatriates high in motivational CQ are more psychologically prepared to adjust to the work demands expected in culturally diverse workplaces (Chen et al. 2010 ). Thus, they have confidence in their capabilities and intrinsic motivation to adjust to new workplaces (Palthe 2004 ) and display newly learn behaviours (Black et al. 1991 ). This may stimulate their involvement in culturally different modes of working and the accomplishment of their assignment objectives (Lin et al. 2012 ). Accordingly, empirical evidence supported that motivational CQ is positively associated with expatriates’ work CCA (Jyoti and Kour 2015 ; Jyoti et al. 2015 ). Thus, we predicted the following:

Hypothesis 2c: motivational CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

Whereas some studies have revealed that behavioural CQ was non-significantly (e.g., Huff et al. 2014 ; Konanahalli et al. 2014 ) or negatively (e.g., Guðmundsdóttir 2015 ; Malek and Budhwar 2013 ) related to work CCA, other investigations have found a positive association between the two constructs (e.g., Ng et al. 2012 ; Ramalu et al. 2011 ). Expatriates with greater behavioural CQ can use culturally appropriate expressions in communication, in addition to flexibly adapting their behaviour to create comfort zones for the other individual(s) involved in cross-cultural encounters (Earley and Peterson 2004 ). The ability to make such adaptations is likely to result in better work CCA because it facilitates communication with host colleagues, reducing the risk of cross-cultural misunderstandings (Ang et al. 2007 ). Therefore, we hypothesized the following:

Hypothesis 2d: behavioural CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

The Relationship between Expatriates’ Work CCA and Assignment-Specific Performance

When expatriates can successfully adjust to the work domain, they are less stressed and, then, have more personal resources to invest in job duties. In this case, they are likely to feel themselves as culturally competent and build closer relationships with local colleagues (Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Chen et al. 2010 ). As a result, expatriates who are culturally adjusted to their new workplaces are more likely to perform well on their international assignments than those who are unable to adjust well (Lee and Kartika 2014 ; Wu and Ang 2011 ). Therefore, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 3: work CCA will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

The Mediating Role of Work CCA

Prior research suggested that CCA might mediate the association between CQ and performance (Kim and Slocum 2008 ; Wang and Takeuchi 2007 ). Despite this development, the empirical evidence on the role played by work CCA in mediating the relationship between specific CQ dimensions and assignment-related tasks has been relatively limited in the expatriate literature, requiring further research (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2015 ; Lee et al. 2014 ). Kim et al. ( 2008 ) proposed that CQ may work through work CCA to affect expatriate performance as the extent to which expatriates are able to successfully adapt to a new work setting may impact on individual work outcomes. They argued that “a smooth transition across work assignments is critical to an expatriate’s success because the work-role that is executed in the host country may be quite unfamiliar, even though the task is the same as it was in their home country, due to different cultural contexts” (ibidem, p. 76). Therefore, expatriates who have greater CQ are more likely to successfully adjust to their new work setting which, in turn, will enable them to reach high levels of performance. Overall, relevant intercultural skills, such as abilities to revise cultural assumptions (meta-cognitive CQ), elaborate sophisticated metal maps about cultures (cognitive CQ), channel one’s own energies toward functioning (motivational CQ) and exhibit appropriate actions (behavioural CQ) in culturally diverse settings, are all factors which are expected to decrease the misunderstandings in role expectations and facilitate interactions with local colleagues (Ramalu et al. 2012 ). As a result, culturally intelligent expatriates, who are better able to cope with stress related to uncertainties (Sambasivan et al. 2017 ), may more easily feel comfortable in any cultural setting they are working in. Then, work CCA holds the potential to be a proximal intercultural effectiveness outcome which may partially mediate the effects of the four CQ dimensions on more distal effectiveness outcomes, such as assignment specific performance. Hence:

Hypothesis 4: work CCA will mediate the relationship between specific dimensions of CQ (Hp4a: meta-cognitive CQ, Hp4b: cognitive CQ, Hp4c: motivational CQ, Hp4d: behavioural CQ) and assignment-specific performance.

The Moderating Role of Cultural Distance

The individual’s capability to successfully adjust abroad is related to the novelty of the foreign culture. A large difference between the country of origin and the destination requires more transitions, which results in more adjustment difficulties than in a country with a similar culture (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ). Said differently, adjustment is more challenging when the host country is more culturally distant (Wang and Varma 2019 ). In this context, individual differences may become particularly salient. Indeed, prior investigations revealed that CD moderates the relationship between individual characteristics and various outcomes in the expatriation field, such as effectiveness (Chen et al. 2010 ), adjustment (Zhang 2013 ), and intention to work abroad (Remhof et al. 2013 ). Among individual characteristics, CQ seems to be a variable highly likely to interact with CD on work CCA because of its relevance on settings characterized by cultural diversity. In line with Kim et al. ( 2008 ), “as CD increases, it is expected that CQ would become more, rather than less, critical to expatriates’ adjustment and success” (Kim et al. 2008 , p. 78). Accordingly, CD strengthens the CQ-CCA association since the greater cultural challenges inherent in more culturally distant settings demand more cross-cultural competencies. In this context, those with greater CQ may be better equipped to overcome such challenges and, then, better able to adjust and perform well than those with lower CQ. Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 5: CD will strength the relationship between CQ, in all its dimensions (Hp5a: metacognitive CQ, Hp5b: cognitive CQ, Hp5c: motivational CQ, Hp5d: behavioural CQ), and work CCA, such that the positive effect of CQ dimensions through work CCA on assignment-specific performance will be stronger when the home-host CD will be greater.

The Moderating Role of Length of Residence in the Host Country

Previous investigations on CCA have showed that length of residence in the host country influences CCA (e.g., Li et al. 2013 ; Ramalu et al. 2010 ). According to the U-Curve of CCA framework (Black and Mendenhall 1991 ), the first twelve months in a foreign country are characterized by frustration as the newcomer must deal with living in the host country on a daily basis, overcoming the so-called “cultural shock stage”. CQ may become critical to overcome such highly challenging period because culturally intelligent expatriates can more easily use their cultural knowledge and develop action plans to solve transition problems (meta-cognitive and cognitive CQ; Earley et al. 2006 ). In addition, CQ may be salient because it drives expatriates to establish relationships with local colleagues and vicariously learn about appropriate behaviours (motivational CQ; Mendenhall and Oddou 1985 ). This may lead them to make appropriate behavioural adaptations (behavioural CQ). Thereby, expatriates high in CQ are more likely to learn quickly appropriate behaviours, which may decrease the anxiety related to not knowing how to behave in an unfamiliar environment. As a result, the time required to reach the adjustment stage may be shortened. Additionally, the longer the time spent in the host country, the greater the opportunities to build support systems, reach greater cultural knowledge, and become more efficacious in interacting with locals. This suggests that motivational CQ might be more critical in the initial stages of the adjustment process when individuals have to deal with daily challenges. Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 6: the length of residence in the host country will moderate the relationship between CQ, in all its dimensions (Hp6a: metacognitive CQ, Hp6b: cognitive CQ, Hp6c: motivational CQ, Hp6d: behavioural CQ) and work CCA, such that the positive effect of CQ dimensions through work CCA on assignment-specific performance will be stronger when the length of residence will be lower.

The Moderating Role of International Work Experience

Culturally intelligent expatriates having longer experience of working abroad through vicarious learning can more easily make anticipatory adjustments to the new work setting before they ever experience it (Black et al. 1991 ). In this sense, they may benefit from prior international work experience because they can utilize it as an important source of information which facilitates the formation of realistic work expectations and accurate anticipatory work behavioural adaptations (Church 1982 ). Indeed, expatriates with greater CQ will be more likely to acquire more accurate information from their previous experience as, for instance, they will think critically about cultural knowledge and monitor the quality of that knowledge (Ang et al. 2007 ). This may increase attention and retention processes, leading them to make anticipatory adjustments in behaviours, which would turn out to be appropriate in the host workplace. This means that they will learn lessons from their prior experience and form comprehensive cognitive schemata, which will be useful to predict consequences across a variety of future situations (Takeuchi et al. 2005 ). As a result, prior experience will help expatriates with greater CQ to effectively handle future cross-cultural situations (Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Shannon and Begley 2008 ). This will decrease the uncertainty and, therefore facilitate, the adjustment process (Black et al. 1991 ), leading to a better performance (Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ). Conversely, expatriates with lower CQ will be less likely to take advantage from their prior experience as the content of the information will be inaccurate and, then, their actual reproduction of the anticipatorily determined behaviours will prove to be inappropriate in the new workplace (Black et al. 1991 ). Furthermore, although some studies showed that prior experience had an enhancing effect on the CQ-CCA relationship (Lee 2010 ; Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ), the research has not been consistently supportive (Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). Further to this, research analysing whether prior experience might exert an enhancing effect on the association between the four CQ dimensions and specific domains, such as work CCA, is still limited (Kusumoto 2014 ). Thus, we examined whether prior experience would strengthen the CQ- work CCA relationship, expecting the following:

Hypothesis 7: international work experience will moderate the relationship between CQ, in its dimensions (Hp7a: metacognitive, Hp7b: cognitive, Hp7c: motivational, Hp7d: behavioural), and work CCA, such that the culturally intelligent expatriates with greater experience will adapt more easily to the host workplace and, then, perform more effectively than those with lower experience.

As a conceptual framework, Fig.  1 illustrates our proposed model, incorporating our hypothesized relationships.

Proposed model regarding the relationships between the four components of cultural intelligence (CQ) and assignment-specific performance as well as the moderating role of cultural distance (CD), length of stay in the host country (LoS) and previous international work experience (WEX) in the association between CQ components and cross-cultural adaptation at work (work CCA)

Participants and Procedure

Our research sample consists of employees who were working in a company in the oil and gas industry with an extensive portfolio of projects around the world. Expatriates’ contacts details were gathered from organizational databases. Questionnaires were administrated in English (see Appendix 1 ), the official working language in the company, through a Web-based solution (i.e., mails and online questionnaires). Once respondents voluntarily agreed to participate, we obtained informed consent from them and ensured them the anonymity and confidentiality of their responses. Data were collected in the period between March and May 2018. In total, we contacted four hundred ninety-four expatriates. Of them, one hundred sixty-eight employees completed the survey (34% response rate). We excluded eight participants working in their home country and nine participants because they did not complete at least the 60 % of the survey. The descriptive statistics of the remaining participants ( N  = 151) are reported in Table 1 .

Most of research participants were Latin American expatriates assigned to Middle East countries. The Middle East, especially the Muslim and Arab countries of Sud Arabia, Oman and the UAE, represents a hot spot for international assignments (Raghu and Sartawi 2012 ). For instance, according to the data provided by the World Bank, the UAE’s population in 2020 is 9.89 million of whose the 88.52% is constituted by expatriates and immigrants (GMI 2020 ). Arab countries have practices and habits that contrast with those of the Latin American nations. Since the UAE’s culture is masculine in nature, a Latin American expatriate might have difficulties to adjust to a 100% male environment where there is a dress code for men as well (Konanahalli et al. 2012 ). Additionally, during the holy month of Ramadan the Muslim colleagues observe Ramadan fasting rules, which will require Latin Americans to be respectful of such religious observances (ibidem). According to GLOBE Project’s studies on cultural dimensions (House et al. 2004 ), the Middle East cultural cluster is characterized by high scores on collectivism, average scores on assertiveness, human orientation, institutional collectivism, performance orientation and power distance, while for future-orientation, gender egalitarianism and uncertainty avoidance the scores are low (for a detailed description of each cultural dimension see at the following link: https://globeproject.com/study_2004_2007 ). Although similar for some dimensions, the Middle East cluster differs from the Latin American cluster most significantly on the values of institutional collectivism, performance orientation and gender egalitarianism. These differences might translate in striking contrasts in terms of decision making, negotiation, conflict management, leadership styles and so on (e.g., Caputo et al. 2018 ; Caputo et al. 2019 ). In sum, it is likely that Latin American expatriates working in an Arab country will experience significant national cultural dissimilarities, which might lead them to adjustment difficulties.

CQ was assessed by The Cultural Intelligence Scale (Ang et al. 2007 ) which comprises four sub-scales: meta-cognitive CQ (four items, e.g. “I check the accuracy of my cultural knowledge as I interact with people from different cultures”, α =  .81 ) ; cognitive CQ (six items, e.g., “ I know the rules for expressing non-verbal behaviour in other cultures”, α =  .83); motivational CQ (five items, e.g., “ I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures”, α =  .89 ) ; behavioural CQ (five items, e.g., “ I change my verbal behaviour when a cross-cultural interaction requires it”, α =  .84 ) . This robust and reliable scale has been utilized by previous studies (e.g., Gozzoli and Gazzaroli 2018 ), confirming the existence of four specific CQ dimensions. Participants indicated how much they agreed with each statement concerning their cultural abilities on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 =  strongly disagree 7 =  strongly agree ), where higher scores indicated higher CQ levels.

Work CCA was measured using three items from the Expatriate Adjustment Scale (Black and Stephens 1989 ). Participants rated their adjustment (e.g., “ How adjusted are you to performance standards and expectations in your job? ”, α =  .89) on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 =  very unadjusted 7 =  very adjusted ), where greater scores indicated greater work CCA. This measure has been consistently validated by previous studies on expatriates (e.g., Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ) confirming its construct validity among culturally different samples.

Assignment-specific performance was evaluated through five items from the Expatriate Contextual/Managerial Performance Skills (Caligiuri 1997 ). Participants were asked to rate their perceived ability in each of the job performance items (e.g., “ Your effectiveness at transferring information across strategic units (e.g., from the host country to headquarters) ”, α =  .73) on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 =  poor 5 =  outstanding ) , where greater scores indicated greater performance.

CD between expatriates’ home country and host country was computed through the index of Kogut and Singh ( 1988 ) in combination with Hofstede’s ( 2001 ) country-specific scores (i.e., power distance, individualism, masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance), consistent with prior studies (e.g., Ng et al. 2019 ).

Length of residence in the host country was measured in months in line with previous researchers (e.g., Chen et al. 2014 ). Participants indicated the period in the current country of destination in months (i.e., How long have you been working in your current country of residence? ).

International work experience was assessed in years, according to previous studies (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2017a , b ). Respondents indicated how many years they had been working internationally (i.e., How many years had you spent working abroad before this assignment? ).

Control variables . We controlled for marital status (1 = single, 2 = engaged) and education level (1 = high-school, 2 = degree) because previous studies showed that work-family conflict - that is more likely to occur for married expatriates; Kupka and Cathro 2007 - and education level (e.g., Moon et al. 2012 ) may influence CCA; thereby, potentially affecting performance. Furthermore, we controlled for gender (1 = male, 2 = female) and age since prior investigations (e.g., Li et al. 2016 ; Vlajčić et al. 2019 ) have revealed contrasting results about the impact of age and gender on CQ and CCA. Additionally, we recognized that pre-departure cross-cultural training (i.e., Did you have any cross-cultural training before departure? 1 = yes, 2 = no) might be associated with CCA as some studies showed that expatriates who received cross-cultural pre-departure training were more likely to successfully adjust to the host environment (e.g., Evans 2012 ). Since previous studies found that length of stay in the host country and international work experience could affect both CQ (e.g., Wang et al. 2017 ; Moon et al. 2012 ) and CCA (e.g., Ramalu et al. 2010 ; Lee and Kartika 2014 ), we considered the role of these constructs as control variables. Moreover, we acknowledged that CD might impact on CCA, such that the greater the CD, the greater the adjustment difficulties (e.g., Wang and Varma 2019 ). None of the control variables significantly correlated with - or had any significant impact on - the variables of interest within our models, which is why we decided to exclude them from all subsequent analyses and present models without these controls. This is in line with recommended practices (Aguinis and Vandenberg 2014 ).

Descriptive Analyses

We conducted descriptive statistics and correlations among the study variables using SPSS version 20 (Morgan et al. 2012 ). The four CQ dimensions were significantly and positively correlated with each other and with both work CCA and performance (see Table 2 ). The average inter-item correlations between CQ and outcomes was .24, suggesting that items did contain sufficiently unique variance to not be isomorphic with each other (Piedmont 2014 ).

Confirmatory Factor Analyses and Assessment of Common Method Bias

Firstly, using Mplus Version 7 (Muthén and Muthén 1998-2012 ), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with the maximum likelihood method was carried out to examine the factor structure of the study variables. Results from CFA revealed that the six-factor model (i.e., four CQ dimensions, work CCA, performance) outperformed all the alternative models (χ 2 [335] = 782.70, CFI = .78, TLI = .76, RMSEA = .09, SRMR = .10). However, to obtain a satisfactory fit (χ 2 [330] = 221.59, CFI = .90, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .07), it was necessary to take into account the high correlation existing among some items (see Table   3 ). The resulting models were built considering the modification indices which were used in this satisfactory model. Moreover, to control for common method bias, an unmeasured latent method factor was added to the hypothesized CFA model and allowed manifest indicators to load on their respective latent constructs as well as on the method factor (Podsakoff et al. 2012 ). Results indicated that the hypothesized six-factor model yielded a better fit to the data after inclusion of the method factor (Δ χ 2 [302] = 480.28, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .06, CFI = .91, TLI = .90). The method factor explained only 24% of the variance in the items, which is below the average amount of method variance (25%) reported in self-reported research (Podsakoff et al. 2012 ). Accordingly, common method bias does not appear to have a substantial impact on the present study. Finally, a second order CFA was tested, confirming that CQ loaded into its respective four sub-dimensions (χ 2 [327] = 505.460, CFI = .91, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .07).

Hypotheses Testing

Given our relatively small sample size, the Partial Least Squares (PLS) method, which is a variance-based structural equation modelling, was considered as particularly appropriate to simultaneously test whether each of the four CQ dimensions were related to performance directly and indirectly, as mediated by work CCA. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) represents a multivariate modelling technique suitable for the analysis of multiple dependent and independent latent constructs (Mathwick et al. 2008 ). This technique computes relationships between all variables simultaneously and does not necessitate multivariate normality (Zhou et al. 2012 ). Since CQ includes four components, a hierarchical component model (HCM) was created to assess the mediation model (Lohmoller 1989 ). This allowed us to reduce the number of associations in the model, making the model more parsimonious and resistant to collinearity problems (Hair et al. 2017 ). PLS-SEM methodology, utilizing a HCM, enables to examine each component of CQ independently through a higher-order construct that, by theoretical classification of HCM modelling, is a full mediator (Hair et al. 2017 ) in the process of direct and indirect associations between each component of CQ and performance. Using PLS-SEM, it is possible to evaluate each dimension separately, in addition to providing a diverse theoretical explanation for each dimension (Ott and Michailova 2018a , 2018b ). The repeated indicator approach was utilized in a reflective-formative type of HCM using SmartPLS v. 3.2.6. (Ringle et al. 2017 ) to further confirm the measurement model which was previously tested. This model comprises six reflective constructs and one second-order construct which contains latent variable scores for the four dimensions of CQ (a similar methodological approach was also taken by Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). All the items showed statistically significant and satisfactory loadings values (> 0.7; de Pablo González et al. 2014 ). The composite reliabilities of all seven constructs were acceptable as values were above 0.80 and below 0.95 (Nunnally and Bernstein 1994 ; see Table 2 ). The convergence validity was acceptable as all the average variance extracted (AVE) values were above the recommended value of 0.5 (Hair et al. 2010 ). Discriminant validity of our constructs was further confirmed as correlations between each pair of latent constructs do not exceed the square root of each construct’s AVE (Fornell and Larcker 1981 ), apart from the second-order formative construct (CQ-HCM) and the latent constructs it includes, as anticipated by Hair et al. ( 2017 ). These results further confirmed the discriminant validity of our constructs of interest.

Subsequently, the structural model was evaluated using a bootstrapping procedure (10,000 sub-samples; Hernández-Perlines et al. 2016 ). Structural coefficients presented in the PLS model (see Table 4 ) indicated that the dimensions of meta-cognitive ( β  = .10, t  = 4.13, p  < .001), cognitive ( β  = .12, t  = 3.58, p  < .001), motivational ( β  = .15, t  = 4.12, p  < .001), and behavioural ( β  = .12, t  = 3.68, p  < .001) CQ were directly and positively associated with performance. Thereby, Hypotheses 1a , 1b , 1c and 1d were confirmed. Additionally, the dimensions of meta-cognitive ( β  = .11, t  = 3.39, p  < .001), cognitive ( β  = .13, t  = 4.79, p  < .001), motivational ( β  = .17, t  = 4.30, p  < .001), and behavioural ( β  = .13, t  = 4.18, p  < .001) CQ were directly and positively related to work CCA. Thereby, Hypotheses 2a , 2b , 2c and 2d were confirmed. Work CCA ( β  = .19, t  = 1.96, p  < .05) was positively related to performance (see Fig.  2 ). Thereby, Hypothesis 3 was supported. Results from mediation models indicated that work CCA partially mediated the associations between meta-cognitive ( β  = .02, t  = 1.65, p  < .05), cognitive ( β  = .03, t  = 1.83, p  < .05), motivational ( β  = .03, t  = 1.84, p  < .05), and behavioural ( β  = .02, t  = 1.85, p  < .05) CQ and assignment specific performance. Therefore, Hypotheses 4a , 4b , 4c and 4d were confirmed. Moreover, our analysis of the structural model also includes the R 2 and Q 2 as indexes of model consistency and predictive relevance. The indicators of consistency were appropriate, even if CQ and its dimensions explained a weak amount of variation in the constructs of interest (R 2 (CCA) = .26; R 2 (performance) = .25). The predictive relevance of the indicators (Q 2 (CCA) = .70; Q 2 (performance) = .35) were in the large effect size range (Neter et al. 1990 ).

Results from models analysing the mediating effect of work CCA in the relationships between each of CQ dimension and assignment-specific performance

Further, we tested whether the strength of the relationship between CQ and performance through work CCA was conditional on the value of our expected moderators. To this end, we conducted moderated mediation models for each of the CQ dimensions using Mplus Version 7. CD weakened the relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA (β = −.06, p  < .05), but no significant interaction terms were revealed for the other CQ dimensions. Then, Hypotheses 5a , 5b and 5d were not supported. The moderated mediation effect of the interaction of motivational CQ and CD through work CCA on performance was significant (see Table 5 ). However, contrary to what expected based on Hypothesis 5c , results indicated that CD weakened the positive relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA, such that the relationship was stronger when CD was low and weaker when CD was high (β = .14, p  < .05 for low CD, β = .12, p < .05 for moderate CD, β = .11, p < .05 for high CD).

Length of residence in the host country weakened the positive association between motivational CQ and work CCA (β = −.19, p  < .01). The moderated mediation effect of motivational CQ and time of residence in the host country through work CCA on performance was particularly significant for expatriates who had been working in the host country for a shorter time (β = .44, p  < .05), but, even if it was still significant, the enhancing effect of length of residence in the host region on the motivational CQ-work CCA relationship decreased with the passage of time (β = .37, p < .05 and β = .31, p < .05; for those working in the foreign country for an average and a longer period of time, respectively; see Table 5 ). Thereby, Hypothesis 6c was supported, whereas Hypotheses 6a , 6b and 6d were rejected.

Experience moderated the relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA (β = −.35, p  < .01), but not the associations between the other CQ dimensions. However, contrary to what expected based on Hypothesis 7c , the moderated mediation effect of motivational CQ and experience through work CCA on performance was stronger for expatriates who had lower international work experience (β = .47, p  < .05) than for those who had moderate (β = .36, p < .05) or longer (β = .24, p < .05) experience (see Table 5 ). Therefore, Hypotheses 7a , 7b and 7d were rejected and Hypothesis 7c was not confirmed given that the direction was opposed to what expected.

The validity of the hypothesized models was assessed by comparing each of them (i.e., in terms of BIC and AIC comparative indices) with three competing models, as described in detail in Table 6 . The models with motivational CQ were the better-fitting models compared to those which included other CQ dimensions as antecedents.

Several findings emerged from this research which make a meaningful contribution to the existing literature on expatriates (see Fig.  3 for an overview of the confirmed hypotheses).

Model representing the hypotheses which were confirmed

First, each of the four CQ components were related to assignment-specific performance, both directly and indirectly, as partially mediated by work CCA. Then, culturally intelligent expatriates are likely to minimize cultural blunders and meet role expectations which, in turn, reduces the likelihood of misunderstandings, increasing performance (Moynihan et al. 2006 ). Moreover, they can successfully adjust to the host workplace, which enables them to channel their energies to improve their performance in assignment-specific tasks (Malek and Budhwar 2013 ; Shaffer et al. 2006 ).

Second, contrary to what expected based on Kim et al. ( 2008 ), CD is more likely to attenuate, rather than amplify, the positive effect of motivational CQ on work CCA in less culturally distant settings, such that the culturally intelligent expatriates are more likely to adjust to the host workplace and, then, perform well when CD is low. A plausible explanation is that when expatriates are confronted with more culturally different workplaces, their motivational CQ might not be sufficient to overcome the challenges posed by more complex assignments due to the greater cultural unfamiliarity (Chen et al. 2010 ; Vlajčić et al. 2018 ; Wang and Varma 2019 ).

Third, the length of residence in the host country weakens the positive relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA, such that motivational CQ is particularly salient when expatriates are in the initial stages of the adjustment process. Said differently, the greater the initial level of motivational CQ, the shorter the time required to adjust to the host country. Therefore, even if motivational CQ facilitates work CCA at any time, expatriates who are at the beginning of their assignment are likely to benefit more from motivational CQ than those who are in the host region from a longer time (Firth et al. 2014 ). Even if they were confronted with failures in their attempts of reproducing the new behaviours, cross-culturally motivated expatriates would be likely to persist at trying to imitate such behaviours longer than those with lower motivational CQ (Bandura 2002 ). This will increase the chances of receiving feedbacks, which will result in displaying appropriate behaviours; thereby, facilitating their adjustment to the new workplace and, then, their performance.

Fourth, motivational CQ is more salient for expatriates who are on their first assignment than for those who have longer experience in international assignments. Even if they have limited experience, the cross-culturally motivated expatriates tend to be more self-confident about their ability to interact with culturally diverse colleagues. They are also more willing to learn about unfamiliar cultures and experiment themselves in imitating culturally appropriate behaviours. Said differently, motivational CQ may counterbalance expatriates’ lack of experience, enabling them to adjust to the host workplace and, then, perform well.

Theoretical Implications

This research has several key contributions to expatriate literature. Firstly, this study extends Kim et al. ( 2008 ) by investigating whether specific CQ dimensions were associated with performance directly and indirectly, as mediated by work CCA. Additionally, by identifying, beyond CD, length of stay in the host country and work experience as boundary conditions for CQ effects, this research helps explain the mixed findings obtained in prior investigations on CQ.

Secondly, this study provides further evidence for the differential role of CQ dimensions (e.g., Rockstuhl and Van Dyne 2018 ) by testing mediating and moderating mechanisms which explain how and when each CQ facet is more - or less - likely to facilitate work CCA and performance.

Thirdly, our findings add to a growing body of literature on expatriate adjustment (e.g., Chew et al. 2019 ; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ) by confirming the key role of work CCA, which represents a primary factor of interest to MNCs as it is crucial for assignment-specific performance.

Fourthly, this study deepens our understanding of boundary conditions for CQ effects by showing that, of the four CQ factors, only motivational CQ was qualified by CD, length of stay and experience. On the one hand, this suggests that cognitive, metacognitive, and behavioural CQ dimensions had a positive influence on work CCA and, then, assignment-specific performance, regardless of CD, length of stay and experience. In the absence of moderation from such factors, we can confirm that, even if expatriates are on their first assignment, at the beginning of their assignment or assigned to a highly culturally diverse country, a prediction of their success can be based on cognitive, metacognitive and behavioural CQ dimensions. Such dimensions can be particularly useful in promoting performance, since the demanding work setting entails high degrees of culture-related cognitive processing, cultural awareness, and behavioural flexibility to enable for efficient problem solving (Stahl et al. 2009 ). On the other hand, this allows to consider the boundary conditions that provide insights into when motivational CQ has a stronger influence on work CCA and, then, assignment-specific performance. Even motivational CQ is a relevant skill for expatriates at any time of their assignment, expatriates benefited more from motivational CQ when they were working in the host country for a shorter period or when they had lower experience. Motivational CQ plays a peculiar role which differentiates this dimension from the others. Indeed, culturally motivated expatriates are driven to prove themselves in a large quantity of intercultural work situations (Ng et al. 2019 ), despite the challenges experienced at the beginning of a novel assignment. Furthermore, motivational CQ may compensate the lack of work experience by strengthening use of skills and resilience in the face of cultural difficulties (Bandura 2002 ). However, the positive effect of motivational CQ on CCA is necessary yet not sufficient for overcoming the challenges posed by more culturally distant workplaces, as such environments demand less familiar task requirements from expatriates. This makes the effort arouse by motivational CQ less relevant (Chen et al. 2010 ). Overall, this study adds substantially to our understanding of how motivation-related processes may contribute uniquely to expatriate effectiveness.

Practical Implications

The current study has practical implications for MNCs and international human resource management. Firstly, the finding that all CQ dimensions are related to expatriates’ performance suggests that recruiters should select and hire culturally intelligent candidates for international assignments. By evaluating applicants’ CQ and by emphasizing CQ as a critical credential that candidates – especially those with lower international experience - should have, HR representatives can select the most suitable candidates, assigning more cross-culturally motivated expatriates to foreign assignments, if possible, in less culturally distant countries.

Secondly, organizations should provide expatriates with pre-departure training programs aimed at increasing their CQ. For instance, training can offer several scenarios for work so that expatriates may be adequately prepared to comprehend and master different situations (e.g., cultural habits) when facing problems in the host country (Lin et al. 2012 ). Since our findings suggest that motivational CQ is particularly relevant to work CCA, training programs could include a module on motivational CQ (Earley and Peterson 2004 ). For example, training based on dramaturgical exercises, including role plays and simulations about intercultural interactions could be useful tools to build efficacy regarding cross-cultural challenges (ibidem). Furthermore, managers should consider fostering expatriates’ motivation prior to their assignments by emphasizing benefits related to international assignments (e.g., opportunity to develop global career competencies or monetary incentives; Hajro et al. 2017 ) and by stimulating their curiosity about diverse cultures.

Thirdly, considering the mediating role of work CCA in the relationship between CQ and performance, interventions should be implemented to enable expatriates – especially those who are on their first assignment or at the beginning of a new assignment – to receive organizational social support (i.e., from both home and host-country managers and peers) and logistical help (e.g., housing, schooling) to facilitate reaching the adjustment stage (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ). For instance, companies could consider arranging informal gatherings to help workers build strong bonds with local colleagues and assigning newcomers to experienced mentors (Chen et al. 2010 ). Moreover, MNCs should develop appropriate performance management systems for expatriates and expatriate-host country nationals interaction mechanisms to facilitate work CCA (Wang and Varma 2019 ).

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

This research suffers from some limitations which may give venues for future research.

Some concerns regard the cross-sectional design of our study and the exclusive use of self-reported measures. To decrease the risk of common method bias, we followed Podsakoff et al.’ ( 2012 ) recommendations regarding questionnaire design. Additionally, we used the unmeasured method factor technique, showing that common method variance was not a major issue. Future studies should focus on non-same-source outcomes, collect data from multiple sources (e.g., interviews, observations of actual behaviours, performance ratings from supervisors), adopt a longitudinal design and analyse CQ at the team level (Ott and Michailova 2018a , 2018b ).

Since most of research participants were men, and gender has been previously found to affect the levels of performance among expatriates (e.g., Ramalu et al. 2012 ), this might have partially influenced our findings. However, the gender distribution in our sample is highly representative of expatriate workforce in the analysed sector. Future studies should control for other variables (e.g., openness to experience, having family accompanying in the host country).

A further limitation is related to the fact that possible selection bias due to the voluntary participation into the research cannot be ruled out. It is possible that those who experienced successful CCA experiences were more motivated to respond and, as such, are overrepresented.

Since majority of respondents were from Latin America, and cultural orientation has been revealed to impact differing coping styles, such as conflict management and negotiation styles (e.g., Caputo et al. 2018 ; Caputo et al. 2019 ), this might have partially affected our results. Therefore, more research on larger sample sizes is needed to investigate how the effect of CQ on expatriate performance might vary as a function of individual’s cultural values.

As the nature of global work assignment is expanding beyond the traditional expatriation (e.g., frequent international business travel; Shaffer et al. 2012 ), future studies should investigate the relationships between specific CQ dimensions, work CCA and performance by comparing expatriates employed in different international work arrangements and by collecting data also on international skilled migrants (Hajro et al. 2019 ).

Since CQ, EQ and SI are distinct but overlapping constructs which have been found to positively interact with each other (Crowne 2013 ), future investigations should analyse associations at the subcomponent level of CQ, EQ and SI to identify how specific dimensions of each may affect expatriate performance when the three forms of intelligence are examined together.

Future studies should also analyse conditions under which higher motivational CQ levels might undermine expatriate effectiveness (e.g., through complacency; Chen et al. 2010 ), including situations characterized by ambiguous tasks (e.g., Schmidt and DeShon 2010 ).

Finally, it would be especially important to detect further contextual variables (e.g., group climate, performance management practices; Chen et al. 2010 ; Wang and Varma 2019 ) that may facilitate expatriate performance, either directly or through interactions with specific CQ dimensions.

Even though the current cross-sectional study relied only on self-report measures, it was conducted on the relatively under-investigated population of expatriates working within the energy sector in the Middle East and it addressed some gaps in the literature by disentangling the complex relationship between CQ, CCA and performance. To this end, we tested mediating and moderating mechanisms which explain how and when specific CQ facets were more - or less - likely to facilitate assignment-specific performance. Each CQ dimension had a differential role in contributing to assignment-specific performance, directly and through work CCA. Conversely, of the four CQ factors, only motivational CQ was qualified by CD, length of stay and international work experience. Our findings indicated that motivational CQ was particularly salient in overcoming work CCA difficulties for expatriates who were at the beginning of their international assignment and who had lower experience. Moreover, motivational CQ related more positively to expatriate work CCA in less culturally distant countries. We conclude with the hope that our theoretical contributions will stimulate additional multilevel and longitudinal research on factors influencing work CCA and performance to gather further knowledge about cross-cultural management.

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Appendix 1: Measurements

Demographic items.

Thank you for participating in this study. Please pay close attention to each question provided and answer each question as honestly as possible by placing a mark in the provided space. Please take care in filling out this form.

1. Gender (Please Check One): [] Male [] Female.

2. Age (in years): ______.

3. Marital status (Please Check One): [] Single [] Married.

4. Education status (Please Check One): [] High school [] Degree.

5. Role (Please Check One):

[] 1. Administrative.

[] 2. Technical.

[] 3. Executive.

[] 4. Other.

6. How many years have you spent working abroad before this assignment: ______.

7. How many months have you been working in your current country of assignment? ______.

8. Did you have any cross-cultural training (any training that prepared you for relocation) before departure? (Please Check One): [] Yes [] No.

9. What is your country of origin? ______.

10. In which country are you currently living? ______

Cultural intelligence

Read each statement and select the response that best describes your capabilities.

Select the answer that BEST describes you AS YOU REALLY ARE .

1: Strongly disagree 2: Disagree 3: Somewhat disagree 4: Neither agree nor disagree 5: Somewhat disagree 6: Agree 7: Strongly Agree.

Cross-cultural adjustment at work

Please indicate how well adjusted (how comfortable) you are with each of the following aspects of living in your current city of residence. Use the following scale:

1: Very unadjusted 2: Unadjusted 3: Somewhat unadjusted 4: Neutral 5: Somewhat adjusted 6: Adjusted 7: Very adjusted.

• Assignment-specific performance

Please rate your level of work performance to the factors listed below using the following scale:

1: Poor 2: Below Average 3: Average 4: Above Average 5: Outstanding.

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Setti, I., Sommovigo, V. & Argentero, P. Enhancing expatriates’ assignments success: the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation and performance. Curr Psychol 41 , 4291–4311 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00931-w

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8 Tips for Preparing Expatriates for Foreign Assignments

Preparing expatriates for foreign assignments is a crucial undertaking for either expansion processes or short-term business travel. The challenge here is to ensure that the employees chosen to go work abroad do so successfully. Much of that effort will be produced by them, but even more important is for the wider company to provide support.

When moving and managing assets - in this case, your talented employees - you want to make sure that all that time and effort isn’t for nothing. You want to make sure the move is compliant and that workflows shared by your team and the expatriate employee are streamlined. 

So what do you need to focus on? Here are eight tips for preparing expatriates for foreign assignments in a successful mobility project. 

• Pre-Move Training
• Sourcing Immigration Support
• Ensure Continued Communication
• Provide Support On The Ground
• Undertake Project Alignment Meetings
• Invest in Knowledge Management
• Provide Home and Host Sponsorship
• Take Into Account Domestic Duties

1. Pre-Move Training

Preparation for expatriation is of utmost importance. This training needs to be well-researched, taking into consideration the potential challenges that employees and mobility teams might face. For example, identify:

Your potential challenges : For example, a specific country could require a specific tax set up for expatriates or business travelers. You’ll have to research the requirements that apply to your expatriation.

Strategies that help you deal with these issues: Some global organizations work with Professional Employer Organizations (PEO) in order to maintain compliance and work in line with cultural requirements. This is one potential solution that you might find appealing.

Areas for cultural training : Cultural expectations can be radically different in one country compared to another - while this may seem like the last thing to focus on, it’s worth spending time looking into cultural differences, just so no accidental faux pas are made.

The overarching goals of the assignment : An expatriation depends on all stakeholders having visibility and an understanding of the reasons for it. 

Local language training : Even if the host country has a good rate of use for your language, it’s worth helping your employee get to grips with the basics.

2. Sourcing Immigration Support

Immigration and the requirements therein are obviously crucial. Border controls, regulatory environments and immigration law are therefore all things to contend with. Now, these can be daunting and confusing, but it’s imperative to fully prepare for them, as they’re some of the first barriers to overcoming when expatriating an employee for foreign assignments. 

You need to make sure that you’re expatriation is in line with national and international immigration policy for both your home and host country. Similarly, visas and short-term or permanent residency applications need to be sent off for. Without these, alongside a considered approach towards global immigration , your overseas assignment won’t be able to continue. 

3. Ensure Continued Communication

Without communication, there’s no expansion. Home and host teams need to be on top of carrying out frequent communications, so that data is acted upon and problems can be solved collaboratively.

Assignees need to be proactive in this and so too do home teams. Communication allows organizations to leverage what’s being learned and respond actively to specific events. On top of that, communication needs to be structured so the learnings and updates shared are easily tracked. Monthly meetings and weekly check-ins are good places to start. 

4. Provide Support On The Ground

Alongside frequent communication, on-ground support also needs to be offered. This is a job for HR teams, who can help expats and their families (if applicable) adapt to their new surroundings. This kind of support covers:

• Finding accommodation.
• Creating bank accounts and setting up payroll in line with host-country regulations ( This is another obligation that a PEO can support you with ).
• Providing health insurance.
• Enrolling children in school (if applicable).
• Preparing accurate taxation processes.

Taxation is one thing to be aware of, as getting the process wrong can result in legal ramifications. Again, this is something a PEO can help support , as they can act as local Employers of Record, managing and deducting taxation at source - making sure your expatriate assignment is compliant in terms of taxation. 

5. Undertake Project Alignment Meetings

Once the critical information regarding the expatriate employee’s assignment, residency, taxation and other requirements has been exchanged with the relevant stakeholders and/or authorities, it’s time for a project alignment meeting.

This meeting should be held between the employee, a host manager or host team and home team. In it, you should identify the potential causes of friction for the assignment and work to strategize mitigation techniques. Similarly, go over mutual expectations held by the home and host team so that visibility and transparency are also captured. 

Overall, you’ll want to firmly pin down issues that may affect:

• Data collection.
• Reporting strategies.

6. Invest in Knowledge Management

Any assignment knowledge generated needs to be properly disseminated to the relevant parties, quickly and efficiently. These lessons are not only worthwhile for future expatriates, but for the wider company itself and how it approaches global marketplaces. 

When we ensure that learning is absorbed and spread across the whole enterprise, we help to reduce mistakes and delays in the future.

7. Provide Home and Host Sponsorship

As we’ve briefly discussed, having home and host teams managing the expatriate are important, but let’s cover that more in-depth. 

Communication via email isn’t the best way to manage a remote employee. To make sure the expat doesn’t feel cut off from home office processes, create teams or ‘sponsors’ that oversee the experience and work of the employee. 

Whether they be points of contact or mentors, these individuals (or wider teams) help to anchor an expat employee to the work in the home country, keeping them updated on any new developments. Both sides help to co-manage and resolve problems when they arise.

Sponsor individuals within the home country are best suited if they too have had experiences with expatriation, because a lot of this management is about empathy - not just looking for hitting the next performance goal. Expatriation is a difficult process, especially if the host country is a radically different place.

8. Take Into Account Domestic Duties

Another tip for preparing expatriates for overseas assignments is to make sure their family is supported.

Some expatriate employees have children and spouses, which sometimes do make an overseas assignment a lot more complex. These difficulties are usually hard to spot, as many employees will be reluctant to share them with employees, due to the size of the project and the personal nature of these difficulties.

It can be the case that the people most likely to be able to help are the last to know, so this is another thing that good communication can help with. From the home country team’s point-of-view, they need to inquire regularly about how the domestic side of the project is going. 

It needs to be made clear that any issues in regards to this need to be made known, but also that no judgment will arise from those issues being aired. Expatriation is a tough process for a family and businesses need to be supportive. This kind of transparency will dramatically help the overseas assignment. 

To discover more about overseas assignments and expansion, we’ve created a fantastic foundational guide that will help you when strategizing your next moves, be they domestic or international. 

The Guide to Global Expansion

There’s a lot of different info out there on the web about taking your business abroad - or even just sending an employee overseas. To help cut through the noise, our detailed guide will help your business’ journey to expansion.

Inside, you’ll discover more on expansion methods, the crucial considerations and further information on PEO. Just click the link below to get your copy.

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Sustainable Expatriate Management: Rethinking International Assignments

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This article explores the concept of sustainable expatriate management, which incorporates environmental, social, and economic factors, and how it can be implemented in a corporate context. We argue that with increasing societal and environmental issues, it is crucial to revisit the overall global philosophy and policies, including the expatriate life cycle. We apply the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) framework to examine how businesses can remodel their practices to become more resilient. Furthermore, based on a systematic literature review, we identified gaps in research on the integration of environmental factors into sustainable expatriate management. Lastly, this article presents a model for understanding the three layers of sustainability in expatriate management, which can assist practitioners in identifying blind spots and material topics.

Introduction

According to Ghauri, Strange and Cooke (2021) , the global business environment has improved awareness of sustainability as a ‘new reality’. Furthermore, addressing the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in a corporate context is becoming increasingly popular (Liou & Rao-Nicholson , 2021; Montiel , Cuervo-Cazurra , Park , Antolín-López , & Husted , 2021; van Tulder , Rodrigues , Mirza , & Sexsmith , 2021) . Although “sustainable” and “green” global mobility are widely discussed concepts, they have not yet been widely integrated into sustainable expatriate management.

However, due to its nature, expatriate management is exposed to various societal and environmental issues that are forcing the field to move towards more sustainability-oriented practices. This implies that decision- and policy-makers should revisit the overall global philosophy, including policies and practices. Therefore, stakeholders should reevaluate topics like business trip policies, health, and equality, as well as other facets of the international assignment cycle (Fan , Zhu , Huang , & Kumar , 2021) . Consequently, in this paper, we will outline how practitioners can rethink expatriate management using a sustainable development lens and how this shift in perspective provides fertile ground to redesign the expatriate life cycle.

Inspired by the “strong sustainability” or embedded systems view (Giddings , Hopwood , & O’Brien , 2002) , we define sustainable expatriate management as any employee-related cross-border (work) activity, which, by its design, considers planetary and societal boundaries and acknowledges the embeddedness of economic impacts within this larger framework (see Figure 1 for clarification).

Source: Own illustration based on Giddings et al. (2002) , p. 192.

Theoretical Framework: Sustainable Development Goals

According to Finaccord’s (2019) latest research, in 2017, there were 66.2 million expatriates working abroad globally, and forecasts for 2021 expect 87.5 million in total. Therefore, this topic affects a relatively large amount of people moving across borders. Nowadays, increasing environmental, social, and economic crises are challenging global business practices. According to the World Economic Forum Global Risks Report, the risks that are most likely and will have the most impact are predominantly environmental risks (e.g., climate action failure, human environmental damage, biodiversity loss, natural degradation, extreme weather, natural resources crises) (World Economic Forum , 2022) . These are expected to affect multinational enterprises’ (MNEs) activities on a global scale.

As the complex, or so-called wicked, problems of our time are interconnected, it is crucial to avoid a siloed perspective of these risk categories. Therefore, we provide a holistic, SDG-focused perspective that addresses the question of how MNEs’ business practices need to be remodeled to become more resilient. We view business sustainability in terms of environmental, social, and economic systems and consequently apply the UN Sustainable Development Goals “wedding cake” framework (Stockholm Resilience Centre , 2018) . This model implies that the environmental, social, and economic layers are interdependent, as well as their respective sublevel SDGs, as indicated in Figure 2 .

Source: Own illustration based on Stockholm Resilience Centre , 2018

Based on Figure 2 , the biosphere/environment represents the foundation of economies and societies and, therefore, the general context in which all other SDGs must be placed. Society cannot survive without the environment, which is why society must pay attention to resources and the preservation of habitats. Such a conceptualization adopts an integrated and interconnected view of social, economic, and ecological development to ensure the future viability of the planet and its living species.

Three Layers of Sustainability in Expatriate Management: Identifying Blind Spots

Based on a systematic literature review of 238 articles clustered according to the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and their respective layers, environment/biosphere, society, and economy, it is evident that research in this field has been increasing in recent years. Furthermore, it shows that the expatriate management literature is dominated by social issues (80%), followed by economic literature (19%), and work that focuses on the environment/biosphere (1%) (Ommen , Schmitz , & Karlshaus , 2022) . Considering that expatriate management is a part of international HRM literature, it is unsurprising that the social category dominates; however given the growing importance of the climate crisis discourse, it is surprising that this has not yet been addressed in research and practice.

This social literature is dominated by articles addressing SDG 5 “Gender Equality” and SDG 3 “Good Health and Well-being” as well as limited literature focused on SDG 16 “Peace, Justice, Strong Institutions”. In the economic category, the literature most often addresses SDG 10 “Reduced Inequalities” and SDG 8 “Decent Work and Economic Growth”, followed by SDG 17 “Partnership for the Goals” as an overarching category. Finally, the ecological category is only represented in one article addressing SDG 13 “Climate Action”, which has only recently been published (Ommen et al. , 2022) (see Table 1 for an overview).

Source: Own illustration; for a full list of references, see Ommen et al. , 2022 , and the Appendix to the article. *“–” indicates SDG cases for which blind spots were not identified in this study

What Is Material for Sustainability in Expatriate Management?

In the sustainability reporting discourse, understanding materiality (i.e., identifying elements of utmost importance to a company’s sustainability challenges) has become increasingly important as part of the international ESG factors: environment, society, and governance. Furthermore, organizations attribute different levels of importance to specific environmental or social factors based on the sectors they operate in.

Considering the essential or material topics, MNEs need to first reduce or avoid their negative impacts (e.g., CO 2 emissions etc.) and also increase their positive impacts (e.g., fostering intercultural ties). By doing so, MNEs can significantly reduce the respective risks to which they are exposed.

The emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) is among expatriate management’s negative material environmental impacts, due to flights, shipments, hotel stays, and local transportation (SDG 13). These also include water and land use due to construction activities (SDG 6, 15), and waste management that should be reconsidered from an environmental perspective.

From a social perspective, negative impacts on equal opportunities can be caused by disparities in pay and promotion opportunities (SDG 5), working conditions, and health issues related to increasing travel activities and continuous readjustment (SDG 3). Furthermore, expatriates working in hostile environments or dangerous locations need adequate protection mechanisms and respective codes of conduct (SDG 16). Finally, integration into local communities during long-term stays might become relevant for some expatriates and their families (SDG 11).

From an economic perspective, a positive impact could be generated by supporting the local economy (SDG 8). However, negative impacts can arise through unequal opportunities because of the different treatment of expatriates and locals (SDG 10). To reduce this, companies should ensure responsible local consumption and circular use of respective household appliances or furniture in apartments (SDG 12).

In sum, MNEs should consider the following Sustainable Development Goals to reduce their negative impact and increase their positive impact:

Environmental : SDG 13 Climate Action

Social : SDG 3 Good Health and Well-being, SDG 5 Gender Equality, SDG 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions, SDG 11 Sustainable Cities and Communities

Economic : SDG 8 Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 Responsible Consumption and Production

Sustainable Expatriate Management: Actionable Recommendations

The above discussion suggests that companies can derive a specific prioritized agenda. Inspired by the SDG Compass (Global Reporting Initiative , United Nations Global Compact , & WBCSD , 2015) , we advance these considerations by sharing how MNEs can best address the SDGs in sustainable expatriate management. For an overview of selected ideas for each of the SDGs, please also see Table 2 .

Source: Own illustration; based on selected measures of the SDG Compass Business Indicators; Note: Not all themes will apply to all types of MNEs or all sectors equally. As expatriates are usually relatively privileged, we suggest that they should use their privileged status to support disadvantaged groups and individuals to meet SDGs.

Defining Priorities

First, each of the material topics needs to be evaluated for each company. Certain topics may be more or less relevant in a corporate context, depending on the respective sector. Taking the example of GHG emissions (SDG 13), most emissions come from consultants on regular short-term assignments or business commuting trips if the company is in the service delivery sector. Therefore, these emissions play a more significant role for the company.

In terms of gender equality (SDG 5), a company should first investigate the share of women in their overall assignee population, including management positions. Based on a materiality matrix approach, respective stakeholders should evaluate their priorities alongside considering the judgment of material topics to attain a holistic perspective. By taking this approach for all topics associated with each SDG, MNEs can prioritize different materiality topics.

Setting Strategic Goals

To transform international assignments at the company level, MNEs need strategic concepts, including tools, to impact the defined materiality topics discussed above. There are different levers available to create change, including international assignment policy, processes, and culture. A policy can be designed so that assignees are nudged to not take air shipments, which cause significant GHG emissions (SDG 13). Further, by working with stakeholders across the supply chain, MNEs should implement key performance indicators (KPIs) to reduce negative impacts. To be effective, these should align with scientific facts and goals, such as the Paris Agreement’s target of limiting warming to 1.5°C.

Integrating the Goals

After defining their strategy and goals, MNEs should next address their implementation needs. This should particularly consider the sustainable consumption of mobility-related benefits (SDG 12), where there may need to be a mindset shift. Therefore, in the preparation phase, assignees need to be made aware of their choices. To do this effectively, departments taking care of international assignments may need to be trained on related topics while they consult assignees. Besides policy changes, MNEs should also implement profound changes, for example in terms of gender equality (SDG 5). Managers should be aware of equal selection principles and provide women with support mechanisms to ensure equity if they become the main caregiver for their children.

Measuring and Evaluating

Finally, MNEs need to track whether the implemented measures have been effective. This means measuring an international assignment program’s GHG emissions (SDG 13), environmental impact, gender share (SDG 5), and other measures. If the result does not meet the initial targets, the previous phases (strategy development, implementation) should be analyzed to see if adjustments are necessary. To better integrate the respective measurement indicators with those already existing in the corporate context, the SDG Compass website provides respective input categorized by SDG: https://sdgcompass.org/business-indicators/ .

Although there is awareness of pressing contemporary challenges in the field of expatriate management, action is still needed to decrease the negative impact on society, the economy, and the environment. Many concepts aim to address sustainability across borders. However, research has not yet produced a hands-on and integrated SDG framework for expatriate management. In this work, we aim to inspire and motivate practitioners to take action and further their sustainability ambitions. Although our paper is labeled rethinking expatriate management, the challenges outlined equally apply to inpatriates, repatriates, and other forms of cross-border assignments.

Companies need to be more aware of the environmental and social impacts of their programs and need to monitor processes to increase transparency across their vast service portfolios and associated supply chains. This is not only necessary because of sustainability but also to comply with legislative requirements (e.g., EU Taxonomy). However, corporate departments dealing with international assignments are not facing these challenges alone. They need to form partnerships (SDG 17) and collaborate with their vendors and internal stakeholders (enabling functions, corporate sustainability, procurements, etc.) to drive the much-needed change toward sustainable development.

About the Authors

Marina A. Schmitz serves as a Researcher and Lecturer at the Coca-Cola Chair of Sustainable Development at IEDC-Bled School of Management in Bled, Slovenia as well as CSR Expert/Senior Consultant at Polymundo AG in Heilbronn, Germany. She has worked as a Lecturer, Research Associate, and Project Manager at the Center for Advanced Sustainable Management (CASM) at the CBS International Business School in Cologne and the Chair of HRM and Asian Business at University of Goettingen. Enno Ommen is working in Bayer AG’s Sustainability Excellence Office at CropScience Division. He had previously worked in the area of Global Mobility for about 10 years, which equipped him with profound knowledge in the field of expatriate management. He studied International Business (BA) at CBS International Business School and International Human Resource Management (MSc) at Manchester Business School. Further, as one of Bayer AG’s Sustainability Champions, Enno is supporting the sustainable transformation of the company. Anja Karlshaus studied at the University of Cologne, Santa Clara University (USA), and the European Business School. In 2009, she took over the HRM professorship at CBS International Business School, later assumed the role of dean of the Business Administration faculty, before being appointed president. Moreover, she was previously employed at Dresdner Bank, Allianz and Commerzbank – being now member of various committees (Chamber of Industry and Commerce, City of Cologne, State of NRW). She researches sustainability, diversity, and agile HR.

Submitted : September 30, 2022 EDT

Accepted : April 06, 2023 EDT

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5 Myths Expats Believe About Local Employees

• Snejina Michailova
• Anthony Fee

The staff at foreign subsidiaries are too often overlooked as essential team members.

Corporate employees undertaking expatriate assignments rely on support from local employees. This dynamic is underappreciated and understudied. Both individuals and their employers will benefit if people understand and correct the mythology that’s grown up around the vital role local employees play.

Expatriate assignments are fraught. Performing well in them can be a steppingstone to career advancement in multinational companies. Failure can take a heavy toll on expats and their families. While various factors contribute to expats’ over- or under-performance, a secret that many are reluctant to acknowledge — or even recognize — is the role host-country national colleagues play in their international assignments.

• SM Snejina Michailova is a professor of international business at the University of Auckland.
• AF Anthony Fee is a senior lecturer at the University of Technology, Sydney.

Partner Center

• Expatriate Training & Development in IHRM
• Post last modified: 6 April 2023
• Reading time: 35 mins read
• Post category: Human Resource Management / Human Resource

Many companies are relocating their employees and sending them on assignment to work in their overseas operations as expatriates. International assignments are often more complex than domestic assignments since they involve going to another country and work in a different culture. This is where training is helpful to best ensure the success of such assignments.

Table of Content

• 1 Features of Training and Development in International Businesses
• 2 Process of Training and Development in International Human Management
• 3.1 Develop Relationship Skills
• 3.2 Learn the Language
• 3.3 Understand the Culture and the Market
• 3.4 Know the Simple Differences
• 3.5 Be prepared for the Marketplace
• 3.6 Find a Mentor or Trusted Partner
• 3.7 Have Patience
• 4.1 Cross-Cultural Training (CCT)
• 4.2 Preliminary Visit: Spousal and Family Preparation
• 4.3 Language Skills
• 4.4 Assistance with Practical Day-to-Day Matters
• 5.1 Over Reliance on Pre-departure Training
• 5.2 Tailored Expatriate Training
• 5.3 Use of Short Term Overseas Assignments
• 5.4 Real-time Training
• 5.5 Assessment and Development Centres
• 5.6 Self-training using Electronic Media
• 5.7 International Job Rotation
• 5.8 Personal Security
• 6 Human Resources Tutorial
• 7 Human Resource Management

Features of Training and Development in International Businesses

Training develops expatriate‘s learning orientation and helps them to understand the culture of overseas destinations (Porter and Tansky, 1999). Even of its importance, many studies show that companies either do not provide or give very limited cross-cultural training to expatriates and families because of time constraints and of its high cost.

Effective training can prevent and minimise the impact of others. A study that surveyed 75 organisations in UK, Holland, Belgium and Germany showed that some of the biggest issues against expatriates are personal shortcomings in areas such as politeness, punctuality, tactfulness, orderliness, sensitivity, reliability, tolerance and empathy. Effective training programmes can minimise these personal behavioural issues. These issues arise primarily due to differences in Culture.

Training can also improve the overall management style. Research shows that many host country nationals would like to see changes in some of the styles of expatriates, including their leadership styles, decision making, communication and group working.

Proper training can address some of these demands. Training and development is a subset of Organizational Development (OD), culture change and knowledge management.

New employees after their selection and old employees on their career move, receive regular training and development inputs. However, before an international assignment, it is customary to send the candidate for post-departure training before he or she assumes full responsibility as a member of the international team.

Candidates are also given pre-departure training which emphasises on cultural awareness and business customs of the country of posting to help cope with unexpected events in a new country. This pre-departure training helps in minimising culture shock and depression that usually sets in a new country and culture.

Evans et al. (2002) describe three main issues that concern the training and development of the expatriates.

• The first one concerns the different training methods,
• Second the timing of training and
• Third issue concerns preparing the spouse and family when accompanying the expatriate during the international assignment.

Process of Training and Development in International Human Management

Following schematic model depicts the process of Training and Development in the International Human Management context.

Developing an International Mindset

Developing a global mindset and leading with cultural intelligence are two phrases that are used quite often by management teams, and that can be defined as making oneself understood where cultural differences are at play.

Training employees and giving them the tools needed to develop the global mindset needed to succeed prior to engaging in international endeavours is by far the most effective way to conduct international business and retain employees.

International teams and leaders need to change their frame of reference from a local or national orientation to a truly international perspective. This involves understanding political and cultural influences, trends, practices and international economics. Team leaders, in particular, need to understand and develop competitive strategies, plans and tactics that are external to the confines of domestic marketplace orientation.

International managers need not only to recognise the cultural differences but also to manage them effectively. If the team is to succeed, they need to develop processes for coaching, mentoring and assessing performance across a variety of attitudes, beliefs and standards.

Here are a few components of a training regiment that highlights the basic needed modifications for international success:

Develop Relationship Skills

Learn the language, understand the culture and the market, know the simple differences, be prepared for the marketplace, find a mentor or trusted partner, have patience.

Employees must master these soft skills to be excellent team players, communicators and problem solvers.

Language Proficiency can play a role in refining relationship skills. One should seek opportunities to learn the language through specialised training programs or coursework that will help to adjust effectively in the host country.

From a cultural perspective, expatriates should learn what is held sacred and what is viewed negatively. Blending into the market as opposed to creating friction or embarrassment is necessary to help forge global partnerships.

It is also necessary to learn the basics of the market that one is working with. From time zones to measuring systems, these basics can prepare the expatriates for a smoother transition. Much of this research can be done on the internet through reliable sites before trip, call or email to show your knowledge of their practices.

Understanding the essential elements of the international marketplace is fundamental knowledge required while working in the global domain. Having a high level of knowledge of international trade and monetary systems is part of the repository of knowledge essential to stay competitive.

Utilising the knowledge of someone with experience in the chosen market can be instrumental in helping one adjust and succeed.

The global market can offer unique obstacles one may not have been expecting, but the opportunity to shine on a larger scale should be valued. Time should be taken to work through challenges to appreciate the role one is in.

Pedagogy of International Training

According to Dowling and Welch (2004), studies indicate that the essential components of pre-departure training programs that contribute to a smooth transition to a foreign location include Cross-Cultural Training (CCT), preliminary visits, language training and assistance with practical day-to-day matters.

Cross-Cultural Training (CCT)

It is generally accepted that to be effective, the expatriate employee must adapt to and not feel isolated in the host country’s cultural, economic, legal and political environment. Without an understanding of the host country’s culture, the expatriate is likely to face difficulties during the international assignment.

Therefore, cultural awareness training remains the most common form of pre-departure training (Dowling & Welch, 2004). Stroh et al. (2004) refer to the three learning processes. They claim that the training should help expatriates to:

• Become aware that behaviours differ across cultures and the importance of observing these cultural differences carefully.
• Build cognitive cultural maps so that expatriates understand why the people of host country value certain behaviours, how these appear to be and how these can be appropriately reproduced.
• Practice the behaviours they will need to follow in order to be efficient in their international assignments.

The processes mentioned above reflect the importance for expatriates to be able to deal with cultural differences that he/she may confront. It builds the foundation of designing cross-cultural training for managers (Stroh et al., 2004).

Preliminary Visit: Spousal and Family Preparation

Another training form that is useful in orienting international employees is to send them on a preliminary trip to the host country. A well-planned trip overseas for the candidate, spouse, and family provides a preview that allows them to assess their suitability for and interest in the assignment. Such a trip also serves to introduce expatriate candidates to the business context in the host location and helps encourage more informed pre-departure preparation (Dowling & Welch, 2004).

Participating in the visit before formalised training eliminates many of the basic logistical questions that frequently stress expatriates and their spouses and all for full focus and concentration in Cross-Cultural Training (CCT) learning (Bennett, 2000 pg 243).

Language Skills

The result of lacking host language competence has strategic and operational implications as it limits the multinational’s ability to monitor competitors and processes of important information. Having the ability to speak a foreign language can improve the expatriate’s effectiveness and negotiating ability (Dowling & Welch, 2004).

Baliga and Baker (1985) point out, that it can improve manager’s access to information regarding the host country’s economy, government, and market. Disregarding the importance of foreign language skills may reflect a degree of ethnocentrism, which is when one believes that one’s culture is superior over other cultures.

Knowledge of the host-country language can assist expatriates and family members gain access to new social support structures outside of work and the expatriate community (Dowling & Welch, 2004).

Assistance with Practical Day-to-Day Matters

To provide information that assists relocation is another component of a pre-departure training program. Practical information makes sure the expatriate does not feel left behind during the adaptation process. Many multinational companies now take advantage of relocation specialists that help the expatriate with accommodation, suitable job and school for the spouse and children.

Language training is usually provided if the expatriate never got such training during the pre-departure training (Dowling & Welch, 2004). Another way of gaining this information is from the people that are already working as expatriates in the area and whom are willing to help the spouse and family of the new expatriate to adapt (Webb & Wright, 1996).

Usually the company will organise practical orientation programs for the expatriate, his/her spouse and family so that they get familiar with the place they are going to live in (Dowling & Welch, 2004).

Emerging Trend in Expatriate Training and Development

Some of the emerging trends in the area of Expatriates Training and Development are mentioned below:

Over Reliance on Pre-departure Training

Tailored expatriate training, use of short term overseas assignments, real-time training, assessment and development centres, self-training using electronic media.

As an aspect of broader cross-cultural training, pre-departure training programs tend to predominate. Schullion and Brewster (2001) draw attention to emerging European research which attacks the conventional wisdom behind expatriate training and development programmes.

This research questions the validity of the assumption that cross-cultural training should take place only before the international transfer. It appears that there is still much informality in training (Celeya and Swift, 2006) and it is suggested that HRD for future expatriate managers is more likely to involve frequent crossborder job swaps, and short assignments working in global multicultural teams (Forster,2000; Schullion,2001).

After reviewing some of the American models of expatriate training and development, Schullion and Brewster (2001) propose that it may be worthwhile examining further some of the European models. In particular, they point to the nature of European frameworks which have tailored made programmes to suit the needs of the individual and the organization.

They contend that in the future, a more tailored made approach to expatriate training is likely to be the way forward particularly in light of the rapidly changing training needs of expatriates (Collings et al., 2007).

It is observed that more and more large firms are increasingly relying on short-term overseas assignments instead of the traditional expatriate posting (Colings et al., 20007). These developments and initiatives suggest new ways of developing international assignees and expatriates.

Research evidence says that even the training which is provided to short term assignees is not so specific to the country and involves less extensive cross-cultural training than is offered to expatriates (Tahvanainem et al.,2005). But, it is argued that whether traditional expatriates or short term assignees all require cross-cultural training and awareness so as to reduce adjustment problems.

Mendenhall and Stahl (2000) direct attention away from the traditional topic of cross cultural training to discuss future training needs that organisations must focus on. They distinguish between two types of in-country training delivery methods: traditional and real time. Traditional is the formal classroom lecture where all the expatriates receive the same content.

Hence, it is inflexible and does not meet the needs of individual assignees. Real-time delivery on the other hand is tailored to the needs of the individual in the form of personal counselling or coaching by experts. Given the advantage of real-time training, organisations incorporate it into their cross cultural training and development programmes.

Another emerging issue in the development of expatriates is the use of assessment centres. Assessment centres are increasingly being used to equip expatriates with global management skills and cross cultural competency (Stahl, 2001).

These centres are designed to evaluate managers who are nominated for an international assignment on their cross cultural skills and provide feedback on their strengths and weaknesses for such assignments.

This is another emerging area in HRD for expatriates for self-training based on electronic media such as software and the internet. In some cases, the electronic training media is highly suitable for expatriate’s families and other dependents who may not be participating in pre-departure training programmes offered by the employing organisations (Mendenhall and Stahl, 2000).

International Job Rotation

International job rotation involves sending employees on a series of short-term assignments to different countries. These kinds of training are increasingly used by companies due to increasing globalisation and the need for cross-cultural skills which is making it more relevant for all employees involved in international work whether they are based in the home country or a subsidiary in a host country (Caligiuri et al., 2005; Harvey,1997).

Personal Security

Finally, the issue of personal security particularly in relation to global terrorism, as an emerging issue in the area of expatriate training and development. Also, health-related problems linked to business travel are also of consideration in training and development of expatriates. Certain countries pose a threat for foreign nationals to stay and work there and hence companies need to deal with such personal issues.

Human Resources Tutorial

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• Human Resource Management
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• What is Recruitment ?
• What is Selection ?
• Employee Induction
• Types of Training
• Importance of Training
• Training Process
• Human Resource Accounting
• Methods of Human Resource Accounting
• How to Create Training Program
• What is Motivation ?
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• 360 Degree Performance Appraisal
• What is Compensation ?
• Employee Discipline
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• What is Collective Bargaining ?
• What is HRIS ?
• Competency Based Training
• What is Human Resource Planning ?
• Human Resource Planning Process
• Human Resource Demand Forecasting
• What is Human Resource Development ?
• Challenges of Human Resource Development
• Methods of Performance Appraisal
• What is Job Analysis ?
• What is Job Design ?
• Recruitment Meaning
• Effective Recruiting
• Selection Process
• What is Employee Induction ?
• International Human Resource Management
• Cross Cultural Theories
• Dimensions of Culture
• HRM Practices
• International Selection Process
• Expatriate Training
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• Human Resource Development
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• Leadership Development
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• What is Planned Change
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• What is Performance Management ?
• Performance Planning
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• What is Performance Appraisal ?
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• Ethics in Performance Management

Role of HR Professionals in Performance Management

• What is Group ?
• Group Dynamics
• Organisational Culture
• Group Decision Making
• Group Conflict
• Diversity in the Workplace
• What is Executive Development?
• Functions of HRM
• What is HRIS?
• What is HR Audit ?
• What is Performance Appraisal?
• What is Succession Planning?
• What is International Human Resource Planning?
• What is Recruitment?
• What is Selection?
• What is Career Planning?
• What is Knowledge Management?
• Strategic Human Resource Management
• Difference between Global HRM and Domestic HRM
• Process of Selecting Expatriates
• International Compensation Management
• What is Disciplinary Action?
• What is Competency Based Training?
• What is Planned Change?
• What is OD Interventions?

What is Organizational Behavior?

• What is Personality?
• Theories of Personality
• What is Perception?
• What is Learning?
• Theories of Learning
• What is Attitude?
• What is Motivation?
• Motivation Theories
• Mcclelland’s Needs Theory of Motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Herzberg Two Factor Theory
• Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation
• What is Assessment Centre?
• Consumer Attitude Formation
• What is Culture?
• Consumer Decision Making Process
• What is Organisational culture?
• What is Leadership?
• What is Leader?
• Organisational Stress
• What is Organisational Culture?

Trompenaars Model of Organisational Culture

• Organisational Culture Models
• Types of Organisational Culture
• Corporate Culture and Organisational Success
• Creation of Organisational Culture
• Sustaining Organisational Culture
• Managerial Decisions Affected by Culture
• Where Does Organizational Culture Comes From?
• Functions of Organisational Culture
• Ethical Organizational Culture
• What is Culture Assessment?
• Workplace Culture and Practice
• Changing Organisational Culture
• Innovative Culture in Organization
• Leadership in Organization Culture
• Organisational Culture and Business Strategy
• Organizational Culture and Strategic Planning
• ERP Implementation
• Business Process Management
• What is Competency Modeling?
• Kirkpatrick Training Evaluation
• What is Industrial Relations?
• Organisational Change
• What is Sales Budget?
• What is Sales Control?
• What is Sales Analysis?
• What is Sales Quotas?
• What is Sales Territories?
• Types of Powers
• Factors Affecting Communication in Organisation

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